CH 4 (Diversity

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CH-4
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Living world is enormously diverse. Every organism in this world is unique in itself, i.e., every
organism exhibits its own special features such as colour and behaviour, which make it different from
others. This uniqueness in each organism forms the basis of biological diversity. Thus, biodiversity
(W.G. Rosen, 1986), a concise form of biological diversity can be defined as the diverse forms of living
organisms which differ in appearance, shape, colour, behaviour, habitat, etc. For example, there may be
a difference in the skin colour of two puppies, size of two cows and height of two mango trees. Let’s
consider another example by observing the height and external features such as shape of nose, size of
eyes, handspan and colour of skin of yourself and your friend. You will notice a considerable difference
between all these features in both of you. These examples explain that there are several differences even
between the same group of living organisms.
Now, compare yourself and your friend with a monkey. You will notice that you and your friend
have a lot in common when compared with the monkey. But, what would you say if you add a cow to
this comparison? In such a case, monkey has more resemblance with you and your friend than with the
cow. This example makes it clear that there are certain unique characteristics which make human beings
similar to some organisms and dissimilar to others. Each living organism consists of some unique
features which help in its identification and contribute to the biodiversity on the earth.
SCF-5 Gurugovind singh Nagar Dhakoli Zirakpur Behind Hotel Clarion-inn -9815705259 1
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Activity 4.1
Aim
To compare desi cows with Jersey cows
Materials Required
Pictures of some desi (indigenous) cows and Jersey cows
You can also visit a dairy farm nearby, if any.
Procedure
 Observe the Jersey cow and note its small size, large eyes, broad face, short outwardly curved horns,
wedge-shaped body and a large sized udder.
 Now compare these features of Jersey cow with the features of desi cow.
Observation
In this activity, a comparison is made between two different breeds of cows. The two breeds can be
easily distinguished on the basis of their external features like shape, size and structure of horns.
Check Your Understanding

1. What are the scientific names of desi and Jersey cows?
2. Explain the purpose of Activity 4.1.
There is a remarkable diversity in the living world in terms of size, shape, colour, lifespan and many
other features. The size of life forms ranges from microscopic bacteria (of a few m in size) to the blue
whale and redwood trees of California (30 m and 100 m, respectively). If we talk about lifespan, the
insects like mosquitoes and flies live for a few days, whereas some trees like Alaska red cedar can
survive for thousands of years. There are transparent worms to brightly-coloured flowers, butterflies,
insects and birds. Each of these living organisms is unique in itself. These varied life forms have not
appeared suddenly, but evolved on the earth over millions of years. The individual study of all the living
organisms would be very much time consuming and tiresome, even if we invest considerable time on it.
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Therefore, studies are conducted to look for similarities among these organisms on the basis of which
they are classified into different classes or groups.
Groups and Subgroups: The variety of life forms can be studied by forming broad groups for
fundamental similarities (unicellular and multicellular, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, autotrophic and
heterotrophic, and so on) and then groups are further classified into subgroups for less important
characteristics.
WHAT IS THE BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION?

Since time immemorial, attempts have been made by various scientists to classify living organisms. In
4th century B.C., Aristotle, a Greek philosopher classified living organisms into two groups - plants and
animals. He further classified animals into blood and bloodless, and also according to how they move,
i.e., walking, flying or swimming. However, Aristotle’s classification system had some problems, like
many organisms fit in more than one category, for example, frog has gills and swims in water but it also
has lungs and can survive on land too. Therefore, there occurred a need to identify the characteristics
than can be used for making broadest divisions.
A characteristic is a particular form or particular function used for

KEY POINT
the classification of a living organism. For example, animals
cannot make their own food, whereas plants can make, are the two The branch of science that deals with
different characteristics. To classify the organisms, first of all, the identification, nomenclature and
classification of living organisms based
characteristics considered are the ones that demonstrate more
on certain principles is called
fundamental differences than others. These fundamental
taxonomy. Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish
differences are used to create higher groups. The more detailed
botanist is known as the father of
characteristics are then used to make smaller groups and
taxonomy. In his book, Systema
subgroups, thus creating a hierarchy. Naturae, Linnaeus classified both plants
The examples of some characteristics used for hierarchical and animals into two separate
classification are given below. kingdoms.
 Cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Organisms may be
grouped into two broad categories on the basis of the cells they
possess, i.e., eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic cells.
 The eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles, including nucleus. This helps the cells
to carry out cellular processes perfectly in isolation from each other. In addition, nucleated cells
can participate in forming multicellular organism.
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 In prokaryotic cells, the nuclei and other organelles are not clearly demarcated. Due to this,
these organisms would need to have their biochemical pathways organised in very different
ways.
Hence, this is a very basic feature of classification of living organisms.
 Cells occur singly or in clusters. Many organisms are unicellular, i.e., made up of only one cell like
Amoeba. Others are multicellular, i.e., made up of millions of cells like fish, birds and humans. The
cells in multicellular organisms group together to perform specialised functions in the body which
demonstrates the division of labour. Thus, all cells would not be identical in such type of body
design. These features differentiate the body design of a unicellular organism with that of a
multicellular organism.
 Organisation of different body parts. Grouping of organisms may be done on the basis of body
organisation. For example, plants possess stem, roots, leaves, flowers and fruits. Similarly, animals
possess specialised organs such as kidneys, liver, brain, heart and lungs to perform different
functions.
 Organism produces its own food or takes food from outside. Green plants perform photosynthesis
and synthesise their own food. Thus, they are termed as autotrophs. Animals, however, cannot
perform photosynthesis. So, they obtain food from plants or other animals. Hence, they are called
heterotrophs.
However, the body-design characteristics used for classifying plants are quite different from those used
for classifying animals. This is because the basic body design of plants and animals are different.
Therefore, these distinct body features are useful in making subgroups of plants or of animals instead of
making broad groups.
Importance of Classification
As we know, classification is the process of grouping living organisms on the basis of similarities and
dissimilarities. By studying one member of a group, we come to know about the basic characteristics of
all the members of that group. The branch of science that deals with the classification of living
organisms is called taxonomy. Following points show the importance of classification.
 It makes the study of wide variety of organisms easier.
 It provides us a clear picture of all living organisms at a glance.
 It helps us understand the interrelationship among different groups of organisms.
 Correct classification of organisms leads to me development of other biological sciences. For
instance, biogeography, which is defined as the study of distribution of flora and fauna in different
parts of the world, depends on the information displayed by classification.
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 Classification of organisms may also lead to advancement in various other fields such as medicine
and agriculture.
CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION

