THE POLITICAL IDEAS

O F THE GREEKS
WI T H S PE C I AL R E FE RE NC E TO E ARL Y
NO TI O NS ABO UT LA W . A U T H O RI TY , A ND
NAT URAL OR D E R I N RE L ATI O N TO
H U MA N O R D I NANC E

By
JOH N L . MY RE S
MA .
.H on D Sc ; F ellow of New C olleg e. Oxford
. . .

W yk eh a m P rofeuor of Ancient H i story ; Fellow of th e British Acad emy

and Vice-Pres ident of th e S ociety of Anfiqu afiu of In ndon

T H E A BI NG D O N P R E S S
NEW YO RK CI NC INNA TI
R e pr in te d fr o m a c o p y i n the c o ll ec t io n o f
t h e U n iv er si t y o f F lo r ida L ibr ari es
R ep ri n t e d fr o m t he e di t io n o f 1 9 2 7 , N ew Y o rk
F ir st A MS E D IT I O N publi she d 1 9 7 1
Ma nufactur e d i n t he U n i te d S tat es o f A m eri ca

I n t er n at i o n a l S t an da r d B o o k Num b er : 0-4 0 4-04 5 4 9 -9

L i brar y o f C o n gr ess Num b er : 7 1 - 1 37 2 7 8

A MS PR E S S I NC .

NE W Y O R K, N Y 1 0 0 0 3
. .
 n ot

PR E F A C E

L E C TUR E I . GR E E K PO LI TI C AL E X P ERI E N CE

L E CTUR E II . T II E NO TI O N o r S O C I E TY : TH E
P om s ; I TS AN T E C E D E N T S AN D
C I R C U MS TA N C E S

L EC TU R E III . TH E NO TI O NS OF O R D I N A NC E
( TH E MI S ) AND I N I TIA TI VE

L E CTUR E IV . TH E NO TI O N OF JU S TI C E (B I K E) . 167

L E CT U R E V . TH E NO T I O N O F L A W I N SO C I E TY
A N D I N NA TUR E : N0 1110 8 A ND

LE C TUR E VI . TH E NO TI O N OF FR E E DO M
(E L E U TH E RI A ) : TH E MA N A ND
TH E C I TI Z E N
 FOREWORD
TH E ques t of the p ublisher th at I write a
re

for ewor d to this book i s a com plim ent which

I little des erve D oc tor Myr es requires no
.

introduction to any p ublic fami l iar with c ur

r ent s tudies in history a nd arch aeology .

Though not a pr olific a uthor when he writes

,

he h as m uch to say tha t deserves the a ttentio n

of s ch ola r s .

Thes e lec tures dea l with the p olitica l idea s

of the Gr ee k s The rea der will not find in
.

them a description of their p olitica l institu

tions which ha ve for us a deep interest as th e
,

fir s t to emb ody the idea l s of liberty under law

tha t dom i na te our m odern world B ooks of
.

tha t cha racter exis t a nd exercis e a legitim a te

ap p eal i b ut they ar e a t bes t uns a ti sfac tory a nd

m ay pr ove m islea ding beca use they pres ent

,

of n ec ess ity a pictur e far from com p lete . An

c ient G reec e h as been well ca lled a la b or atory

for the crea tion a nd tes ti ng of p olitica l ins ti

tutions ; b ut of the m a ny cons titutions d evis ed
a nd tried thos e of A thens a l one a re s ufficiently

k no wn in deta il to p erm it one to ass ess their

worth .

The world is inclined to value ins titutions

5
 PO LITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS

too highly perhap s becaus e of their solidity

,

a nd app ar ent perm a n ence They ha ve been

.

lik ened to the bones of the socia l orga nism ,

the solid fram e th a t pers is ts in the ceaseless

m eta b olic p r oc es s ; b ut ins titutions are them
s elves subjec t to i n evita ble ch a nges of aec om

m oda tion no les s effectua l becaus e gra dua l a nd

concealed by a b ra ve outwa r d sh ow When
.

they prove to be perdurable it is bec aus e the

s pir it a nd idea ls which a n im ate them are re

newed fr om ag e to ag e .

Behind every institution s tan ds hum a n char

acter the ch ar a cter of a n i ndividua l of a rac e
, , ,

of a n ag e ; a nd ch ar acter is m olded by ideas ,

perhaps the least destructible of all things

k nown to m a n Once conceived a nd tak en to
.

the hear t a n idea appears to be inera dicable b ut

,

it j oins with others a nd in this uni on begets idea ls

of cond uc t by whi ch m a n j udges his fell ows ,

even if he d oes no t him self conform to them .

It is in ideas ther efore tha t s ociety is rooted

, , .

Nowhere else do our s our ces permi t us to

penetra te s o deeply into the governi ng s ocia l
idea s a s in a ncient Gr eece where they m ay be
,

ob s er ved in the p roc es s of defini n nd group

g a

ing them s elves in to thos e elem ental for m s

which even to day constitute as it were the
-
, ,

m a terials whereof political ins titutions are

builded The structures erected with them
.

6
ha ve undergone m a ny a ch ange h ave, indeed
, ,

been a t tim es qui te dem olished ; b ut the con

s tituent ideas pers ist a nd enter into ever
new com binations I n them wha tever revo
.
,

lutions m ay com e we ha ve the s tr onges t g uar

,

a uty of a l ife of fr eed om under law I n study

.

ing these elem ents of the social conscious ness

we r ecogni ze a t once our k i nshi p with our
fell ows wh o live under different institutions
a nd our debt to thos e a nc ient G r eek s wh o

crea ted once for all th e form ative idea l s without

which life would s eem to us little worth living .

F or the s eri ous s tudent of orga n ized society

the sk etch of the evolution of thes e ideals here
given by D octor Myres will have an uncomm on
i nter es t It is not for m e to p ass j udgm ent
.

on the m erits of thes e lectures b ut I am con

fident th at others will apprecia te as I do the

, ,

sc ientific spirit a nd the penetra ti ng i ns ight of

the em inent s cholar wh o p resents in th is vol

um e a lab or of love .

W A HE IDE L
. . .
GE OR GE S LO C UM BE NNE TT FO UND ATION

LE C TUR E S
For the Prom otion of a Better Understanding of
National Problem s and of a More Perfect
Re alization of the Re sponsibilities

F i rst S eri es —1 9 1 8 4 9 1 9 S TEPS I N TII E D E VE L

.

0 PME N I or AME RI C A N D E MO CRAC Y

' ‘
By Andrew .

S econd S eries—1 9 1 9 -1 920 . THE UNI TE D S TA TE S

Third S eries —1 9204 92 1 VA LI DI TY TH E OF

AME RI CAN ID E AL S . By Shailer Mathews .

F ourth S er ies—1 9 21 -1 92 2 . TE E IDE AL S or

FR AN C E . By C harles C estre .

F ifth S eries—1922 4 923 TH E P O LI TI C AL AW AK

.

E NI N G or TH E E A S T By G eo rge Matthew D utcher

. .

S i xth S eri es—1 9 234 924 T H E R E C E NT F O RE I G N

.

PO LI C Y O F TH E UNI TE D S TA TE S By George H . .

Blakeslee .

S eventh S eri es —1 9244 925 . E CO NO MI C LIB E R AL

ISM . By Jacob H H ollan der . .

E i ghth S eri es — 1 9 2 5 4 92 6 T H E P O LI TI CAL I DE AS

.

OF TH E G RE E K S By John L Myres
. . .

8
 PREFACE
TH E fir st duty of a lectur er on the George
Sloc um Benn ett Founda tion is to express h is
gra titude to the Tm 8 tees for the Op por tunity of
su b m itting som e por tion of h is work for the
frien dly cons ideration of c olleagues a n d s tuden ts
in the Wes leyan U ni vers ity ; for the welco m e
a n d m em ora ble experienc e of a n a ll too brief - -

soj ourn a m on g them a n d confer enc e w ith them

,

on m a tters of c om m on concern in the h appy

”

s urroun di n gs of their life a t Middleto wn ; and

for un derta king the publica tion of this volum e

through The Abingdon Pr ess .

—
H is n ext duty a nd it is a peculi ar pleas ur e
is to ac knowledge the unfailing help a nd wis e
c ouns el of one who s e o wn wor k h as co ver ed

m uch of the ground of thes e lec tur es and whos e ,

wr itings ha ve sugges ted the trea tm ent here

a ttem pted of s om e of the chief ques tion s here

T o h a ve Pr ofes sor H eidel s en

’
discuss ed .

cour a g em ent in u n der tak ing this c ours e an d h is

,

persona l ass is tanc e in r evising the dra fts co m ,

p leting the litera ry referenc es a nd corr ecting

,

the proofs h a s been a goo d fortun e which h is

,

r ea ders c an a pp r ec ia te b ut on ly h is frien ds W ill

,

r ea liz e in its ab un dant hum ani ty .

And then there is the p roper bus iness of a

,

9
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GREE KS
f e to explain the s ubjec t of th e lectur es
p re ac , ,

a nd the tr ea tm ent of it which h a s been a t

tem pted T o . the a ncien t G r eeks — a s to the

“ ” —
Chos en People of Isra el the m odern world
owes so m e of its m os t vita l ideas in politics ,

and in m ora ls T o thos e wh o are m a k ing m ost

.

use of th es e grea t heritages the ques tion h ow , ,

they ac quired them m ay well seem less im por

,

tan t tha n the use to which we a re putting them .

B ut if we are to m a k e in telligent and s y m pa

thetic us e of other people s idea s it is a t a ll’
,

events us eful a nd indeed on lyfa ir to p ut our

, ,

s elves in their plac e a nd a ppr ec ia te wha t they

,

were trying to do an d h o w their experienc e led

,

them to a theory of life a s well a s to the lives

they ac tua lly led Now bo th the Hebrews a nd
.
,

the Greeks h ad this exc eption al fa te th a t while , ,

they a rrived a t fresh and s ign ifica nt results in

th eir prac tica l dealings with their s urro undings ,

eac h people cr ea ted a litera tur e in which thei r

experienc es are r ec or ded a n d their a spira tio ns
expr es sed with exceptiona l fra nkn ess a nd clarity .

Their grea ter m en s eem to have rea lized tha t

wh at they were doin g w as a lso worth rec ording ,

a nd th a t their thoughts wer e wor th di sc uss ing ;

th at their history a nd their philosophy a lik e

were of m ore than pass ing s ignifica nce and , ,

in deed m ark ed a fres h s tage in the a dvance

,

m en t of k nowledge .

10
 PREFA CE
But these experiences were in the first ins ta nce
s pecia l ; they oc curr ed in a per io d of his tory ,

a nd a m ong geogr aph ic a l s urroundings whi c h ,

defin ed the t as k a nd li m ited fr eedom of c hoic e

a nd ac ti on . I n p a rtic ul a r their tim es and
,

their c ircum s t anc es alik e wer e exc eption ally

diffic ult ob sc ure unprec edented If n ec ess ity
, , .

be the m other of invention b oth Hebr ew a nd,

G r eek owed their r ar e origin ality to unusually

ins istent n eed .

It is only rec ently that fr es h s ourc es O f

inf orm ation docum en t ary a nd arc haeo logic al
, ,

have m ade it eas ier t o un derst and h ow Greek

s oc iety c a m e to be c ons tit uted as it was a nd ,

c ons eq uently what wer e the spec i a l experienc es ,

politic al and s oc ial out of whic h Gr eek insti

,

tutions a nd the G r eek view of life em erged ; a nd

to trac e thes e invention s a nd disc overies b ac k
“ ”
into the D ark Age which prec edes Greek
c ivilis ation far enough t o throw s om e light on
,

their sources Funda m en tal Greek discoveries

.

of thi s k i n d a r e the n oti ons of a N atur a l O r der

a m ong the events of n atur e a nd the d oi ngs a nd

experiences O f m an c ap able of being for m ulated

, ,

through ac curate O bs ervation a nd exac t reas on

ing a s a guide for c onduct ; of Author ity as th e
, ,

personal ini tiative of gifted individuals ac cepted ,

as ben efici al by thei r fell ows ; of Justic e b as ed ,

on reasonable i nterpr et a tion of C ust om as th e ,

11
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
e
s cur ity i t m i sus es of suc h ini ti ative ; of
ag a ns

L aw as an agr eed desc r iption of norm al c onduc t

,

a m ong r eas on able a nd hum a n e people ; a n d of

Freedom as the fruit of s elf m astery in the

,
-
,

citiz en in dividua lly a nd in s oc iety at l arge .

E ac h of thes e c onc eptions h as h a d abiding a nd

fruitful infiuenc e a nd m ost of a ll on our m odern
,

world on b oth s ides of the Atlantic Their .

value far fr om being exhausted is in deed only

, ,

grad ua lly being r evea led We are ours elves

.

exploring m any dark plac es in hum an exp eri

enc e wher e Greek thi nk ers and m en of ac tion
,

ha ve been befor e us and ha ve r ec orded what

,

they found a nd h o w they fa r ed .

T o desc ribe the m ain featur es of Gr eek exp eri

enc e in thes e m atters it h as not been n ecess ar y
t o em pl oy m or e tha n a very few Gr eek wor ds ,

whic h ha ve n o ex ac t E nglis h equivalent bec aus e

our own for ef a thers h a d n ot quite the s a m e

ques tions to disc us s A n d thes e n ec es s ary term s

.

have been c areq y (perhaps over fully ) ex -

pla in ed B ut to fac ilit ate r efer enc e to the

.

pr inc ipa l litera ry text s an d t o enable thos e

,

wh o r ea d Gr eek for them s elves t o verify the

quot ations tra ns l ated in the t ext the m ore ,

im port ant phras es a re pr in ted in the origin al

Gr eek by way of c om m enta ry It shoul d h ow
, .
,

ever be quite easy t o foll ow the argum ent

,

without them ; and in thi s r es pect as in their ,

12
general pl an a nd dic tion the lectur es have
,

l as t two lectur es has however been s hifted for

, , ,

13
 LE CTUR E I
GR EEK POLITICAL EXPERIE NC E : I TS
MEANING AND VALU E
MA N is
lways trying to live well If he
a .

fa ils to do
s o under a ny given conditi ons it is ,

essentially for one of two r ea son s Either ex .

ternal na tur e is so hard a nd wil d tha t the

p ossibility of living well and fully i s cra m ped ,

s o th a t m an either fa des out or becom es liter

a lly b ruta lized a nd lives o n s uffera nc e p re ,

carious ly or —, and this i s com m oner— under the

given conditions two wa ys O f life a re open to
him either toward a fuller a nd l arg er or to
, ,

ward a m ean er a nd na rrower exi stenc e ; up

wa rd (as we s ay) or d ownward ; a nd he does
not ch oo se to g o up If he does choose the
.

fuller and larger a nd usua lly a l so the m ore

,

ar duous way he i s i n a fa i r way to r ea li s e tha t

,

s upr em e end — living well a good life , .

N ow it m ay be th at in m a n perh ap s even
, ,

in all things a t b ottom ther e is som e ultim a te

,

will to do discernible a m ong the r ea s ons as we

- -
,

ca ll them why wha t is d on e is don e j ust so

, .

B ut if we are to discern s uch will to do we - -

,

m us t be com petent to sep arate th ose other rea

sons a nd estim a te the force a nd c ogency of

15
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
each A nd until we h a ve done tha t such
. ,

initia tive even in m a n m ay well elude us

, , ,

and we are left with little m or e th a n a p r im ary

di stinction between two group s of r easons why

things happen a s they do ; between all th ose
re asons which are externa l a nd m ak e up th a t

which is Not U s a nd those whi ch are in fact

-
, , ,
“ ”
ou r own m ak e up our W ill to D o
-
,
- -
.

B oth group s ha ve ch anged historically in

tim e a nd within hum a n m em ory j ust a s b oth ,

group s vary locally a s we ob s er ve them in

“
sp a ce This sequence of cha nges in the m ak e
.

”
up in this or th a t group of m en we call hi s or
“ ”
their pas t ; a nd the expressions of such
“ ”
m ak e up -
in this or th a t group O f m en liv
, ,

ing in these or th os e surr ounding s we ca ll ,

“ ”
their culture ; tha t is to s ay the way they ,

look after them s elves a nd on e another a nd the ,

way they l ook at tha t which is not them s elves .

“ ”
F or cultur e is n ot a sta te or a con dition
only b ut a p r oc ess ; a s in agri culture or horticul
,

ture we m ean not the con dition of the l an d b ut

the wh ole roun d of the farm er s year a nd a ll ’

,
”
tha t he does in it ; culture then is wha t , ,
’
rem ai ns of m en s p a st work i ng on their p r es
,

ent to sh ape their future

, .

TH E
LE G A C Y O F T H E PA S T
Now, the com m on es t r eason why m an fail s
16
 GRE EK POLITI CAL E XPER IE NC E
of the hoice
c to g o up , to win
th rough his
“ ”
difi culties is the quality of hi s p as t
, With .

out k n owing som ething of thi s it is n ot ea s y t o

form any estim ate a t all of the va lue of a ny

hum an achievem ent except up on som e such ,
“
hypothes is or a b straction as the econom i c
”
m an of certa in writers of the nin eteenth cen
tury O n the other han d if we do k now som e
.
,

thing of the p a st of a ny m an or g roup of m en ,

we ha ve not only som e indica tion of the m ea n

ing of their pr es ent con duct b ut som e m eas ur e
of g uid a nce as t o wh a t to expec t of them .

A nd this is n o les s true of ours elves S om e .

tim es l ook ing b ac k into our own n earer p ast

, ,

we r ea lis e h ow l arge a p art in deter m ining our

con duct then h as been pla yed by all th a t
i

“ ”
p ast of our s whi ch lay fur ther b ack s till .

More rarely and with cl oser s elf knowledge

,
-
,
“
we m ay ta k e tim e by the foreloc as the

saying goes an d m ak e our own acts of ch oice

,

with a certain m eas ur e of for ekn owledge h ow ,

they will work out in even ts and h ow they

“
will affect and m odify our own m ak e up - .

T o form opini ons of thi s ki n d presum es

’ “
to k now m en s m ak e-up as we know their

-
or else such experience of ac tual situati ons
I7
 POLITI CAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
as m aytra in any na tura l a bili ty of the fir s t
“ ”
ki n d which m ay be in our own m ak e up -

a nd thi s being the com m on er ch a n ce of the

,

tw o the need i s m or e gen era l for wha t in a ca

,
“ ” “
dem ic phra s e we ca ll history a nd geog
”
r aphy in our norm a l s chem e of s uch tr aining
n ot ins ul a ted con tem pl a ti on either of even ts

a b s tr acted fr om their s itua ti ons or of s itua

,

tions void of events ( as so m e of us rem em ber

it) b ut inter dependent studies of historical
,

geogr aphy a nd n o less of geogr aphica l his tory

, , .

This w a s n eedful en ough when the cultur e

“ ”
whi ch we c all E uropea n w a s still confined to
tha t continen t a nd m a inl y to the wester n half
,

of it ; a nd it w a s the m er it O f m en s o differ en tly

cons tituted as B odin Ma chia velli R aleigh and

, , ,

Hobbes tha t they r ea lis ed tha t n eed a nd tried

to m ee t it It is n o less valuable now when
.
,

tha t cultur e h as c ea sed to be either g eogr ap h i

“ ”
cally or s oci a lly or p olitica lly Europea n and
is a cclim ati sing itself to dista nt r egi ons a nd
alien s u rr oundings i n the tr a ns atl a ntic New
,

World of North Am erica ; I n the tra ns equa

tor ial w orld of antip odean contin ents an
'

Aus tr ali an C om m onwealth a South Africa n ,

U ni on a Latin S outh Am eri ca ; and in the

,

tra nsp acific Old World of Jap a n China and , ,

Ma laya Form ed in the narr ow cradle of the

.

least of the continents between the Mediter ,

18
 GREEK POLIT I CAL EXPERIE NCE
ra nean the B al tic lak e r egions secl uded
a nd -
,

l ong from the g rea ter a nd older Ea st by rivals

a nd a liens S a rac en Ottom a n Muscovite frus
, , , ,

tra ted of its crus adi ng h ope by the sp asm s of

its own gr owi ng p ains a nd of the fruits of ,

Vik ing pion eer work by the prem atur e union

,
“
of the thr ee crowns it experienced the dis
,

cip line of the Rena is sa nce a nd the Reform a

tion befor e its tem per a nd character

,

m a tur ed and the gr ea t occas ions cam e .

TH E GIF TS To MA NK IN D OF H E BR E W
A N D GR E E K

On either side of th e crad le of that ci vilisa

tion of whi ch we are the trustees sta nd two
, ,

ar n s—
gu dia angel o r shall we say fa iry— g od
m other s — the geni us of the Gr eek a nd of the
Hebr ew Eac h of these h as brought us its
.

own gift ; a nd th e gift of each i s if not a s olu ,

tion of life s riddle a t a ll events the las t wor d

’

of exper ien c e a nd ins ight from a whole cycle

of hum a n ac hievem ent .

Hebr ew philos ophy— a nd by philosophy I

m ea n th a t b ody of beliefs pr inciples con , ,

clus ions (for i n differ ent as pects they are all of

“
thes e) which a re the Wisdom the View of ,

life of a people as of a person— is a subtly

”
, , ,

c om p oun ded ess enc e of the Wis d om of the

“

Anc ient E as t of that group of regions within

,

19
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
which Egypt and Mesop ota mi a are the m ost
s ignifican t i n their m a teri al accom pli shm en ts ,

a nd s ucces s ive Sem i ti c s peak i ng overfl ows of

-

the p op ul ation of p as toral Ar abia s eem to

ha ve been the p ri m um mobile in thought as in
action .

—
Greek phil osophy in the s am e br oad s ens e
— “
of th e G r ee k tl
ou oo k o n the w or ld a n exact
’ ”
s teer sm an sh ip for ch a rti ng m a n s life as ,

Her aclitus phil osophy is described to us is in

’ 1 —

the sam e way the Wis dom of the Mediter

r anean r egi on ,or r ather
, of th os e Mediter
,

ranea n coas tl an d s whi ch h arboured a nd ,

perm itted to fl ouri sh Greek city s ta tes a nd

,
-
,

those other s ocieties of ki ndred origin whose

, ,

m aturity was d om in ated m or e or less con

s ciously by G r eek ideas an d custom s We
.

sh all see l a ter h ow even so ch arac teri s ti cally

Italian a n a chi evem ent as the Rom an system

of la w o wes its vitality a nd organic coherence

to its accepta nce of Greek pri nciples of juris

prudence .

AN A L Y S I S RI V E R VA LL E Y CU L TU R E S or
O F TH E

TH E A N CI E NT E AS T

I hope I need not do m ore th an ch arac teri se

briefly the corr el ati on between th e greater
phas es through wh ich the m ain current of
hum an culture h as p as s ed and the well marked
20
 GR EEK POLI TI CAL E XPERIE NCE
geographi cal reg ions withi n which each suc
ces siv e ph as e h as origi na ted a nd devel oped ,

nor the int im a te inter depen dence of each with

its geogr aphi cal surr oun dings .

I n the Rip ar ian (Ri ver Valley) cultur es of

the Ancient E ast we h a ve for the fir st tim e as
m ain phys ical condi tions a per enn i al wa ter
s upply tr a ver s ing a ll uvi al a nd ther efor e irr i

gable l an d under s ubtropical clim ate on a

, ,

s ufficien t s ca le (though n ec essarily ill shaped-

for intim a te co oper ati on of ea ch with all) to

-

permi t the m aintena nce of a considerable p op

ulation Over an d a b ove the actua l cultiva tor s
, ,

a va il able to supply their non ag ri cultur a l n eed s

-
,

a nd to do o ther thi ngs a s well Fo od supply

‘

.
,

thu s a dequa tely a s sur ed per m itted leisu

, r e a nd

r eflecti on , as well a s in d us tr ies a nd art s in ,

cluding the s up r em e ar t of m a nn er s
— s o in de

finab le an d yet so fund a m ental a b ond in a ny

,

C orresp on ding as m a in achievem ent to

, ,

thes e m a in physical con dition s we have ,

( 1 ) hi ghl y orga nised p r oducti on a nd peripher al

excha nge of comm odities with n eighbour ing re
gions ; (2 ) organis ed defen ce aga ins t ext ern al
r aider s
, com p ara tively ea sy in Egypt wher e
,

the des ert guard s both sides of the val ley a nd

m an h as only to guar d the t wo ends ; m uch 2

m ore difficul t in B abyl oni a th ough the hom e

,

21
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
ar ae is in itself m ore com p act ; organ is ed
defenc e al so aga inst intern a l r aider s the ,

l ocal p rofiteer s whether pri ncelets or priestly

,

c orp or a tion s ; the s uppress ion of Nile side -

“ ”
b ar on s by the wear er of the d ouble cr o wn -

ha ving its counterp art i n the eventual su

“ ”
p r em a cy o f a Dy n a s ty of B a byl on over the
other cities ; (3 ) org ani s ed m eans for the com

m unicati on a n d perpetua tion of ideas a nd

exper ience ; of p recedent a nd O b s er va tion ; or
g a nised r ecord O f s equen ces in tim e on ea rth
,

or a b o ve it ; org a n i s ed a pp or tio nm ent of sp a ce ,

tim e pr oduce energy a nd other va luables by

, , ,

s ta n da rd s a nd s y s tem s of m ea s ur es.

We a re accustom ed to a ttr ib ute thes e great

“ ”
a dva nces i n the a rt of living well to the
Rip aria n civilis a tion s without qua lifica tion ;
with out a ski ng ours elves wh a t rea lly is a n
,
“
obvi ous question , If the River Va lleys h ad
been lik e that as l ong a s s eem s pr ob able g eo
logically h ow wa s it tha t their gr ea t civ ili sa
,
”
tions only bega n s o la te a nd s o suddenly ? F or
the la st few yea rs work i n B a byl oni a h as
’

m a de certa in this fact of com p a ra tively r ecent

d a te a nd a brupt beginni ng ; a n d even in Egypt ,

wher e the dis co very of the p r edyn a s tic culture .

a gener a tion ag o s eem ed t o th ro w b ack the

beginni ng a lm ost indefinitely l a ter discovery

,

h as gone far to re estab lish the contra s t be

-

22
 GREEK POLITICAL EXPERIENCE
tween this a nd the cultur e of the U ni ted King
dom of Va lley a nd Delta a nd to fix a n initia l ,

d ate — and even a prob able ca use— for the

dyna stic r egi m e of which Egyptia n history is
,

the r ecor d .

F or expl anation we s eem to be thr own b ack ,

first up on the cir cum sta n ce that b oth l ower

,

Nile a nd lower Euphr ates b or der a t their ,

m ost accessible p oints on the sa m e s trongly

,

c ontra sted r eg ion the n orther n l obe of the

,

Arabia n pla teau w ith its s un dried hear t, a nd

,
-

its gra ss la nd fr i nge between the des ert a nd

”
the s own passing ra ther a b ruptly into pa rk
l a nd a s it appr oa ches its Pa lestinia n fronta ge
towar d the Leva nt a nd the foothill fr ontage of
,

the Ar m eni a n highl a n ds fur ther n ortheast ; a nd

s econdly , up on the r ecurr ent outb r eak s of
n om a d p a s tor a l people from withi n thi s gra ss

la nd of whi ch a t least four are r ecorded h is

,

torica lly : the S a ra cen exod us in the s eventh

c en tu ry A .D ; the A ra m a
. e a n i n the s ec ond

m illenni um B C (fro m ab out 1 3 00 to

. .

the C a naa nite l ate i n the thir d m illenn ium ;

,

a nd the Semi tic oc cup a ti on of n orther n B a by

l oni a con sider ably ea rlier still The process by .

whi ch soc ieties origina ting in the p a stora l econ

om y of a gra s s l a n d ad apted and tr a ns form ed

them selves a fter such tra nsfusion into the

, ,

op ul u a r i ult ur a l va lley s ta tes is stil l oh

-
p o s g c

23
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
scur e; a nd o till would be the anal
b scur er s

og ous process of acclim a tisa tion of s im ilar

intruders a ll a long the p ark lan d frontag e from ,
“
the upper Tig r is to the good la nd beyond
”
Jor da n if we h a d n ot by good for tune the
,

a utobi og raphy of one gr oup of them .

