TEFL = programs in countries where English is not the primary language and is not a lingua franca,

instructions are given in E.

TESL= programs in English-speaking countries for students whose first language is other
than English, E is partially used to give instructions.

TESOL= is a general name for the field of teaching that includes both TESL and TEFL.

TEAL= used in parts of Canada in lieu of TESL to stress the benefits of first-language
maintenance.
ELT= a more neutral, cover-all term which avoids the issue of context.

approach, method and technique?

Edward Anthony (1963) identified three levels

The arrangement is hierarchical. The organisational key is that techniques carry out a
method which is consistent with an approach...
An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language
teaching and learning, describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught... IS
AXIOMATIC= UNQUESTIONABLE
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material IS
PROCEDURAL
Within one approach, there can be many methods.
A technique is that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick,
used to accomplish an immediate objective. IS IMPLEMENTATIONAL.
approach to language teaching is something that reflects a certain theory and beliefs
about language and language learning.
A method is a set of procedures; a system that spells out exactly how to teach a
language.
A technique is a classroom device or activity
Anthony's proposal was simple and comprehensive, but failed to give sufficient
attention to the nature of a method itself. He does not mention the roles of teachers and
learners assumed in a method, for example, nor the role of instructional materials or the
form they are expected to take.
For Richards and Rodgers preferred to consider 'method' as an umbrella term for the
specification and interrelation of theory and practice, and therefore they preferred to
use the terms approach, design, and procedure.

approach, "refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning =
PRACTICES AND PRINCIPLES
design, is the level of method analysis specifies the relationship of theories of
language and learning to the content and its oraganization syllabus to the types of
tasks and learning activities, and to the roles of learners, teachers and materials within
the method.

procedure, comprises the classroom techniques and practices that are consequences
of particular approaches and designs

method refers to a language-teaching philosophy

a method is theoretically related to an approach, is organisationally determined by a
design, and is practically realised in procedure.

Mackey His analysis fails to address the level of approach, nor does it deal with the
actual classroom behaviours of teachers and learners, except as these are represented
in textbooks.

Some ingredients of language teaching

important variables:

- Perceived goals of language learning.

- Decisions about what is to be taught.
- Beliefs about the nature of language.
- Beliefs about the process of language learning/acquisition.
- Amount of prescription for teachers.
- Attitudes to different classroom techniques and activities.
- The role and nature of materials.
- The relative roles of teachers and learners.
- Attitude to the use of learners' native language (L1) in the classroom.
- Attitude to error.
- Beliefs about evaluation and assessment.

In some methods language is treated as a subject whichas a body of factual

information to be digested and memorised

More recently language has come to be viewed as an aspect of human behaviour and
methods have changed

THREE MAIN TRENDS IN LANGUAGE THEORY

structural view language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding
and decoding of language gramar and lexical items
the British functional view which considers language as a vehicle for the expression of
functional meaning. The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to
this view of language, This theory goes beyond the grammatical characteristics of
language and emphasises both the semantic and communicative dimension.

The functional view leads to a specification and organisation of language teaching

content by categories of meaning and function

Wilkins
A notional syllabus would include not only elements of grammar and lexis but also
specify the topics, notions, and concepts the learner needs to communicate.

Stern has matched the terms that Linguistics has generated:

LANGUE PAROLE

System Use

Code Message

Language Verbal Behaviour

Competenc
Performance
e

Form Function

A series of new disciplines arose, under new labels and with new study techniques,
which tried to relate the study of language to the outside world and to the sociological
context of the speakers. These new disciplines were syntax, semantics and pragmatics.

Yule
SYNTAX: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.
SEMANTIC: concerned with meaning.
PRAGMATIC: dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used,
Saussure or Chomsky, could not give an appropriate answer to these disciplines.
These disciplines, with Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, and others have contributed
to a better understanding of language use in the last two decades.

the 1980s these disciplines stared to work on the same direction, reflecting the view of
language as communication
interactional view. A key concept to understand is that of language as action, that is,
"we do things with words"; this idea arises from the theory of "speech acts"
developed by language philosophers such as J.L. Austin (1962) and J.R. Searle (1969).
They advocated that language is much more than the transmission of information or
meaning (locutionary act), since it also expresses an intention (illocutionary act) and
produces an effect on the listener (perlocutionary act).
Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.
Areas of inquirí: interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology.

Beliefs about the process of language learning/acquisition

Theories of language learning

a) deductive...........................inductive change of direction from teaching the
structures of the language (deductive) towards making the learner aware of how
the language Works.
b) analytic..............................experiential focused on the foreign or second
language vs focus on communicating
c) habit formation................naturalistic acquisition

The behaviourist theory of learning, so popular in the 1950s and 1960s, was
based on repetition and memorisation techniques. In contrast, Krashen's Monitor
Theory (1981) distinguished between "acquisition" as an unconscious process
similar to the process of learning an L1, and "learning" as the conscious
knowledge of formal linguistic rules and how these work.