Living organisms are identified and categorised on the KEY POINT
basis of their body design in terms of characteristics and Biodiversity
functions. Some of these characteristics evolve with time The diversity of life forms existing in a
and are able to bring wide-ranging changes in body particular region is called biodiversity. These
diverse life forms are affected by each other and
design than the others. It means that the characteristics
share a common environment. This results into
that came into existence earlier were more basic rather
the existence of a stable community. Humans
than those characteristics that have evolved later. Thus,
have played a key role in changing the stability
the classification of organisms has a close association
of such communities by altering the natural
with the process of evolution. resources like air, water, soil, etc. The tropical
Evolution can be defined as the changes that occur in the areas between the tropic of Cancer and the
characteristics of living organisms over the period of tropic of Capricon are warm and humid, and
time. The living organisms that are present on the earth rich in diversity of plants and animals. These
are the result of evolution. The accumulation of changes geographical areas of earth are termed as
in bodt designs helps the organisms to adjust successfully regions of megadiversity. If the total diversity of
the earth is estimated, more than half is confined
in the changing environmental conditions, thereby
to the countries like Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
resulting in their better survival. This idea of evolution
Peru, Mexico, Zaire, Madagascar, Australia,
was first proposed by Charles Darwin, a naturalist, in his
China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
book The Origin of Species in 1859.
Primitive and advanced organisms: Based on the idea of evolution and classification, the living
organisms are either primitive or advanced. There are some groups of organisms that have ancient body
designs and have not changed much along with time and changing environmental conditions. These
organisms are called primitive or lower or older organisms. On the other hand, there are some other
organisms that have acquired a particular body design relatively recently or evolved due to
accumulation of changes in their body forms are termed as advanced or higher or younger organisms.
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NOMENCLATURE
The part of classification that involves the naming of living organisms is called nomenclature. It deals
with assigning a distinct name to each organism present on the earth. The primary aim of nomenclature
is:
 Any single kind of organism should have only one correct name.
 No two different kinds of organisms should have the same name.
Importance of Nomenclature
Living organisms are named differently in different languages in different countries. Even within the
same country, a plant or an animal may be known by different names. For example, pumpkin in
different local languages is known as sitaphal, kashiphal, kumhra, petha, kaddu and so on. Similarly, a
dog (in English) is named as kutta (Hindi), kukur in Bengali and kutra in Marathi. These names are
useful in the local communities only. Sometimes, same name may be used for different organisms in
different parts of the country. This creates confusion in the identification of a particular organism. To
avoid this confusion, Carolus Linnaeus developed scientific names for each species which are
unanimously accepted by the biologists all over the world facilitating communication and identification
of an organism.
Activity 4.2
Aim
To find the names of the following animals and plants in as many languages as you can
 Tiger  Peacock  Ant  Neem  Lotus  Potato
Procedure
 Find the names of the above mentioned animals and plants in different languages.
 Write your observations in the given table. An example is given for your help.
Observations
Animal/Plant Hindi Bengali Tamil Gujarati Kannada
Peacock Mor Mayur Mayil Mor Navilu
Tiger
Ant
Neem
Lotus
Potato
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1. What is the disadvantage having multiple names of a single organism?
2. What is the advantage of using scientific name of an organism?
Binomial Nomenclature
Carolus Linnaeus first devised the binomial system of nomenclature in the 18th century and gradually it
was adopted by the biologists all over the world. According to this system of naming, every organism is
given two-part scientific name - a binomen. The two parts of binomen are the genus (generic) name and
the species name. For example, the scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus
name and sapiens is the species name. The following conventions are followed while writing the
scientific names.
 Both genus and species names are always written in Latin.
 The first letter in genus name is capitalised, while that of species name is written in lower case.
 When printed, both of these names should be in italics and underlined if handwritten. For example,
Panthera leo when printed, and Panthera leo when written by hand.
Activity 4.3
Aim
To find out the scientific names of any five common plants and animals
Procedure
Select any five common plants and animals, and find their scientific names. For example, you may
select pea, mango, peepal, potato and onion for plants; and frog, cow, dog, hen and sparrow, for
animals. An example for both the categories is given for your help.
Observations
Pea - Pisum sativum Frog - Rana tigrina

1. What is the common name of pea and frog in Hindi?
2. Do these names resemble their scientific names?
THE HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION - GROUPS

The organism to be classified is assigned categories on the basis of its evolutionary relatedness with
other group of organisms. These assigned categories are called taxonomic categories. The system of
placement of living organisms in a series of increasing taxonomic categories based on the similarities in
their structure and origin that indicate a common relationship, is termed as hierarchy of classification.
Taxonomic Categories
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There are seven taxonomic categories in the following order - kingdom, division/phylum, class, order,
family, genus and species.
Species: It is regarded as the basic unit of classification. It can be defined as the group of organisms that
resemble each other very closely in appearance and body features, and are able to breed to produce
offsprings. For example, humans belong to one species. Although they have some differences among
themselves in terms of colour, height and complexion, yet they can all interbreed.
Genus: The category of closely related species is called a genus (plural: genera). A genus may have
many species. For example, lion (Panthera led) and tiger (Panthera tigris) are different species, but are
placed in the same genus, Panthera.
Family: The groups of similar genera are kept together under a family. A family may have one or more
genera. For example, the genus Panthera (includes lion and tiger) and the genus Felis (includes domestic
cats, i.e., Felis domestied) together form a large cat family, i.e., Felidae.
Order: The group of related families constitute an order. For example, the family of cats (lion, tiger,
domestic cats) and family of dogs (dogs, foxes, jackals) form an order, Carnivora.
Class: The group of related orders form a class. For example, different orders like Artiodactyla (camels,
pigs and cows) and Carnivora (cats and dogs) share some common features like hairy skin, sharp
canines and produce milk. Due to these common features, all of these are kept under class Mammalia.
Phylum/Division: The related classes that share common features constitute phylum in case of animals
and division in case of plants. For example, the classes of different animals like fish, frogs, birds,
reptiles and mammals together belong to one phylum Chordata (animals having backbone).
Kingdom: The highest taxonomic category is the kingdom. The most widely known kingdoms in the
living world are - Plant kingdom and Animal kingdom.
Table 4.1: Examples of Taxonomic Categories
Man (Homo sapiens) Coconus (Cocos nucifera)