TH E O CR A TI C S O CI E T I E S
These grea t discover ies once m ade in the
Rip aria n c ultur es a nd propa ga ted lik e the ,

pr oduce O f cul tiva tion a nd in dus try around ,

their va lley cra dles We find m ainta ined a nd

-
,

defended by p olitical orga nisa tions of uni

”
form ly theocra tic type Sublunar y exp e
.

rien ce of the Will to Power on whi ch the

- -

whole of thes e ess entia lly a rtificia l fabrics of

s ociety r e sted pr o vided a work ing hyp othesis

for the interp r eta tion of wh a t was s till out

’
s ide m a n s phy s i ca l con tr ol
— the m ovem ents of
s ta rs s ea s ons in r egu
, , lar r outine a nd the p a r ,

oxysm s of B a byl oni a n wea ther wor st enem y

,

of the cultiva tor except a n in vasion or a b ad

“
k ing , win d a nd st orm fulfilling Hi s W or
lik e the taxga therer or the Bed oui n Manners .

a nd m or a l s s im il a r ly are s a n cti oned r a ther tha n

—
interpreted for the ways of the Highest are
“ ”
p a st finding out lik e those of H is Majesty
,

on ea rth ; a nd i m perfec t k nowledge couns el s

re stra int a nd a b s tine nc e — as ignorance ear lier

24:
 GREEK POLITICAL EXPERIEN C E
and grosser h ad br ed p ani c fear a nd im p osed
ta bu . Even in the Hebrew C ode the fine ,

flower of theocra tic la wgiving com m a ndm ents ,

“
are nega tive ,except the one com m a ndm ent
”
with promi s e which tra ns cends all p olitical
“
or der beca us e it or igina ted befor e it H ononir ,
”
thy fa ther a nd thy m other tha t thin e own ,

days m ay be l ong Wha t the Greek found

.

—
wanting when he ca m e to k now thes e s ocie
ties of the Old Eas t com pacted into their last
,

a nd m a tur est supers tructur e the Pers i an E m ,

pire— was all trace of governm ent by c ons ent ,

all inwar d s a nction of the c om m and m ent i m

posed from without ; a nd it was j ust this

inward sa nction for which later H ebrew
was ever s earchi ng a nd n ever wholly
,

finding till it h ad been H ellenis ed through

,

and through . T O Cyrus the Pers ia n G reek s ,

s eem ed to li ve in an a n archy of a ntis ocia l i n

“
dividualism : They m eet da ily in the m ark et
place b ut it is to get the better of one a n
,
”3
other . It needed a Gr eek him self a n ex ,

kin g to expla in the p ara dox to Xerxes in

,
“
term s of the c ode that he kn ew F or though .

they are fr ee yet are they not fr ee in all

,

r espects ; for o ver them ther e s ta nd s a m aster ,

even Observa nce before whom they a re in a we

,

even m ore tha n thy people are before thee ,

”
0 k ing F or the Gr eek a s for the Orienta l
.
, ,

25
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
’

“
la w wa s gift of g od s
a b ut Gr eek la w wa s
”4
counters igned Agreed am ong s en sible m en
, .

TH E PO L I TI C A L LE G A C Y O F T H E GR E E K S
We turn then to the p olitica l idea s of the
, ,

Greek s for thes e s ide by s ide with the m ora l

, ,

idea s of the Hebr ews ha ve been the chief

,

form a tive infl uences which ha ve con ver ted the

trib a l com m unities of un r om a ni sed E urope ,

fir s t into the feuda lly a rticul a ted em pir es or

k ingdom s of tha t peri od of tr a ns iti on which
“
we rightly call the Middle Ages a n d then ,

into the n ationa l sta tes of m oder n tim es

I would even g o further an d s ubm it tha t it
,

is in gr ea t p art to r enewed n eed O f s uch s tan d

ar d s of beh a vi our a nd of cr itici sm in o ur
,

own per iod of un a voi d a ble a n d r a pid tra ns i

tion tha t we m ay a s cr ibe the r evival of in

,

teres t in thes e a n cien t a ttem pts to s olve fun

da m ental a n d eter n a l p roblem s ; a n d tha t the
form s a ctua lly ta k en by s om e curr en t a t
tem pts to solve thos e problem s a fr esh un der
—
pr es ent con ditions are in s om e degr ee a nd I
,

thin k in incr easing m easure — due to their nu

exhausted va lue a s in spira tion a n d guida nc e .

B ut while it i s on its p olitica l s ide tha t

Greek thought h as been m os t obvi ous ly opera
tive a nd Heb rew th ought in its m or a l a spec t
, ,

it is essential th a t we s hould realise th a t the

26
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXPERIENCE
politica l thought of Greece s ta n d s a s inti
m a tely r el ated to a chara cteristic conception of
individua l m orality a s Hebrew m ora ls are to
the p olitica l phil osophy of the Theocratic
Sta te.

NO les s ess ential is it to full a n d j us t ap p re

cia tion of the s ig ni fi canc e of the p olitics a n d

th e ethic s a lik e of b oth thes e grea t peoples

that we sh ould s tudy them in r ela tion t o thos e
historical a nd in the W idest s en s e sociol ogica l
, ,

con dit on s n which they r espectively or ig

i i
ina ted . Only va guely it m ust be a d mi tted
, ,

c an the conn exi on be tr aced a s yet betwee n

these sys tem s of idea s a n d the fa cts a n d

,

events in the m idst of which we firs t ha ve

s ight of them ; b ut it is the p urp os e O f thes e

lec tures t o survey such p rogress a s h a s been

m a de i n one of thes e in quiries a n d t o sugges t
,

som e lin es a l ong whi ch further a dva nce s ee m s

p ossible .

I n p a rti cul a r it is n ot unreas on able to c all

a tten ti on to the p r ogr ess whi ch h as been m a de ,

in the l a s t h a lf century to wa rd a scert aini ng

,

a t a ll even ts the m a i n outli n e s of th os e ea rlier

s tages of exper ienc e w hi ch c oun t for s o m uch

in the m aki ng of a people no less than in form

,

ing the ch aracter a n d defini ng the outl ook of

a n i n dividua l O n s evera l differen t s ides p re
“

historic studies are exten ding the ra nge of our

27
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
a cquain ta nce with the history b oth of Isra el and
of the Gr eek s Morphol ogica l a nal ysis of the
.

ad ult peoples is being s upplem en ted by glim p s es

of the p r oce ss e s of ad ole scence a nd even of ,

wha t m ay be lik ened to thos e em bryol ogical

s tudies whi ch ha ve bee n so r ich a s ou r c e of

inform a ti on to the s tudent of other ki nds of

com p ara tive a na tom y .

HE B R E W F O LK ME MO RY
I n the s tudy of Heb rew th ought thi s h is
torica l aspec t h a s n ever been all owed to be
n eglected utter ly The chi ldr en of Isra el p re
.

s er ved with unusual vivid n ess in their own

,

tra ditional hi story the m em ory of a n om adi c

,

phas e a peri od of is ola tion and pr oba tion a

, ,
“ ”
tem pta tion in the W il dern ess ; of their intru
s ion a lr ea dy di scipli n ed in the s tri ct sch ool of
,
“
pas toral s ociety in to the good la n d this side
,
“ ” “
Jor da n , a land O f m ilk a nd hon ey of ,
” “ ”
cor n, W i n e a nd oil of fenced cities and
,

s edenta ry agr icultural comm unities ; a nd of the

grea t a dventur e im p os ed up on their for e

,
“
fathers of entering into tha t good la n
, to
enj oy it W ithout brea ch of allegiance to th e
,
“ ”
G od of arm ies the Lord of Hos ts
, wh o h ad ,

served the m s o well — even a s they s er ved hi m

—
faithfully while they were on the m arch a nd ,

he abode am ong them in hi s Tent of Witnes s ,

28
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXP ERIENCE
“
the m igra tory Tabernacle H ow they fared .

in th at ad ventur e of acclim ati sa tion e xp os ed ,

to the daily s ed ucti ons of thos e unfami liar in

com p a tible s urr oundi ngs ; h ow i n spite of ,

efforts a nd wa rni ngs a nd experience of the

“
r esult , they m ingled with the heathen a nd ,

”
learned their work s ; h ow m or e tragica lly ,
“
s till
, they went a whoring after their own -

inventi ons using their m ere hum an wits to

,

devi se sa tisfacti on for very hum an needs a nd

desires ; a nd W ha t beca m e of them as their
national hi story p as s ed thr ough the centuries
— all thi s we k now fr om tha t uni que nati ona l
“
a utobiog r aphy tha t hi story of thei r own
,
”
tim es which h as becom e the fir st a nd often
,

the only schoolbook for successor s in the sam e

suprem e a dventu re of the en tering into a
,
“ ”
pro mi sed la nd cap a ble in determi n ed a nd
,
“
com peten t h an ds
’
of becom ing G od s own
”
coun try .

I n retrospec t th at is the hi story of the

, ,
“ ”
ch osen p eople fal l s into well m ark ed phas es -
,

whi ch as we shall see are of m ore than special

, ,

interpretation Organis ed alr eady lik e other

.
,

Bedouin ba nds in a com posite tribal confed

,

eracy they enter the sta ge of their na tional

,
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
a nd the na tion m om en ta r ily un ified by the
h ous e of D a vi d . Then foll ows a period of
p olitica l i depe de
n n n ce— interm ittent (it is true)
b ut el oquent in its r epea ted r evolts a nd r e
con s tr uctions of the i nten s ity of the n a tiona l
,
.

spirit ; it l a s ts f r om the tenth cen tury t o the

s ixth , a nd is cl os ed by the s tri c t i nhibiti on of

a ll s ec ul ar activity by the dep ort a ti on firs t o f

,

the Northern tribes by Assyria then O f the ,

S outhern by Neb uch a dnezz ar of B a byl on B ut .

within the per iod of exile a philosophy of life

, ,

only va guely a n d p ar tia lly for esha d owed by

“ ”
s om e few prophets of the two k ingdom s ,

took sh ape a nd found exp ression ; a nd the new

r egim e of to lera tion for l oca l c u l tur es a nd r e ,

m o va l of O ld fron tiers a nd ob solete r es tr ictions

which was inaugur a ted by Cyrus a nd system
a tis ed under D a r ius m a de p os s ible a t the sa m e
,

tim e a n em pir e wide dis trib ution of Jewis h

-

s ettlem ent s an d syna gogues a nd ,therewith

widespr ea d p roselytis m in the con viction
,
”
th at this way of life m a de k nown by l ong
,

n a tion a l experience a nd contem pla tion was ,

in deed for m a nifesta tion to the Gentiles as well

“ ”
a s a gu i de for the chos en people them s elves .

EN G LI S H O R I G I NS : A PAR A L LE L EXA MPL E

It m ay s erve to ill ustra te this a n alysis of
the life his tory of the Hebrew people a nd also ,

30
 GREEK POLITI CAL E XPERIENC E
the penda nt picture of Greek cultur e which is
to foll ow if we a pply the sa m e cr itici sm briefly
,

to the English speaki ng w orld r egar ded a t a ll

-
, ,

events in r espect of its p olitica l ideas as one ,

of the m or e i m p ort an t m otive for ce s in the

“ ”
E ur opean type of m odern civilis ation With .

s ucces s ive occup a ti ons of th e B riti sh I s les by

va rieties of Celtic speak ing folk with their

-
,

cha ra cte ri stic i m ple m en ts a n d i ns tituti ons a nd ,

even with the tem p orary occupa tion of large

parts of the region by im perial Rom e a nd the ,

incorp oration of tribes a nd ci vi tates a lik e in a

pr ovincia l a dm ini stra tion of quite a lien origin ,

we ha ve no m or e concern tha n with the Mi noan

cultur e of the [E g ean b r on ze ag e -
or the C a
,
’
na a ni te c u l tur e of Pa les tine befor e Joshua s
tim e O ur s tory m ust begin with the forcible
.

oc cup a tion of the l o wl an d r egions of the

larger isla nd by triba lly orga nis ed im m igrants
of Teutonic speec h a nd a ph as e of m a teri al

cu l tur e recognisa ble as belonging to the fifth

century A D
. in certa in p a rts O f central a nd
.

northwester n Eur ope From the fifth centur y

.

to the twelfth there is progr es s ive accli m atisa

tion slow as s im il a tion of Angle Jute a nd
, , ,

Saxon ; exp osure to c omm on dangers from

Norsem an a nd D ane o versea and from sur
, ,

v iv ors of the Celtic p opul a ti on in the hi gh

lands of the W es t and the north ; a partia l

31
 POLITI CAL I DE AS OF THE GREEKS
con quest by p artially Latin ised Northm en
from Norm an dy fa cilita tes in tercourse with
continen ta l cen tr es of m a teri a l culture a nd ,

im p os es a cl os er k ni t superstructure of ad
-

m in is tra ti on with out s er ious br ea ch in p op u

,

lar cul tur e or l ocal ins titutions We m ight

.

c om p ar e the effec ts of A ssyri a n over l ord shi p on

eighth a nd s even th centur y Israel or tha t of

-
,

the Lydia n k ings on the Gr eek cities of western

As ia Mi nor . Then a b out the cl os e O f the
,

twelfth century as in Gr eece a t the end of

,

the eighth the period of coalescence and na

,
“ ”
tion al ges ta ti on en ds a nd a n E ngli sh people
,

appea r s in p olitical hi s tory in liter atur e in

, ,

the m a teria l a r ts ; a b ove a ll in a m ode of p o

,

liti ca l beha vi our a nd p oliti ca l think ing and in ,

a way of life d is tinct fr om W h a t h ad pr ec eded

a nd W h a t was going on els ewher e even in the ,

nor thern d istr ict of the sa m e Teutoni c s peaking -

half of the is la nd C on tinental cul tures from

.
,

Teutoni c a nd La tin E ur ope contribute m a ,

terials tech niques a nd ideas with out detract

, , ,

if the coun terp ar t be dem a nded to the phas e

O f inhi bited effort whi ch thr ew b ack the Gr eek

genius on its own resources in the centuries of

P ers ia n a ntag onis m , it m ay be foun d in the

32
 GRE EK POLITICAL EXPER IENCE
of th e Roses as pitiably futile a s those of
,

Sparta and Thebes a nd the resolution of the

,

whole ta ngle by a new dynas ty a nd a new

outlet for enterpr is e on n ew c ontin ent al fr ont
,

ag es inac cess ible b efor e Clos er p ar a llel h ow

.
,

ever at this p oint is th e genera l check of

,

Europea n expa ns ion a nd access to resour ces

and higher as pect s of th ought which was im ,

posed first by Islam a nd then by the Ottom a n

con que s ts ; for in this gener a l a dva nce of wes t

ern cultur e E ngl and h ad by this tim e its active

sh are lik e other a d oles ce nt na tion s ta tes

, F or
- .

wha t the victories of Alexa nder effected for

the Greeks by throwing open the grea t inla nd
,

regi ons to s ettlem ent and expl oita tion the ,

voyages of dis covery did for ours elves by re

vealing a t the sa m e tim e new continents and
new a venues to old sources of weal th and

c ultu r e in the Indies With th is revelation of

.

a l arger world ope ns for b oth peoples a p ros

, , ,

peet of what it is sur ely no la pse from m odesty

“ ”
to describe as a n oecum enical m is sion of

s ettlem ent , acclim a tisa tion r ea lisa tion of ca

,

p acities long inbred a nd now sp onta n eously at

com m an d ; enha ncem ent in use of a te m pera
, ,

m ent a nd outlook racia l r a ther tha n na tiona l ,

in the sense that p olitical severance affects its

ach ievem ents only in such degree as the p arti

tion of Alexand er s k ing dom into the successor

’

33
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
t tes infringed the unity of Helleni sm a nd
s a ,

m a de the G reek n es s of Alexa n d ri a to be of

a n other gl ory th a n tha t o f A nti och or P er ,

g a m um or Rhodes or Athen s
, , .

GR E E K F O L xM E M O R Y
The Greek s too kn ew tha t a s a people they
, ,

h a d h a d a begi nni ng ; th a t a s Thucydides ex ,

pr essed it there h a d been a tim e not so very

, ,

l ong ag o when ther e h a d b een n o distincti on

,
“
between G reek a n d b a rb aria n for the reason
th a t ther e wer e n ot a ny Gr eek s yet or a t a ll , ,

events n o cons ider a ble b ody O f people wh o

,

c ould be c a lled by s uch a n a ti ona l na m e .

“
Mor eover i n the tim es before Hellen s on of
,

Deuca li on there w a s n ot even this designa ti on

”
a t a ll
. Ther e was folk m em ory of a tim e
when Hellen a nd his s o ns grew p owerful i n
”
Phthia , trib a lly orga n is ed in one little dis
tr iet a m ong the n orthern hills a nd of h ow , ,
“
when people c alled them in to their a id into
the other s ta tes s evera lly a nd m ainly by their
, ,

interc ours e with them they ca m e to be ca lled

,
” “
Hellenes though this n am e could not for a
, ,

long W hile a t a ll events esta blish itself for ,

them a ll ” “
B ut W her ea s the Hous e of Is ra el
.
”

—
took p ride in its exclusivenes s with wha tever
qua lifica tions i n fa ct we only gra dually p er
,

i
ce ve — Hellenism was j ustified of its p roselytes ;
34
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXPERIENCE
“
the earlies t Gr eek s were such ity by city a s
, c ,
”
m an y a s un ders tood ea ch other thr ough ad op
tion of Hellenic speech A nd thr ough a doption
.

of the l a ngua ge c a m e con ver s i on t o Helleni c

,

habits beliefs a nd outl ook on the r est of the

, ,

world Here it w as n ot s o m uch th a t the

.

“
newcom ers m i ngled a m ong the hea then a nd
”
lear ned their work s a s tha t the a b origines
“
b orn of the l a n d a s the Atheni a ns m or e
,

especially b oa sted the s elves to b e m ingled

m —
“ ” “
a m ong the s on s of Hellen a nd learned the
,

”
works of thes e mi ssionaries of a new wa y of
living .

Tha t som e Helleni c com m uni ties cla im ed

m or e dir ect a nd ex cl usive der iva tion fr om o ne
or other of the s ons of Hellen while others ,
_

besides the Atheni an s prided them selves on

“ ”
desce nt fr om nut ea ting m en fr om the wild
-

woods devoid of agriculture a nd the a rts O f

,

life a nd others aga in displayed little pride of

, , ,

a ncestry be ca us e they m er ely k n ew th a t they

“ ”
wer e origi na lly m ixed w a s a m a tter of de
,

ta il Tha t som e of their societies h a d a t all

.
,

events genea l ogica l folk m em ory b a ck to com

,

“ ”
pa ra tively r ecen t foun ders or to tum ultua ry ,
”
m igra ti ons into the districts which beca m e
“
their hom es while others thought tha t Hel
, ,
”
lenised or not they h a d b een ther e a lways
, ,

wa s no less a cciden ta l a n d com p a tible with

,

35
 POLITI CAL ID EAS OF T HE GREEKS
“
their l inclus ion a m ong the Hellenes
a ct ua ,

a nd cons e quen t exem ption from the r ep roa ch

“
Of bar b ar ism a
, pictur es que way of de
scr ibing all peoples civilis ed or not
, in the ,
“ ”
m a ter ial s ens e w h o wer e
, uni ntelligible in
their speech a nd incom pr ehens ible in m uch of
,

their beha vi our Wha t was ess ential in Hel

.

leni sm wa s increa singly felt to be thi s tha t ,

Hellenes wer e m utually intelligible not in ,

speech only b ut in beliefs a nd ideas ; their

,

doings too wer e com prehens ible a nd ra tiona l

to this ext ent a t leas t th a t they were wha t
,

a nother Hellene without shock to rea s on or

,

s enti m ent c ou
, ld thi nk of hi ms elf a s doing .

MA I N P H A S E S or GR E E K H I S TO R Y
I n the lifetim e of the G reek people the rela
tions between the m en wh o com p osed it a nd
the la nds whi ch they inh abited a nd attem pted
to exploit ch a nged no less fundam enta lly tha n
thos e of the Hebrews or the a ncestors of the
E nglish people as the na tion ca m e into being
,

a nd p ass ed from s elf-d i s covery to m a nife s ta

tion a m ong all na tions within its r ea ch The .

period of form a tion began here a b out 1 400

B C
. .
—for we m ay neglec t as in our own ca s e
,

we neglected the Celtic phas es a nd the Rom a n

36
 GRE EK POLI TI CAL E XPER IEN C E
the Hellenic regenerati
m i tted, it w as on— an d

hardly over in 75 0 B C th ough the first sym p

. .
,

tom s of new n ational outl ook such as the

general recognition of the Olym pic fes tivals

It was in this D ark Age of di sintegration of

older soci eties and ill r ecorded h a bitua ti on of
,
-

heterogeneous incom ers a nd a b origin es to the

com m on rule of life im pos ed aus terely by the
peculiar phys ique of Greek cradle la nds that -
,

the social founda tions wer e laid for the p oliti

ca l s upers tructur es which we k now as the
“
ci ty s ta tes
- It was within the sa m e Dark
.

”
Ag e, too th at the s tructur e of the Gr eek
,

lang uage or rather of the several well

, , ,

m ark ed groups of Gr eek dia lects becam e ,

fixed and the traditions a nd legends of the

,
“ ”
older wor ld and of the ,ag e of heroes which
inaugurated the new beca m e ca noni z ed in ,

epic literature ; a nd tha t the na tiona l stock of

accredi ted deities gained custom ary occup ancy

of Olym pu s as their vota ries beca m e acclim a

,

tis ed to the va lleys a nd g ulf hea d s of the -

peni n sula the m a in access to which it dom

,

ina ted ; while the cus tom ary a b odes of those

deities when they descended am ong m en ac
, ,

quired quite as ca nonica l a sh ape in Gr eek ,

temple-architectur e as di d the conceptions

,

whi ch th eir builders were form ing O f those deities

37
 POLI TI CAL I D EAS OF THE GREEKS
thems elves a nd expressing in Greek s culp ture
,

a nd p a inti ng a nd as the art s a nd cr a ftsm an

,

ship wi th which they m ini stered to Greek

ne ed s I n their own Gr eek hom es .

It was a true a nd genui ne nationality tha t ,

is b r ed out in r egiona l i sol a tion from m ongrel

,

a ncestry a nd ed ucated to i nventive origi nali ty

,

in the s tern n urs ery O f reg iona l neces s ities ,

th a t began a b out 75 0 B C to outgrow the

, . .
,

utm ost lim i ts of sub sistence in the l a nd s of its

origi n a nd to expl ore a nd expl oit n ew regi ons
,

overs ea a l ong the coa stli nes

, which r adiate
from its [E g ean cra dle la nd - .

The period of col onia l exp a ns ion it is true

“

, ,

lasted onl y ab out two hun dred yea rs ; b ut it

wa s check ed not by a ny fa il ure of the m other
,

cou ntrie s to p rod uc e a dventur er s true t o type ,

b ut by the fa ct th at al m ost all acces sible s ites

“ ”
for settlem ents of c ity s ta te pa ttern wer e
-

either occupied already by s uch cities or wer e

forecl osed to Greek s by riva l or uncongeni al
peoples no less well orga nis ed though not by
, ,

the sam e process es nor with th e s am e h abits

,

or tr a ditions Exam ples a re the Phoeni cia n

.

cities in Syria Punic Africa a nd western

, ,

Sicily the Etrusca n cities of m iddle Ita ly

, ,

between the Tiber a nd the Arno a nd the ,

Lycia n P a m p h yli a n and Cilicia n s ta tes a long

, ,

th e south coast of A sia Minor It happened .

38
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXP ERIEN CE
l
a so that in the very generati on whi ch was
r eali s ing that coloni s a tion on the O ld s y s tem

was over the whole of the continenta l r egions

,

eas tward of the cra dle l and fell under the sin
-

gle dom inion of the fir s t s elf cons cious and

-

r ati ona lly conducted im per i a li s ts the Achae

,

m enid dy nas ty of Pers ia ; a nd it needed two

centur ies m or e of interm ittent d anger from

this externa l source a nd of a lm ost uninter

rup ted c ontrover sy a s to the m ea ns by which

it was to be a verted before the ba rriers wer e

,
’
b rok en a nd the Gr eek s of Alexa nder s genera
tion were let loose up on a world m ission to -

“
Helleni se the continental Ea st a s they h ad,

a l rea dy Helleni s ed the Mediter ra nea n c oast

la nds .

This period of continental Hellenis ation com ,

“ ”
m ouly called the Helleni stic Age runs fr om
,

the accessio n of Alexa nder the Grea t in 33 6

B C to the coll ap s e of the R om a n E m pir e of
. .

the West It opens with a strok e of individua l

.

geni us the r epl acem ent of the w orn out Achaa

,
-

m enid h ous e by a G reek p ri nce as overl ord of

,

the Persia n d om inions a nd the a dm iss ion of

,

Greek c ity state coloni es to th os e continenta l

-

r egi ons from which they h a d hither to been

,

excluded less by the p ositive ill— will of the

na tive p op ul a tion s th a n by the i na b ility b oth
‘

of Or ienta l go ver nm e nt s a nd of the coloni sts

39
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
themselves to devis e any term s of co-op eration
which would s ecure two essential conditi ons :
freed om for each city state to conduct its o wn
-
'

affa ir s in its own way a nd freedom of com

,

m uni ca tion between such city sta tes b oth -

W i thin the continent a nd acr oss its coastlines .

—
With a Greek dynas ty or as eventually h ap
,

pened with several regional dynas ties of Greek

,

—
desce t in comm and of the m eans of p acifi
n

ca tion and defence b oth conditions were rea l

,

is ed ; since every s uch dyna s ty coul d count on

the l oyal supp ort of the city sta tes in its do
-

mi nions s o l ong as their freed om was r espected

,

a nd their com m uni cations s ecur ed ; a nd th e

city sta tes could c ount on the friendly p at

-

ronag e of the dy nas ty s o l ong as p olitica l a nd

,

econom ic freed om were not a bus ed to dis

integra te the terr itorial k ingdom or up set the
reigni ng h ous e .

But wh ile successful defence and efli cient

ad m inis tra tion by the dynasty were the con
dition a nd guara ntee of the lo yalty of the
city s tates
-
fa ilur e and neglect as surely for
,

feited allegiance ; a nd it was the initia l good

fortune th a t Rom e entered the politica l sys
—
tem of the Hellenis tic and by this tim e es sen
i
ta y ll Helle ni s ed— world a s the cham pion of the
liber ties of city-s ta tes agai ns t the abuses of
the successor k ingdom s a nd of free comm u ni
-
,

40
 GRE E K POLITI CAL EXP ERIEN CE
cations by sea and in due course by land
,

routes also ag ai nst ob staclw of every k ind

, ,

whi ch m arked the Rom ans as eventual heirs

of ea ch and every dyn as ty which m ight fall

sh ort of the new s ta nd ar d of governm ent ex

Now it is noteworthy th a t the self-conscious

,

form ulation of the Greek view of life was not

p os tp oned till the G reeks oec um e n
’
ical m is sion
h ad b een p olitically a nd geographica lly real
is ed in the period which we rightly describe as
Hellenis tic beca us e it is essentially a p eriod
,

of p roselytism a nd p rop agand a

— “
literally m ak
ing the world G ree It is the outcom e ,

ra ther, of th a t interm edi a te period of cram p

and inh ibiti on whi ch l asts from the fall of

,

Sardis in 5 46 to the victories of Alexa nder

ra ther m ore th an two centur ies later ; and it

culm ina tes in the latter of th os e centuries ,

when the Persian incubus was all the m ore

oppres s ively felt because the failure of the
,

C im onian a nd Periclean p roject of rallying all

Greek s to follow up their initial successes
aga i ns t the for ces of Xerxes was fru stra ted by,

the refusal of certain indispensable states not ,

a bly Sparta C orinth a nd Thebes not so

, , ,

m uch to a d mi t th at objective as d esirable as ,

to coopera te with the A thenians and their

al lies in r eali s ing it .