Chomsky

the process of learning an L2 is similar to that of learning an L1.

- the process of linguistic acquisition responds to a mechanism of contrasting

hypotheses with real language use; mistakes show that rules are being internalised.

no approach to language teaching can have any credibility without firm

Aproches are base don the language
foundations in a theory of how language is learnt acquisition theory.

The objectives of a method

Depending on the goals of language learning, the method might have fifferent fucuses
- focus on language-using skills;
- focus on knowledge about language;
 - focus on specific situational abilities;
- focus on general competence;
- include aspects of the culture and/or literature of the target language community.

The role of language and grammar

The role of instructional materials

Counselling Language Learning, may consider it unnecessary to have any materials
other than those the learners themselves produce.

Reflective task 1.1.

Answer the following questions by choosing only ONE answer.

1. "... is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching
and learning." (Anthony 1963:63). Which of the following terms matches this definition?

a) Method

b) Approach

c) Technique

2. Which of the following elements does not correspond to the concept of 'design',
according to Richards & Rodgers' (1986) definition:

a) The role of the teacher

b) Types of activities for the classroom

c) The cognitive processes involved in language learning

3. Which of the following elements is not included in language teaching from a

structural point of view?

a) Topics

b) Lexical items

c) Grammatical units

4. Which of the following views of language places importance on the effect the
speaker has on his or her interlocutor?

a) Structural view

b) Functional view
c) Interactional view

5. Which of the following language learning processes does notcorrespond to the

structural view of language teaching?

a) Inductive

b) Analytic

c) Conscious learning

Before the 19th century: the need for a

method
For many centuries the study of a second language was focused on only two
languages, Latin and Greek. In medieval Europe these languages were learned for the
written communication among scholars, and from the Renaissance on they were the
key to all learning, literature, and philosophy.

Latin and Greek was relegated to an intellectual discipline. Latin was no longer used for
communication purposes and its study was focused on learning the grammatical rules
and translation (reading and writing). On the other hand, modern languages were
taught by oral methods.

Comenius

he exemplar should always come first, the precept should always follow, and imitation
should always be insisted on.
The short before the long, the simple before the complex, the general before the
particular, the nearer before the more remote, the regular before the irregular (quoted
in Jelinek 1953).

He adopted an inductive approach and was obviously more concerned about teaching
the use of the language than about analysing the language. In his opinion grammar
was secondary and the language classroom was a place where the senses rather than
the mind came first. He preferred to use imitation instead of memorising grammar rules
as learning techniques. Initially he would present his students a limited vocabulary that
would become more complex with time. From his point of view, students needed to be
given the opportunity to practise reading and speaking in the classroom.
Language teaching innovations in the
nineteenth century
Educators recognised the need for speaking proficiency rather than reading
comprehension, grammar, or literary appreciation as the goal for foreign language
programmes; there was an interest in how children learn languages, which prompted
attempts to develop teaching principles from the observation of child language learning.

Reform Movement in language teaching: Teachers and linguists began to write about
the need for new approaches to language teaching, and through their books, speeches,
and articles, the foundation for more widespread pedagogical reforms was laid.

The discipline of Linguistics was revitalised. Phonetics (the scientific analysis and
description of the sound systems of languages) was established, providing new insights
into speech processes. The International Phonetic Association was founded in 1886,
and its International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was designed to enable accurate sound
transcription for any language. One of the earliest goals of the association was to
improve the teaching of modern languages. In order to do so, the members of the
association advocated:

Henry Sweet argued that sound methodological principles should be based on a

scientific analysis of language and a study of psychology. Some of the
recommendations contained in his book The Practical Study of Languages (1899)
include arranging what is to be taught in terms of the four skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing, and grading materials from simple to complex.

In Germany the scholar Wilhem Viëtor published his views in an influential

article Language Teaching Must Start Afresh, which later became the 'bible' of the
Direct Method.

The influence of Phonetics in foreign language teaching

1. the spoken language is primary and that this should be reflected in an oral-based
methodology;

2. the findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training;

3. learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form;

4. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised in

meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements;

5. the rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practised the
grammar points in context - that is, grammar should be taught inductively;

6. translation should be avoided, although the mother tongue could be used in order to
explain new words or to check comprehension.
(in Richards & Rodgers 1986: 8)
These tenets provided the theoretical foundations for a principled approach to language
teaching and reflect the beginnings of the discipline of Applied Linguistics - that branch
of language study concerned with the scientific study of Second and Foreign Language
Teaching and Learning.

Direct Method.
Has its origins as a natural method correct intonation became a key focus
of interest, and pronunciation models from native speakers were promoted. The
students are taught the new sound system right from the beginning and are
encouraged to do phonetic transcription. Both speech and listening comprehension are
taught.
Reading method
Some importance was also given to correct pronunciation,

Oral approach
The efforts to introduce a scientific and rational basis for choosing the vocabulary
content of a language course represented the first attempts to establish principles of
syllabus design in language teaching.
Audiolingual Method

Types of activities