Kingdom : Animalia Kingdom : Plantae
Phylum : Chordata Division : Angrospermae
Class : Mammalia Class : Monocotyledonae
Order : Primates Order : Arccales
Family : Hominidae Family : Arecaceae
Genus : Homo Genus : Cocos
Species : : Sapiens Species : : Nucifera
KEY POINT
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John Ray, an English naturalist introduced the term ‘species’. He described more than 18,000 plants
and animals in his book Historia Generalis Plantarum.
Classification Systems
Following are the two most recognised classification systems of living organisms.
 Two kingdom classification: Linnaeus (1758) classified living organisms into two kingdoms - plant
kingdom (Plantae) and animal kingdom (Animalia). This classification was done on the basis of
mode or source of nutrition and structural and functional properties of both plants and animals.
Drawback: Placement of certain organisms in this system became difficult. For example,
microorganisms were placed under the kingdom Plantae but they showed characteristics of both
plants and animals.
The drawbacks of two kingdom classification led the biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866) to introduce a
third kingdom known as Protista, for all the unicellular organisms. After further researches, it was
found that there are significant differences among the protists, which led to the creation of a fourth
kingdom called Monera for prokaryotic organisms by Herbert Copeland (1956).
 Five kingdom classification: Robert Whittaker (1959) suggested the five kingdom system of
classification on the basis of following characteristics.
 Nature and complexity of cell structure (prokaryotic and eukaryotic)
 Unicellular or multicellular organisms
 Complexity of body organisation
 Mode and source of nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic)
 Phylogenetic relationship among the organisms
The five kingdoms were named as Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The further
modification in this classification was carried out by Carl Woese (1977) by dividing the kingdom
Monera into subkingdoms -achaebacteria (or Archaea) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).
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Let’s discuss the characteristics of these kingdoms in detail.
Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Monera (Monos: single) includes the most primitive and simplest organisms, i.e., all
prokaryotes such as bacteria, blue-green algae or cyanobacteria and mycoplasma. Following are the
special characteristics of the organisms (or monerans) belonging to this kingdom.
 They are single-celled organisms.
KEY POINT
 They do not have an organised nucleus, and the nuclear Mycoplasmas are the smallest
material (DNA) is distributed in the cell without being living cells known. They can
enclosed in a nuclear membrane. Such cells are termed as survive in the absence of
oxygen. They cause disease in
prokaryotic.
plants and animals. Examples:
 They do not have any membrane-bound organelles like in plants, they cause witches
mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi complex, endoplasmic broom, and pleuropneumonia
reticulum and lysosomes. However, they contain ribosomes. in animals.
 Cell wall is present in some organisms such as bacteria and cyanobacteria, and absent in
mycoplasmas.
 According to the mode of nutrition, they may be either autotrophic (synthesising food by
photosynthesis) or heterotrophic (obtaining food from the other sources).
 Many monerans have single-stranded flagella.
 Carl Woese classified Monera into two major groups - Arachaebacteria (or Archaea) and Eubacteria
(or Bacteria) (Fig. 4.1).
 Arachaebacteria have cell wall which is made up of non-cellulosic polysaccharides and
proteins with no peptidoglycan. These mostly inhabit extreme conditions like salty areas and hot
springs. Examples of arachaebacteria include methanogens and halophiles.
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 Eubacteria or true bacteria have cell wall which is made up of peptidoglycan. They are found
everywhere. Examples of eubacteria include bacteria, mycoplasmas, cyanobacteria,
actinomycetes and spirochetes.
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Protista (Protistos: first of all) is a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. They
were the first eukaryotes to evolve on the earth about 1600 million years ago. Protists have the
following distinct characteristics.
 They live in aquatic habitats like sea, ponds, pools, lakes and moist soil.
 They are single-celled eukaryotes. Some of them live in colonies or are multicellular like algae but
they lack specialised tissue organisation.
 Eu bacteria or true bacteria have cell wall which is made up of peptidoglycan. They are found
everywhere. Examples of eubacteria include bacteria, mycoplasmas, cyanobacteria, actinomycetes
and spirochetes.
 They have a true nucleus and membrane-bound cell organelles, and streaming movement occurs in
the cytoplasm.
 Their mode of nutrition may be either autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Cell wall is present in most photosynthetic protists, whereas absent in others such as protozoan
protists.
 Locomotion occurs through whip-like flagella (Euglena), pseudopodia (Amoeba) or hair-like cilia
(Paramecium).
 Kingdom Protista includes algae, slime molds and protozoa.
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 Algae (Fig. 4.2) are plant-like, mainly aquatic and photosynthetic protists. They may be
unicellular or multicellular. Examples include dinofiagelletes (Ceratium, Noctiluca), diatoms,
golden algae and. Euglena.
 Slime molds (Fig. 4.3) are unicellular or multicellular motile, fungus-like organisms. They are
heterotrophic and feed on bacteria that live on dead or decaying matter. They are extremely
resistant and survive for many years even under extreme conditions. Examples of slime molds
include Physarum, Fuligo and Tubifera.
 Protozoa (Fig. 4.4) (first animals) are unicellular, animal-like and mainly aquatic protists. They
are heterotrophs and live as parasites or predators. This group of protists includes Amoeba,
Trypanosoma, Paramecium and Plasmodium (malarial parasite).
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Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Fungi comprises a diverse group of eukaryotic heterotrophic organisms. The distinct
characteristics of members of this kingdom are as follows.
 They are usually multicellular with the exception of yeast which is unicellular.
 Their body consists of long, slender, extremely fine thread-like structures called hyphae. A network
of hyphae is called mycelium. Mycelium forms the vegetative structure of fungus. It helps fungus in
obtaining nourishment from every part of their surroundings.
 They are sporophytes, i.e., they produce spores from structures called sporangia. Sporangia arise
from mycelium. Spore is a unit of asexual reproduction.
 Their cell walls is composed of complex carbohydrate chitin.
 They are mostly heterotrophs and obtain food from dead and decaying matter, hence these are also
called saprophytes or saprotrophs. Some fungi depend on living plants and animals for food and are
harmful for their hosts. These are known as parasites. Some fungi live in a mutually beneficial
relationship with their host and are known as symbionts (Fig. 4.5). Lichen and mycorrhiza are
examples of symbionts.
 Lichens are a symbiotic association of fungi and blue-green algae (or cyanobacteria). In this
association, both benefit from each other. The fungus absorbs water and nutrients from the
surroundings and provides these to its partner algae. Algae contains chlorophyll, thus
manufactures food from these raw materials in the presence of sunlight and supplies it to the
fungus. In this association, the algal partner is called the photobiont and the fungal partner is
called the mycobiont. Lichens can be seen as the slow-growing, coloured patches on the bark of
the trees. These do not grow in the areas where air pollution is high. Due to this, lichens are also
known as pollution indicator.
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 Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and root of a higher plant. The fungus
obtains shelter and food from the plant root, and in turn helps the root in obtaining minerals and
water from the soil.
 Some examples of fungi (Fig. 4.6) are Mucor and Rhizopus (bread molds), Albugo (parasitic fungi
on mustard), yeast, Agaricus (mushroom), Penicillum, Ustilago (smut) and Trichoderma.
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Plantae includes all plants, both land and aquatic. They
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN
are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic organisms. Following FUNGI AND ALGAE
are the general characteristics of members of the kingdom Plantae.  Both are thallophytes (body not
differentiated into root, stem
 They are stationary, i.e., they remain fixed at one place. A few
and leaves).
aquatic plants are free-floating.  No embryo is formed.
 Their size varies from microscopic (1.5-15.0 um. - Chlorella) to  Asexual reproduction occurs by
formation of spores.
giant (114m- Eucalyptus).
 Vegetative reproduction occurs
 Their body may be thalloid or differentiated into root, stem and by fragmentation.
leaves.
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 They are autotrophic and perform photosynthesis. A green-coloured pigment chlorophyll present in
chloroplasts traps sunlight for food synthesis. The food is stored in the form of starch. Some plants
such as insectivorous plants are heterotrophs.
 Their cells have cellulosic cell wall and a large central vacuole.
 Growth in plants is indefinite.
 Reproduction results in the formation of embryo, except in algae.
Classification of Plantae
On the basis of presence or absence of seeds kingdom Plantae is divided into two subkingdoms -
Cryptogamae (do not produce seeds) and Phanaerogamae (produce seeds). Further classification of these
subkingdoms is done on the following basis.
 The presence or absence of well-differentiated, distinct components in plant body
 Whether the differentiated plant body has special tissues for the transport of water and other
substances within it
 Whether the plants bear naked seeds or the seeds are enclosed within the fruits
Subkingdom Cryptogamae: Plants of this subkingdom consist of the following distinct features.
 They do not bear external flowers and seeds, and have hidden reproductive organs.
 These seedless or flowerless plants are commonly known as lower plants.
 Some plants do not have a differentiated body, e.g., thallophytes.
 This subkingdom includes three divisions.
(a) Thallophyta
(b) Bryophyta
(c) Pteridophyta
Subkingdom Phanerogamae: Plants that belong to this subkingdom consist of the following distinct
features.
 Their body is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.
 Vascular tissues, i.e., xylem and phloem, are well developed.
 They produce seeds.
 Fruits are present in angiosperms and absent in gymnosperms.
 Subkingdom Phanaerogamae includes following divisions.
(a) Gymnosperms
(b) Angiosperms
Division Thallophyta (Algae)
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The plants of division Thallophyta are commonly called algae or thallophytes. The term algae was
coined by Linnaeus (1753). The distinct characteristics of members of this division are given below.
 These are mainly aquatic plants found both in fresh water and sea water. However, some of these
plants are terrestrial and live/grow in moist places.
 Their body is not differentiated into stem, root and leaves. This kind of undifferentiated body is
called thallus. Therefore, they are called thallophytes and are placed under the division Thallophyta.
 They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis to manufacture their own food. Hence, algae
are autotrophic in their mode of nutrition. They contain starch as reserve food material.
 They may be unicellular (CMamydomonas), colonial (Volvox) or multicellular (Spirogyra).
 Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 Their body is covered with a gelatinous substance called mucilage. It stores water to keep them
moist and protects them from toxic chemicals.
 Sometimes the green colour (due to the presence of chlorophyll) in certain algae is masked by the
excessive amount of other coloured pigment(s) which impart different colours to the algae. On the
basis of colouration, algae can be green, brown or red algae.
 Algae reproduce by vegetative reproduction (fragmentation); asexually (by spores); and sexually (by
conjugation - fusion of male and female reproductive cells). Embryo does not form after
fertilisation.
 Examples of green, brown, and red algae are shown below (Fig. 4.7).
 Green algae - Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Volvox, Ulothrix, KEY POINT
The science that deals with
Spirogyra and Ulva
various aspects of algae is
 Brown algae - Sargassum, Laminaria, Dictyota and Macrocystis called phycology.
 Red algae - Porphyra, Porphyridium and Gelidium
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Table 4.2 Difference between Algae and Fungi
Algae Fungi
Chlorophyll is present. Chlorophyll is absent.
All the members are autotrophic? These are heterotrophic, i.e., either parasitic or
saprophytic.
Cell wall is made up of cellulose. Cell wall is made up of chitin.
Food material is stored usually in the form of Food material is stored in the form of glycogen.
starch.
They grow fast in bright light. They grow fast in dark and dim light.
They are mostly aquatic in habitat. They are mostly terrestrial in habitat.
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Division Bryophyta
Bryophytes are known as the amphibians of the plant kingdom, as most of them need both land and
water to complete the.r life cycle. The term bryophyta was first coined by Braun (1864). The common
characteristics of members of Bryophyta are given below.
 They are small-sized plants which mainly grow in moist and shady places.
 Plant body is differentiated into stem-like and leaf-like structures. True stem and leaves are absent.
 In all types of bryophytes, the main plant body is gametophyte. It is a flat green thallus and lacks
roots. Hence, these plants are fixed by means of rhizoids, which are hair-like structures that anchor
plants into the soil and help in absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
 Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are absent.
 Their body is covered by a waxy cuticle that helps them retain water.
 The male sex organs are antheridia and female sex organs are archegonia. The gametes are produced
in the sex organs.
 Male and female gametes fuse to give rise to a zygote which develops into a sporophyte. Water is
necessary for fertilisation.
 Spores are produced by sporophyte which germinate to give rise to a gametophyte again.
 Sporophytic and gametophytic phases alternate in plant life cycle which is called alternation of
generation.
 Types of bryophytes and their examples (Fig. 4.8) are as follows..
 Mosses: Sphagnum, Funaria and Polytrichum
 Liverworts: Riccia, Marchantia and Porella
 Horn worts: Anthoceros
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Division Pteridophyta
Pteridophytes are the most primitive vascular plants. These are commonly called ferns. The term
pteridophyta was coined by Haeckel (1866). Following are the important features of the members
pteridophytes.
 They are usually found in moist and shady places or on the hills where temperature is low.
 The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves.
 These plants do not bear flowers or produce seeds.
 Leaves are large in size and are further divided into leaflets. The leaves (fronds) of sporophyte grow
on thick horizontal underground stem or rhizome which bears adventitious roots.
 Vascular tissues, i.e., xylem and phloem are present for the conduction of water and food from one
part of the plant body to another.
 Sporophyte is the main plant body. It has roots which penetrate the soil and absorb water.
 The gametophyte is small, independent and thallus-like in which spores germinate.
 The antheridia and archegonia produce male gametes and female gametes, respectively.
 The gametes fuse and form zygote which develops into a new sporophyte.
 The two phases sporophyte and gametophyte alternate as in bryophytes.
 Examples of pteridophytes (Fig. 4.9) are Equisetum, Lycopodium, Dryopteris, Psilotum, Adiantum,
Selaginella, and Marsilea.
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Division Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms (Gymno: naked, sperma: seed) are usually evergreen, perennial and seeds. The
characteristic features of gymnosperms are given below.
 They mostly occur in colder parts of the earth.
 Plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into stem, leaves and roots.
 Leaves are of two types - foliage leaves (big and green) and scaly leaves (minute and brown).
 Vascular tissues are present for the conduction of water and food to all parts of the plant body.
 Gametophytic phase is a short-lived phase, whereas sporophytic phase is a long-lived phase which
occurs as a whole plant.
 They bear cones. Sporophylls (spore-producing structures) aggregate to form cones,
microsporophylls produce microspores (male gametes) and in female cone, megasporophyll produce
megaspores (female gametes).
 Seeds are produced after fertilisation.
 Examples of gymnosperms (Fig. 4.10) include Cycas, Pinus, Cedrus, Ephedra, Gnetum, Abies,
Tsuga, Ginkgo and Taxus.
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Division Angiosperms
Angiosperms (Angio: covered, sperma: seed) or flowering plants are the most dominant and highly
evolved plants. Following are the characteristic features of angiosperms.
 They are found everywhere, i.e., in cold places, deserts, water or over other plants as parasites.
 They may be herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers or creepers.
 Xylem and phloem tissues are well developed for the conduction of substances.
 Flower consists of sepals, petals, stamens (male reproductive organ) and carpels (female
reproductive organ).
 Pollination in flowers occurs by air, water and animals.
 Double fertilisation occurs in angiosperms. After fertilisation, ovules are transformed into seeds and
ovary into fruits.
 Seeds develop inside an organ which is then transformed into a fruit.
 Seeds enclose embryo which consists of structures known as cotyledons.
 Cotyledons are called seed leaves because they often emerge and become green at the time of seed
germination. They also store food for the embryo.
 On the basis of number of cotyledons angiosperms are classified into the following two classes.
 Monocotyledons: The plants bearing only one cotyledon in their embryo are termed as
monocotyledons or monocots. These have adventitious root system and parallel venation in
leaves. Grasses, cereals, banana, maize, sugarcane, bamboo, coconut and onion are
monocotyledons (Fig. 4.11).
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 Dicotyledons: The plants having two cotyledons in their embryo are called dicotyledons or
dicots. These plants possess tap root system and reticulate venation in leaves. Eucalyptus,
sunflower, mustard, rose, cotton and apple are dicotyledons (Fig. 4.12).
Table 4.3 Difference between Monocots and Dicots
Monocot Dicot
Embryo is present with single cotyledon Embryo is present with two cotyledons
Flower parts exist in multiple of three. Flower parts exist in multiple of four or five.
Major leaf veins are parallel. Major leaf veins are reticulated.
Stem vascular bundles are scattered. Steam vascular bundles are in a ring.
Secondary growth is absent. Secondary growth is often present.
It possesses adventitious roots. It possesses tap roots.
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Table 4.4 Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Sporophylls aggregate to form cones. Seeds are enclosed in a fruit.
Sporophylls aggregrate to form cones. Sporophylls aggregate to form flowers.
Xylem lacks vessels and phloem lacks Xylem contains vessels and phloem contains
companion cells. companion cells.
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Classification of kingdom Plantae
Activity 4.4
Aim
To find out the differences between monocot and dicot plants
Materials Required
A few seeds of green gram, wheat, maize, peas and tamarind, a bowl, and water
Procedure
 Take the seeds of green gram, wheat, maize, peas and tamarind and soak in a bowl filled with water.
 Leave the seeds for about 2 hours. Once they become tender or soft, take them out from water.
 Try to split all these seeds one by one and observe if they split into two equal halves.
 Also observe the roots, leaves and flowers of these plants.
Observations
The seeds of wheat and maize do not split into two halves. It means they possess only one cotyledon,
i.e., these are the seeds of monocot plants. The seeds of green gram, pea and tamarind split into two
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equal parts. It means they have two cotyledons, i.e., these are the seeds of dicot plants. The roots, leaves
and flowers of all these plants show the following features.
 Monocot plants have fibrous roots whereas dicot plants have tap root system.
 Leaves of monocot plants show parallel venation, whereas dicot leaves show reticulate venation.
 Monocot flowers are trimerous whereas dicot flowers are pentamerous.