41
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Precluded from further extension regionally , ,

by the foreclosur e of al m ost a ll foreshores of

the Med iterra nea n S ea which were not al r eady
occupied by Gr eek cities ; a nd from p acific

penetration of the interior ea stwa rd by the

,

Persian a dm ini stra tion ; to the north a nd wes t

by l arge m ovem ents of b arb arous peoples ,

Thracia n s Illyr ians Ga ul s ; and in Italy by

, ,

n n r
—
Sabellia highla de s ; a s well as b y fr esh ag
g res sion of old r iva l s Phoenicia ns i n Cyp rus
, ,

Carthaginia ns a nd Etrus ca ns i n the western

—
“

s eas ; G reek enterprise a nd initiative were di

verted from geog ra phica l pioneer work a nd
devel op m ent of new countries a nd restr icted
,

to i ntens ive cul tiva tion of wha t was a lr ea dy

w on a nd the discovery in the litera l s ens e of
, , ,

a m odus vi vendi i n this o vercr owded w orld .

Are we not ours elves experienci ng a s im il ar

period of cra m p a nd inhibition a nd disc over ,

ing un der Pr ovi dence the sa m e d ouble n eces

, ,

s ity as w a s s et befor e the G r eek s by the G od

“ ”
in Delphi to, k now ours elves a nd a im a t
“ ”
nothi ng i n excess ?

Thus the p olitical idea s of the a ncient G reek s

a re of va l ue a nd inter es t s till ; a nd they are s o

for s ever a l r ea s ons

.

I n the firs t pl a ce they r esult from a n un

,

usually s uccessful a ttem pt to s olve the p rob

lem of living not m erely in so far a s to m aintain
,

42
 GRE E K POLI TI CAL E XPE R I E NCE
life with a fair deg ree of s ec urity aga inst ex
ternal a nd interna l da ngers b ut in the sense ,

that the life so m ai nta in ed was a good life ,

with an ideal of beha viour a nd of well being -

in view a nd l arge m ea sure of s uccess in a ttain

,

ing it Th at ideal was a high one nothing less

.
,

than independence in its two aspects of self

,

su fli ciency a nd self m as tery r eas ona ble control

-

“ ”
o ver external good s a nd phys ical circum
s t a n ce s, a nd s elf c ontrol -
no les s guided by

r ea s on in the corp or a te enj oy m ent of the fruit s

of coopera tive effo rt Tha t in few word s is the

.
, ,

Gr eek view of life However im perfectly

.

r e alis ed in detail tha t notion of wha t m en

,

m ay a chieve if they will i ns pired all th a t is

, ,

m ost a dm ir ed a nd m uch even th at is r egr etted

, ,

in what we k now of Gr eek hi s tor y a nd expl a ins ,

it to us A nd if ever a people wore its heart on

.

its sleeve a nd carr ied its soul in its eyes for the
, ,

m ak i ng of a his tor ica l p ortra it it wa s the ,

Gr eek people of the city s ta tes By their -

.

work s we k now them a nd in their work s we ,

r ea d their fa ith .

I n the s econ d pl ace the p roblem of livi ng ,

well wa s for the Gr eeks n o s im ple nor easy

one . It wa s indeed unusually a r duous Their
, , .

country as we m ay s till r e a lis e if we wi ll learn

,

to k now it a s they k new it i s of exceptiona l ,

and i ntri cate b uild toler an t of hum an occu

,

43
 POLI TI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
p ancy only on condition of conform ity to rigid
physical condi tions with r esources clim ate , , ,

opp ortuni tie s for exploita tion a ll stric ly d e

t ,

fin ed I n Gr eek lan ds at a ll events there

. , ,
” “
was nothing in excess ; only by knowing

cra dle-lan d could a Gr eek eop le hope to live

,

well or in deed to m ainta in life a t all The

, , , .

populati on too out of which the Gr eek p eo

, ,

ple of hi storica l tim es g rew to national m a

turity was u nus ua lly c om p osite a nd h a d the
, ,

varied experience of a long history a nd a

whole cycle of civilisation before it ca n be
fairly said tha t there were a ny Greeks at all .

And the his torica l crisis which brought to ruin ,

a lm os t all th a t a n ol d er culture h ad achieved

and a ccum ula ted h as been r evea led so soon , ,

as we bega n to di s cover even the outli n es of

it as one of the g reat ca tas trophes of a ll tim e

, .

Seldom in a ny r egion h as a ny b ody of m en

, ,

h ad so com pletely to begin o ver again with ,

such utter devas ta ti on of ha bitua l r esou r ces ,

with s o radica l em a ncipa tion from ha bitual

sa feguar d s and control s as the f ounders of ,

the city sta tes a m ong the islands and around

-
,

the s h or es of the Gr eek Ar chi pelago in the ,

Early Iron Age .

And thir dly out of that chaos and as we

, , , ,

shall s ee m a i nly owi ng t o the i ntens ity of the

,

44
 GREEK POLITICAL EXPERIE N C E
t e e and collap s e of old ins ti tuti ons tha t
s r ss s ,

neces s ity which h a s been the m other of inven

tion throughout the long history of m ankind ,

a nd h as s eld om bee n s o a us ter ely cogent a s

_

then created a m ode of exis tence a n outlook

, ,

on the world a code of beh a v i our a n d a type

, ,

of s ociety wher ein a m or e pr ofoun d a p p rec ia

,

tion of the fundam enta l iss ues a m ore th or ,

oughly logi ca l a na lys is of the factors in the

s itua ti on providentia lly found expr ession

, ,

uniquely lucid and coher ent a nd left litera ry ,

m onum ents whi ch h a ve excep tiona l va lue s till ,

and hi stori ca lly h a ve h ad a lm os t unp ara lleled

influence on hum a n efforts i n the sa m e di rec

tion . It is the unexh a us ted vita lity the ,

perm anent ins pira tion the eter na l hum a nity of

,

Greek politica l ideas which gives them their

claim to be r estudied and r es ta ted in our own

F or the study of Greek p olitica l idea s we

ha ve se vera l s ources of inform a tion Ther e .

are in the fir s t pl a ce wha t I m ay descr ibe a s

, ,

the Maj or Prophets of H elleni sm the grea t ,

phil osophic writers of the fourth century ; a nd

a m ong th e s e Pla to a nd Aris totle different as ,

they a re from each o ther s ta nd in a class by ,

them selves if only beca use we k now what

,
.

they wrote They lived withi n the Greek

.

p oli tical system they were fam iliar with its

,

45
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
ins titutions they a ttem pted to expla in them
, ,

to s ugges t h ow they m ight be im pr oved or

r epla c ed by som ethi ng better B ut Aris totle
.

h a d not the opp ortunity n or Pl a to the a bility

—for at all events he m a de the a ttem pt— t o
, ,

put their opini on s into pra ctic e : con sequently ,

the ether ea l im agina tion of the o ne a nd the

m ass ive com m on s ens e of the other s ta nd lik e
’
a n a r tis t s perspec tive betwee n us a nd his

torica l r ea lities D id G r eek dem ocra cy for

.
,

“ ”
exam ple lik e a ta ble a s the a rtist s ees it
, ,

a lwa ys supp ort a tr apez oida l t op o n legs of

unequa l length ; or wer e ther e s ta tes where

e quality of a pp or ti onm ent of c ontr ib uti on
, of ,

co opera ti on w as a s n ear ly r ea l i s ed a s in the

-

parallel ogra m table of the carpenter ? W as

-

ther e no solitary c ity worthy of tha t happy

com p artm ent of the twelvefold cl a s sific a ti on of

s ta tes in which a m a j or ity cons is ting of the

, ,

ri cher ruled i n the i nter es t of the wh ole

, as ,

wa s so n ea r to happeni ng i n Victor ia n E ng
la nd ? At the other extrem e ther e a re em
b odi m ents of p olitica l ideas in enacted l a ws ,

num er ous now b ut is ola ted a nd i ncoher en t ,

a nd fr om their usually la te da te fr agm ents ,

ra ther of a Deuter on om y th a n a Leviticus ,

a nd very far r em oved fr om the Ta bles of the

L aw as Sol on or Za leucus k new them ; s till

'

“
further from the or dina nces of a settlem ent
46
 GREEK POLITICAL EXPERIE NCE
founder in the colonial age o r the period of ,

co n ques ts a nd m igra tio n s B etween thes e ex

.

trem es of W ha t wa s a nd W ha t ought to be ,

ther e are the plea ders a nd p a m phleteers ap ,

“ ”
pea ling to c us tom s of our fa thers which
they fr equently do not quote ; a nd the p oets
of the a n ci en r egi m e wh o h a ve no use for
“ ”
the ba d m en now in p ower but are less ,

open ab out the r ea s on why they are n o l o nger

in p ower or even in their own country them

, ,

s elves m uch a s the P s a l m is t is us ually the j us t

,

m a n suffer ing wrongfully a nd only slip s out a

,

wor d n ow a nd then to say wha t he wants

d on e to the other s ide when it is h is turn to be
“ ”
in and pers ec ute them There a re the Mi nor
.

“
Pr ophets wh o ha ve s een the King in h is
”
beauty from the s idewa lk ; Xenophon espe ,

cia lly i n the Mem or a bili a ; Lys i as lik e Am os , ,

sh owi ng up p rofiteers a nd then lik e the g ay

, , ,

disr eputa ble Andocides exp ounding the G olden

,

— —
Rul e to ra th er tha n before a dem ocra ti c tri
buna l Ther e are the dra m a tis ts r ea d by us
.
, ,
“ ”
a las ! i n s elections for use i n scho ol m a de by
Byza nti n e pries ts ; a gl oom y enough collection
“ ”
of pr oblem pl a ys p a s sed
-
, for edification by
c ens ors hip Even the Cyclop s is a cautionary
.

—
”

ta le for a bs ta iners a nd the A lces ti s if it be

, ,

indeed s atyric — teaches tha t a p rince lik e a

, ,
“ ”
bishop sh ould be the husb and of one wife
, .

47
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
There are the his torians of whom th e two ,

grea test are the his toria ns of war not of either ,

c odes or r evoluti ons b ut link ing the d ram a tists

,

with the p re-Socra tic phil osophers by their

“
r en deri ng of things worth r ecor d beca use
“
they a ctually happened a nd worth expla in ,
”
ing beca us e in thes e incidents of m odern
tim e eter na l truth shi nes through These lik e .
,
“
Hebrew chro ni clers ha ve their Xerxes doing
, ,
”
evil in the s ight of the Lo r d a ll his days ;
their D a rius in wis dom a nd splendour lik e
,
“
Sol om on yet ga thered to hi s fa thers still re
,

”
m em b eri ng the Atheni a ns ; their C leom enes
a nd Pi si stra tus utterly hum an G reek s i n their
, ,

genius as in their shortcom ings as Sa ul and ,

D a vid ar e grea t Hebrews m arr ed in the ,

m ouldi ng Lastly a nd for our pres ent p ur

.
,

p os e priceless a s we sha ll see there a re the

, ,

Hom eric p oem s the Pentateuch r ather than

,

the Bible of the Greek s ; idealis ed r etrospect of

a Her oic Age s o di ffer e n t fr om the settled
exis tence which foll owed yet peopled with ,

ch ara cters so typica lly h um a n ; Achilles with

B a rak Aga m em non with Jethr o Odysseus a nd

, ,

Aj a x with Gideon a nd Sam s o n ; a nd illustrat

ing in its gr ea ter schem es a nd in minute deta il
,

a lso
, the working of som e of those grea t no
tions already whi ch we shall find to be funda
,

m ental in the Gr eek view of pub lic life yet ,

48
 GREEK POLITI C AL EXPERIENCE

either a ss um ed or els e projected b a ck ward as

, ,

the bonds of a s ociety in which ther e wer e no

“ ”
city s ta tes
-
yet a t a ll .

Now link i ng a ll thes e differ ent s our ces t o

,

gether ther e is a com m on trea s ury of speech

, ,

a n d i n p a r ti cul ar a s m a ll el oquen t voca b u l a ry

of p oliti ca l ter m s Nea rly a ll of them a re
.

wor ds ta k en from the ta lk of everyda y life ;

charged with qua in t p op u lar a ssocia ti ons a nd ,

never wholly l os i ng them i n com m on speech ;

applied ,with deepeni ng i nten s ity of m eani ng ,

to m or e pr ec is e a nd s ignifica n t n otions a nd ,

gra dua lly br ought into new unpr em edita ted

a ss oci a ti on s with eac h other a s opp os ites or
,

corr el a tives i n a ter m i nol ogy whi ch eventua lly

is phil os ophica l a n d a b s tract th ough n ever , ,

perhap s s o a b stractly us ed on Greek lip s as

,

in m oder n a ttem pts to expl a i n wh at Gr eek s

suc ceeded in s a ying s o s im ply a n d clea r ly j us t ,

beca use their own thoughts wer e for the m os t

pa rt n ot o nly clea r b ut s i m ple .

This is perhaps sufficient neces sa ry expla na

tion of the fr equen t r ecours e in what foll ows, ,

to etym ol ogy of a n old fa shi on ed b ut n o les s

-

wholes om e ki nd We are ourselves m uch the

.

sl a ves of ou r ph ra ses a n d i ncr ea singly

, as it
,

s eem s to m e t oler a n t of noi s y ca r eles s people

, ,

wh o ha ve n either the k n owledge n or the cour

tesy to use corr ectly even the sm atterings of a
49
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
grea t la nguage tha t they ha ve pick ed up .

Thucydides k new s om ething of this trouble ,

writi ng a s he did while people wer e still da zed

a nd uns ettled by the G r ea t W ar of h is ti m e .

The grea ter sophis ts invented ety m ol ogy itself

a nd gra m m a r i n their effort to get their p upil s
,

to s ay wh a t they m ea nt a s well as m ea n wh a t
,

they sa id The four th century encyclop aedists

.
-

cr ea ted a s ta n d a r d ter m i nology for p olitics as

well as m oral s a nd physics only j ust in tim e to

,

r ecor d wh a t they did a b out the c ity s ta tes -

,

befor e the n ew world of Alexa n der s con ques ts ’

confron ted them with n ew n oti on s a n d exp e

riences to whi ch fourth cen tur y idi om s fitted

-

non e too well .A nd the r esult h a s bee n a n

una void able a nd very s ubtle d a nger of i nter
p reting ear ly uses of som e of thes e pers istent
term s by their la ter significa nce ; worst of all a ,

tendency to r ea d Greek words collected a t ,

ha zard out of p opul a r speech a s if they h ad ,

quite the sam e im plica tion a nd suggestiveness

as the La ti n wor d s no les s p op ul ar a nd i nci
,

dentally specialized by which th os e Gr eek

,

wor ds wer e la b or iously p ed a ntically a nd p er

, ,

v ers ely tr a ns l a ted fr om the tim e s of P olybius

,

a nd the Gr acchi to th ose of Lucr etius C i cero , ,

and Seneca .

O n the other ha nd and for the s a m e r eason

, ,

there will be here less explicit account than is

50
 GR EEK POLITICAL EXP ER I ENC E
usual of the theories of the p r i nc ip a l sch ools of
,

philosophy a n d especia lly of the Pla tonic a nd

,

Aristotelia n com m enta ry on wha t Aris totle a t

a ll even ts r ec ogni s ed as f und am ent a l n am ely, ,
“ ”
things as they gr ow in the social and eco
n om ic s ub s tr uc tur e of p ubli c life a nd a ll ex

pla na tion s of it B oth thes e interpreta tio n s

.

b eing the work neither of historia ns nor of

“
m en of a ffa irs lea s t of a ll of m en com petent
- - —

to ta k e c itizen s s h a r e un der a ny s chem e of

’

” —
citizen shi p a re as i n spi ri ng a s they a re b e

ca us e when they des cr ibe wh a t exis ted they

are exp r es s i on s of dis s ent a nd pr otes t When .

they sk etch wha t ought to be they a re m ore or ,

les s fra nkly i n nova tors a nd som etim es revo

lution ary ; phila n th ropis ts n ot h is torians, .

G R E E K PO PU L A R ID E A L S
It will s er ve perh aps to b ri ng this genera l
su r vey of o ur s ubje ct d own to so lid groun d if

we p ause at this p oint a t a n ota ble sum m a ry

of wh a t les s gifted thi n k ers were s a yi ng ab out

Greek p ublic life a n d the functio n of a fourth

c entury s ta te a nd fr om tha t s ta n dp oi nt on the
,

s tr eet level of G r eek th ought collect out of the

-

’
phil osopher s a n alysis of it s om e of its leadi ng
notion s ; a n d then tra c e the gr owth of thes e if ,

p ossible down from a nonp olitica l or igin

,
.
,

a nd at all events up t o a ph as e where thei r

51
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
political m ea ni ng begins to di verge from s om e

In a well k nown p ass age of his Treatis e on

-

R hetoric Ari stotle s um m arizes curr ent opin

,

ion s a b out hum an felic ity in a s eries of ex

p erim enta l defin ition s a s foll o ws
5
,

( 1 ) P r osp eri ty wi th eficieney; due that is , ,

n ot t o ch a nce b ut to a ctive qua lities i n h im

,

wh o enj oys it The a ltern a tive is ill us tra ted

.

“
by the phr a s e of Dem ocritus a b out the pha n
”
tom of ch a nce which is s o often the excuse
”6
for th e m a n s ow n wa n t of will A nd the
’
!

depen dence of felicity for m an on the reali sa

tion by effort of som ething contem pla ted as
desirable is em ph asised by Aristotle him s elf
elsewhere 7
. The signi fic ance of thi s elem ent
of i niti a tive this str ivi ng a fter achievem en t
, ,

a nd the p r ovi s i on m a de a nd to be m ad e for

, ,

in sur ing it will en ga ge our a tten tion p r es ently

, .

(2 ) S elf s ufii ei eney for the m ai nten a nce of life

-
,

in the firs t pl a ce on the m a ter ial a nd a ni m al

plane for the wor d us ed is zoe a ppli ca ble to
, ,

all things which m a i nt a i n them s elves a n d re

pro duce their k in d Wha t is contem pla ted is

.

freedom fr om im pedim ents offer ed either by

external na ture or by other m en ; unr es tricted
living in a ccorda nce with m a n s cap acity for ’

a ni m a te exi s tence We are rem inded of the

.

”
exh ortati on of the U nj us t Argum ent in the
52
 GREEK POLITICAL EXPE R IE NCE
C louds of
Ar is topha nes to use your na ture ,

m ore fam iliarly to “

” 8
or, enj oy life ; a nd we
,

sha ll ha ve to retur n l a ter to exam in e the con

tent of thi s phys ical life accor ding to—

“ ”
na tur e
- -
.

(3) The most p leas a nt hum a n life comp atible

wi th safety Here the s ub stitution of bi os the
. ,

specific wor d for h um a n r a ti ona l s elf cons cious -

life for the m ere 2 0 25 of the s econ d definition

, ,

is ins truct ive Few anim als k nowi ngly risk

.

their life th ough they frequently find them

,

s elves in c ir cum s ta nces where they l os e it

through caus es outside their contr ol M a n in .
,

his conscious efforts to achieve som ething

whi ch s eem s to h im des irable k nowingly runs ,

ri sks ta k es cha nces as we Say beyon d the

, , ,

ra nge of a dven tur e which ins ti nct a ll o ws to a n

a nim al He ca n a nd does contem pl ate en

.

h ancem ents of his felicity which a re however , , ,

to norm a l i ndivi dua ls not worth the r isk i n ,

volving (as they do) prospect of curta il m e nt ,

or frus tra tion of wh atever felicity is a lr ea dy

,

a ttain ed
’
U nb ridled p ower as in Her od otus
.
,
“
sk etch of the a b sol ute r uler ca n shift a uces ,
”
tral O b s erva nces a n d m ak e tem p orar ily a nd
,

“
precarious ly s afe cours es of a cti on a nd for m s
of e nj oym ent which or di na ry m en a m ong their
“ ”
fellows for ego beca us e a nc es tra l O b s erva n ces
,

im pos e form s of r etribution whi ch it is not

worth while to incur .

53
 POLITICAL I DE AS O F TH E GR EEKS
(4 ) A bundance of p ossessions and a ids , wi th
a bili ty to keep an d utili s e them . Wha t is m eant
is full equipm ent with the pers ons as well as ,

the things needed to r ea lis e projects con

,

c ei v ed as des ir a ble a n d s afely p ra cticable It .

goes very m uch further tha n the previous

“

defini tions in am plifying the range of such

projects E n terpris es too risk y for una ided
.

effort are b r ought withi n r each of achievem ent

by organis ed co-operation ; a nd it is of the
“ ”
ess ence of Ar istotle s freem a n tha t he h as
’

the cap acity not only to pr ovide for him self

—
b ut to m ak e use of the efforts th e lab our in ,

—’
the econom ist s s ens e of others B ut here .
,

too ther e is the s a m e qua lifica tion th a t s uch

,

enterpris es sha ll be within the m a rgin of safety .

“
While the s trong m an a rm ed k eepeth h is
”
p a l a ce h is good s a re in pea ce b ut a s tronger
, ,

tak eth f rom h im the a rm our in whi ch he

'
trusted a nd divi deth the sp oi
, A nd there is
the n ecessary further qua lifica tion tha t the ,

p osses sor of these fac ilities be him s elf com

peten t to m ak e us e of them It is the sam e .

s tip ul a tion b oth for efficiency a nd for con

,

s tructive initi a tive with which we bega n

, .

These defin ition s then form a s eries el ab

, ,

ora ti ng the form a lly a dequa te term s of the

first by succ ess ive enh a ncem ents a nd exp an

s ions of its scope a n d content The social .
,

54
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXPERIENC E
co-o perative qual ifica tion though not explicit ,

till the fourth is im plied in the third because

, ,

the pr incip a l risk which the s eek er a fter pleas

ur e in curs is in terference with other such
pleasure s eek ers a nd cons equently interfer
-
,

ence from them so that the firs t rul e of s afety

,

is due r egard for the des ir es efforts a nd en , ,

j oym ents of thos e others It is m ore exp licit .

,

even than it appear s in the fourth definition, ,

becaus e here too the pri ncipal risk of losing

, ,

one s p oss ess ions a nd on e s equipm ent for the

’ ’

a chievem e nt of on e s p rojects a r is es fr om the

’

existence of other orga nisa tions lik e one s own ’

,

m obili s ed by o ther a dventurers in the sam e

quest of felicity O nly by obs er vance— by
.

ta king accoun t of hum an even m or e th an of ,

—
physica l factors it is poss ible to defend a nd
,

cons erve ,a s well a s to use th a t which is a t ,

’
one s di sp osa l now .

H ow then are p os s ess ion s a nd helpers to be

, ,

m ai nta in ed defen ded utilis ed a nd enj oyed

, , ,

with the fullest efficiency a nd the sm allest

risk to them and their p oss es sor ; th a t is to

sa y
, with the gre ates t con sider a tion for other
p osses s ors a n d their bel ongings ? That is the
problem m ore fully s ta ted and elab ora ted
, ,

which is to be s olved by society oi which —

hum an felicity is the objective— or in the ,

pa rti cul ar Greek in sta nce by the P olis , .

55
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Now, these var ious defin itions or rather , , ,
“ ”
description s of the end of m a n are not
,

offer e d by Ar is totle a s h is own b ut as phr as es

in current p op ul ar us e ; an d as the sam e word

“ ” “
for felicity , whi ch is her e us ed for the end
”
of m a n as a n in divid ua l is a ls o th a t us ed by
,
“ ”
Ar is totle him s elf for the en d of the s ta te ,

we a re for once very well inform ed as to p op

ul ar Greek notions of the four th c entury of ,
“ ”
the aim a nd fun ction of s oc iety Felici ty .

depen ds on r ea sona ble freedom to fen d for

’
ones elf in one s o wn way This in tur n de
.

pen ds in the firs t plac e on initia tive of a

, ,

specifically hum a n k i n d fa r outrunni ng tha t

,
vouchs afed by ins tinct to a ny a ni m al a nd ,

fra ught with corr esp on ding risks Safe exer .

ci s e of in iti a tive a n d in deed the exerc ise of

, ,

ini tia tive a t all o n a s ca le wher e the effort of

other s is r equir ed depen d s on co oper a ti on and
,
-
,

this on concurr en ce of the others in tha t which

“
the m a n of p us a n d initi a tive p rop os es .

B ut this concurr en ce pr esum es confidence tha t

the privilege a ccor ded to in itia tive will not be
“ ”
a b us ed ; th a t it will be exer ci s ed with s afety
in r espect b oth of extern a l r isk s of r etalia tion ,

a nd of the d om e sti c r i sk of forfeiti ng th at

confident cc ope r ation on which it s effi ciency

-

r e s ts
. A nd this confiden ce pr esum es a ccept
a nce on b oth s ide s
, of a n or m a l way of b e
,

56
 GREEK POLITI CAL EXPERIEN CE
haviour in norm a l circum stances which ca n be ,

counted on in a dvan ce and exp res s ed in g en

Here then we ha ve a s eries of related no

, ,

tions im plicit in p op ula r belief as to the

,

origin functi on a nd p urp os e of society which

, , ,

m ay s er ve as a text for interp reting G r eek

political ideas We sh all first exam i n e the
.

cir cum s ta nces in which the G r eek c ity s ta te -

ca m e in to bein g the p ur p os e which it hi s

,

torica lly s er ved a nd the ways in which th os e

,

ci rcum s ta nces a ffected the m e an s a dopted to

a tta in it Then we sh all tra ce the growth of

.

the notions of A uthori ty b a sed on initia tive ,

a nd of Ordi na nce b as ed on cus tom as p r ovi ,

s ion aga ins t a b use of in itia tive either by

Authority or by a n or dina ry m a n Next will .

com e the G r eek notion of J us ti ce a s a s t a n ,

dard of r epa ra tion in the even t of a br ea ch of

cus tom a ry or d er Then the n otion of L aw
. ,

a s a coher ent interp r eta tion a nd r e a s oned re

vision of custom ; a n d ther ewith the Gr eek

solution of the p roblem h ow L aw is ascer
tained form ul a ted a nd k ept in accor d with
, ,

experience b oth of the pr ocess es of extern a l

r e a nd of norm a l folk s or dina ry wa y of
’
na tu ,

behaviour A n d fin ally with these notion s of

.
, ,

Authority Ordin a nce Justice a nd L a w his

, , ,

torica lly r eviewed we s h a ll be con fronte d with

,

57
 LE C TURE II
TH E GR EEK NOTION OF SOC I ETY .

TH E P OL I S ITS ANTECEDENTS
AND C IR C U MSTAN C ES

GR E E K LA ND S
I F the ph ilosophy of the a ncient H ebrews
m ay be descr ib ed as the fin e flower of the
view of life ch aracteristic of the Ancient Eas t ,

with its grea t r iver valley cultur es its Sem itic

-
,
“
nom a d p as toral m otive p ower
-
a nd its
-
theo
,

”
cra ti c orga nis ation it is no les s true th a t
,

the Gr eek View of life orig i nates in r esp onds to , ,

and is p rofoun dly in fl ue nced by the M editer ,

ranea n c ircum s ta n ces of its cr a dle l a n d A nd -

.

by the Mediterra n ea n we m ea n i n gen er al ,

“ ”
term s that l ak e r egion of the Old World
,
-

which includes not o nly the west Mediterra nea n

S ea encl os ed a nd enfolded between nor thern
,

a nd s outhern m em bers of a gr eat z one of

folded m ounta in s tructure Pyr en ees Al ps a nd
-
, , ,

Apennin es on the one ha nd Atl a s a nd its east

,

ward prolongati on through Tunis i nto Sicily on

the other ; n ot only the eas t Medi terra nean ,

lying wholly south of the Mounta in Zone fr om ,

Alba nia to Cilicia a n d en cr oaching irregula rly

,

s outhwar d on the sli ghtly foun der ed s l ab s of

59
 POLI TI CAL IDEAS OF THE GR EEKS
“
the North Africa n flatland ; b ut also the Lak e
”
Superior of the Black S ea p artly enclosed
,

between B alk a n Ana toli a n a nd C aucas ian sec

, ,

tions of the folded m ounta ins b ut also partly

,

floodi ng the s outhern m argin of the E uras ia n

flatla nd north of them . I n a ddi tion we m us t
r eck on the long s ecl uded tr ough of the Adr i

a ti c thrus t fa r inl a n d betwee n the D alm a ti an

,

a nd Apenni n e ridges ; a nd fi n a lly

, tha t a m az
,

ing freak of geologica l a ccident the E g ea n ,

S ea wher e the Mounta in Z one its elf h as been

,

r epea tedly a nd p r ofoun dly cr os s fr ac tur ed a nd

- ,

coll ap s ed so th a t m ounta in fold s a nd pl a tea us

,

s ink in r apid s ucces s i on t o for m p r om on tor ies

a nd gulfs an d then ch ai n s of is l a n ds s ep a ra ted

,

a nd yet interconn ec ted by open s eas I n .

this m idla n d sea with in the larger M editer

ra nea n the peculiarities of the whole are in
,

tens ified to diagr am m a tic sharpness of

contr as t ; rugged a nd wea ther s culptur ed ridges
-

of Alpin e gra n deur a nd a us ter ity scr ee ni ng ,

a nd s ep ara ti ng deep va lley a n d gu lf h ead s of -

a lluvi al l owl a n d o ften ca p a ble of s om e exten

,

s ion up the foothills by l a b ori ous terr a cing ,

but us ually quite s trictly lim ited in extent

between m ounta in spurs a nd high pa s tures
inla nd a nd s ea wa r d the b a rren bea ch with
,

perhap s a s trip of pa s tura ble fen .

The clim a te a nd vegeta tion of this region

60
 THE NOTION OF SOCI ETY
a re a lm ost a s peculiar as its s tructure The .

tur n of the yea r com es n ot as with us in the , ,

spri ng b ut a t the c l os e of the h ot dr y s um m er

, ,

when the fir s t r a ins torm s of October or No

v em b er m ak e new growth p ossible win ter ,

plowi ng begin s a nd gr een things g row towa rd

,

a brillia nt s p ring of fl owers a nd fres h v eg e

ta bles ; foll owed by gra in crops ha rves ted in

June or Jul y a nd then the s uccessi on of fr uit
,

cr op s the pr oduce of deep rooted trees s e

,
-

lected from the n a tur al vegetation or intro

duced fr om the for es ted h ighl a n ds n ea r b y
—
Vin e olive fig m yrtle m ulberry la sting on
, , , ,

through the dry s eason till the r ain supply is ,

ren ewed o n c e m or e Ab o ve the lim it of c ul ti

.

va ti on there is p asture for sheep a n d goa ts o n

the hills for pigs in the oak a n d wa ln ut for es ts
, ,

a little fen — la n d a nd r eed b rak e for horn ed -

ca ttle behi n d the s ea fro nt a nd a little fi shi ng ,

and sp onge divi n g d own the gu lfs a nd r oun d

-

the sm aller is la n ds I n thes e r estricted a nd

.

is ol a ted habita tion s there h ad grown up in ,

the s econ d third a n d fourth thous a n d years

, ,

befor e our era the graceful a rti stic a nd cul

, , ,
“ ”
tur ed people wh o crea ted the Min oa n c ivili
s a ti on of the b r onze ag e with f r equen t i n ter ,

cours e a t a ll per iod s with Egypt b ut very ,

little conta ct either wi th the continenta l ar ea s

of As ia Min or to the eastward or wi th the

61
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
co ntem p orary civilisation s of the m iddle D a n
ub e a nd the S outh R ussia n gr ass l and to the

Of the s ocia l arra ngem ents of the Minoa n

peoples we k now s omethin g from the pl anni ng
of their p a l ac es a n d s m a ller h ous es in C r ete ,

in the Cycl a dic is l a nds a nd i n their col oni al

,

s ettlem en ts on the e a s ter n front a ge of m a i n

l an d Greece Of their p olitica l a dm ini s tra tion

.

we k now less except tha t i n its higher s tages

,

it w as cl osely centra lized roun d p alatial cour ts ,

which were a t the s a m e tim e a sa n ctuary a ,

countin g h ous e
-
with wa rehous es for pro duce
, ,

a nd a n a ca dem y o f a r ti s ts a nd cra fts m en em

,

ploying their skill on new m a teria ls ga thered

from far a n d in terpreting into na tive styles
,

the dec ora tive reper tory o f the contem p ora ry

a rt of Egypt .

S o l ong a s the s ecl usion from c onti nenta l

neighb ours w as m a in ta i n ed a nd in tercourse
,

with Egypt a nd other p a rts of n orth Africa

wa s unim peded the devel op m ent of thi s Bl i
,

noa n c ulture wen t o n with out ser ious accide nt .

B ut a b out 1 400 B c begi n s a s er ies of viole nt

. .

disturba nces pa rtly due to estra ngem ent of

,

the m a inl a nd col oni es fro m the prim ary cen

tr es in the is la n d world a nd eventua l replac e
,

m ent of the C reta n by the Mycenaea n

tradition Violently a nd generally ; b ut p artly
, ,

62
 T HE NOTION OF SOCIETY
a nd a s tim e went m a inly ,
by the intr usion
‘

o n,

of less civi lis ed a nd m or e a ggr ess ive peoples ,

wh os e aggres sions are s o dis tributed as to s ug

gest tha t their origin wa s fr om southea stern
Europe an d prob ably in grea t p art fr om the
,

m i ddle D anube Their ra va ges extended to

.

Cyprus the coast of Syria a nd the Nile Delta

, , ,

a nd p r ob a bly a l s o far to the wes t Their con .

quests repeatedly devas ta ted a nd m a de trib

,

utary to thes e new m as ter s los t m uch of their ,

in dustrial a nd artistic sk ill a n d m a teri al pros

p erity .We begin to trace l a rge feudally
orga nis ed confeder ac ies of terr it ori a l C hi efta in

c ies in peni n sul ar Gr eec e a nd exten ding from

, ,

— “ ”
a cen tr e on the Hellesp on t the Tr oy a nd
“ ”
Ilion of the Hom eri c p oem s a l ong the -

north sh or e of the E g ea n a nd the north a nd

wes t shores of Asia Minor ; a nd we ha ve

glim ps es between 1 33 0 a nd 1 1 80 B c of quar . .

r el s a nd s truggles between thes e co nfedera cies ,

“ ”
a nd betwee n a n Achaea n seap ower in the
[E g ea n and the Hittite em pir e or the k ings of
Egypt Finally a b out 1 1 00 B C yet a n other
.
, . .
,

cris is , due to a n exodus of trib ally orga nized

hi ghla n ders from the directi on of Epirus and
Albani a wreck ed a lm os t all tha t was left of
,

the older culture drove m a ny of its rep resen

,

ta tives in dis or der thr ough the is l an d world -

onto the west coas t of As i a Mi nor a nd p arts

63
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
of the Leva n t a nd esta blished a regim e of
,

c on querors a n d oppr ess ors over a l arge p a rt of

the E g ea nward r egions of m a inl a nd Gr eec e ,

the D oria n a n d ZEolia n districts of the cl assi

ca l ag e .

H E R O I C AG E
TH E
Of the l a ter s ta ges of tha t per iod of m ara ud
ing a dventure which was b r ought to a cl os e by
these D ori a n a n d ! E olia n c on querors a n d espe
,
“ ”
cially of the Ach aea n feuda lis m which s eem s
to h a ve been es ta blis hed a b out five gener a
tions befor e their destruction of it we h a ve
,

Vivid a n d coher en t r em in iscence in the H o

m eric p oem s the ear lies t a n d in m any r espec ts
, , , ,

the m ost r em ark able m on um ents of the Greek

langua ge .

Thi s is n ot the occa s ion to discuss the diffi

cult p roblem s sugges ted by their litera ry form

a n d a t fi r s t s ight hi s t ori ca l conte nt .B ut it

would not be pr oper to m ak e the la rge use of
Hom eric a llus io n s to p olitical m atters whi ch ,

is i nevitable in a dis cuss ion of this k ind with ,

out i n dica ting i n a dva nce th os e a s sum ptions

as to their va lue a nd m eani ng , which every

s tudent of them m us t m ak e for him s elf a nd ,

confess if h is us e of them i s to be i ntelligible .

B riefly then the I li ad a n d Odyssey are here

, ,

r ega rded as p oem s which a tta ined their p r es

64
 THE NOTION OF SO C IETY
ent s hape rather rapidly a nd perh ap s within a
,
“ ”
s i ngle gen er a ti on
, early i n tha t D ark Age
“ ”
which follows the Period of C on ques ts a n d
“
lea ds on into the Period of C ol oni sa tion Their
.

a ll us ion s t o fea tures in a lar ger geogra phi ca l

“ ”
experien ce than th a t D ark Age ca n e as ily be
s upp os ed to h a ve enj oyed , a re in terp reted
r a ther a s r em i nis cen ces of the S ea R a ids of
the thirteenth a n d twelfth cen tur ies th an a s
a n achronis tic a llus i ons t o the col onia l m ove

m en t in the eighth a n d s eventh . The p olitica l

history whi ch they presum e a s fa m ilia r to
thos e wh o firs t tra n sm itted a n d enj oyed them
is identified wi th th a t of the A ch aea n feudal
ism oi the thirteenth a n d early twelfth cen
turies ; a n d the p olitica l a n d m oral s ta n dar ds ,

the a dmi ni stra tive a n d j udi cia l pr oc edur e of

,
“ ”
tha t Her oic Age as des cribed in the p oem s ,

m ay ther efore be r ega r ded as derived fr om the

sam e s tore of C O p i ous a nd c oher ent folk
m em ory a s the r efer enc es to loca lities a nd
even ts . That folkm em ory in thi s ins ta n ce
sh ould be so va lua ble a s our ce of ev idence is

precisely W ha t we shoul d be led to expect if

there h ad r ea lly bee n a n a g e of violence a nd
a dventur es of the k i n d which the p oem s p or

tray ; for this is exa ctly wha t oc curr ed dur i ng

a nd after the Nor s e col on iz a ti on of Ic el an d
'

the Saxon occupa tion of B rita in a nd m ore

,
.

65
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
genera lly during the m igra tions of the T eu
tonic peoples a long a nd across the n or thern
frontiers of the dec a den t em pir e of Rom e I n .

thos e ins ta nces there i s con tem p ora ry his torical

r ecor d of m a ny of the m or e im p orta nt p er

s on ag es, incidents a nd loca lities and the

, ,

c redibility of the p opula r tr a ditions can be

dem on stra ted F or the Heroic Age of Gr eece

.
,

we are only begi nni ng to ac quir e from con

tem p orary Egyptian s ources a n d m or e r ec ently
,

from the a rchives of the Hittite E m pir e in

As ia bl i nor the m a terials for a n a l ogous p roof ;
,

a nd for the m om en t it is the i nner c ons is ten cy

of the c on te n ts of this Hom er ic stor ehous e of

r em i nis cenc es th a t g uar antees its va l ue as evi

dence for the p olitical con ditio ns of a n ag e

“
when a s Thucydides p uts it ther e wer e not
, ,

even any Greeks yet a nd when we ca n only

,

es ta blis h in dir ec tly the use of the Gr eek lan

guage am ong s om e p art at leas t of the p op u
lation of E g ea n la n ds .

I n View h o wever of the opini ons m a in

, ,

tained by a num ber of distinguis hed sch ol ars ,

tha t the Hom eric p oem s in the form in which

we ha ve them h a ve been tr a ns l ated s o to ,

s peak, into m or e s tr ictly Helleni c shape in ,

r es pect of the m ora lity r eligion,instituti ons

, ,

a nd s oci a l p r ac tices of the ag e they p rofess to

describe it seem s d es irable to examine care

,

66
 T HE NO T I O N OF SOCIETY
fully before going fur ther the Hom eric usage
, ,

of som e of the ter m s which are conspicuous in

the p olitic a l voca b ul ar y of class ica l Gr eece If .

these words are found to be used in the p oem s

in their l a ter p olitica l s e n se it is obviously a ,

s tr ong a rg um e nt i n s upp or t of s uch a theory

“ ”
of r em odelli ng or exp urga tion of p re Hellen ic -

a nd non Helleni c fea tures

-
If on the other .
,

hand the Hom eric us age is dis tinct from the

,

Helleni c or only a grees with it in r espect of

,

Helleni c sur vival s from a p re Helleni c s ta te of -

things then the p osition is r evers ed : we m ay

,

a t a ll eve nts be a ss ur ed th a t in r egar d to thes e

a sp ects of the civili sa ti on which they des cribe ,

the p oem s ha ve n ot undergon e a ny s erious re

vision ; a nd we ga in thereby fresh confidence
tha t their allusions to such m atters rest up on
continuous coherent a nd vivid folk m em ory of
, ,

a peri od a ntecedent to th a t whi ch experienced

a nd indeed conditi one d the form ation of the

, ,

Greek p olitica l system .

H E R O I C AG E
TH E P OL I S I N TH E

The Gr eek city s ta te s ays Aristotle cam e

-
, ,
“ ”
into being to m a intain life ; or as he ex ,
“ ’
p resses it in a nother pass a ge for s ecurity s ,
”l
sak e . H ow literally true this was perhap s ,

Aristotle r ealised for h is k nowledge of early

,

Greek history was wide ; b ut neith er be nor

67
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
any a nc ient writer h a s left us a ny description
of th e r eign of terr or out of which the cr e a tion

of their ci ty s t a tes r es cued the Gr eek people

-
,

a n d i n r es cui n g cr ea ted it .

The folk m em ory which is tran sm itted in the

Hom eric p o em s com es neares t to giving us a
hint of the s ign ifica n ce of tha t crea tion ; for
though the wor d p oli s a nd its deriva tive
,

p o li tai , is i n co m m on us e it n eve
, r m e a n s a
“ ”
city s ta te
-
of the Helleni c type ; n or i s th e

wor d p oli tai ever us ed for the citizens of s uch a

corp or a ti on . Neither word tha t is b ad ac , ,

quir ed as yet its p oli tica l m eani n g .

The Hom er ic p oli s is a geogr aphi ca l a nd a

m ilitary exp r ess i on : it is a fortified pl ace I ts .

“ ” “ ” “
epithets are pr ecipitous , well built well ,

” “ ” “
walled , W ith b ro a d wa ys with fa ir habita
,
” “ ”2
tion s s et a b out with towers It ca n be
' ‘

.
,

s een from a far , a s when Ze us from the

“
m oun ta in top look s up on the p oli s of the
”3
Troj a ns a n d the ship s of the A chaea ns .

The establishm ent of a p oli s is thus de

4 “
s cribed : He drew a wall about the p olis a nd
built hous es a nd m a de dwellings of t h e gods
, ,

”
a nd di s tr ib uted ploughla nd s ; pro viding thus
for p urely m a terial needs for defence for r esi
, ,

dences for m en a nd gods a nd for or derly food

,

s upply . There is even a verb form ed from the

5 “
noun , to descr ibe thes e p roceedi ngs : In a
68
 TH E NOTION OF SOCIETY
pla in it h ad been fortified [p ep olis to] a fortress ,

[p oli s] of articul a te [intelligible and therefore ,

” “ ”
c ivili s ed] m en It is holy a s other places
.

”
a nd per sons are holy because they a re ,

guar ded a nd m a inta in ed by s om e divi ne

“ ”
p ower If th a t power fa ils it is the sum m it
6
.
,
“ “
or hea d of the p olis which is r uined a nd let
”
down as a tree or a grea t r ock falls ; it is
,
7

“ “ ”
tak en a nd held by the enem y wh o ha ve ,

“ ”
ca m ped r oun d a b out it s
D uri ng the s trug.

“ ”9
gle m en g o into the p oli s a nd wa ll a nd .

com e out from it It is coupled with b ut dis

. ,

ting uish ed from a nother wor d as ty which as

, , , ,

we shall s ee is applied a s strictly to the city

,

a s a pl ace of r es idence a s p oli s i s to its func

,

10 “
tion a s a fortress C onsider now h ow thou
.
,
”—
m ayest save p oli s a nd as ty c it a del that is ,

a nd lower town : a nd the ch am pion of its

“
ca us e i s described a s the b uttr es s of the
”1 1 “
p oli s . When it fa ll s they k ill the m en, ,

” 12
a n d fire devas ta tes the p oli s The deriva .

”
tive wor d p toliethron s imi la rly conta ins the
property of its defen ders The enem y for ex .
,

am ple deb a tes whether

, to s ack it utterly or
to divide up everythi ng a ll the good s th a t the
,

"
fair p toliethron m ight conta in wi thin it 3
.
’

Som etim es a p oli s bel ongs to a n in di vidual ,

either its foun der or its actua l r uler ; in L em

“ ” 14
nos , for exam ple is the p oli s of Th oa s ;
,

69
 PO LI TI CAL I DE AS OF THE GREEKS
and on the other hand an indivi dual m ay be
identified by the p oli s to which he belongs
locally as he is identified in respect of descent
,

by th e nam es of his a nces tors : a stranger for ,

“
ins ta nce is ask ed Where are your p olis and
, , ,

your p arents ? “ 5

Sim ilarly its p ali tai in H om er are the d e

fenders of this fortress neither m ore nor les s
, .

“
The enem y is sa id to capture s teep Di on a nd
” ’
kill the p olitai , its garris on 16
At Hector s
.

“
death s o Priam sp ak e weeping a nd therea t
”1 7
the p olitai wailed I n Ph aea cia there was a
.

“
conduit at the lofty pal ace whence the ,
”
p oli tai took wa ter a nd a nother in Ith aca
, ,
”
near the asty ; it was p rovis on for the r e s i

dent garris on not for the country s ide

,
18
O nce .

only the wor d p olis is u s ed for the defen ding

“
force in a sortie the wh ole p olis of Troj ans
,
”1 9
adva nced confidently .

F or the inh abita nts in m ilita ry array for —

the field arm y tha t is — there was a nother
,

word altogether lac s (or in the plural laoi )

, ,

denoting the sam e individuals as the p alitai ,

but in a nother of their functions Pr ecautions .

“
a r e ta k en les t a b an d [of the enem y] enter
”2 °
the p oli s while the laoi a re away besieging ,

an other p oli s for exam ple : or in S a rp edon s

’
,

21 “
rep roach to Hector ; Thou sayest thou wi lt
hold the p oli s without laoi a nd allies alone ,

70
 THE NOTION O F SOCIETY
with thy brothers a nd b the So ro rs -in-la w . ,

too am ong the scen es on the shi el d of Achil

,

22 “
les : a b out the other city lay two arm ies of

laoi , wh o being m erely hum a n forces wer e

, ,

r ep res ented on a sm a ller s ca le th an the two

“
deitie s wh o led them bea utiful a nd l arge i n
their arm our as god s should be conspicuous
, ,

on either h an d a nd the laoi, were sm a ller

” “
below them They are preceded by two
.

vedettes of laot alert to espy sheep a nd oxen with

,
”
curved h or ns The laci then were s ep a rate
.
, ,

com p a nies or tr oop s in the m ilitary orga ni sati on .

T o this other word laos a l one d oes any p o , ,

litica l or ra ther civil s ignifica nce seem to be

, ,
“ ”
a ttached as yet for in the tri al scene on
, ,

23 “
the sam e shield la oi were in the pl ace of
,
”
ass em bly i n m ultitude
, a nd a s the two liti ,

gants a pproach the court leoi cheered on

both of them supp orting them on either
,

ha nd ; and heralds then were trying to restra i n

”24
the laos , which is used here in the sin gula r
for the plural laai which com p osed it in a way ,

which sugges ts th at the plural laoi are orga ni c

sub di vi s ions
— tribes cl a ns or what not to — -
, ,

which each individual bel onged prim arily ,

while thes e s ubdivisions collectively con s ti

tuted a b ody p olitic corp ora tely c oncern ed i n
,

the proper s ettlem ent of any di sp ute between

m em bers of it .

71
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
The contrast between the words p olis a nd
as ty r eappears i n their com p ounds From the .

“ ” “ ”
one we h ave destroyer or sack er of fort
“ ” ”
resses ; f rom the other , p acifier and l ord of
a people in its h om es .
”S
A nd to anticip a te for
,

a m om ent the l a ter usages of these wor ds eve n ,

in cl ass ica l tim es when p olis wa s us ed with out

further qualification by an Athenia n it m ea n t ,

the Acropolis on its fortress rock 26

while a sty
-
,
“ ”
denotes the town a s opposed to the country
“
di str icts as a n E nglishm a n spea ks of going
,

to town m ea ni ng Lon don as tos describes the

‘

towns m an a s resident proprietor with his i us

27
,

agri p ossidendi (t o use th e R om an equiva le nt

‘

for the Gr eek term ) a nd as tei os hi s refined

,

m a nners or h is cock n ey wit in contras t to the

,
“
b oor ishness of the a groi kos wh o m erely h ad
,
”2 8
his h om e in the fields Sim il arly a court
.
,

open to fr eeh olders only was di kas terion as ti

kon ; a nd the correl ative of as tas in this a spect

“ ”
is rather the r es ident a lien
, , m etoi kos th a n
, ,
“
the for eigner azenos ,
29
It is n ow eas y to see
.

h ow wor ds lik e p oli s a n d p oli tai ac quir ed their

la ter m eani ng ; b ut it i s significa nt that it wa s
fr om the c om m on b on d of m utua l defence and
the m a intenance of a com m on cam p of r efuge ,

in a n a g e of violence tha t the Greek city state

,
-

a nd its citiz ens t ook their eventual nom encl a

72
 THE NOTION OF SO C IETY
Other term s describing the com m unity in its
various aspects a n d functi ons th row a li ttle
m ore light on e arly s ta ges of s ociety in Gr eece .

“ ”
Mere m ultitude is expr essed by p lethos a s ,

by its La tin equiva lent p lebs p lebes by the , ,

p leme of the southern Sla v peoples a nd by the ,

“ ”
des criptive hom ados which is a collec tion or
“ ”
fortuitous crowd contrasted expr essly in the
,

Ilia d with the orga nised la w “ If the l a tter

.
,

as som e h a ve s upp os ed a nd as its cognate

,

lei ton s uggests m ore clea rly is connected with

,
”31
the verb for ra vage it h as a close p arallel
,

in the Lati n p op ulus with its verb p ap ulari ,

which ret a ins the s am e s ens e B ut it m ay be .

doubted whether closer a n a l og y is not offer ed

by the Teutonic leute (old high Germ a n li ut - -
,

“ ”
with a Gothic verb li uda n to grow ) a nd ,
“ ”
old B ulgar ia n lju
-
do people
, .

T H E W O R D D E M OS
Hom er ic uses of dem os which h as so p rom
,

inent a pl ace in the l ater p olitical v ocab u

lary are a s significa nt as th os e of p oli s itself
, ,

a s to the com p a ra tively r ecent em ergence of

the p olitica l regime of the Greek people .

Though the word itself h a s been com pared

“
phil ol ogica lly with the Ira ni a n dam foll ow ,
”
ing, in Hom er it is a lways used in a terr i
,

torial s ense either for the habitable area as

, ,

73
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
where the B oeotia n s a re holding a very fat
dem os ,with a n epithet appropriate to cul ti
“
v ab le s oil ; or a m an lives i n the fat demos of
” 32
Lycia . S o too when a good a nd a b ad
, ,
“ ”
m a n a re des cribed r espectively a s a joy a nd
“ ”33
a disaster to the p oli s a nd a ll the dem os ,

the contrast is between fortress a nd open

country s ide ; a nd in thi s sens e the s hip of
“
Odysseus cam e to the dem os a n d p oli s of
“
Cim m eria n m en a nd Odyss eus him self wa n
ders to a dem os a nd p oli s of m en of other
”34
spee ch .

It is in general a ccord with this original

m ea ning th a t in Attica l ater and a ls o in ,

som e other districts where the p op ul ation

lived sp ars ely o ver the countryside sm a ller ,

econ om ic group s vill age settlem ents or town

,

ship s , a r e s ever a lly c alled a dem os a nd their

“ ”
inh a bita nts dem es m en (dem otai ) as well as
-
,

kémé which is a k i n to G othic ha i m s Lith

, ,

ua nia n kem as kei m as Pr us s ian caym is a nd

, , ,
“ ”
old I s l a n di c thi ng hei m r
- -
a cro wd
, a tten di ng

the thi ng or m a ss m eeting We m ay infer tha t.

ké m é h a d origin ally m uch the s a m e s ens e as

the cogn ate wor d kém os a crowd ga ther ed for
,

a fes tiva l or for r ecr ea tio n C ollectively there

.
,

fore the whole countryside p opul ation was

,

demos in its econom ic a n d st atistica l in deed -

,

in the dem ographic s en s e .

74
 TH E NOTION OF SOCIE T Y

A t ble surviva l of this ea rlier s ens e of

no a

demos is the di s ti nction ob s erved in Athe ni an

public doc um ents between p oli s a nd demos I n .

all r esol ution s dea lin g with their own i nterna l

affa ir s the Atheni a n s descr ibe the m s elves as

“ “
the dem os decr ees begin It s ee m ed good ,

to the council a nd demos a nd con

‘

“
ol ude with the h ope tha t it m ay be for the
”35
bes t with the demos B ut trea tie s with other
.

s ta tes a re either betwee n their people a nd the

“ ”
Athenians s im ply or between them a nd the
36
,

p o li s of the At he ni a n s
37
the m, otive her e bei ng

s ec urity r a ther tha n i nte r na l a dj ustm en t In .

Spa rta sim ilarly the whole s ta te in its r ela ,

tions wi th other s ta tes cons ists of L a kedai

,
“ ”
m ani ci inh abita nts of La ced aem on concern ed
,

with the integrity a nd welfa r e of th a t r egion ,

whether serfs them selves or fr ee ; wher eas the

“ ” “
S p arti a ta i m en of Sp arta the p a tch of s own
, ,
”
ground a long the upper reaches of the Eurota s
River never occur in trea ties for thi s word
, ,

applies only to the m em bers of the gover ni ng

body which decided all questions of internal

,

or der W ithin the terr it ory of La ced aem on or

Laconia its elf 38

The sa m e m ea ni ng of dem os
.

is ill ustrated by its ear ly com p oun ds a n d espe ,

cia lly by its use in proper n a m es Thus we .

ha ve demos elders wh o a re o ver fighting ag e

-
, ,

b ut still good publi c speak ers a nd sit on the ,

75
 POLITI CAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
fortress wa ll to wa tch the b a ttle Ag am em 39
.

“
non is abu s ed by Achilles as a ki ng wh o de
”
voars the demos s in ce he is m a ster of nobodies ;
,

he h as that is no resources of hi s own but

, , ,
“ ”40
lives on the countryside A chi ef with his.

“ ”
followi ng blows in on h is way to the wars ,

to the place of a frien d s frien d

’
Hi s h os t s ays .

that he enterta in ed the lea der in h is own

“
house and to the rest of his com pa nions wh o ,

cam e with him I ga ve m ea l from the dem os

, ,

a nd collec ted d ark wine a n d o xen to sacrifice ,

’ ”41
to their hearts c ontent Here the ra nk a n d
.

fil e wer e quar tered on the r esources of the dis

trict the l ocal p ri nce orga nis ing the contrib u
,

tions of h is people 42
Later b ut s till in early
.
,

phras eology the p oet S tesich orus described a

,
“
public enterta inm ent as a dem os g ift of -

”43
gra ces . Proper n a m es such as Dem osthenes ,

“ ” “
the people s s treng th D em oleon lion of the
’
, ,
” ”
people , Dem ophon voice of the people
, ,
“ ”
Dem od ocus r eceI VI ng the people r eflect the
, ,

la ter p olitica l usa ge ; b ut D em ouchus can

“
hardly be other tha n hol ding (owni ng) the
” “ ”44
township or dis trict .

F ina lly a m a n of exceptional sk ill— seer

, ,

phys ician crier ca rpenter is a

, ,
— demos
”
work m an dem i ourgos for h is craft is at the
, ,

s erv i ce of a ll h is n eigh bours n ot o nly for his ,

fam ily or k in dred a n d i n the H ym n to H erm es

46
,

76
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
“
the da wn is m etaphor ica lly such a public
” “ ”
s er va nt , becaus e lik e the wa k ener in s om e
,

old E ngli sh tow ns it ca lls the countrys ide to

,
“ ”
its wor k 46
These public s erva nts ra nk ed
.

for m a inten ance wher ever they h appened to

be lik e the war retinue of a friendl y chief ; and
,

in their own country s ide we m a y i nfer tha t

they were m a inta ined by the inhabita nts col
lecti v ely a s you m a y s till be s hown in s om e
,
“ ” “
Englis h villages the S mi thfield or the H ay
”
wa rd s Piece which w as form erly cultiva ted
’

by the rest on beha lf of s uch m en whose sp e ,

cia l job p reocc upied their ti m e .