1. Name the two subgroups of kingdom Monera.
2. Define taxonomy.
3. Give two examples of thallophytes.
4. Name the plant division in which monocot and dicot plants are kept.
5. How many petals are present in flowers of monocot and dicot plants?
6. Explain how the vascular bundles are arranged in monocot and dicot plants.
Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom Animalia, comprised of animals is the largest kingdom with more than one million species.
Members of this kingdom are characterised by the following features.
 They are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.
 Their cells lack cell wall.
 Their body organisation may be cellular, tissue, organ or organ system level.
 Nutrition is holozoic, i.e., by the ingestion of food.
 Ingested food is digested in the digestive system and waste is removed by excretory system.
 Most animals are mobile and show locomotion to obtain food and to meet other necessities.
However some forms are sedentary like sponges and corals.
 Growth stops after attaining maturity.
 They reproduce by sexual reproduction which involves the fusion of male and female gametes.
Basis of Classification of Kingdom Animalia

Animals are classified into different phyla on the basis of following characteristics.
 Body organisation: Different animals may show different levels of body organisations.
 Some animals are aggregates of cells. This is called cellular level of organisation.
 In some animals, cells performing the same function are assembled to form tissues. This is tissue
level of organisation.
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 Tissues performing the similar function are grouped to form organs. Each organ is specialised
for specific function. This represents organ level of organisation.
 In some animals, two or more organs work in a team to perform a specific function. This is
organ system level of organisation.
 Symmetry: If the body of an animal can be divided into two equal and identical parts by one or
more planes, it is called symmetry. If the body cannot be divided into equal parts by any plane, it is
called asymmetry. Symmetry can be radial or bilateral.
 Radial symmetry: The symmetry in which a body is divisible into two exactly equal halves,
which are mirror images of each other, by any vertical plane passing through the centre is called
radial symmetry.
 Bilateral symmetry: When a body is divisible into two equal halves in only one plane, i.e., mid-
sagittal plane, it is called bilateral symmetry.
 Embryonic layers (Fig. 4.13): There are three layers of cells, i.e., ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm in an embryo which later give rise to different body parts of an animal. These are called
embryonic or germ layers. On the basis of number of germ layers present in the embryo, animals
can be diploblastic or triploblastic.
 Diploblastic: Animals having two germ layers in the embryo, i.e., the outer ectoderm and the
inner endoderm. are known as diploblastic animals.
 Triploblastic: Animals having three germ layers in the embryo, i.e., the outer ectoderm, the
inner endoderm and the third germinal layer mesoderm, which lies in between ectoderm and
endoderm, are called triploblastic.
 Body cavity or coelom (Fig. 4.14): The cavity between body wall and food canal is called coelom.
On the basis of presence or absence of coelom, animals can be classified as follows.
 Acoelomates: Animals that have no body cavity, except in their digestive tract, are called
acoelomates.
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 Pseudocoelomates: Animals in which the body cavity is not lined by the mesoderm, instead the
mesoderm is present in scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm, are known as
pseudocoelomates.
 Coelomates: Animals that possess a body cavity lined by the mesoderm are known as
coelomates.
 Notochord: Notochord is a rod-like supporting structure derived from the mesoderm. It may be
present in embryonic or adult stages. The animals that possess notochord are called chordates. The
animals in which notochord is absent are called non-chordates.
Classification of Kingdom Animalia