TH E MAS S ME E T I N G
-
IN H O ME R I O
C O MM U N I T I E S
Hom eric descriptions of the m ass m eeti ng -
,

agor a , ill ustra te the s im plicity of the ter m s

us ed to des cribe thes e s ocia l r ela tion s ; a sim
p lic ity whi ch we sha ll fin d to be cha ra cte r is tic
of the Gr eek p o liti ca l voca b ul a ry th rough out ,

a nd el oquent of its p op ul ar or igi n F or this .

wor d agora is s im ply the verb a l sub sta ntive of

“ ” “ ”
a s tem m ea ni ng to collec t o r get together ,
“
as when Melea ger is descr ibed getting to
gether hunting m en from m a ny a
Espec ia lly it is used of collecting peop le for
w ar or b us in ess 48
Lack of s uch a n agora was
.

one of the m ark s of sa va gery in the Cy cl op s

77
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“ ”
folk for it brought decision by expr ession
,
49

“
of the gen era l will O n the other ha n d
.
,

even in cam p before Troy Odyss eus contin ,

’

gent h a d a r egula r m eeting pl a ce a nd it is ,

des cribed a s a n agora 50

Alta rs of the gods
.

s tood in it a n d s om e spot or contriva nce

,

c a lled them i s to which we s h a ll h a ve to r etur n

,

la ter T o do bus in ess i n s uch a n agora a nd

.
,

espec ia lly to a ddress a m ass m eeting is ,

agoreuei n a n equa lly s im ple exp r es s ion a n d

,

quite colourless in origin ; a nd such a speak er

“ ”
is agoretes 61
Speech in agor a wa s free a nd
.

privil eged even if it ch a llenged the Views of a

,

s uper ior
52
Ther e is clea rly her e a m easure of
‘

politica l orga ni s a tion a n d politica l sense b ut ,

it is described very sim ply a n d there is one ,

ins ta n ce only when m en gather in a n agor a

without regul ar s um m on s by a m em ber of
som e p r ivil eged fa m ily This however wa s o n
.
, ,

a n exc epti on a l occa s ion when the n ews of the

,

m ur der of the S ui tor s cam e by m er e r um our ,

“
pers onified a nd describ ed a s going in all
”
directions thr ough the p oli s ; a nd it is in a
p assage which wa s r ecogni s ed in a ntiquity as
prob ably a l ater a ddition to the poem 53
.

Group term s ba sed on difference of la nguage

do not appea r in Gr eek ; ther e is no thing a n a l
og ous to the La tin use of nom en or old S la
54 -

“ ”
jezeku, to ng u e Thi s
. is the m or e ,

78
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
no a t ble s eeing tha t differences of la nguage
,

wer e m a tter s of c om m on experience I n th e

Her oic Age a n d were even as s ocia ted with
55
,

differ ent peoples within a s ingle region s uch

“
a s C r ete wher e ther e wer e
, m en m a n y c ount ,

les s a nd ni nety p olei s a nd the l a nguage is

, ,

m ixed one of s om e a nother of other s a nd

, , ,

ther ein a r e Achaea ns a nd high hearted Eteo ,

-

cr et ans a n d K ydoni a ns a n d D ori a ns threefold

, , ,
” 56
a n d go dlik e Pel a sgia n s Even ethnos whi ch .
,

bec om es l ater a term of m ild contem pt for

un Hellenic peoples
-
with n o orga nis ation
,

higher tha n tha t of the cl a n lik e the Rom a n ,

“
use of gentiles for f or eigners h as no such ,

im plica ti on I ts der iva tio n is ob s cur e p er

.
,
“ ”
h aps r el ated to ethos c us tom perh aps to
, ,

“
hesm os s warm
, b ut m or e p r ob ably t o o ld
,
“ ” “
Pruss ia n am si s am zi as lifetim e a nd so g en
, ,
”
cra ti on of m en I n a s tr ik i ng p ass a ge of the
.

I li ad we find within eleven lin es ethnos us ed

of bir d s of a s w a rm of flies
, a n d of the con ,
’
ting ents of Aga m em no n s a rm y 57
.

O n the other ha n d the w or d s used in cl a s , ,

si cal tim es for the gr oup s m em ber s of which

, ,

are m em bers of the c ity s t a te which thos e -

groups cons titute a re a lm os t a lways descrip

,

tive of k in ship s : ( 1 ) genos lik e the La tin gens ,

a n d n ati o (gn atio) Sa ns k r it jan a old Sla voni c ,

-

“ ”
narodu (2 ) p hratri a brotherhood equiv
68
, ,

79
 TI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
o s ou th Sl avoni c br ats tvo
-
(3 ) p atra
,
° 59
,
”
i ty, a n d p rob ably a lso (4 ) the Hom er ic
(m ore com m onl y p hyle in l a ter Greek ) ,
“
s us ed a l s o for a s wa rm of flies for ,
“ ”
) le of wom e n or go ddess es b oth
60
s ex ,

Ili ad a nd by cl as s i ca l a uthors ; a nd a l so
“ ”
ally for offsp r i ng of a m an or
wholly in accor da n ce with its root
“ ” “ ”
g grow , com e i n to bei ng rep re ,

a p r im i tive Ind o E ur opea n r oot bheu

-
, .

r Gr eek it i s us ually a l a rger group of ,

th e p hr atri a is a divi s io n , s ta n di ng thus

south Sl a v oni c p lem e to the br a ts tvo
-
.

Qes tor a dvis es Aga m em non t o m arshal

‘

“
ny in ki ns hip group s divide the m en
,

atry by p hylon th a t p hr atry m ay defen d

, ,
”
a nd t ribe tribe , a n d dem ons tra te to
,

“
ner a l which of the lea ders a nd which ,

cl a ns [ laoi ] is b a d a nd which is good for ,

”62
ill fight each by them s elves .

a rrive thus from exa m in a ti on of the

,

voca b ul ary a t a pic tur e of a s t a te of

,

in whi ch e ach h a bita ble terr itory h as

try inh abita nts of its o wn cons is ti ng of ,

D gr oup s , la rger or sm a ller which for ,

rte acti on in pea c e or w a r a r e lu oi .

laoi are only b rought in to r el a ti on with

“
ther by two m ea ns : one is the m as s
”
g, agora of their fighti ng str eng th of
,

80
 TH E NOTION O F SOCIETY
a dult m a les in whi ch disp utes between m em
,

bers of di fferent lac i a re a dj usted by a p a nel

or benc h of elders gerontes a nd speech is
, ,

free a nd privileged ; whereas outside a n agor a

, ,

the pr otests ; or incitem ents to dis cord of indi ,

viduals are li able to r ep r es s ion by force as ,

when Thers ites speaks evil of the p aram ount

chi ef a nd is p ublic ly bea ten by Ody ss eus
63
, ,

with gen era l a pprova l The other is the ini tia

.

“
tive authority of the divi ne born leaders -
,

whi ch m ust engage our a tten tion la ter .

Thi s picture of H om eric com m uni ties is ,

however very differ ent fr om tha t of the city

,
’
s ta te i n Helle ni c ti m es Even Thucydides de
.

s cr ipti on of a n ea rly Helleni c ph a s e in whi ch

“
there were still hereditary k ingship s on term s
”
of specified p ri vi leges is very far from de
scribing the b a r onies o f the Achaean feud a lis m ;
“ ”
the divine b orn k ings of the Heroic Age
-

ruled by divine right a n d their own good

“ ”
s word s ; they were s hepher d s of the people ,

b ut they lived on their fl ock s They could

.

“
cheerf t s a ck a town or s o of th os e wh o
,

live roun d a nd are m as ter ed by to

m ak e r oom for friends of their own as Men e ,

laus offered to do for Odysseus if Telem ac hus

could fin d him . Sur vivals in deed there were ,

both in Sparta a nd other con ques t states in -

,

Sam os and som e other s ettlem ents of the mi

81
 POLITI CAL I DEAS OF TH E GRE EKS
g ration period , a nd even in a e few co oni s of
l
co m p ara tively l a te foun da tion , as a t Cyr e ne ,

where the fa mi ly of the lea der of the origi nal

settlers r uled for s even gen er a tions a nd h a d ,

its p rivileges eventua lly curta iled in the wa y

Thucydides descr ibes . B ut the r el a tion in
which the constituent k ins hip group s stood to -

the com m unity a s a wh ole in its p olitica l a s

,

p ect is differ ent ; a nd s eei ng tha t we h a ve n ow

,

been able to fix fa ir ly a c cura tely a peri od in

which there wa s still n o s uch p olis in the ,

Helleni c s ense we m ay turn t o the geograph

,

ica l distribution of the p olis regim e in cl a ss ic al

-

tim es with s om e hope of a s certa ining a t a ll ,

events approxi m a tely the region within which

,

s uch com m unities ca m e i n to exi s tenc e withi n ,

the com pa ra tively short lim its of tim e to whi ch

we ha ve now been able to confine our in quiry .

TH E GE O G RA PH I C A L D I S TR I B U TI O N O F T H E
G R E E K C I TY STA T E S
-

I n the period when Gr eek history be g ins t o

be r ecogni sable as a continuous a nd coherent
na rrative , a b out the m iddle of the eighth
c entury B . C ., Gr eek city sta tes wer e being
-

founded a lrea dy in considerable num bers out

s ide the cr a dle la n ds of the archipel ago ; a nd
-

the fa ct tha t there was a lrea dy r ec ognis ed a

“
form al procedure for establishing a hom e
82
 THE NO TIO N OF SOCIETY
”—
a way from hom e
- -
to use the graphic Greek
na m e ap oilci a fo r thes e fo un d tio
a ns — s hows

tha t it is not in thes e outla nd regions nor in ,

this c om paratively la te period tha t the origin ,

of the c ity s ta te is t o be f ound

-
Even withi n
.

the E gea n its elf too c ons iderable stretches of

, ,

coas t lin e h a ve only es ta blis h m ents of this

s econ d a ry coloni a l kin d ; for exam ple the ,

northern coas t fr om the frontiers of Thes s aly

, ,

north of Mount Olym p us to the Hellesp ont

, ,

wa s for the m os t p a rt coloni z ed la te piece ,

m ea l a nd in fa ce of opp osition in all the

,

ea s tern ha lf of it from the na tive Thra ci a n

tribes Only in the Cha lcidic peni nsula were
.

there cities old enough to h a ve no very a c:

cura te d a te s for their es tabli sh m ent ; a nd even

here the Cha l cidic cities k new quite well as

, , ,

indeed their n a m e im p lies tha t they were for

, ,

the m ost pa rt col onies of Cha l cis in Eub oea .

Nor wa s the whole a rea over which Greek

dia lects wer e spok en occupied by p olitica l
com m unities of the c ity s ta te type -
Through .

o ut the m oun t a i nous a nd for es t cl a d dis tricts -

which lie between the wa tershed of the Gr eek

peni nsula a n d its wes tern c oa s t s ociety was
trib a l s till i n the fifth century 65
The [E to .

“
lia ns for exa m ple
, were living in unwa lled
,
”
villa ges a nd thes e fa r ap art when they were
i nva ded by a n Atheni a n force in the yea r 4 2 6 ,

83
 P OLITI C AL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS

an d h ad egiona l governm ent though they

no r ,

ra llied their lightly ar m ed forc es s wiftly a nd

’
ha ndled th em with vigour a nd skill in m oun ,

ta in warfare agains t regul ar troops

, The .

Acarna nians further west h ad a fortress at

, ,
“
Olp ae on a strong bill by the s ea which th ey ,

h a d fortifie d once up on a tim e and us ed as a

” 66
comm on court of j ustice ; a nother of their
settlem e nts Stratous is des cribed as a p olis
, , ,

a nd was wa lled ; but they h ad no field ar m y -

,

a nd relied on guer illa ta c ti cs

67
H ow unlik e the .

norm al city s ta te regim e were the soc ieties of

-

thi s wh ole region is illus trated by the fact

,

that here alone of Greek spea k ing di stricts

,
-
,

were there esta blished colonies from a nother

Greek city ; for in the s eventh century Corinth
h ad foun ded her e a ch a in of regula r ap oiki a i ,

from ( Enia dae on the coas t of [E tolia to Am

bra cia north of the g ulf of th a t n am e .

Even in Phocis a m o ng the foothills of P ar

,

nas sus a nd Heli con th ough s eve ra l sm a ll c om

,

m uni ties are described as p olei s ther e was no ,

city of the Ph ocia ns onl y a Ph oc ia n m eeti ng

pla ce P hoki kon like tha t of the Acarna nians

, , ,

b ut app arently unfor tified lik e the Althing of ,

Icela nd in the Sa ga per io d -

.

Arca dia in the Pelop onnesia n highl ands is

, ,

not m uch better Independent p olei s it h ad

.
,

but on a m inute scale and em b a rrassed by ,

84
 THE NOTION O F S O CI E TY
trib al egio n al groupings as in P arrh asia
or r , .

Only in the larger easter n plai n ar e there tw o

riva l p olei s Tegea cap a ble of h olding its own
, ,

in ea rly tim es a n d never ins ignifica nt a nd ,

Manti nea foun ded l a ter and experim enta lly by

,

five s elf conscious p olitica lly s ophisticated vil

-
,
”
l ag es a nd r es olved into thos e villa ges in the
, ,

four th genera tion only by a s im ilar p olitica l

,

m a noeuvr e O n the Argive b order to the

.
,

northeast O r ch om enus P h li us C leonse a nd

, , , ,

Nem ea m ark a trans ition from Ar cadian

,

im m a turity to con quest s ta tes of quite dif -

ferent structur e ; O r ch om enus including a t

least six dis tinct com m unities three of whi ch ,

form ed a k in d of inner r ing or tri p oli s perhap s , ,

F or onthe eas tern s lopes of the watershed

the s tructur e of th e country is differ ent The .

ra nges veer a p ar t in ter cross a nd incl os e con

, ,

sider ab le l owl a n d a r eas Am ong thes e Thes .

,

saly, the m os t northerly is large enough to ,

supp ort a ra nchi n g r egim e of grea t a nti quity , ,

though the ranch o wners cha nge ; a nd the las t

-

conquer ors in the twelfth century held the

, ,

plain in large baroni es a nd exploited the ,

labour of form er occupa nts in large villages ,

a nd of the tr ib a lly orga ni s ed folk of the foot

hills and highlands P errh aefbia ns Magnetes

, , ,

D olop es and the lik e

, Here the conquerors
.

85
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
were pletely dom i n ant though race feud
com ,
-

sm oulder s ; a nd a s the con quer ors lived on

their ranches ther e was little pla ce for town

,

life or a town p opul a tion The perenn ial .

s h or tage of c itizen s in the p r ecar ious p oli s of

Larisa was a bywor d I n the m ore rolling .

country towa r d th a t fl ooded duplica te of Thess

a ly
, the Gulf of Vol o Paga s se Iolcus Pherae , , , ,

a nd P h thiotid Ach ae a r a nk ed as p olei s b ut wer e

”
infested by dyn as ts by the rule of force
, ,

tha t is of the ra ncher b ar on with the larges t

,
-

troop of reta iners S o far north a s this it should

.
,

be noted the lWi noa n culture h a d onl y begun

,

to spr ea d a t the m om en t of its coll ap s e Ther e .

h ad indee d been very little ea rlier civilis a ti on

, ,

a t all a nd the fla t topped m oun ds whi ch m ark

,
-

the p re Minoa n ham lets per ished a lm ost s im ul

-

ta neous ly with their i nitia tion into E g ea n cul

South of Thess aly lie old trib al terr itories

whos e contingen ts a re m arsha lled territorially
in the H om er ic C a ta logue wher eas Thess aly ,

para ded feuda lly by b aronies Ther e was lit .

tle Bl inoa n her ita ge b ut al so di s continuous

,

a nd im perfect con ques t ; p oleis are few a nd

m inute as in Ph ocis ; a n d ther e a re glim p s es in

,

historic tim es of m ass m eetings s ugges tive of -

tribal s tr uctur e .

I n the larger districts which com p os e B oeo

86
 THE NO T I O N OF SOCIETY
tia , there is aga in con quest a nd occup ation of
,

the pla ins by the con quer or : ther e is race

'

feud a s in Thes s aly b ut doubly exp res sed in

, ,

the rigid m inor ity gover n m ents norm al in all

thes e com m uni ties a nd in a n a ntip athy b e
,

tween centr a l plain a n d m argin al foothills of ,

which the feuds between Thebes a nd its neigh

bours Plataea a nd Thespiae are the bes t k nown
exam ples B ut there a re well established p oleis
.
-

in B oeotia a n d Thebes a t a ll events h a d a

,

Minoa n pas t of s o m e dis tinction I n poin t of

, .

a nc ien t fa m e however a nd rea l p olitical im

, ,

porta nce in the far p ast Orchom enos a n , ,

im porta nt s econ dary centre of the earlier

“ ” “
Mi nya n cultur e quite outra nged
, C ad
”
m eia n Thebes .

Sim il arly in th e s outher n con quest-ar ea

, ,

Elis i n nor thwester n Pel op onn es e h a d been

fl ooded with m iscella neous im m igra nts from the
tribal districts north of the gulf an d only ,

crea ted a p rec a rious im ita tive p olis in the

fifth cen tury .
—
From D oria n Megara whi ch
never foun d a n a m e of its o wn b ut r em a ined ,
“ ” —
m erely the h u es th oughout to Argos
o s r ,

there were uniform l y con ques t s ta tes with mi -

nority go ver nm ent a nd m or e or les s acute

r ace feud te m per ed a t C ori n th though not in

-
, ,

its riva l ZEg ina by com m er cial prosperity a nd

, ,
“ ”
in all cities of this Is thm us region by com
87
 TICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
s which a dm itted at leas t a s ecti on of
[quered to p oliti ca l pr ivi lege m or e or ,

a lified within the p olis of the con

,

I n Laconi a a lo ne the garr is on s ta te -

rta risk ed no s uch com prom i s e only ,

JI l of s oc ia l s ta tus from unprivileged

“
e a n d com p ara tively tra cta ble neigh

to the far l a rger serf p op ul a tion of -

” “ ”
es or, fen folk ; opini ons differing
-

1 a ntiquity as t o the m ea ni ng of the

nam e I n Mes s enia we ha ve only folk

.

y of a founder ed con ques t s ta te a nd

-
,

s ervitud e to l a ter Sp ar ta n con quer ors .

ori an colonies of C r ete on the o ther

‘

repea t th e con ques t s tructur e of their -

rs m os t clos ely as would be expected

, , ,

«3 which were es ta blish ed by Sp ar ta In .

h os however a nd perhaps in Rhodes th e

, , ,

>op u lation m a inta in ed its trib a l structure

ndent of the D ori a n s ettlem ents .

rly it i s not in the con ques t r idden dis

,
-

) f the e as tern s ide of the pen in sul a th a t

to look for type specim ens or origina l -

of the p olitica l p olis Between triba l .

s a nd scar c ely veiled arm y orga nis a ti on

r
, ,

“
querors them s elves , s p rung fr om Pi n

the highlands a long the watershed or ,

1 it to the northwes t and triba lly ,

ed when they des cended th ence there ,

88
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
wa s little need a s there was ch ance for the
as

cr ea tio n of the k in d of comm u ni ty i n whi ch

“ ”
freedom am ong equals a nd similars c ould be
m a tur ed .

Only one cons idera tio n need deta in us her e .

A s between Thess a ly a n d B oeoti a ,in the

n orthern con ques t a r ea and
, between the
Is thm us sta tes a n d Laconi a in the southern
-
,

gr eater cap a city for a ccom m oda tion a m ong

a li en a nd h os tile elem e n ts s eem s to be cor

rel ated with m ore prolonged a nd intim ate

ha bitua tion to the Mi n oan culture of which
,

the centres of origin were in Crete a nd the

Cycladic isla nd world a nd the princip al m ain
-
,

land exp a ns ions in Argolis aroun d the Sar oni c

,

Gulf a nd al ong the shelter ed Euboean cha n

,

nels as fa r as the P ag as aaa n for e cour t of

-

Thessa ly Of the p olitica l Structur e of Mi

.

noa n com m uni ties we k now too little yet to

be a ble to dr a w concl usions as to the sig

nifica nce of thes e c oincide nces ; b ut we ha ve

evidence enough of their cap acity for or

g a nis ed exp l oita tion a n d for in dustri a l a nd
c om m er cia l enterpris es to pres um e a fai rly
high level of intelligent team work am ong their
inha bita nts If the rulers of C nos s us a nd
.

Mycenae were despots it was i n m any ways a n

,

enlightened desp otism a nd com patible with a

,

vigour a nd orig ina lity of ha ndling o n the part

89
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
of cra fts m en a nd tr a ders which is in m ark ed
contr as t with the s cr up ul ous con ventiona li s m

of Egyptian a n d Mes op ot ami a n life in a lm os t ,

ever y ph ase a n d aspect .

B efor e exam ining the Helleni c s ocieties of

the islan d world a nd the coasta l s ettlem ents
on the m a inl a n d of As ia bl in or
— the la tter a t
a ll events esta bli shed onl y in the l a tes t s ta ges of
—
the con ques t period we ha ve s till to dea l
-

with wha t m ay be pr ovi sion ally described a s

the s trongholds of the old p opul a tion Of .

these ther e a re thr ee — Ach aea Euboea a nd , ,

—
Attica a ll lying in intim a te m a rgin a l r elation
with the two con ques t a reas ZEg in a w a s prob
.

a bly a t on e tim e a four th a n a lter n a tive cita

,

del an d cam p of refuge in the hea rt of the

Saronic Gulf for dispos s essed folk from the
Isthm us region ; b ut in spite of its s eag irt
pos ition [Eg in a fell ea rly befor e D ori a n ag
,

g res sors fr om Epida urus and

, m ust c ount
therea fter a s a n Isthm us s ta te with m inority
-
,

rule a s in C or inth b ut with i nveter a te i nter na l

, ,

feud which ruin ed it ear ly i n the fifth century

a nd led t o its exti ncti on as a fr ee s t a te Of .

the other three strongh old s Achaea a voided,

con ques t by D ori an s p a rtly through the

,

s trong fr ontier defences a n d in ternal ob

s ta cles provi ded by its phys ical featur es ,

artl b eca us e it s eem s to ha ve been abl e

p y
90
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
som ehow to m ainta in (perha ps by s ea borne -

r esourc es ) the l arge a cces s ion of despera te

r efugee s from the lWin oa ni sed di s tr ic ts of Ar

golfs . A nd her e fr om the n eighb ours of

,

Sicyon on the ea st to Pa trae where this n orth ,

“ ”
ern r ivier a widen s into the c o n quest harried -

l owl a nd of Elis we find n um er ous m inute b ut

,

well characterized p olei s c om m uni ties with

-
,

s tr on g l oca l l oya lties a n d l oca l i n depen den ce

, ,

b ut a n unusua l una n i m ity of outl ook a n d

inter ests a n d m or eo ver a loosely feder a l
, , ,

s upers tructur e (p r ob a bly a her it age fr om the

tim e of their ea rly peril s ) which la ter ros e to

,

p oliti ca l a nd a lm os t n ation al im p orta nce in ,

conflic t with Mac ed on a nd with the r iva l

league of [E toli a n v illages acr oss the Gulf a nd ,

eventually in altern a te a llia n ce a nd a lterc a

tion with Rom e ; so tha t it is by the Ach aea n
n am e th a t we k n ow R om e s p ro vi nci al a dm in
’

istra tion of Gr eec e A ch aea t oo i n ea r ly days

.
, ,

when o verp op ula tion began a fter the wa r ,

drain on its m a n p ower s la ck en ed s eem s to

-
,

ha ve bee n a m ong the firs t dis tricts of Hell as

to orga ni s e r elief s ettlem en ts overs ea r eviving
-
,

for this p ur p os e old Mi n oa n m em ories of the

larger fea tur ed r egions of the fa r west ; so th a t
-

a la rge p a rt of the s outh coa s t of Ita ly b e

“ ”
com es a Greater Hella s i n the han ds of
Achaea n and other gulf lan d colonists -
.

91
 POLITICAL IDEAS O F THE GREEKS
Eub oea is as well defended by its twin g ulf
lik e chann els as Achaea by the s nowp ea k s of
,

its Arca di a n b or der aga ins t m ili ta ry shock s ; its

,

lowla nds th ough less n um er ous are larger ; its

, ,

n a tu r al r es ources am pler The s tron g bridge .

head p osition of Chal cis in Mac edonia n ha n ds ,

“ ”
one of the fetters of Gr eec e s ec ur ed the ,

only p oin t of r ea l d a nger provided tha t the ,

islan der s held the gulfs as their copious tim ber

,

su pplies a n d Min oa n herita ge of sea lor e qua li - -

fied them to do Th a t s o com m odi ous a r egion

.

sh ou ld rec eive l arge access ions of r efugee folk -

from all the northern conques t a reas m ight -

,

s afely be as sum ed even if it wer e n ot ill us

,

trated by the fa m ily hi story of the G ep h yr aea n

tribe which belonged to the n eighb ourhood of
,

Ta nagra esca ped in the twelfth cen tur y to

,

Er etria in Euboea and only la ter m oved on

,

in to Attica where it is foun d incorp ora ted late

,

in the s ixth century Jus t as Ach aea ns uti

.

li s ed th e wes twa r d a venue of the C or inth ia n

Gulf to deca nt their surplus p opul a tion in to
coloni a l hom es s o Chal cis
, drafted its em i
grants northwa rd by its own gulf a venue to -

the Cha lcidic peni nsul a a nd Er etria m a inly by ,

the southwar d ch a nn el into the isl a n d world ,

though it h a d its coloni es on the gulf wes t of

Chalcidice a s well .

Now in his tori c ti m es b oth Cha lcis a n d

,

92
 THE NOTION OF SO CI E TY
Eretria , a ndwi th them other sm a ller and his
torica lly ob scurer citi es of Euboea are p olei s in ,

the full sense of the wor d ; of m ixed origin yet ,

undisturbed by race feud or differenti ati on of

-

s ta tus a m ong their corp ora tors I n Helleni c .

“ ”
tim es they are in s om e s ens e Ionian a n d in ,

“ ”
this Ioni an ca p acity they p ar ticip ated lik e ,

the inh abita nts of Attica in the cerem oni es

,

a nd p rivilege s of the ven era ble Pylia n Le ague ,

the constitution of which ca rries b ack its ori

gin far i nto p recon ques t tim es Now in the .
,

Hom eric poem s describing events l ong befor e

,

the tra dition a l da te for the coloniza tion of

Ionia there are Ionia ns hereab outs for they
,
‘

are b riga ded with the m en of B oeoti a Locri s , ,

a nd Phthi a up the nor thern channel Yet

the Cha lcis Eretria Hi stiaea a nd s o forth
, , , ,

of Hom er a re n ot Ioni a n c ities b ut bel ong to ,

the Aba ntes a people of wh om ther e wer e

,

m em ories (perh ap s even trac es) in c l ass ica l

E ub aaa 68
, a nd num er ous desc en d a nts in the
“
Ionian colonies on the coast of Asia hfi nor .

Pr ecisely h ow Chalcis or Eretria becam e

“ ”
Ionia n it is n ot easy to say ; b ut the fac t
of this ch a nge of eth nic cha r ac ter im plies a

p rofound recons titution between their Hom eric

a nd their cl a ss ic a l ph a s es Since there wer e
.

“
a lso in the Ionia n c ities of A s ia Mi nya ns
from Orchom enus mixed up a nd C admi eians ,

93
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
a nd D ryopes a nd sundry k in ds of Phocia ns
”
a nd Molos s i a ns from far Epir us as well as ,

Arca di ans a nd D or ia n s— of wh om m ore l a ter

it s eem s prob a ble tha t this tr a ns form a tion of
these Euboic town s into Helleni c p oleis is it
s elf an i nciden t of the genera l exp ul si on of
large elem ents of the m a inla nd p opula tion dur
'

ing the period of con ques ts I n E uboea then

.
, ,

a s in Achaea we h a ve the double coi ncidenc e of

,

interm ixt ure of peoples a nd of the enfor ced

,

inclusion of r efugees from Mi noani sed a re a s ,

a m ong the i ngredien ts of the m ixtur e in a ,

district which n ot on ly con ta in s ther ea fter Hel

len ic p olei s a s its norm a l type of co m m un ity ,

b ut m etrop olei s which a re a m on g the ea r lies t

a nd m os t p rol ifi c of the m o ther cities of col o nia l
-

p o lei s further a field .

SPE C IA L CA S E O F ATT I C A
TH E
Attica the thir d refugee stron ghold of Old
,
-

Greece is m ore i n structiv e s till s i n ce we k now

'

, ,

m or e of its ea r ly hi s tory a n d ca n a n a lys e our

,

lo ca l in form a tion i n the light of tha t from

Achaea n a n d Euboic sources .

C o ns idered a s a geographica l region Attica ,

incl udes m or e tha n w a s ever united p olitically

in the Atheni a n Sta te of his tori c tim es F or .

the m a in wa tershed ra nge of the Greek P en

insula the general trend of which a s far s outh
, ,

94
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
as Parn as sus a nd Helicon is from nort hwest to ,

s outhe a s t s wer ves e as tward bey on d this p oint

, ,

s o th at the a xis of th a t s ection which is r ep re

s ented by Cithaer on a nd Parnes runs due e as t ,

formi ng an a brupt b arr ier s outh of the B azo

'

tia n l owla nds fr om the C orin thia n to the

,

south E ub oea n gulf

- Para llel with thi s ra nge
.
,

the s teep ga ble r idge of G era neia prec ipitous

-
,

eas tward over its Saronic shor e a nd projecting

b oldly a t its west end into the C ori nthian g ulf ,

cuts off even m or e com pletely fr om the I s th

“
m us r eg ion the wes tern or Mega r ea n
-
s ection

of wh a t in ear ly tim e s s eem s to h a ve been

“
k nown as A kté the prom ontory
, or m ore , ,

fami liarly Attica Aga ins t b oth the northern

, .

a nd the southern con quero r s thes e n a tu r a l b ar

riers s eem to h a ve bee n held l ong enough to

“
ena ble the prom on tory to s erve firs t as ,

m er e refuge for the dis p os sess ed on either

ha nd ; then s ince its own na tura l r esources
,

—
wer e not l arge a cons idera ble p art of its a rea
being not o nly m oun ta inous b ut m arble built -
,

a n d ther efor e un us ua lly b arr en even for Gr eek

—
m oun ta ins as a s wa rm ing gr oun d for new set -

tlem ents in the isl a n d wor ld which loom s up

-

on the h oriz on of its fla nk ing se a s We hear .

,

in deed of one gr ea t B oeotia n r a id b ut it was

, ,

r epelled ; of a D or ia n r a id as fa r as the centr a l

pla in where Athens s ta n ds b ut this too was ,

95
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GR EE KS

read y m en tioned was perm a nently alien ated

by D or ia n occup a tion though the na m e of
,
“
its eventu al ca pita l ta Megara
”
, the hous es
, ,

“ ”
or huts, s h ows h ow pr ecar i ou s even th is

conquest was a t fir s t 69
.

The politica l hi s tory of the Attic p rom on

tory was thr oughout as peculiar as its struc
tur e U nusually copious folk m em ory pictured
.

its half-d ozen distinct l owl a nds s upp orting

“ ”
num er ous peoples s ep ara tely orga ni s ed eco
nomi cally and at one tim e as m a ny as a d ozen
,

independent chiefta incies p olitica lly a prey to

,

a l a te ph as e of th e old C r eta n s eap ow er which ,

we ca n trace on several sites expl oiting their

r es ou rces as it di d th os e of the Ar give p rom o n
,

tory a nd m a ny p arts of cen tral Gr eec e Then

, .
,

a b out the m i d dl e of the thirtee nth century ,

cam e ins u r r ec tion r ep ri s a ls a nd a genera l re

, ,

volt under the lea dership of Theseus pr ince

, ,
“
of Athens whos e un ifica tion of the p rom on
,
”
tory peoples though perhap s interm ittent in
,

respect of the pl a in of Eleusis an d certa inly

,

undone in r espect of Mega ra to the wes twa rd ,

la id the foun da tions of a n unusually large an d

uni quely coherent terr itori al r egim e the U ni ted ,

Sta tes of Attica with a federal capita l a nd

,

com m on m eeting pla ce defen ded by the n a t

-

ura l fortress whi ch Athenia ns of all periods

96
 THE NOTI ON OF SO CI ETY
kn ew fam iliarly as the p oli s a nd by its local
,

gua r di a n the arm ed goddess Pa ll a s Athene

, ,

whos e double n am e m ay well com m em orate a n

identifica tion of Our Lady of Athens with
Thei r La dy of P a llene a lea ding towns hi p of
,
“ “
the m idla nd pla in M esog aea on the other
”
,
”
,

s ide of Mount Hym ettus . The quite sub ordi

“
na te p art pl a yed by the people of the p ro
”
m on tory i n the days of Ach aea n feudalis m ,

within whi ch the expl oits of Theseus fall is ,

the counterp art of this n a tion a lis t r ejec tion of

the overl or dship of Achaea n C nossus ; a nd the
tr adi ti ons of dynas tic riva l ries within the new
Attic s tate sugges t tha t old l oya lties died
“
har d B ut the s tory of the com ing of I on
.

”
the war lord into Attica in the lifetim e of
-

Theseus is a glim pse of a n ea rlier occasion

when thi s r egion beca m e a defens ible r allying
gr oun d for dis pos s ess ed people from the south
er n a r ea of Achaea n d om in a ti on a nd of a ,

nota ble fa cility with whi ch it a b sorbed a nd

dom iciled a liens ; a nticipa ting a nd enhancing

, ,

its eventual rOle as central as ylum for such

I n Attica , then, even m ore clear ly than in

Euboea , we find the physical circum s ta nces,

regrouping of previ ous ly s elf conta ined p eo

-

“
ples , whi ch was a politi r econs truction in,

97
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the s trict sen se of tha t wor d ; in tha t a n o ver
m a stering em ergen cy perh aps a lso a n indi
,
“
vidua l of genius m a de them a c qua inted wi th
,

”
ea ch other a n d s uper im p os ed on triba l a nd
r egion a l l oy a lties a co n sci ous delibera te ad
h erence to a n executive a n d a dm ini s tr a tive
orga ni sa ti on whic h s uper s eded for the gen er a l
,

good the s evera l a dmi ni stra tions of the c on

federate groups ins ofar a s their a ctivities im
,

p a ired its p ar am ount auth ority ; whil e admi t

ting the c on tinued exercise of loca l a nd triba l
functions a nd in deed gua ra nteeing their con
, , ,

s erva tion by the m assed forces which the

l oyal co-opera tion of each com m unity placed a t
its sole disp osa l A s Thucydides sa ys of The
.

“
s eus, Ab olishi ng in the other s trongholds
[p o lei s ] their co un c il h a ll s a n d executives he
,

em b odied them a ll in the str onghold we have

’
ident s o ffice a n d com pelled them to a vail
,

them selves of thi s s ingle s tr onghold whil e

ducti ng their severa l a ffa ir s j ust as before ;
whi ch s ince they all n ow c ontrib uted to its
,

m a in tena nce bec a m e p ower ful a nd w as tra ns

,
”
m itted by Thes eus to thos e wh o foll owed ,
“
a dding th a t befor e this tim e wha t is now the
cita del [ac r op oli s ] together wi th its s outhwar d
”
s lope w as the s tr o nghold [ p olis] whi ch he
had p revi ously m enti on ed a nd thereby de ,

98
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
fini ng the s en s e in which tha t a lm os t untra ns
la ta ble wor d is to be un der s tood in this
70
context .

Tra dition was n o less explicit tha t it wa s in

,

the light of this quite exceptiona l series of

experiences th a t the m ob s of r efugees whi ch
,

p our ed into Attica from n orth a n d from south

wer e ra llied a n d r eorga nis ed into thos e col on
ising expeditio ns which p a ssed out of the
prom ontory region into the isla n d world and on
- -

to the c en tra l di stri cts of the wes t coas t of

As ia lVli n or .Ma ny of thes e r eta in ed folk
m em ory of their Attic or igin a n d a cons id
,

cra ble num ber ob s er ved a nnua l fes tiva l s whi ch

were the counterp art of Athen ia n cults .

Distress ful a nd violent as w as this cris is of

tra ns m i gration through Attica Thucydi des ,

m ak es h is account of it sub s idia ry to his ex

pla na tion of the deep sea ted a b origin a l a dh er
-

ence of the Athenia ns of his ow n tim e to their

unfortified c ountry towns , sca tter ed hom e
s tea d s, a nd l oca l sa nctuaries ,which to them
were still wha t the fortified s trongh old (p olis )
w as to the G reek s of a ll other districts their ,

im m em orial h om e incidenta lly dem ons tra ting

,

the Coexistence of p olitica l with c om m una l

l oya lty in thi s uni quely con stituted s ta te .

—
H o w u ique it wa s h ow com pletely in the
n

followi ng centuries poli tica l loyalty h ad a tro

99
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
p hied all o the illustra ted by the pen da nt
picture of the fate of thos e Ionian colon es
i

them selves at the next clash of cultures the ,

Persian con quest of their A sia tic hi nterl an d ,

when Thales lik e Theseus of old adv is ed

, ,

“
that ther e should be foun ded one council
hall— to be in Teos becaus e this was centra l
for Ioni a— a nd th a t the oth er c ities th ough ,

inhabited a s before should be rega rded a s if

,
”—
they wer e to wnshi p s demes lik e the m edia
,

tised to wnship s of Attica — a p roject as Hero ,

“
dotus grim ly notes which h a d its a dva ntages
,
”
even befor e Ioni a wa s ruin ed b ut which
found no m ore s upp ort than the a lternative
71
pla n of evacua tion .

B oth nort h a n d s outh of the r egion thus

”
occupied by Ioni a n coloni es sim il a r city
,

s ta tes wer e es tabli shed d ur i ng the sam e m i

g rati on period b oth on the m a i nl a n d of A sia

,

Minor a nd in the coa s tal isl a nds The nor th .

“ ”
er n colonies spea k ing
, ZE olic dialects ak in to
those of the con quest area of northern Greec e ,

tra diti ona lly tra ced their descent from tha t
r egi on a nd i n a dditi on som e of them cl a i m ed
, , ,

continu i ty with ra ther ear lier s ettlem ents c on

“ ”
s equent on the Troj an W ar th e tra dition al
,

da te for which wa s early in the twelfth cen

tury two genera tions tha t is befor e the
, ,

conques t b ut also two ge nerations after the

,

100
 T H E NOTI ON OF SO C IETY

t blishm ent of the Pelopid a nd [E a cid dyna s

es a
“ ”
ties of the Achaea n re gim e B ut in their .

“ ”
historic sh ape thes e E olia n coloni es pr esent
m uch the sam e s tr uctur e a nd foll ow the s a m e
political developm en t as their Ionia n neig h
bours a n d as som e of the la tter included
, ,
“ ”
ZE oli a n fam ilies they m ay be r ega r ded a s
,

s ta n di ng i n m u c h the s am e r el ati on to m other

lands ar oun d the P ag as aea n Gulf a nd the

n orth E ub oea n ch a nn el a s the Ioni a n to the
-

s outh E uboea n a nd S aroni c a r ea s

-
.

“ ”
The s outhern D ori c speaki ng colonies or ig
,
-

inated tr adition ally from Argolis dur ing the

sam e m i gr a ti on per iod
-
A few of them br ok e
.

new groun d on the m a i nl a n d i n a r egion a l

rea dy as sa iled lik e the n orther n ZEolic coa s t

, ,
“ ”
by Achaea n a ggr essors a s we learn from ,

Hittite a r chi ves The m a j or ity occupy isla n ds

.

ins hor e a nd al s o the s ca tter ed ar chipel ago of

the Sp ora des a nd ea ster n a n d c en tr a l Cr ete All .

“ ”
thes e D or ia n a rea s h a d been a lr ea dy s ettled
—
in La te Mi noa n tim es I al ysus in Rhodes as
early as the early fourteenth cen tur y b ut the ,

m a j ority not befor e the th irteen th th ough ,

they form ed p opulous b aronies un der Achaea n

dyn asties in the twelfth B ut their trib a l or
.

g a ni s a tion in hi s toric tim es s o fa r as it is

,

k nown was b as ed on th a t of the s outher n

,

c onques t are a of their tr a ditional origin ; a nd

-

10 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
it is p rob ably s a fe to r ega r d them as due to
delibera te pro visi on o n the p a rt of the com
,

prom is e sta tes in th a t ar ea for irreconcil able or

-
,

s uperfl uous ele m ent s fro m b oth the con quer ed

a nd the co n queror s . Thi s is s till m ore clea rly

s een i n the L ac o n i a n c ol on ies i n the i s l a nd s

Melos a nd Thera a n d in the wes t of Cr ete all

, ,

orga ni s ed la te a n d delibera tely by the Sp a r ta n

c on quer or s when they ext en ded their r ul e

o ver the l ower va lley in the n i nth c entur y a s ,

dep os itories for recal citra nt n a tives r a ther th a n

,

for a ny n a tur a l in cr ea se a m o ng them s elves .

W ha t is instr uctive her e i s the tra ditio na l

form ality of their establishm ent a his tor ica l
,

link between the m ore tum ultua ry s ettlem ents

of the m igr a ti on per i od a n d the a p oiki a , or
“
hom e a wa y fr om hom e which in the eighth
,

c entury w a s a l r ea dy the r ecogn is ed r em edy

b oth for overp opula tion a n d for incom p ati

bility of tem pers with in es tabl ished c ity
s tate s wh atever their own or igi n m ight be
, .

O R I G I N O F T H E P OL I S
TH E
From thi s geogr aphical survey of the distri
b ution of G reek city states a nd hi stor ica l
-

r etr ospec t of its ca uses the concl us i on s eem s

( I ) That this new type of com m unity a n d

form of go vernm ent did a ctually originate in
1 02
 T HE NOTION OF SOCIETY
the exceptiona l circum sta n ces of a sudden ,

violent a nd uni versal dis s oluti on of the public

,

or der i nhe rited from the Mi n oa n civili s a ti on .

( )
2 Th a t the c a us e of thi s c o ll aps e was the
con ques t of a l m os t a ll the m a in l a n d di s tri cts ,

which h a d been the r ecipients of th a t civilisa

tion fr om its i nsul ar origi n a tor s by new c om ,

ers wh o h a d been p r evi ously orga n is ed in

trib a l so cieties but wh os e tr ib a l s tr ucture h a d
its elf been s ever ely s tra in ed a n d m odified in
the cours e of their irr uption .

—
(3 ) Tha t in the northwes t a nd s outhwest for
,

—
exam ple in [E tolia a n d Elis where the new
,

com er s m os t c om pletely o ver whel m ed the older

order a n d wher e a l s o s uch older or der as ther e

h a d bee n wa s its elf lea s t a ffected by Mi n oa n

expl oita tion a n d s ettlem ents trib a l societies ,

with s m all sca tter ed a n d pr im ar ily econ om ic

, ,

gr oupi ngs r em a in ed cha r a cter istic a nd ubiqui

tous far d own into his tor ic tim es .

(4 ) Th a t in s om e p a rts o f the conquered

a re a
— Thes s a ly Laco ni a a n d p rob a bly Mes
, ,

s en i a — wher e the Min oa n herita ge w as in sig

nifica nt the c ultur a l gulf between co n queror s
,

and c on quer ed w a s n ever cl os ed a n d a r ule of ,

force was either perpetua ted into cl a s s ica l

tim es a s in Spa rta a nd Thessaly or exter
, ,

m i na ted ea rly a s in Mes s eni a

, .

(5 ) Tha t on the other ha nd in dis tricts

, ,

103
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
which h a d been m ore thoroughly M inoa nized ,

s uch a s Ar goli s an d the Is thm us r egion a nd to

-
,

a les s degr ee i n southern B aaotia va r ious com

,

prom i ses were eflected a nd c ity states cam e

’
,
-

i nto exi stence in which b oth the con querors a nd

the c on quered were corp ora tors th ough n ever
,

with com plete ac q ui es cence in the p olitical

equiva lence of all con stituent group s which ,

r em a i n ed trib a lly o rga ni s ed a n d c heris hed i n

t er trib a l a nim os ities which com pli ca ted thos e

-

econ om i c r ea dj ustm ents whi ch befell a ll city

s ta tes a lik e as s oo n a s the r es t ora ti on of m or e
,

norm a l c on ditions of m a i n ten a nce all owed

p op ula tion to grow towar d the m a rgin of
productivity .

(6) Tha t it is only in the l ast refuges and

r allyi ng gr ound s of th e older p op ula tions a nd
-
,

in dis tricts r epeopled by m ixed s trea m s of emi

gra nts h astily a n d pr ovis ion ally r eorga nis ed in
one or o ther r e s er v oir of tha t k i nd th a t there
,

is a ny cl os e app roxim a ti on to the typica l city

s ta te as a na ly s ed a nd ide a lis ed by the p olitic al
,

think ers of the fifth a n d fourth centuries the ,

period of Greek self consciousness a nd self

-

exp ression ; an d finally

, ,

(7 ) That in Attica where we m ight have

,

expected to fin d m os t com pletely realised the

coa les cenc e of the di s loca ted r em na nts of older

com m unities the form ac tually a ss um ed by the

,

1 04
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
P olis A thenaw n was its elf r ender ed a b norm a l
by the persistence right through the per iod of
,

tra nsm igra ti on into clas sica l tim es of a p o liti

, ,

ca l s tructur e ess entially federal a nd due to

, ,

histor ical ca uses a ntec eden t to the period of

con ques t a nd di sturb a n ce ; s o th a t her e the

p olitica l unity which beca m e exceptiona lly

,

cl os e k ni t i n spite of the extent a nd divers ity

-
,

a nd com plexity of the r egi on its elf a nd its

inhabita nts was nevertheles s com p a tible with

,

r em a rk a ble sur viva l s of a com m un a l a nd

econom ic r egim e which is in ess entia ls tha t

of the Minoa n c ultur e which the conquerors

a nnihil a ted els ewher e .

It har dly n eed s to be ob s erved tha t our ,

k nowledge of th e i nter n al orga nis a tion of the

Greek c ity states is far too fra gm entary to
-

a ll ow of a ny p r oof by sim ple enum era tion of

,

thos e whi ch conform ed to this genera lisa tion .

We c ann ot wholly bridge the gulf between the

triba lly orga nis ed p opula tio n s of this r egion
in the Her oic Age a nd the cl os e k ni t p oliti ca l
,
-

c orp ora tion s whi ch m ak e up the Gr eek w orld

a t the m om ent when we begi n t o per ceive i t

“ ”
em erging fr om the D ark Age of its infa ncy .

B ut enough is now k n own of the s tructur e of

som e of thes e p olei s suffic iently widely distrib
,

uted over the r egion which we ha ve foun d

reas on to r egar d as the cr a dle l a n d of thi s
-

10 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
type of s ociety to j ustify the concl us ion th a t
,

in p rinciple the p olis origin a ted in trib a l so

c iety a nd r ep r es e nts a r ea rra ngem en t o f trib a l
,

units i n a n ew p olitica l r el a tion to ea ch o ther .

Moreover we ha ve a lrea dy s een when we

, ,

were exam i ni ng th ose p arts of the Gr eek

speak i ng r egi on wher e the p oli s s ys tem i s lea s t
-

typica lly a nd m ost pr ecariously r ep res en ted ,

th a t its pla ce is filled by com m un ities which

were s till of es senti ally tr ib al structure The .

s a m e s ta te of thing s exis ted a l s o i n th os e p art s

of wes tern A s ia Mi n or of whi ch we k n o w

,

som ethi n g fa r o n in to c l a s s ica l tim es with

, ,

r egi on a l a nd tr ib a l com m un ities orga ni s ed i n

,
“ ”
wha t a re des cribed a s s ystem s of town ship s
with only the m os t elem enta ry p ro vi s ion for
ny ki nd of c o nc er ted acti on It I s cer ta inl y
a .
,

therefore n ot fr om this s ide a ny m or e tha n

, ,

from the Gr eek interi or tha t p olitica l i n spir a

,

tion c am e ; a n d a s we ha ve s een the circum

, ,

s t a n c es oi the ag e of m igration s were

them s elves exa ctly such a s to enforce ra ther
th a n inspir e in the fir s t i ns ta nce th a t tolera
, ,

tion of unr ela ted n eighb ours a nd p artn ers

which a l one m a de p o ssible the j oi nt efforts
which were n ecessa ry if life w a s t o be m a in
ta in ed a t a ll s till m or e if it w as to be in a ny
,

s ense a life w orth livi ng .

Thus the p oli s origina ted in trib a l s ociety ,

1 06
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
or , a t a ll events i n its m o s t origi nal a nd typ i
,

c al variety a m ong individua l s b r ed up in

,

trib al s ocieties a nd h abitua ted to trib al life .

B ut i n the fully f orm ed p olis trib al orga ni sa

tion a nd ins titutions play but a s ub ordinate
p art ; i n the life of its m em bers pub li c or as , , ,

we m ay n ow call them p oli ti cal functions ,

occupy a m uch l arger pl a c e th a n p r iva te

duties a nd s ta n d on a fa r higher pla ne of im
p orta n ce I n this r espect ther e is s trong con
.

trast with the politica l devel op m en t of early

“
Ita lia n com m uni ties a nd even with tha t m ost ,

”
Helleni c city Rom e where the fun ctions of
, ,

a n o rga ni s ed p riva te life w ithi n the li m its of

her edita ry gen tes rem a i n ed el a b or a te a nd vig

or ous F or the Rom a n good p a tr i ot a s he
.
,

wa s there exi s ted a res p ri vata of r ea l S l g nifi

,

ca n ce a l on gs ide th e r es p ubli ca of which we

hear s o m uch I n a Greek city state the cor

.
-

r ela ti ve to p oli tes is idi otes a n d it is b ut little ,

exagger a tion to s ay tha t if a m a n s con duct ’

a nd dis cours e ceas ed t o be p oli ti c it bec am e

idi otic—s elf c entr ed unr egar dful of his n eigh

-
,
’
b our s need in cons equent in its elf a s is the
, ,

cours e of a r udder less s hip a nd with out con ,

s equenc e ther efor e in h is n eighb ou r s eyes

’
, .
,

From the fir st a n d fr om the necessities of

,

the ca se trib al a n d all s uch s ection a l a ss ocia

,

tions a nd the b onds which constituted them

, ,

1 07
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF TH E GREEKS
s uffered a double encr oa ch m ent corr esp onding ,

with a d ouble tren d of p os itive p olitica l ev olu

tion The p oli s in virtue of its s up rem a lem
. , ,

the m a intena nce of the lives of all its m em ~

bers cha llenged the prerogatives of les s in

,
_

’
clusi v e g roup s a n d o verr ode the citizen s obli

g a tion to a ny one of them I n crim i n al law it

.

s ub stituted tri al for bl ood feud as s oc iated the

-
,

m em bers of a m a n s p hr atry h is p olitica l next

’
. ,

oi kin
-
with h is bloo d r ela tives a s the pros e
, ,
“ ” 72
cut or s the pursuers
, of h is m u r der er a nd ,

ultim ately sub s tituted p ublic functi onaries for

“
the corp or ate pur s uit by a ny such p oss e of
indivi dual s . I n c ivil la w an d espec ia lly in
,

r egar d to the tenure of l a nd within its terr i

tory it inter ven ed r epea tedly a nd dra s tically

, ,

to r em edy a b us es aris ing from the corp ora te

exploita tion of enta iled es ta te and from the ,

dissolution of p ar tn ershi p between coopera tors

a nd es ta te a s fa m il ies died out or their rep re
,

sent ativ es drifted in to other occup ati ons th an

a gr icultur e . I n a dmi nis tra tion it was c ontin

ually fin ding fr esh spheres for c orp ora tive a nd
public i ntervention supervis ing revis ing ex
, , ,

p loiting the en ergies and a ctivities of its m em

bers irrespective of their tra di tional duties in
,

a ny other ki nd of a s s oci a ti on .

O n the o ther ha n d a n d concurre ntly with

,

these encroa chm ents of the p oli s on hereditary

1 08
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY

g roupings within it the in dividual once as

, ,

s ured of s ecu r ity an d thi s rel a tive fr eed om of

a cti on on h is own personal account foun d it ,

p os sible a nd prefera ble to work out his own

econom ic sa lva tio n irr espec tive of h is fellow
corp or ators ; m ore espec ia lly s ince the cor

p orate activity of the heredi ta ry gr oup s was

so cl os ely r estri cted to the cultiva ti on of the

corp ora te h oldi ng of l a nd F or in s edentary

.

trib al s ocieties it would indeed be difficult to

s ay whether the la n d m or e tr uly bel ongs t o the

fam ily or the fa m ily to its la nd Not only did .

p opulation grow sooner or la ter beyon d the

, ,

c a p a city of their la nds to m a i nta in them a ll b ut ,

industries a nd trade offered larger r etur ns a nd ,

un divided e nj oym ent of the fruits of in dividual

effort Even where effort in th os e other v en
.

tures wa s n ecess arily cooper a tive the p a rtners

were not necesss a rily k i ns m en a nd the l oya lty ,

of a m er ch a nt to his p a rt n er of an a r ti sa n to
’
,

his b rethren in the cr aft of a s a il or to h is ski pper

,

a nd his s hip m a tes stood for m or e in h is exp e

, ,

rience a nd aspir a tions tha n the tradi tiona l

,

bond of k inshi p a nd la ndownership Hence .

in private law a nd s oci a l rel a tionshi p s the

familiar transition fr om s ta tus to contract ; in
public life the persona l in terests a n d resp on
sibili ti es of the indi v idual s etting him m o r e
,

and more on hi s own feet in face b oth of his

,

1 09
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
heredita ry group a nd of the uni versi tas ci s i um
,

which wa s the p olity whos e protection a nd ,

pr estige m a de s uch a m ode of life possible for

him a t a ll .

Hence too the r adi ca l r econs tructions of the

, ,

larger trib a l groupi ngs whose t r a dition al i n ,

terests a n d l oy a lties m os t dir ec tly conflicted

with the in ter es ts of the ci tizen b ody a s a -

whole or detr acted fr om tha t whole hearted

,
-

loyalty of each individua l to the p oli s on ,

whi ch in troubled tim es the s ec ur ity of all

s till p rim ar ily depen ded Exa m ples of s uch .

trib al r eform s a r e the r egr ouping of the hered ,

itary tribes by Cleis then es of Si cyon the ,

new tr ib a l con s tituti on i na ugur a ted by De

m on ax a t Cyr en e a n d the Sub s titution of a

,

pur ely ar tificial s chem e of ten exp r essly i n

“ ”
vented tribes for the four old Ioni c tribes by
Cleisthenes of Athen s .

Hence l astly the revolutiona ry pr oject out

, ,

lined by Pla to in the R ep ubli c for a s ta te in ,

which heredita ry ties of every ki n d should be

ab olis hed eve n t o the tie of p a ter nity a nd m a
,

ternity . F or this w as only b old a nticip a tion of .

a r es u lt which c ould be s een in p roces s of

rea lis a ti on a lr e a dy whereby the p oli tes a nd
,

the p oli s would be (a nd were being ) brought

into dir ect rela ti on a t all poin ts unem b ar ,

ras sed by a lter na tive a llegi a nce either to ki n

110
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
dred or l and or m inor as socia tion of a ny
, ,

k in d
. In deed in a m odern s ta te of libera l
, ,

constituti on we h ave very n early a tta in ed to

,

this ; nea rly en ough a t a ll events for the con

, ,

cep tion of s uch a n a b s olute citi z ens hip a nd ,

dir ec t com m erce between in dividua l and

s ta te t o be ca p a ble of lega l a nd phil osophi ca l
,

exam ina tion n otwithstandi ng the n otorious

,
’
fact that a m a n s p olitica l beha viour s till is in ,

deed very m uch in fluen ced by con sider ation for

,

his townsm en his p rofes s ion or tra de union h is

,
-
,
“ ”
chu r ch
, h is univer s ity cl as s a nd the lik e
, ,

th ough n ol onger (wi th a few n otorious excep

tions ) by ties of a heredi tary k in d .