On the basis of the aforementioned characteristics, the kingdom Animalia is divided into following nine
phyla.
1. Phylum Porifera
2. Phylum Coenlenterata or Cnidaria
3. Phylum Platyhelminthes
4. Phylum Aschelminthes or Nematoda
5. Phylum Annelida
6. Phylum Arthropoda
7. Phylum Mollusca
8. Phylum Echinodermata
9. Phylum Chordata
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Phylum Porifera
The term Porifera, meaning organisms with holes, was coined by Robert Grant (1836). Animals of this
phylum are commonly called sponges. Following are the characteristics of the members of phylum
Porifera.
 They are non-motile and marine animals, found attached to solid objects of sea water for support.
Very few of them are found in fresh water.
 They are multicellular and have cellular level of organisation.
 A large body cavity is present in the body of sponges.
 Their whole body is covered with holes or pores that forms a canal system. This helps circulate
water throughout the body to take in food and oxygen.
 They are covered with a hard outside layer or skeleton called spicules.
 They have a simple body design and involve very less differentiation and division into tissues.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by budding or by gemmules (little buds). Sexual reproduction
takes place by gametes.
 They are capable of regeneration.
 Examples (Fig. 4.15) include Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectella, Euspongia and Hyalonema.
Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

The term coelenterata (meaning hollow gut) was coined by Leuckart (1847). The distinct features of the
members of this phylum or cnidarians are listed below.
 They live in aquatic habitats, mostly marine, a few live in brackish and freshwater (Hydra).
 Their body shows radial symmetry.
 Body cavity is present. It has a single opening for ingestion of food and throwing out waste.
 They have tissue level of body organisation.
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 Tentacles surround the mouth and contain stinging cells to fight enemies and paralyse prey.
Tentacles also help in trapping food.
 They are diploblastic, i.e., the body wall has two layers - ectoderm and endoderm.
 Asexual reproduction occurs by budding or fission. Sexual reproduction takes place by gametes.
 Some of these organisms live in colonies (corals), whereas others have a solitary lifespan (Hydra).
 Examples include (Fig. 4.16) Hydra, jellyfish, corals, Actiniaria (sea anemone) and sea pen.
Table 4.5 Difference between Porifera and Coelenterata
Porifera Coelenterata
Body organisation is of cellular level. Body organisation is of tissue level.
Minute pores cover the body which help in A single opening is present that helps in
regulation of substances. regulation of substances.
Appendages are absent. Appendages are present in the form of
tentacles.
Phylum Platyhelminthes
The term Platyhelminthes was coined by Gagenbaur (1859). The members of Platyhelminthes are also
called flatworms due to their dorsiventrally (top to bottom) flattened body. Their chief characteristics
are given below.
 They are both free living and parasitic. The free living forms are aquatic as well as terrestrial.
 Their body is flattened, leaf-like or ribbon-like and bilaterally symmetrical (left and right halves of
body have same design).
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 They are triploblastic, i.e., having three germ layers, namely, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
These layers help in the formation of tissues and some organs. However, a true internal cavity or
coelom is not present in which well-developed organs can reside; thus, they are acoelomates.
 They have a digestive tract with a mouth cavity but no anus.
 Special cells called flame cells are present for excretion of waste.
 In parasitic forms, suckers and spines are present for excretion of waste.
 Most of the flatworms are hermaphrodites (presence for attachment to the host).
 Examples (Fig. 4.17) include free living forms - Dugesia (planaria), Bipalium and Convulata; and
parasitic olium (tapeworm), Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) and Schistosoma (blood fluke).
Phylum Nematoda
A separate phylum, Nematoda or Aschelminthes was proposed by Nathan Cobb (1910) for grouping of
roundworm and related animals. The characteristics of the members of this phylum are as follows.
 Most of them are parasitic, only a few are free living which are both aquatic and terrestrial. Parasitic
forms are pathogenic such as filarial worms which cause elephantiasis and roundworms or
pinworms which cause intestinal infections.
 The body is cylindrical and tapering at both ends. In a cross section, body appears rounded, hence
the animals are called roundworms. However, a few species are slightly flattened.
 Tissues are present but no real organs can be seen in the body.
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented and triploblastic.
 A false coelom or pseudocoelom is present between the body wall and digestive region.
 The alimentary canal is tubular and complete, with a mouth and anus.
 Reproduction occurs sexually and the sexes are separate.
 Some of the parasitic species live in the body of plants.
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 Examples (Fig. 4.18) include Ascaris (common roundworm), Wuchereria (filarial worm),
Enterobius (pinworm) and Andy stoma (hookworm).
Table 4.6 Difference between Platyhelminthes and Nematoda
Platyhelminthes Nematoda
They are flatworms. They are roundworms.
They do not contain coelom. They have pseudocoelom.
They are hermaphrodites. They are unisexual.
They have an incomplete digestive system. They have a complete digestive system.
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Phylum Annelida
The phylum Annelida was created by Lamarck (1809). The distinct characteristics of Annelids are given
below.
 They are both free living and parasitic, and are found in a variety of habitats, i.e., freshwater, marine
water as well as land.
 Their body is soft, elongated and cylindrical or flattened.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic, and a true coelom (coelomates) is present.
 The coelom allows true organs to accommodate in the body structure leading to extensive organ
differentiation.
 The differentiation of organs occurs in a segmented body. The segments line up one after another
from head to tail. This is called segmentation or metamerism, and each segment is called a
metamere.
 The segments are visible externally as rings and separated internally by vertical partitions called
septa.
 Many of them have bristle-like appendages protruding from each segment. These projections are
called chaetae (setae) which help in locomotion.
 The alimentary canal is tubular and complete, with a mouth and anus.
 The excretory system consists of a pair of coiled tubes called nephridia (singular: nephridium).
Nephridia remove metabolic waste.
 The circulatory system is of closed type.
 Reproduction is sexual, and sexes may be separate or hermaphrodite.
 Examples (Fig. 4.19): Free living forms include Pheretima (Earthworm) that lives in moist soil, and
Nereis (sandworm) and Aphrodita (sea mouse) are marine annelids. Parasitic forms include Tubifex
(blood worm) and Hirudinaria (leech - blood sucking organism).
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Phylum Arthropoda
The term Arthropoda was coined by Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold (1848). It is the largest phylum of
the animal kingdom. Following are the characteristics of the members of phylum Arthropoda.
 They live in all types of habitats on land, in freshwater and in sea; and as parasites on and in the
bodies of animals and plants.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and show organ system level of organisation.
 Their body is externally segmented and covered with a thick exoskeleton made up of chitin. The
segments are grouped to form head, thorax and abdomen.
 Each segment bears paired and jointed legs (arthropod means jointed legs) which is the distinct
feature of this phylum.
 They have an open circulatory system in which the blood does not flow in well-defined blood
vessels and therefore, a blood-filled body cavity called haemocoel is formed.
 True coelom is present but it is limited around excretory and reproductive organs because of the
presence of haemocoel.
 Digestive tract is complete. Mouth parts are movable and help in capturing and ingestion of food.
Excretion occurs through Malpighian tubules (slender tubes with a single layer of cells) and green
glands. Respiratory organs are different in different animals like gills in horseshoe crabs, book lungs
in spiders and spiracles in bees.
 Most arthropods have compound eyes. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is usually internal.
 Examples (Fig. 4.20) include Periplaneta (cockroach), Palaemon (prawn), Palamnaeus (scorpion),
Aranea (spider), Scolopendra (centipede), Musca (housefly), Pieris (butterfly) and Poecilocercus
(grasshopper).
Table 4.7 Difference between Annelids and Arthropods
Annelids Arthropods
They do not have a distinct head. Their body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
They have unjoint appendages. They have jointed appendages.
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Exoskeleton is absent. A chitinous exoskeleton is present.