’
Even in Pl ato s ra di cal p roject there are
s om e peculi a r fea tur es to be noti ced which ,

m ak e it a lm os t as gre a t a r eac tion from the

tren d of c ontem p orary events a s it w as a leap
in the dark beyond the four th cen tury s tage of -

em a n cip a tion from her edi tary ties Pl a to .

m ak es for exa m ple no p rovis i on for in dividua l

, ,

own er ship of l an d or other va lua bles ; it is i n ,

deed the excesses of in di vidualism then r am

, ,

p a nt on the econ om ic plan e which led him to,

withdra w fr om the citizen with the on e ha n d

m uch of wha t he p rofes s ed to offer hi m with
the other F or the s am e r ea son hi s p os tula te
.
, ,

that am ong benevolent equals ther e is no n eed

for p rivate ownership h as the res ult th at the
,

111
 POLI TICAL I DEAS OF THE GREE KS
t te tak es over in principle the whole b usi
s a
“ ”
ness of m a intaini ng life o n the ec onom i c

pla n e a nd assim ila tes it a t one s trok e to the

‘

,
“ ”
c ity of pigs with the vi sion of which thi s
argum ent s ca r es a wa y hi s di sp uta n ts from
ec on omi c dis cuss ion beyon d the s im plest ele
m ents And no s oon er h a d he s wept a wa y the
.
”

her editary groupings which s o deeply dis

tress ed him th an he r eclas sified his citizens
into castes far m or e rigorously a nd a rbitrarily
defined than a ny subdivi sions of a n actua l
p o li
, s le a vin g it a pp a r e n tly to tr a ining a nd ,

s hee r hum a n ity to p r even t th os e gr oup s fr om

,
“ ”
developing a cla ss consciousness which a -

m odern proleta r ia n m ight envy .

’
Of Ar is totle s com m on s ens e relucta nce to -

proc eed to ext rem es a n d a boli sh m i n or a ss o

“
ciations in the i nter es t of a theor etica l unity
”
of the s ta te it n eed onl y be n oted here firs t
, , ,

tha t this tolerance is supplem enta ry a nd s ub

ordi n ate to his m a in doct rine th a t in the p olis ,
“
we have the a ssocia ti on whi ch is sup rem e
” 73
over a ll a nd i nc lude s a ll the r es t
, s eeing ,

that its own function is nothi ng les s than to

realis e the s upr em e a im of hum an life wha t ,

ever th a t m ay be F or Aris totle cons equently

.
, ,

the p olis is com petent to encroa ch on the func

tions of a ny kin d of as sociation am ong its
“
m em bers in p ursua nce of its own p oliti
,

1 12
 THE NOTION OF SO CI ETY
aim . B ut the p olis is not its elf engaged in a
“
foodquest, a ny m or e th an it is r esp ons ible

for the expendi ture of the resources of its

m em bers s o long as thes e ac tivities do n ot
,

im pa ir the p oliti cal function of the p olis its elf .

“ ”
Economi c science I s in fact at this p oint
, ,
“ ”
fir s t expressly di sti n guis hed from p olitical ;
the m aintenance of lives from the m a intena nce
,

of life ; an d the a tta inm en t of well being in this

-

or tha t m i nor a ss oc i a ti o n in a ccor d a nc e with

—
its p r esum ed a im the sus ten a nce of thi s or
that fam ily on the pr oduce of this or tha t
— “
p arcel of l and for exa m ple fr om the p oliti
,
”
cal aim of s ecuri ng to each a nd a ll s uch

as soci a tion fr eedom a n d opp ortuni ty t o m a i n

ta in and enj oy its elf in its ow n norm a l way ,

with only the sam e im plicit pro vis ion that its
doings are com p atible with a nalogous doings of
other lik e associ ations . It is in deed pr ec is ely
because Aristotle is content to lea ve s o l arge a
par t of the citiz en s activiti es to h is own dis
’

cr etion th a t he la ys so m uch s tr ess on the

“ ”
political neces sit y of providing for the tr ain
ing of the in divid ual s wh o are to as sum e this
resp ons ibility in their turn .

TH E C I TY TH E C L AN AN D T H E IND IVID U AL
, ,

Fr om the twofold encroa chm ent then of the , ,

p olis and th ose econom i ca lly em ancip ated indi

1 13
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
viduals wh o ultim a tely
pos e it upon the
com ,

pr evious a utonom y of the triba l or fa m ily

group em erge cert a in fun dam en ta l con ditions
,

a nd functi ons of c itizens hip c om m on t o all

citiz e ns wh atever the peculi a rities or a ntece

,

dents of th e her edita ry or econom ic group s

i n which they are corp or ators .

There wer e occa sional exceptio ns whos e rar

ity is itself i ns tr uctive a s evidence of the
general un iform ity of ob s er va nce At Athens .

the G ep h yraea n cl a n to which belonged the

,

m ur derers of the tyr a n t Hipp a rch us was ,

k nown to be of for eign nor thern origi n a nd

"

the Atheni a ns a dm itted them to be c itizens

of their ow n b ody while p r escr ibi ng their ex

el us i on fr om a num ber of thi ngs n ot worth

”74
m ention ; b ut ther e wer e com pens ati ons a ,

c er tai n r ecip ro city i n thi s k i n d of ta bu for ,

“
they ha ve cha pels built i n Athens wi th ,

which the r est of the Athenians ha ve nothing

to do other r ites ap a rt from the other tem
,

ples a nd i n p a rticul ar a chapel of Achaean

,
”
Dem eter a n d s ec ret cerem onies F or ordi .

na ry Athe ni a ns as ,we kn ow Dem eter w as ,

O ur La dy of Eleus is : this Achaea n Dem eter is

presum ably sh e whos e high pla ce was the con
-

“
v enti cle of th a t north c oun try League of the
”
Ga te the P ylia n Am phicty ony which h as its
, ,

nam e from the Pas s of Therm opyl ae a s the ,

1 14
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
pas s its elf h a s from the wa rm sp ri ngs where
the pres ence of the E a rth Mother wa s m a ni
fes t .

Another Atheni a n exa m ple of which unfor ,

tun a tely we k no w les s i n deta il is the fa m ily of ,

I s ag ora s the p olitical opp onent of Cleis thenes ;

,

of wh om Hero d otus (a lwa y s curious a b o ut the

foreign a ntecedents of grea t Athenia n houses )

“
h as only this to s ay th a t h is k in dr ed s acrifi ce s
,
”
to a Zeus wh o is a C ar ia n ; n orm a l Athen i a n s
by th at tim e worshipping the Olym pia n Zeus ,

a nd the C a r i a ns h a vi n g old tim e r ep ut a ti on for

-

“
deeds of vi olen ce on the high s ea s a nd a Lor d ,
”
of H os ts of their ow n a t L a b ra nda wher e his ,

sa nctuary s till p a r tly s ta nd s em bl a z oned wi th

‘

his spear a nd shield 75

.Im a gine for a counter ,

pa rt a n E nglish fam il y of crusa ding pres tige

, ,

of wh om you m ight lea rn in confidentia l w his

“
pers tha t Woul d you believe it a t fa m ily ,
”
prayer s they use the n am e of All ah ?
While tolera ting thus occ a s iona l idiosyncra
s ies a m ong it s c ons titue nt gr oup s the p oli s ,

did on the o ther ha n d res erve the right to

, ,

interfere in the m os t i ntim a te affa irs of a ny

“
fam ily which s hould exercis e its pr ivate
”
r ights in wa ys which thr ea ten ed the fr ee
exercise of sim il a r rights by other constit
uents or e nda ngered the s ecurity of them all
, .

F or ins tance , the fa m ily a nd the genes com

,

1 15
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
p os ed of bl ood rel a ted fam ilies exi s ted lik e the
-
, ,

“ ”
p o li s it s elf
, t o m a i n t a i n life , a n d w as co m
petent to give or withh old the right to live to ,
“ ”
each little s tra nger wh o appear ed i n cour se ,

of na t ure in its m ids t

, . With the details of this
r ecruitm en t of the m em bers hip of a Gr eek
fam ily the p oli s h a d in gen era l a b solutely n o
“
con cern . It wa s to no public r egistra r of
”
births tha t a n Atheni a n fa ther pr es ented the
n ewly arr ived i nfa nt for acc ept a nce b ut to h is ,

ow n a ncest ors , ob s olete b ut by no m ea n s

n egl igible corp ora tors
— s lee pi n g p a rtn ers as it ,

wer e— in a perpetual a ss ocia tion of which he ,

the hous e fa ther wa s the exec utive p artner a nd

-
,

a ctua l tr us tee . It is for them a s he carries the

,

76
child three ti m es r oun d the h ous e fir e -
to con ,

firm or r evis e h is p r iva te j udgm en t a s to the

n eedfu l ness of thi s ca n di d a te for m em bership .

Only if he h as firs t a ppr o ved its ca ndi da ture ,

a n d they h a ve co nc urr ed in it h a s the new

,

com er a ny r ight to live ; a nd ther e i s evidenc e

enough that the r is k of exc ee ding the p re

c a rious m argin oi sub s is tence was terr ibly
r ea l i s ed in Gr ee k h ouseho ld s a t all peri od s
77
.

B ut if the ch ild w as a ccepted it wa s in or di ,

n ary c ir cum s t a nces no co ncer n oi the p oli s ;

a dm i ss io n to p ublic r ight s , of a n a d olescent

m em ber of a n econom ic unit w as a s ep ara te ,

a nd m uch l a ter a ffair a nd thi s d ecision res ted

,

11 6
 TH E NOTION OF S OCIETY

with th at p oli ti cal cons tituency within th e p oli s

in which the fam ily Of the young m an wa s
its elf enrolled ; in Athens the township or ,
“ ” “
deme els ewhere the
, brotherhood fa ther ,
” “ ” “ ”
hood , thousa nd block house
, or other
-
,

pictures que s ur vi va l from da ys when the p oli s

was h ar dly yet m or e tha n a fortress or a n
a rm ed cam p of pioneer settlers ra llied to
-
,
“ ” 78
m a inta in life .

But in excep ti onal circum sta nces the p oli s

could and di d interfere to r evise the verdict

of a n economi c group on p olitica l gr oun d s At .

Sp arta s oft hea rted fa thers were prevented by

,
-
,

public inspection of their offspring ( fr om con ,

“ ”
cedi ng the r ight to live to childr en for wh om
ther e was no r ea sonable expec ta tion of m a in
tena nce on the fa m ily farm or fr om wh om ,

there was no p rospec t of norm al p ublic utility

as fighti ng m en in view of their phys ica l con
,

dition At Thebes in later tim es the p olitical

.
, ,

contr ol O pera ted the other way to p revent ,

niggar dly or s elf in d ulgent fa thers fr om re

-

je cti ng r ecru it s wh om the p oli s w as lik ely t o

need l a ter on a n d for wh om on p ublic ground s

,

it was des ir a ble to m ak e ro om in that fa m ily ,

79
in view of the risk s of war or di s ea s e A n d in .

view of Sp a rta s sta n ding n eed of m en there is

’

no reas on to supp os e th at the p ubli c ins p ec

tion of infa nts di d not opera te in th is dir ec tion

1 17
 POLITI CAL I DEAS OF THE GRE EKS
too ; though our inform ation com es as an a t
tem pt to expl ain the fine physique of the
Sp art an s oldiery a nd cons equently lays ex
,
’
el us ive s tr ess on the s ta te s right to elim inate

weak li ngs . Certainly the fa ct that am ong

,

Sp arta n k ings Ag esilaus was l am e from infa ncy

a nd C leom enes otherwi s e ab norm al shows ,

that in sp ecial cir cu m stances a ll owa nces were

m a de .

We h ave s een th at Synoecism in the sense ,

a lrea dy described
80
, involved wha t we m ust
r ecog nis e as a definitely p olitica l act the de , _

liberate choice oi a m ode of life an d a m od e of

governm ent It p resum ed the r esigna tion of
.

inherited privileges a nd prej udices the ac ,

cep t a n ce of r es tri cti on s on h a b itua l or n ewly

ac quir ed fr eed om , the p utti ng of heads to

“ ”
gether a s lik e a nd equa l cop artners for large ,

com m on en ds ; the n ec ess a ry e nd of m utua l

m a intenan ce a n d defenc e a t a m om ent when

,

to a ct s ep ar a tely w as to peri sh ; a nd the idea l

en d of s a vi ng from the wr e ck age of the p a st

wha t was m os t worth s a vi ng the heritage of

,

beliefs a n d ha bits which h a d m a de th at old

or der worth fighti ng for t o the l a s t .

It i s hardly nec es sary to ins is t th a t in such

circum st a nces and in Gr eek l and s wi th their
,

rugged ,a us ter e l a n d s cape a nd s tr i ctly lim ited

“
cases of h abitable groun d s elf su
,
-
fficiency of
1 18
 THE NO T I O N OF SOCIETY
”
m a intenance, the words of the p op ular
in
definition ,
81
for a n exp a tr ia ted m ob was a ,

question of organis ed l abour intens ively a nd ,

intelligently app lied O nly thos e wh o have

.
_

s een a Gr eek com m unity in s om e such cri si s

r ea li se either the a m ount of phys ica l energy

which is sunk a nd im m obilized in the m ere

cons truction of terrace wa ll s to concentrate -

a nd cons er ve the soil befor e the fir s t crop ca n

be s own el sewhere th an on the va lley b ot

tom s ; or the lab our even here of clearing the
82
, ,

tough s crub la nd vegeta tion a nd haling to

-

gether the strewn boulder s into ca ir ns a nd

p arty walls a s you m ay s ee done in m ora ine
,

s tr ewn di stric ts o f New E ngl a n d U nder the .

c ircum s ta nces the phys ica l energy was there

,

and the good will ; wh a t w as needed for well

being w as effic iency which c om es from fore

,

s ight and i ni ti a tive The work ers m ust be

83
.

led orga nised dis trib uted ; they m ust kn ow

, ,

what th ey a re doing a nd they m ust know ,

each other .

I n s uch a pr edica m en t Aris totle s phra s e

’

r ings lik e a n ech o of s om e Foun der s D ay

’

“
hym n : He wh o fir s t m a de them acqua inted
with each o ther was a uth or of the grea tes t
”84
b enefits . Litera lly the wor d m ea ns to,
“ ”
place together ; in m odern Gr eek it sur vives
“ ”
to describe the introd uctions which m ake
119
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
you ac qua inted wi th the right people in the
districts where you tra vel Wha t was needed
.

“ ” “ ”
was a good m ix er , well m et with all and
sundry , instinctively a nd sp onta neous ly m ak
ing them feel a t hom e : in official Gr eek of the
col oni zing peri od ,when the sam e elem entar y
work was to be done over again he is de ,
“
s cr ibed s im ply so : oi ki s tes he wh o m ad e
85
,
”
them to be at hom e .

S econdly there was the n eed for initiative

, ,
“
for an executive over a nd a b ove the natur
author ity of elder s a nd hea d s of fa mi lies over

their s everal households and k in dred groups -

.

Thir dly b ut not wholly dis tinct from this

, ,

there wa s the need for a com m on rule of life ,

expressi ng rights a nd duties as between p er

sons a nd gr oup s unconn ec ted by a ny na tu ra l

tie of lifelong as s ocia tion ; a n d for the m ain

tena nce a nd curr en t day to day r evi s i on an d
- -

a dj us tm ent of this cus tom ary beh a vi our som e ,

m ea ns of habitua l concili a tion of conflicting

86
cl a im s
.

Thus from its very origin the p olis in its

new p olitica l s en s e w as a m ak eshift in a su

prem e em ergency : it ca m e into being litera lly

“ ”
to m a in ta in life ; b ut from the begi nn ing also
it was an experim ent in a dj ustm ent in con ,

s tructi on of a new way of livi ng out of the

,

dis crepant anom alous s ur vi val s from the old

, ,

12 0
 THE NOTION OF SOCIETY
a nd out of the da ily sp onta n eous struggle of
each of its m em bers to m ak e his own life worth
living under the sole condition th a t it r em a in
com p a tible with the better bei ng of the r es t ;
-

a nd it never c eas es to h a ve this idea l aspec t .

I ts ess entia l function is to m ak e life worth

living and for this r eas on efforts ea rly a nd
, ,

late to rea lis e this function m ore a bunda ntly

, ,

s ta nd in the cl os es t r el a tion of th ought a nd of

his torica l fact with all other efforts to m ak e

worth ’
r es pect of nature s

12 1
 LE C TUR E HI

THE GREEK NO TI O N S OF ORDI

NANCE ( TH E MI S ) AND INITIATIVE

FR O M the his tory of the wor d p olis itself we

ha ve a t all events a glim pse of a phas e in the
cons tituti ona l, or , r ather institutional exp e
, ,

rienc e of [E g ean com m unities , when their ex

ternal r el a tions wer e such as to r equire orga n
is ed m a terial defen ces ag a in st aggression a n —

ag e of frequen t tur m oil a nd ge ner a l i ns ec urity .

This is som ething very different from the long

vi sta of Minoan in sulated a dva ncem ent illus ,

trated by the open C r eta n vill ages exca va ted at

Pa la ik a stro a nd Gour nia a nd the rura l cha teau
,

a t H a gi a Tr i a da
- . A nd in the pictures of Ach sea n
s ociety i n the H om er ic p oe m s the m ar k ed dis

tinction between A ch wa n prin ces a nd ba rons ,

“ ”1
with their r etinues of com p a ni ons (hetai rci )
“ ”
a nd a ttend a nts (therap ontes ) o wing persona l
“ ”
s ervi ce t o thes e her edit ary lea der s (bas i lei s )
“ ”
a nd m as ters (a n a ktes ) on the one h a nd a nd ,
“ ” “
the trib a lly constituted cla ns or k indreds
“ ”
(p hyla ) subdivided in to b rotherh oods (p hrs
,

tr a i ) whose r egional c o ntingen ts s er ve g r udg

,

12 2
 THE NOTION OF ORDINAN CE
ing ly perforce to prom
a nd ote the p rojec ts or
,

a venge the grieva nc es of their overl ord s is ,

s ufficient expl a na tio n of thi s pr ec ari ous s t ate

B oth the Troj a n league of Pria m s a llies a nd ’

the feuda l array of Agam em n on a nd h is fol

lowers a re r epres en ted a s dyn as tic regim es of
quite r ecent origin Troy was founded by
.

’
Priam s gra ndfather D ard a nus a nd fortified , ,

by h is father Laom edon ; the Pelopid dyna sty

,

by the gran dfa ther of Agam em non a nd Me ne

la us ; the fE acid k ingdom in the S p erch eius
va lley and its neighb ourhood by the gra nd ,

fa ther of Achilles A n d the se founders a re

.

“ ”
them selves divine b or n ; ther e wa s little o r
-

no h um a n m em ory of their a n tec eden ts b e

yond the p oint when they es tablished them

s elves in pl ace of older dyn as ties whos e ,

heiress es they m arried whose p ala ces they ,

occupied a nd wh os e terr itor ies they r uled by

,

right of p os s ess i on a s a shepher d his fl ock s

, .

“ ”
They are a t bes t shepherds of the people ,
“ ”
a nd their title a nax , m aster is us ed to de
, ,

note a l s o the r el a tions hip between a m a n a nd

h is hors e or h is dog .

S om e m ea sure of con curr ence however is , ,

pr esum ed even in a dyna s tic r egim en of this

,

ki n d . The p aram ount ch iefta in in a n em er

g e n cy l a y s h is p r oje c t bef or e a m a ss m eeti ng
12 3
 P OLI TI CAL IDEAS OF T HE GR EE KS

of the whole fighting forces if, onl y to test

of the s ep ara te b aronial conting ent of Odys

s eus, ther e was (as we ha ve s een p 78 ) a , .

“ ”
ga thering place ag ora with altars of the
, ,

gods s er ving for p ublic worshi p ther efore but

, ,

al so for m ass m ee tings of other k ind s ; for it

8

als o was (or a t leas t it i nclud ed) s om eth ing

whi ch is des cribed as themis an d it is the :

,

a b s ence of such agcr a i a nd them i stes (in the

“ ”
plural ) am ong the barb arous roun d eyed -

folk to whi ch the Cyclop s encountered by

,

Odysseus belonged which ch aracteriz ed them

,

a s outla n dish a nd im p r a ctica ble I n this in

4
.

“
s ta nce the w or d agorai h as the epithet bringing
”
dec ision ; tha t is to s ay in such m as s m eetings
,

a gr eem ent was r ea ched on m a tters of com m on

concern .I n the s am e context the C yclop s is

“
des cr ibed as a m a n girt about with grea t
s tr ength fierce n ot well k nowing either dika i
, ,
”5
or them is tes .A s b oth wor ds a re us ed her e
in the pl ural we m ay r egar d the the m i s whi ch
’
wa s in the agcrci of Odyss eus ca m p befor e
Troy as collectively used for all s uch in di
vidual themi stes or for the place a nd equip
,

m ent wher eby they wer e a ttain ed Provis ion .

“ ”
a lly tra ns la ti ng them i s tes by or di nances in
accor da n ce with l a ter Gr eek usage we see ,

their imm ediate rela tion with the dikai with

1 24
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
which they a re coupled here ; for di ké in la ter
Greek as in Hom eric den otes both j ustice i n
, ,

— “ ”
the a b stra ct as them is is or dina nce in the
a b s tract— a nd a l s o enun ci a ti ons of j ustic e i n

particul ar m a tters Si n ce di ka i a re link ed with

.

“
them i s tes in the one phr as e as agora i , bringing ,
”
decis ion a re in the other we m ay infer tha t
, ,

s uch enun cia tions of j us tic e a n d exp ress ions of

a gen er a l will wer e a m ong the occa s i on s which

brought m en together into such m as s m eetings

in cus tom a ry m eeting pl ac es .

Wha t wer e these them i s tes ? H ow wer e they

obta i ned ? A nd wh a t is the c onn exion between
them i s a nd either di ké i n its j udicia l s ens e or
, ,
“ ” “ ”
boulé , decision or will in the p sych ol ogica l
, ,

“ ”
sense wh ich a m as s m eeti n g i n a n agcr c
, i b rings ?
The wor d them i s der ives fr om a s tem ( the
“ ”6
signifyi ng to set firm .C og na te words h a ve
“ ” “ ” “ ” “ ”
the m ea ni ng p ut ,s tea df a s t s ea t r ule
, , ,
“ “
p rop os ition (in l ogic) founda tion
, used ,
“ ” “ ”
a l so for eye sock et a nd the articul ation of
the jaw A verb al equiva len t of them is is us ed
.

for putting a ship on h er cours e I n c l a s s i ca l

.

Greek themi s lik e the k in dr ed wor d thesmcs

, ,
“ ”
m ea n s or din ance or in gen era l th a t which
, , ,
“
is in accor d with such or dina nce or rule : They
”
s ay it is them i s to do s o an d s o writes Pl a to
- - 7
, ,

us ing the s ub s ta ntive a l m os t as a n a dverb ;

a nd this
p op ular us age is a l s o H om er ic .

12 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Here exam ples of things which were
are

them i s in H om eric society : to enter ta in s tra n

“
gers (a n d to r efuse them their due is not
to m ak e tria l of the m ora le of a n
ar m y ;
8
to tes tify o n oa th i n a m atter of which
there coul d be no in depen dent evidence for ,

exam ple the cha s tity of a wom an or the

, ,

”
a b s ence of i nten ti on t o pl ay foul i n a r a ce ; or

t o contes t the ra s h w or d s even of a s uper ior

“
As is them i s m y l or d in open m eeting [agcrd] ;
, ,

”
s o be th ou n ot wr oth ; freedom of speech
being the right of every mem ber of such a
ga thering 10
It was even them i s to intrude
.

up on a chief in war tim e i n his b ut at a ll , ,

hours for a dvice S O Achilles h as to ask

, .
,
“
Pr ia m to com e outside for privacy lest a ny ,

of the A ch aea ns c om e up on us her e b ri ngi ng ,

s om ethi ng to be dec ided ; for they s it ever at

”
m y s ide m ak ing up their m ind s a s is them is ,

tha t i s to s ay as it is a right a nd p roper thing

,

to do a nd a ll ow a n ce h a s to be m a de for it
,
11
.

“ ”
O n the other h a nd it wa s not them i s for a
,

m ourn er to b a the befor e the fun era l was o ver 12

for a m an to with s ta nd a g od i n b a ttle ; or to

13

lay low in fight a di vin ely wrought helm et ; 14

“
thes e all being things which sim ply are not
”
don e as we say ; or if you a ttem pt them it
, , ,

is at your p roper peril They are in fact .

, ,

tafm .
But this i nh ibition m ight be susp ended
1 26
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
by divine com m a nd as h appened when the ,

divin e helm et of Achilles was worn by Patro

“
clus a nd even then
, Zeus ga ve it to Hec tor to
wear up on hi s hea d b ut to h im des truction ,

”
was n igh the outrage r ecoiling on the p er
,

p etra tor .

Another insta nce of such suspens ion of a n

ordin a nc e is n ota ble beca us e it wa s to be ,

effected if a t all by them i s tes The question

, , .

is h ow a m a n of p rincely fam i ly sh all be put

out of the w ay ; one conspir a tor s ugges ts m ur
“
der , b ut fears om e is it t o k ill the s eed of
k i ngs Nevertheles s let us ask the will a nd
.
,
-

pleasure of the gods for whi ch as we shall , ,

“
s ee
, there were a ccepted m eans If the .

them i stes of gr ea t Zeus a pp r ove I will k ill ,

h im m yself a nd I will bid all the r es t [to do

,

s o] : b ut if the god s wa r n us o ff m y biddi ng i s ,

”15
to r efra in F or s ufficient r eas on th at is
.
, ,

Zeus m ight suspen d the ta bu on m ur der ; a nd

the express ions of such divine will a nd ordi
na nce are them i s tes .

B ut h ow a re them i s tes reveal ed to m en ? The

pr ocedur e is clear enough in H om er ic s ociety .

Mutiny is r ebuk ed thus a nd auth or ity vindi ,

“
ca ted by Odyss eus :
, Le t ther e be one r uler ,

on e k ing to whom the S on of C ronos of

, ,

cr ook ed couns el h as given a sta fi [s kep trcn]

,

and them is tes that he m ay be k i ng over

,

1 27
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
”16
them . We are clearly a m ong archai c b e
“
liefs here ; and the function of thi s s taff or ,

s ceptr e in the tr ansm iss i on of themi stes m us t

,

engage our a tten tion a t this p oint Literally .

,

a s kep tr c n i s m er ely a s ta ff for s upp ort or for , ,

beating people ; the cog nate verb is us ed in

b oth s en ses ; the s tem is a n old one for it ap ,
“ ”
pears in the La tin scip io s ta ff fam iliar , ,

from its a doption as a fam ily nam e by a

bra nch of the g r ea t C orn elia n cl an in Rom e .

I n H om er the s kep trcn i s a s ym b ol of r a nk

, ,

carried by chiefs a nd tra ns m itted fr om fa ther

,

to s on B ut it was m or e th an this ; it was

.

itself a n object of p ower a vehicle of insp ira ,

tion .
17
Achilles wroth with h is overl ord wh o
, ,

h a s wron ged h im s a nc ti ons his r evolt by a n

,
“
o ath which i s a n appea l t o his s kep tr cn
, O ut .

I will s peak a n d will s wea r a gr eat oath hereto

, .

Y ea by this s taff which never sh a ll p ut forth

, ,

lea ves a n d twigs s i nce once it h as left its

,

s tock on the m ounta ins nor shall it grow ,

green aga in ; b ut now again s ons of Ach wans

bea r it in their h a n ds wielders of j ustice ,

[dikasp clci ] they wh o win themi stes from Zeus :

,
”
tha t shall be m y grea t oa th to thee Thus .

“
he utters his threa t a nd c as t on the ground ,

h is s ta ff s tudded wi th golden n ail s a nd h im ,

”
s elf s a t d ow n throwing off hi s a llegiance by
,

the tok en of the dea d ha n d fashioned wood -

.

12 8
 THE NOT I O N OF OR DINANCE
“
May that return to life a nd bear lea ves
such i s the i m plicati on of his curs e
— “
if ever I
s er ve thee m ore We are rem i nd ed of Aaron s
.
’ ’

“ ”
r od that budded in the pr ese nce of the ki ng
of Egypt on a s im il ar occas ion of p rotest
,

ag ai ns t tyrannical beh a vi our .

B ut lifeless as it was th ere was p ower of ,

anoth er ord er in such a sta ff H elen com .