Excretory organs are nephridia. Excretory organs are green glands and Malpighian tubules.
Locomotion occurs through setae. Locomotion occurs through legs and wings.
They have a closed circulatory system. They have an open circulatory system.
Phylum Mollusca
The term Mollusca was coined by Linnaeus (1758). It is the second largest phylum of kingdom
Animalia. Following are the characteristics of the members of phylum Mollusca.
 They are mostly marine animals; however, a few are found in freshwater and on land.
 Body is soft, bilaterally symmetrical with little segmentation and triploblastic. Organ system level of
organisation is present.
 Body is made up of four parts - head (contains sense organs), visceral mass (contains organ
systems), a muscular foot (for locomotion) and mantle (for protection).
 Mantle is a thin and fleshy structure which surrounds the body. It secretes a hard calcareous shell.
Animal retreats into this shell for protection.
 They have an open circulatory system. The body cavity (or coelomic cavity) is haemocoel and
reduced to pericardial cavity.
 Digestive tract is complete. Most molluscs have a rasping, tongue-like organ called radula for
feeding themselves.
 Excretion occurs through kidney-like organs.
 Many of them have gills called ctenidia for the exchange of gases. Mantle KEY POINT
and epidermis also play a role in respiration in some molluscs. The molluscs like Sepia,
Mobula mobular and
 Reproduction is sexual. Sexes are usually separate, though some animals Loligo have ink sacs.
are hermaphrodites. They squirt this ink to
confuse prey and
 Examples (Fig. 4.21) include Chaetopleura (chiton), Mobula modular predators.
(devil fish), Pila (apple snail), Unio (freshwater mussel), Sepia (cuttlefish),
Loligo squid) and Helix (land snail).
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Phylum Echinodermata
The term Echinodermata (Echinos: hedgehog and derma: skin) was coined by Jacob Klein (1734).
Following are the distinct features of the members of this phylum.
 They are exclusively marine animals.
 Body is unsegmented and may be star-shaped, cylindrical, cucumber-like or flower-like. They have
coelomic cavity.
 They are spiny-skinned and have an exoskeleton of calcareous plates from which the spines arise.
 They have radial symmetry in adults and bilateral in larvae.
 They are triploblastic and an organ system level of organisation is found.
 A unique feature of echinoderms is the presence of water vascular system. It is a complex system of
fluid containing canals which pass through the pores in the skeleton. On the outer side, short canals
protrude in the form of tubes and appear like feet. These tube feet are used for feeding, locomotion
and exchange of gases.
 Digestive system is complete. In most echinoderms, mouth is on the lower surface and the anus is
on the upper surface.
 They possess great power of regeneration.
 Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate.
 Examples (Fig. 4.22) include Asterias (starfish), Antedon (feather fish), Holothuria (sea cucumber),
Echinus (sea urchin) and Ophiura (brittle star).
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Phylum Chordata
The term Chordata was coined by Balfour (1880). The phylum Chordata is characterised by a rod-like,
flexible structure, running through the length of the body called notochord. It lies below the nerve cord
and provides support to the body. In higher chordates or vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the
vertebral column. In addition, all chordates exhibit the following characteristic features at some stages
of their life.
 A tubular, hollow, dorsal nerve cord which lies above the notochord
 A series of slit-like passages called pharyngeal clefts which connect pharynx to the exterior
 A post-anal tail (behind the anus)
 A proper blood circulation system
Classification of Chordata: Phylum Chordata is divided into two groups - Protochordata (lower
chordates) and Vertebrata (higher chordates).
Table 4.8: Difference between Non-chordates and Chordates

Non-chordates Chordates
Notochord is absent. Notochord is present at some stage of life.
Gill slits are absent. Gill slits are present.
Post-anal tail is not present. Post-anal tail is present.
Circulatory system is of open or closed type. Circulatory system is of closed type.
Heart, if present, is dorsal in position. Heart, if present, is ventral in position.
A. Protochordata
The distinguishing characteristics of the member of group Protochordata are given below.
 They are exclusively marine animals (Fig. 4.23).
 They are primitive chordates, also called non-vertebrates or invertebrate chordates.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and possess a coelom.
 They do not possess brain, cranium, vertebral column, jaws and paired appendages.
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 Notochord (chord - string) is present which is a long, rod-like supporting structure that runs along
the back of the animal separating the nervous system (or dorsal nerve tube) from the gut.
Protochordates may not have a proper notochord present at all stages of their life, or in the entire
length of their body. The notochord may be present in tail region of some animal, while in head
region and in one-half region of the body of other animal
 Muscles are attached to the notochord to provide ease in movement.
Protochordata is further divided into the following subphylums.
(i) Hemichordata: These are worm-like, unsegmented animals with some features of invertebrates and
chordates. They posses pharyngeal gill slits. Notochord is absent. A dorsal nerve cord which is
restricted to the collar region is similar to that of chordates. Their body is divided into three regions
- proboscis, collar and trunk. Examples include Balanoglossus (acorn worm or tongue worm) and
Cephalodiscus.
(ii) Urochordata: The body of urochordates is unsegmented and covered by a tough cellulose-like
substance called tunicin. Notochord is present in the tail region only in larval stage. Numerous
pharyngeal gill slits are present in an adult urochordate. Examples are Herdmania, Pyrosoma and
Doliolum.
(iii) Cephalochordata: They are transparent, fish-like creatures without brain and eyes. They have all the
characteristics of chordates. Notochord is in the form of a slender rod extending from one end to the
other. The nerve cord lies above it. Numerous gill slits are present in an elongated pharynx.
Amphioxus is the only living example.
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B. Vertebrata
The animals of group Vertebrata are advanced chordates or higher chordates. The distinguishing
features of the members of this group are as follows.
 The notochord is present at the embryonic stage which is replaced by the vertebral column in adults.
 They consist of internal skeleton. It allows space for muscle attachment to facilitate the movement
of body.
 They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic, segmented with complex differentiation of
body tissues and organs.
 Respiration takes place by gills in aquatic vertebrates. Land forms have lungs for respiration.
 They have a complex nervous system including brain enclosed in a cranium (brain box). This is the
reason they are also called craniates.
Classification of Vertebrata: The group Vertebrata is classified into two subphylums - Agnatha
(without jaws).
 Agnatha: This subphylum includes jawless vertebrates which possess suctorial mouth. Brain and
skeleton are poorly developed. Skeleton is cartilagenous and bones are absent. It has only one class -
Cyclostomata. They are jawless vertebrates. They possess an elongated eel — like body, circular
mouth, slimy skin and are scale - less. They are ectoparasites or borers of other vertebrates.
Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish) (Fig. 4.24).
 Gnathostomata: This subphylum includes jawed vertebrates. It is divided into two super classes -
Pisces and Tetrapoda (tetra: four, pods: foot). Pisces is further divided into two classes -
Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) and Osteichthyes (bony fish). Tetrapoda includes all vertebrates
other than fishes. Tetrapoda is further divided into classes Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.
Super Class Pisces

 This class comprises offish. They are aquatic vertebrates, both marine and freshwater.
 Their body is streamlined, covered with scales/plates, and divided externally into head, trunk
and tail.
 They lay eggs.
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 Endoskeleton is present which may be cartilaginous or bony, or both.

 Respiratory organs are gills which absorb dissolved oxygen from water.
 The muscular tail is used for movement.
 They are cold-blooded and their heart is two-chambered.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external.
 Super class pisces is further divided into two classes.
♦ Class Chondrichthyes: This class includes cartilaginous fishes. Their gills are exposed to the
outside and they do not have a swim bladder. Examples (Fig. 4.25) include Scoliodon (dogfish or
Indian shark), Trygon (Stingray) and Torpedo (Electric ray).
♦ Class Osteichthyes: It is the class of bony fishes. Their gills are covered with operculum and they
possess swim bladder. Examples (Fig. 4.25) include Labeo (rohu), Hippocampus (sea horse),
Exocoetus (flying fish), Anabas (climbing perch), Caulophrynejordani (anglerfish), Pterois volitans
(lion fish), Synchiropus splendidus (Mandarin fish).
Super Class Tetrapoda

Tetrapoda includes vertebrates that vary greatly in size and inhabit wide variety of terrestrial habitats.
Some of them have evolved to live in aquatic habitats. One of the characteristic features of tetrapods is
that most of them have four limbs. Tetrapods are further divided into four classes - Amphibia, Reptilia,
Aves and Mammalia.
Class Amphibia
 Class Amphibia (Amphi: double, bios: life) includes cold-blooded animals which can live both
in water and on land. There are no marine forms of amphibians.
 Skin is moist, smooth and contains mucus glands. It lacks scales, hair or feathers.
 Head and trunk are fused as neck is absent.
 Two pair of limbs are present for walking or swimming. Nails or claws are absent.
 Heart is three-chambered with two auricles and one ventricle.
 Respiration takes place through gills, lungs or
 All amphibians lay egg in water. Fertilisation is external.
Toppers Choice
 The larvae (tadpoles) undergo metamorphosis and change into adults.

 Examples (Fig. 4.26) include Rana tigrina (frog), Hyla (tree frog), Salamandra (salamander),
Bufo (toad), Rhacophorus (flying frog) and Amphiuma (Congo eel).
Table 4.9 Difference between Pisces and Amphibia
Pisces Amphibia
Body is covered with scales. Scales are absent.
Fins are present for locomotion. Fins occur in larvae. Adults have limbs for
locomotion.
Heart is two-chambered. Heart is three-chambered.
Gills are present for respiration. Gills or lungs are present for respiration.
Class Reptilia
 Reptilia includes terrestrial vertebrates. A few of them are aquatic and return to land for
breeding.
 These are cold-blooded (body temperature is highly variable) animals.
 Skin is dry and keratinised, covered with horny epidermal scales (lizards) and scutes (turtles).
Epidermal scales form the exoskeleton. Endoskeleton is made up of bones.
 They bear two pair of limbs each with five toes ending in horny claws.
 They have a three-chambered heart, except crocodiles which have four-chambered heart.
 Respiration occurs by lungs.
 Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs covered with hard shells. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do
not need to lay eggs in water. A few of them are viviparous.
Toppers Choice
 Examples (Fig. 4.27) include Chelonia mydas (turtle), Chamaeleonidae (chameleon), Naja
hannah (king Cobra), Bungarus (krait), Draco (flying lizard), Hemidactylus (house wall lizard),
Crocodylus (crocodile) and Testudo (tortoise).
Table 4.10 Difference between Amphibia and Reptilia
Amphibia Reptilia
Skin is smooth, moist and contain glands. Skin is dry and keratinised.
Scales are not present on the skin. Scales cover the skin.
Digits are clawless. Digits have claws.
Fertilisation is external. Fertilisation is internal.
Eggs have a soft covering. Eggs have a hard covering.
Class Aves
Class Aves includes all the birds.
 These are warm-blooded animals, i.e., their temperature does not depend on their surroundings.
 Body is spindle-shaped divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.
 Their skin is covered by feathers, the forelimbs are modified into wings and the hind limbs are
adapted for perching, walking, running or swimming.
 The endoskeleton is strong but light, and the hind limbs are hollow with air sacs to make the
flying easier.
 Birds do not have teeth or strong jaws, but they have hard beaks which suit to their different
feeding habits.
 Heart is four-chambered with two auricles and two ventricles.
 Respiration occurs through lungs.
Toppers Choice
 Examples (Fig. 4.28): Flightless birds include Struthio camelus (ostrich), Dromaius (emu) and
Apteryx (kiwi). Flying birds include Passer domesticus ( sparrow), Ciconia ciconia (white
stork), Ayihya fuligula (tufted duck - water bird; can swim, fly and walk), Corvus splendens
(house crow), Columba livia (pigeon) and Psittacula eupatria (Indian parrot).
Class Mammalia
 Mammals are terrestrial, aquatic vertebrates (whale, dolphins, seals and walruses), and a few
can even fly (bat).
 They are warm-blooded endothermic animals.
 Their skin is covered with hair, and contains sweat and oil glands.
 Their body is divided into head, neck and trunk, but in some cases, a small or long tail is also
present.
 Teeth lie in sockets of jaws. These generally grow twice in most mammals. The first set of teeth
is called milk teeth. On falling of milk teeth, permanent teeth grow in their places.
 They have a four-chambered heart.
 Respiration occurs through lungs.
 Two pairs of limbs (forelimbs and hindlimbs) are present. They are pentadactyl and variously
adapted for walking, running, climbing and swimming.
 Skeleton is made up of bones. Cartilage occurs at some places.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal.
 Most mammals give birth to fully developed young ones. However, some mammals like
platypus lay eggs, and some like kangaroos give birth to poorly developed young ones.
 They have mammary glands for the production of milk to feed their young ones.
 Class Mammalia is divided into three subclasses - Prototheria, Metatheria and Eutheria.
Toppers Choice
♦ Prototheria – They are egg-laying mammals. Young ones are fed on milk from mammary
glands. Examples include Platypus and Echidna.
♦ Metatheria – They give birth to premature babies which crawl into the marsupial pouch
(folded skin on female's abdomen). Examples include Macropus (kangaroo) and Didelphys
(American opossum).
♦ Eutheria – Female give birth to fully developed babies. Examples include Canis familiaris
(common dog), Felis domesticus (domestic cat), Balaenoptera indica (blue whale), Homo
sapiens (human), Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus rattus (rat), Elephas indicus
(Elephant) and Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit) (Fig. 4.29).
Table 4.11 Difference between Aves and Mammalia
Aves Mammalia
Body is covered with feathers and scales. Body is covered with hair.
Forelimbs are modified into wings. wings are not present (excepts in bats)
Mammary glands are absent. Mammary glands absent.
Bones possess air cavities. Air cavities are not present in bones.
Teeth are absent. Instead, a hard beak is present. Teeth are present.
These lay eggs. Mammals give birth to babies, except a few
species.
Toppers Choice
NCERT QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Why do we classify organisms?

Ans. There is an enormous variety of organisms present on the earth in terms of shape, size, colour
and other characteristics. These several variations make their individual study very hard.
Therefore, we look for similarities and dissimilarities among them, and classify them into major
groups and then in subgroups. Thus, by studying one member of a group, we come to know
about the basic characteristics of all members of that group. This makes the study of organisms
an easy task.
Q. 2. Give three examples of the range of variations that you see in life-forms around you.
Ans. Examples of range of variations observed in daily life are as follows.
(i) Organisms vary greatly in size from microscopic bacteria to giant elephants and large trees.
(ii) The colour of various organisms is different. Some are transparent like a few worms,
whereas some are brightly coloured like flowers and insects.
(iii) There is a great variation in lifespan of different organisms. For example, tiny organisms
like mosquitoes live for a few days, whereas blue whales and some trees live for several
years.
Q. 3. Which of the following do you think is a more basic characteristic for classifying organisms?
(a) The place where they live.
(b) The kind of cells they are made of. Why?
Ans. The more basic characteristic for classifying organisms is the kind of cells they are made of
because different organisms may share same habitat but may have entirely different form and
structure. So, the place where they live cannot be a basic characteristic of classification.
Q. 4. What is the primary characteristic on which the first division of organisms is made?
Ans. The primary characteristic on which the first division of organisms is made is the nature of the
cell - prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.
Q. 5. On what basis are plants and animals put into different categories?
Ans. Plants and animals are put into different categories mainly on the basis of mode of nutrition, i.e.,
autotrophs or heterotrophs. Plants are autotrophs, as they can make food on their own. Animals
are heterotrophs, as they are dependent on plants and other animals for food.
Q. 6. Which organisms are called primitive and how are they different from the so-called advanced
organisms?
Ans. A primitive organism has a simple body structure and ancient body design that has not changed
much over a period of time, e.g., unicellular prokaryotic bacteria. The so-called advanced
Toppers Choice
organisms have acquired a complex body structure and organisation over a period of time, e.g.,
multicellular, eukaryotic mammals.
Q. 7. Are advanced organisms the same as complex organisms? Why?
Ans. Yes, because once the advanced organisms also were like the primitive ones. They have
acquired their complexity relatively recently. These advanced or 'younger' organisms may
acquire more complex structures during evolutionary time. This is to compete and survive in the
changing conditions of the environment.
Q. 8. What is the criterion for classification of an organism as belonging to kingdom Monera or
kingdom Protista? Ans. The organisms belonging to kingdom Monera are unicellular and
prokaryotic, whereas the organisms belonging to kingdom Protista are unicellular and
eukaryotic.
Q. 9. In which kingdom will you place an organism which is single-celled, eukaryotic and
photosynthetic?
Ans. Kingdom Protista
Q. 10. In the hierarchy of classification, which grouping will have the smallest number of organisms
with a maximum of characteristics in common and which will have the largest number of
organisms?
Ans. In the hierarchy of classification, a species will have the smallest number of organisms with a
maximum of characteristics in common, whereas kingdom will have the largest number of
organisms.
Q. 11. Which division among plants has the simplest organisms?
Ans. Division Thallophyta
Q. 12. How are pteridophytes different from phanerogams?
Ans. Pteridophyta Phanerogams
They have less differentiated reproductive organs. They have well-developed reproductive organs.
They do not produce seeds. They produce seeds.
Examples: Equisetum and Marsilea Examples: Pinus and fir
Q. 13. How do gymnosperms and angiosperms differ from each other?

Ans. Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Seeds are naked. Seeds are enclosed in a fruit.
Sporophylls aggregate to form cones. Sporophylls aggregate to form flowers.
Xylem lacks vessels and phloem lacks Xylem contains vessels and phloem contains
companion cells. companion cells.
Toppers Choice
They are non-flowering plants. They are flowering plants.

Examples: Cedar and Cycas Examples: Mango and palm
Q. 14. How do poriferan animals differ from coelenterate animals?

Ans. Poriferans Coelenterates
Body organisation is of cellular level. Body organisation is of tissue level.
Body is covered with numerous pores to take in Body consists of only single opening that works
food and water. as mouth and anus.
They possess an exoskeleton called spicules. They do not have an exoskeleton.
Examples: Sycon and Spongilla Examples: Hydra and Actiniaria
Q. 15. How do annelid animals differ from arthropods?

Ans. Annelids Arthropods
They have unjoint appendages. They have joint appendages.
The have a closed circulatory system. They have an open circulatory system.
Exoskeleton is absent. A chitinous exoskeleton is present.
Locomotion occurs through setae. Locomotion occurs through legs and wings.
Q. 16. What are the differences between amphibians and reptiles?

Ans. Amphibians Reptiles
Skin is smooth, moist and contain glands. Skin is dry and keratinised.
Scales are not present on the skin. Scales cover the skin.
Digits are clawless. Digits have claws.
Fertilisation is external. Fertilisation is internal.
Examples: Frogs, toads and salamanders Examples: Lizards, snakes, turtles and chameleons
Q. 17. How do animals belonging to the Aves differ from mammals?

Ans. Aves Mammals
Body is covered with feathers and scales. Body is covered with hair.
Mammary glands are absent. Mammary glands are present.
Teeth are absent. Instead, a hard beak is present. Teeth are presnt.
These lay eggs. Mammals give birth to babies except a few
species.
Toppers Choice
Chapter-End Questions
Q. 1. What are the advantages of classifying organisms?
Ans. The advantages of classifying organisms are as follows.
 It makes the study of different kinds of organisms much easier.
 It tells us about the inter-relationship among the various organisms.
 It helps us understand the evolution of organisms.
 It helps in the development of other branches of biology.
 It helps environmentalists to develop new methods of conservation of plants and animals.
Q. 2. How would you choose between two characteristics for developing a hierarchy of classification?
Ans. We should choose characteristics that display more fundamental differences between the
organisms for developing a hierarchy. This would create the main broad groups of organisms.
The characteristics for the next higher level should be dependent on the previous one. This is the
main basis of classification in hierarchial order.
Q. 3. Explain the basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms.
Ans. The basis for grouping organisms into five kingdoms is as follows.
 Nature and complexity of cell structure: There are two broad categories of cell structure based
on complexity - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. The presence or absence of cell wall is another
important characteristic for classification.
 Unicellular or multicellular organisms: Presence of single cell or many cells makes a very
basic distinction in the body designs of organisms and helps in their categorisations as
unicellular organisms (single cell) and multicellular organisms (many cells).
 Complexity of body organisation: Body organisation of advanced forms is more complex than
the primitive forms.
 Mode and source of nutrition: Based on mode of nutrition, living organisms can be grouped as
- autotrophic, who can manufacture their own food, and heterotrophic, who obtain their food
from other organisms.
Q. 4. What are the major divisions in the kingdom Plantae? What is the basis for these divisions?
Ans. The major divisions in kingdom Plantae are as following.
(i) Thallophyta (ii) Bryophyta (iii) Pteridophyta (iv) Gymnosperms (v) Angiosperms The
following points constitute the basis for these divisions.
 The plant body has well-differentiated, distinct components. This feature separates algae from
rest of the organisms, in having simple and less differentiated thalloid plant body.
Toppers Choice
 The differentiated plant body has special vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) for the transport
of water and other substances. The absence of this feature separates bryophyta from the rest of
the higher level plants.
 The ability to bear seeds. The next higher level Pteridophyta does not bear seeds.
 The seeds are naked or enclosed within fruits. The gymnosperms have naked seeds, whereas
angiosperms have seeds enclosed within fruits.
Q. 5. How are the criteria for deciding divisions in plants different from the criteria for deciding the
subgroups among animals?
Ans. The basic body design of plants is very different from animals. Plants are stationary, so they
need organs for anchoring them to the soil and absorption of water. They are autotrophic and do
not need food from outside. The higher plants have mechanical tissues for support, vascular
tissues for conduction, and reproductive organs.
Animals are mobile to obtain food and fulfill other requirements. They are heterotrophic. They
are evolved towards presence of skeleton to protect body organs, caring of their young ones, etc.
Therefore, criteria for deciding divisions or subgroups in plants and animals cannot be similar.
Q. 6. Explain how animals in Vertebrata are classified into further subgroups.
Ans. Animals in vertebrata are classified on the basis of following characteristics.
 Type of exoskeleton or endoskeleton
 Kind of respiratory organs
 Method of reproduction and giving birth to young ones On the basis of these characteristics,
Vertebrata are further classified as:
(a) Class Pisces: Exoskeleton is formed of dermal scales, breathing organs are gills.
(b) Class Amphibia: Skin is moist and slimy, breathing occurs through gills, lungs or skin.
They lay eggs in water.
(c) Class Reptilia: Exoskeleton of scales, lay eggs outside the water.
(d) Class Aves: Skin is covered with feathers, can fly, lay eggs, breathe through lungs.
(e) Class Mammalia: Skin is covered with hair, respiratory organs are lungs and they give
birth to young ones.

CH 4 (Diversity

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CH 4 (Diversity

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Toppers Choice

Check Your Understanding

WHAT IS THE BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION?

A characteristic is a particular form or particular function used for

CLASSIFICATION AND EVOLUTION

Check Your Understanding

Check Your Understanding

THE HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION - GROUPS

Table 4.1: Examples of Taxonomic Categories

Man (Homo sapiens) Coconus (Cocos nucifera)

Let’s discuss the characteristics of these kingdoms in detail.

include Physarum, Fuligo and Tubifera.

Trypanosoma, Paramecium and Plasmodium (malarial parasite).

 Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.

Table 4.2 Difference between Algae and Fungi

 They may be herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers or creepers.

 Seeds enclose embryo which consists of structures known as cotyledons.

Table 4.3 Difference between Monocots and Dicots

Table 4.4 Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Classification of kingdom Plantae

Check Your Understanding

Basis of Classification of Kingdom Animalia

Classification of Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

Table 4.5 Difference between Porifera and Coelenterata

Table 4.6 Difference between Platyhelminthes and Nematoda

Table 4.7 Difference between Annelids and Arthropods

Exoskeleton is absent. A chitinous exoskeleton is present.

Table 4.8: Difference between Non-chordates and Chordates

Super Class Pisces

 Endoskeleton is present which may be cartilaginous or bony, or both.

Super Class Tetrapoda

 The larvae (tadpoles) undergo metamorphosis and change into adults.

Table 4.9 Difference between Pisces and Amphibia

Table 4.10 Difference between Amphibia and Reptilia

Table 4.11 Difference between Aves and Mammalia

Q. 1. Why do we classify organisms?

Q. 13. How do gymnosperms and angiosperms differ from each other?

They are non-flowering plants. They are flowering plants.

Q. 14. How do poriferan animals differ from coelenterate animals?

Q. 15. How do annelid animals differ from arthropods?

Q. 16. What are the differences between amphibians and reptiles?

Q. 17. How do animals belonging to the Aves differ from mammals?

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