,

p aring h er bluff outsp ok en husband with the

,

b rainy tem peram enta l Odyss eus d escribes h ow

, ,
“
when in council the l atter sp ra ng to his feet ,

h e would sta nd a nd look downwar d fixi ng h is ,

eyes on the ground bran dishi ng h is s taff ,

neither b a ck ward n or forwar — as we see

Minoan bra ves wielding it on the s teatite va se
‘ s— “
from H ag l a Triada b ut would clutch it
stifli y look i ng lik e a witles s fell ow ; you woul d
,

say he was one dis traught a nd m er ely with out

se ns e ; b ut then when he let l oose his grea t

voice from his breast with words whirling lik e

,

winter s nowfl ak es then no m a n alive could dis

,
”
pute with Odyss eus It is in the p ower of hi s
.

s kep tr cn too th a t the willi ng s ubjects of the

, ,

barony offered by Agam em non to r econcile ,

“
Achilles are to do hi s will ; they shall give
,

him hi s due with gifts as a g od a nd be nea th ,

his s taff shall perfor m hi s them istes which do

”1 9
them good Inh erited from a nim is tic no
.

tions like these is the a uthority conferred by

12 9
 PO LI TI CAL I DEAS OF T HE GR EEKS
the m ace on the Speak er of the H ouse of
C om m ons : only a king wh o h ad lost all sens e
“ ”
of the m ajesty of h is fa ithful com m ons
“
could r i sk a nd l os e all when he b a de Tak e ,
”
a way th at b auble S o too when Ag am em
.
, ,

’
n on s violence p revailed over r eas on a nd
“
free sp eech A chilles cas t his s ta ff o n the
,
”
ground for th e m ystic b ond of loyalty h ad
,

s napped .

I n the p ower of the s kep trcn then th at they , ,

”
h old in their h a nds the sons of the Achaeans
, ,
“
when they do j ustice extra ct themi stes from
, g

”20 “ ”
Zeus . The phr a se trans l ated ext ract denotes
effort ; the verb is rar e in cl as s ica l Gr eek us ed , ,

however for shaping bricks dr awi ng a b ow

, ,
21
,

a nd r em ov i ng a n ob s tructi on in Hom er it
is com m on for a ll k inds of d raggi ng or p ulling ; 23

i n the m iddle voice as in this p as s age it m eans

, ,

t o d w to
ra o n es el — a s when Pr i am is to

r ecover the b ody of Hector by golden ra ns om

24

—a nd it h as som etim es the derivative s ens e

“ ’ ”
of tak ing under one s protect ion as when ,

Agam em non left his m ins trel a t hom e to l ook

“ ”
a fter h is wife ; a nd even of concea li ng in the
25

“
m in d 5 b ut this clearly does not concern us
here though it h as m isled s om e com m enta tors
, .

E specially is the wor d us ed for eliciting the

thoughts wishes intentions a nd decis ions of
,
27
, ,

the gods “ a nd in one p as sage for litera lly

,

1 30
 TH E NOTION OF ORD INAN C E
“
dragging Zeus him self down from hea ven
to ea rth 29
.

”
That themis is the voice of the gods is s ta ted
exp licitly in a p a ss ag e which (though it is not
in the m a in narra tive b ut in a s im ile a nd m ay
, ,

therefore r eflec t the n otions of the p oet s own ’

day ra ther th a n of the heroic ag e which he

purp orts to describe) is in a ny cas e notable as
contem pl a ti ng the p ossibility of errors in
trans m ission and of per ver sion of the divine
,

m ess age 30
.Storm in this s imi le is s ent by
, ,
“
Zeus when in wra th he deals h ar dly with m en ,

wh o by vi olence i n a n agc rci dis cer n them is tes

a sk ew a nd out they d rive di ké not r egarding
, ,
”
the voice of the god s .

Tak ing these li nes i n conj unction with p re

vious p ass ages we ca n now tra ce the whole
,

procedure Firs t the god s or Zeus at their

.
, , ,

a lta r in the pl ace of m eeti ng utter a voice , .

Next m en qua lified by b irth a nd p ossession

,

of a rod of p ower ob s erve the voice a nd p ai n

, ,

fully elicit its m eani ng B ut they m ay discern .

“ ”
it am iss and utter crook ed them is tes in sup
,

p or t of a cts of violence This drives out .

j ustice (the n a ture of which in the word di ké , ,

we alrea dy k n ow from its ass ocia tion with

themi s tes in the des crip tion of the Cyclop s wh o ,

h ad neither) 31
a nd as this res ults from disre
, ,

g arding th e divine voice Zeus i s a ngry and , ,

131
 POLIT I C AL IDEAS OF THE GREE KS
the s torm of his wrath assails thos e m en The .

his tory of this wor d di ke will occupy us m ore

in deta il in Lecture I V .

I n a ra ther l ater context the ritual of dis

coveri ng the divin e voice is described in deta il ,

b ut with s upera dded features alien to the pure

a n throp om orphi sm of Hom er and due to the ,

conta m in a tion of it with l oca l and na tura li s tic

beliefs The p ries ts of Ap ollo at Delphi in the

.

“
Hom eric Hym n are m en wh o perform sacred
rites to their l or d a nd a nn ounce them is tes of
,

Phoebus Apoll o with golden s word whatsoever ,

he m ay say offering help out of a l aur el from

,
”32
d own in the dells of Parna ssus S o too.
, ,

in the s am e hym n Ap oll o p rom ises h is newly

,
“
foun ded priesth ood th a t to all thes e will I
utter themi s tes m y unerring will and p lea sur e
,
- -
,
”
offer i ng help in m y r ich dwelli ng pl a ce n am ely
-
, ,
“ ”
h is pl ace of inquir y as its n am e
, 0
33
den otes . Here we ha ve in the word tra ns
“ ”
la ted offer ing help the essentia l part played
“ ”
by the g od as in tha t tra nslated discerni ng
,

in the p r evi ous p assage we h ad the function

of the h um a n ob s er ver ; a nd the two words

tak en together chara cteriz e the whole procedure

as a tr a n s ac tion wor thy a lik e of G reek r eligion

a nd Gr eek p olitica l i ns ti nct All tha t a g od

.

can do is to m a k e k no wn the tru th : he ca n

utter a voice revea l the matter as it r eally is

, .

1 32
But he can only offer help M a n m ay be
deaf or s tupid a nd m is tak e wha t is offer ed ;
,

he m ay conceal or m i ss tate it for violent a nd ,

s elfish e n ds ; or he m ay di scern the truth ,

a m ong a ll el s e us ing th a t cri tica l faculty whi ch

,

h as der ived its very nam e fr om this wor d for

” “ ”
dis ti ngui shing or discerni n g F or this .

is as we s ay the cri s is the a ct of di scer nm en t

, , ,

di stingui shing between a ltern ative iss ues a nd ,

ad opti ng on e or other O f them ; a nd m a n is fr ee

s o t o de c ide : to encounter a g od in b a ttle or ,

pas s by on the other s ide ; to honour a s tr a nger ,

’
or f ail to give him hi s due Ma n s will tha t
.
,

is is free : the di vin e wi sdom is ther e a t his

,

s er vic e if he will le arn it ca r efully a nd p a in

, ,

fully ; if not on his h ea d be it ! Gegen di e

,

D um m hei t s treben die Gotter selbs t um s ons t

‘

Simi l arly, the them is tes of a hum a n r uler are

h is interp reta ti on of the real cours e of events
to his ubjects If they are in telligent a nd
s .

well m e aning subjects they wi ll g ive h im his due

-
,
“
as a g od ack n owledge his wis dom
, a nd be ,

n ea th his s ta ff perfor m his or din ances whi ch

”34
do them good And in this s ens e even the
.
,
“
Cycl op s folk could be sa id to utter themis tes
-

”35
each for his own children and wives .

Exa m ples of the content of thes e ordinances

we h ave alr eady seen ; the clos e r ela tion which

1 33
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the description of Mi nos seen by Odyss eus in
,
“
the Lower World holding a golden s kep tr cn ,

giving them i s tes to the dea d s ea ted b e b ut

, ,

they all a roun d wer e a sk ing their lor d for

di kai s itti ng or s ta n ding thr ough out the wide
, ,

p orta lled Hous e of Another ins tr uc

tive episode in the Odyss ey is wher e the s wine
her d apologizes to Odyss eus whom he h as n ot
,

yet r ecognised for the frugality of his enter

,
“
ta inm ent . Str anger it is not them i s for m e
,
’
,
’
ex en if a wors e m a n th a n th ou wer e to com e
r
,

to withh o ld from a s tra nger h is due F or .

_

from Zeus are all s tra ngers a nd beggars B ut .

wh a t I a m offering is both sca n ty a nd m y very

own . F or th a t is the di ke of s erfs wh o are ,

ever in fear when lords wh o are young bear

a n d he illus tra tes h is p oi nt by p ra is i ng

the generos ity of his for m er lor d wh o would ,

not h a ve r eq u i red s o s tric t a n account of h is

s tewar dshi p as y oung Telem achus does C on .

s equently ,hi s e nterta inm ent of the s tra nger

will not be at his m as ter s expens e at a ll b ut
’
,

out of hi s own all owa nce or sa vi ngs Her e .

the general pr inc iple th a t a ll strangers are

entitled to hospita lity —a pr inciple which a
m aster m us t r espec t as excuse for a ser va nt s
’

pr actical li mi ta tion on a s erva nt s hospital ity

’
,
“
beca us e he h as to econom ize when the young
1 34
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
”
m aster is p articula r is a dike a sta tem ent
so , ,

of the way thi ngs ac tua lly h appen T o the .

significa n ce of thi s dis ti ncti on we s h a ll h a ve to

retur n la ter .

TH E MI S P E R S O N IF I E D
The pers onifica tion of ab str a ct ideas or
m enta l proc ess es is not co m on in Hom er
m 38
,

b ut in three p as s ages we h a ve a pers ona l The

m is wh os e a ttrib utes a n d fun ctions a re in
,

s tructive .Telem achus protesting aga inst the

,

beh a vi our of the s uitors appeals to their own

,

s elf r espect
- t o p ublic O pini on of their doi ngs
, ,

a n d to the wr a th of the god s les t a stoni ed

,
”
they m ak e ill deeds to recoil so sh ock ing in, ,

the literal s en s e is this outrage Then he

, .

“
ca ll s t o witnes s Zeus of Olym p us a nd Them is ,

wh o dis s olves ass em blies [agor ai ] of m en a nd ,

"9
or ders their s itti ng ? Them i s then is tha t , ,

p ower which m ak es people com e together when

ther e is som ething tha t h as to be s et straigh t
in their dealing with ea ch other a nd dis m is s es ,

them when decision h as been r ea ched and

norm a l beh a v iour r es tor ed As Mis s Harrison
.

“
exp ress es it using a La tin equi va lent ; s h e is
,

fas th e s ocia l im pera tive

, the social fact
”4 °
is tr em bling on the very verge of godhea d .

Am ong the god s in their Olym pian hom e ,

“
Them is h as the sam e work to do Zeus b ade
.

1 35
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Themis the gods to m eeting [agcrd] from
call

th e top of glen s cored Olym pus : a nd ther eon

-

sh e went all wa ys bidding them com e to the ,

”
hous e of Zeus for there were decis ions to be
,
“ ”
ta k en by them all the voice of th e gods to ,

be expr ess ed 41
Most graphic of all a fter a n
.
,

unus ual ly br isk quarr el between Zeus a nd h is

“ ’
wife Hera fling s hers elf qui ck as a m a n s
42
,
”
thought a m ong the other gods feas tn on
,
“
Olym p us a n d they a t s ight of h er a ll spra ng
, , ,

up a nd h a iled h er with their cup s

, A nd .

” “
sh e , s til l ver y a ngry let be the res t but , ,

acc epted the cup fr om fa ir c heck ed Them is -

,

for sh e firs t ca m e runni ng to m eet h er a nd ,

spe ak i ng wi nged wor d s a ddr ess ed h er : Hera ‘

why a rt thou com e a nd look es t lik e one dis ,

traug h t ? Sur ely C ron os S on thy husb a nd

’
, ,

ha th sca red thee s ore ! T o whom a ns wered ’

then the La dy [Hera z Q uestion m e not of ‘

this G oddess Them is Thou too k nowest wha t

, .

his tem per is over weeni ng a nd harsh

, B ut do .

th ou s tart the gods o n the fa irly ser ved b a n -

quet in the h a ll ; thus thou sha lt hear a nd all ,

im m ortals with thee wha t ill deeds Zeus is ,

decr eeing ; nor I pr om is e thee sha ll all a lik e

, ,

ha ve joy a t heart either m en or gods even if

, ,

ther e be a ny one now wh o feas ts wi th easy

’
m in d . Them is here is the firs t to detect
som ethi ng gon e a wry a nd to rea ct to it ; sh e

136
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
wa nts to k now so as to p ut it r ight Out
, .

r aged as sh e is H era ca nn ot b ut r es p on d a nd
, ,

for h er the firs t thing is to cons er ve wha t is

“
D on t k eep the
’
left of decency and order .

others from their di nn er m y dear ; bes t fed is

,
”
soon est m ended Them is that is s ta nds for
.
, ,

the norm a l or der a nd for r epa ir of it after in

,

fring em ent . A nd outr a ged or der is r ep a ired

in open m eeting by fr ee speech comm on coun ,

sel, a nd a gr ee m en t i n a com m on will tha t ,

“ ” “ ”
will of hea ven a nd voice of the gods which
,

m en too m ay eli cit if they will i n their own agord

, , ,

wherein them is is a nd th e a ltars of the god s

, .

Another function of the pers ona l Them is h as

alr eady beg u n to em erge in the com m an d of,

Zeus a nd the reques t of Hera Them is not .

only em b odies a nd r ecupera tes the norm al

or der b ut s ee s to its ob s er va nc e
, It is she wh o .
,

a t m eeti ng tim e or di nner tim e a lik e ca ll s the ,

“
gods together for the m a tter in han d as is ,
”
themi s ,to b orr ow the phr as e alread y curr ent
in Hom eric speech a nd p roverbia l in H ellenic
, .

“ ” “
And the word us ed by Hera s tart or set ,
”
going is one which h a s a l ong and m om en
,

tous history as we h a ve s oon to s ee

, .

TH E MI S SU MMAR I ZE D
We m ay now s um m ari ze the H om eric con

cep tion of themi s as foll o ws :

137
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
( 1 ) A themi s form ul ates a norm al m ode of
beha viour a nd supplies guida nce in r ep airi ng
,

a br each in norm a l beh a vi ou r It happens th a t

.

a ll th os e H om er ic them i s tes whos e content we

’
k now a re a b out m a n s d oings b ut a m ong the
, ,

gods too a personified Them is gives g ui da nce

, ,

i n or deri ng their lives .

(2 ) A them is as elicited by duly qua lified

,

m en , tra nsm its the voice the counsel the , ,

will a nd plea sur e of a g od or the gods It is

- -
, .

not a cap ricious com m an d nor i n a ny s ens e a ,

p r i ci legi um or spe c i a l di spe n s a ti o n to fit a s ingle

“
o cc a s ion .It enunc iates a gener a l r ule o ffer ,

”
ing help to m a n which he a ccepts or neglec ts
,

a t his o wn fr ee will It expres ses divin e w is

.

dom delibera tion a nd couns el not divi ne whim

, , ,

or p ower .

(3) A them i s is m a de k nown to m en in va ri

ous wa ys

(a ) By tra nsmi s sion fr om the gods to m en

qua lified a n d author ized to elicit it Such a
m a n (i) holds a s kep trcn which is heredi tary
a n d its elf a vehicle of p o wer ; (ii ) perfo rm s

r itua l a ct s a n d ther eby p uts him s elf into com

,

m union with the gods or a g od ; (iii) con vok es

,

(lik e the di vi ne Them i s hers elf) open m eeti ngs

“ ”
of h is fell o ws whi ch br ing dec is io n in the
,

sa m e way as a m ee ti ng of god s in Olym p us ,

deliberatively Such m en m ay forfeit their

.

1 38
 TH E NOTION O F ORDINANCE
privilege of com m uni on through m is con duct
on m en whos e them is tes are cr ook ed the
“
wra th of G od fa lls dis as tr ous ly m ak i ng ill,

deeds r ecoil .

(b) By s ta tem ent a nd a rgum ent in s uch a n

agent wher ein it i s them i s tha t free spee ch is
,

pri v ileged even when it disp utes the will or

,

deed of a s uperior : it is them i s a l s o tha t in

’
cert a in cas es a m an s s ta tem e nt up on oa th m ust

be a ccepted as dec is ive .

(4 ) Ma ny them i s tes are p op ul arly current ,

a n d acc epted as va lid fr om of old : a n d s uch

,

O b s er va nces as h os pit a li ty to s tr an ger s a r e in

this s ense them i s I n l ater Greek such a ccepted

.

pr ec epts a re thesmci a nd wer e collected a nd

,

preser ved as guides of con duct .

(5 ) Ha vin g elicited them i s tes m en of exp eri

,

en ces a r e e n abled to enunc ia te di kai which a r e ,

cons equen ti al formu l a tions of norm a l beh a viour

gover ni ng a par ticular case I n the s ens e that
.

them i s r epr esents the La tin fas these di kai ,

m ay pr ovisiona lly be com p ared to the form ula:

of R om a n legal p r oced u re .

TH E NO T I O N OF AU T H O R I T Y : A R KH E
“
When Hera b a de Them is on Olym p us s tart
the go ds at di nner sh e m a de use of a wor d
,

which h as a m om en tous his tory in Greek p olit

ical thought ; for when Ari stotle r ea ches h is
1 39
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF TH E GR EE KS
eventual d efini tion of citizens hip it is neither ,
43

m or e n or les s th an thi s
‘
the cap acity a m ong
free m en in either aspec t of s tarting and being
, ,

s tart using the sam e verb to express on ,

the one s ide th e exerc is e of initia tive on the

, .
,

o ther the volunta ry r esp ons e to s uch ini ti a tive

, ,

a nd a ccepta n ce of it .

“ ”
Thi s verb to s tart or m ak e to beg in is
, , ,

used comm only in thi s li ter al s ens e in Hom er :

, ,
“
b oth a bsolutely S on of Atr eus do th ou m ak e
, ,
”44 “
a s tart ; Let him m ak e a s tart and I will in ,
” 45
deed do as h e sa ys a nd in s ever a
, l gram m atica l
constr uc ti ons which illustr a te its ess en ti al m ean

ing . It is follo wed by a n infinitive of the action

initia ted —“
s tar t t o carry the corp s es ;
” 46
by a
” “ ” “
[h im ] on the way he started a pani c
, to ,

s ta rt d isas tr ous war or of a b ody of persons

“ ”
habitually st ar ted thus ; by a dative of the
47

person caused to p ar ticip a te in the action I

” “
g ot the m en goin g ; Let ea ch m an give the
”48
signa l to th os e wh om he s ta r ts These usages .

are fr eely com bin ed d ative of the person with

,

infinitive of the act or with geni tive of the

,
“
thing beg un as when Them is sta rted the gods
,

“
at or one m a n s ta r ted a nother on
“
his or very com m onl y s tarted them
”61
on speeches . There is a cognate word for a
“ ”52
s ta r ter and for exercis ing the starter s ’
,

1 40
 THE NOTION OF ORD INAN CE

function with s imi lar da tive of the persons

,
“ ”
sta rted ; a nd s uch a s tar ter is ch arac ter iz ed
“ ”
as bringing dec ision lik e th e open m eeting
,

for free speech a nd delibera tion with a View

to act A nd ther e is a verb a l sub s ta ntive arg
.
,

53 “ ”
mata for
, ini tia tory offeri ngs sa crificed to
the god s a t the beginn i ng of a religi ous rite .

Another s uch wor d used only in ti tles is

orcha mc s
“
4
the verb al form of which m eans to
,
“ ”
set in vi olent m o tion a nd spec i fica lly to
,

“ ”
m ak e to d a n ce i n r egul ar figur es a n d rhyth m ;
a nd the s ub s ta ntive orokos is us ed for a row of

trees followi ng as it were their leader down

, , , ,

the orchard as we c all it

, .

The sa m e verb in the m iddle voice is not so

com m on in Hom er as in la ter Gr eek but its ,
“
occu r r ences a re i n str uctive It m ea ns to set
.

”
ones elf d oi ng a n d s o s im ply t o begin ; with the
, ,

thing begun as dir ect object a nd th ose a ffected ,

“
by it in th e da tive : for them the old m an
,

first of all set hi m self to wea ve a pl a n or ,

“
in the genitive : of them canny Telem achus
” 56
took the lea d in speech T w o specia l us es
.

sh ould be noted At a s a crificia l feast the

.

“
pr es ident is described ta k ing the lead in
r espec t of all th e joints h is duty being to s ee
'

5"
th a t the food was properly distrib uted : a nd
the blind m instrel Dem od oc us when the lyre ,
“
was placed in his h a nd s being m oved bega n ,

141
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
” 58
with [a ] g od a nd showed forth song ; what
,

he set him self to do w as to experience the in

spir a tion
— a n d out c a m e h is voice s inging .

SU B S T A N TI V E A RKH E
TH E
With thes e usages of the verb clearly esta b
lish ed we tur n to the sub s ta ntive ar khe which
, , ,

in c la ss ica l G r eek h a s m ea ni ngs so different a s

“ ” “ ”
a phil os ophi c a l pri nciple a ca use (i n r el a ,
“ ” “
tion to its effect) a public offi ce a founda
, .

” “
tion a beginni ng generally a n d al so the
, ,
“
end of a r ope I n H om er it al rea dy h as the
.

“ ”
genera l m ea ni ng of the beginn ing of a ny
thing a n d is so us ed a l m ost a dverbially in the
Odys sey 59
though n ot in the I li ad B ut ap a rt
, .

from this it m ea n s n ot m erely the fir s t p oint

in tim e i n a ny m a tter b ut a ls o the or igin a ting
, ,

fact or cir cum s ta nce the efficien t cause Thus , .

“ ” “ ”6°
we find the beginning of evil of tr ouble , ,
“ ”
of the quarrel Penel ope prop ounds the
.

“
fam ous b ow for co ntes ts a nd a ca use of s l a ugh
” 61
t er ; the b ow tha t is will lea d to a nd ca us e
, , , ,
“ ”
m a ss acre a s iron its elf dra ws a m a n on ; a n d
,

in the r ec ita l a fter wa rd of the event we s ee

, , ,
“
h ow this work ed up on Odyss eus : s om e g od
”62
was helping h im .

This sam e b o w like a roya l s ceptr e was an

, ,

object of p ower It h a d bel onged to Euryt us

. ,

“
whose son Ip hitus g a ve it to Odyss eus a nd to ,

1 42
 TH E NO TI O N OF ORDINANCE
him Odys s eus ga ve a sharp s word a nd a s trong
s pea r
, a ca us e of g ue s t -
right crea ting k i nship ; ,

nor did they even k n ow each other at t able

before th at could h appen Iphitus died 63

B ut
, .
,

though the two m en never m et this m ys tical ,

b on d united them a nd th a t wa s th e doing of

,

the bow a nd of the p res ents given in excha nge ;

,
“

a s i n the b all a d of Ir i sh cour tship

’
twa s the ,

little pigs a s did it when the l a dy con s ented

, .

Other objects of the sam e k ind a re the neck

la ce of Pr otesila us the cl oa k of Heracles the
, ,

world wide s eries of l ove tok en s a nd k eep

-

sak es, the shell b ra celets of the Trobri a nd

-

“
Isl anders irres is tible
, begin nings of inter
”
cours e in this c ausa l s ens e for it is when they ,

are a b out th at the thin g firs t h appens .

Such a r khe c ould be a ttr ib uted to a person .

Menel aus p rop osing a truce with a View to the

,

res titutio n of Hele n by the Troj a ns s ay s he

64
,
“
think s tha t Argives a nd Tr oj a ns are a l rea dy
discer ned of one an other they have com e _

to k now one a n other better a fter ten year s of

war ; they ha ve i n fact fought the m atter out
, ,

and a re r ea dy t o be fr ien d s s inc e ye h a ve

s uffer ed m uch ev il on acco un t of m y gr udge

”
a nd the a r khe of Alex a n der tha t is of Paris , , ,

wh o wa s the ca us e of the tr ouble Alexa nder s ’

.

sp ont aneous i nte rfer e nce with th e n or m a l cours e

of events th at is was a p ri m um m obi le

, , A s the .

1 43
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
old p rofes sor s aid excus ing his absence from a
,
“
colleg e feas t Man arranges but G od disar
,

r anges . A nd h ow does Menel aus prop os e

“
to c ounter this di s turbi ng fa ctor ? But bring
the might of Pria m tha t he m ay s lay the oa th
,

victims hims elf s ince h is s ons are overweening

,
”— “
and fa ithles s quite literally they are over ,
”
grown beyond the norm al cour se and process
,
“ ”
of things . They are too big for their boots ;
“ “
they ha ve s welled heads F or a lways}the .

wits of younger m en are [eas ily] roused b ut ,

wher e a n old m a n is concern ed he look s before ,

a nd behi nd th at it m ay be for !the bes t on

,
,

either ha nd . M en lik e Alexander that is ar e , ,

p oss ess ed by a force a n im pulse to do som e

,
“ ”
thing all of their own not to say s elf pleasing
,
-
,

as E sc hylus and Her od otus ca ll it And force

65
.

s uch as this ca n be cons tra i ned only by super ior

force guided by grea ter knowledge wider

, ,
“ ”
com prehens ion on either hand .

We are here i n a fairly primi tive s ystem of

ideas The b ow of Iphitus a nd Odysseus
.
,
’

s word a nd spea r h ad th a t in them which m ade

,

the two m en un dersta n d each other th ough —

“ ”—
a t ta ble they n ever k n ew one a nother a nd

were in this sens e ar khe initiative of friend , ,

sh ip as between bl ood k i ns m en Alexander s

’
-
.

arkhe initia ted the tr ouble over fair Helen ; the

“ ”
m ight of King Pri am coul d ini tiate the new
1 44
 TH E NOTION O F ORD I NANCE

sta te of
peace between Argives a nd Troj ans ,

wh o h a d now com e t o discer n on e a nother

after ten year s of wa r I n th is connexion we
.

sh ould perh ap s n ote th at p c lem cs the Gr eek ,

“ ” “ ”
wor d for war s ignifies vi olent sh ak ing a nd
,

m ix up lik e its cognate verb p elem i s ei n; a nd

,
66

“ ”
ei réne m ea ni n g
, peace appears to contain a ,

m etaphor from c ontinuity as of a ch ai n of ,

67
bea ds or fl owing speech or or der ly a ss em bly
, , .

I n Hom er then a rkhe is n ot p r i m ar ily a n

, ,

offic e or s ta tus ; lik e its ver b it s ignifies s im ply

, ,
“ ”
initia tive tha t personal quality of sp onta ne
,
“ ” “ “ ”
ous dr ive p us , v im (to b orr ow m oder n
words forceful enough to characterize it) which ,
“ ”
gets things done ; m anifested espec ially as a
caus e of a c tivity in o thers Thus a Hom eric .

“
k ing is a bas ileus on e wh o m ak es the people
,

to m arch as a n ea r ly R om a n m a gi s tra te was

,
“ ”
p raetor (p razi tor ) one wh o goes in fron t of
the others Q ui te accura tely too later Greek
.
, ,
“
wr iters described as m on archos th a t i s of ,
” “ ”—
sole i ni tia tive or as we s ay
, m on a rch
, the ,

functions of the Rom an di ctator wh o is liter ally ,

“ ”
he wh o says what everyon e els e is to do .

“ ”
That such ini tia tive r es ides in a person
qualified by bir th a nd a ntecedents is clear ; that
it coul d be conferr ed on a m a n wh o h ad it not
is n ot con tem plated in Hom eri c s ociety where ,
“ ”
p ri n ce s are of divi ne-b orn family But tha t .

145
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
it could be enha nced where it existed s eem s , ,

p rob able from the habitua l tra nsm is s ion in ,

s uch a fa m ily of a n objec t of p o wer the s kep

, ,

tr cn which h as been discus s ed a lr ea dy (p

, .

We ha ve n ow to s upplem ent the direct eviden ce

of Hom er ic p a ssa ges with som e p ara llel exa m ples

from o ther s ources .

The s tem from which a rkhe is form ed is

r ep r es ented in S a n skr it by arh giving a verb
“ ” “
arham i , I a m able I ha ve it in m e to do
, ,

lik e calec in La ti n which h a s a sim ilar extension

,
“ ”
of it s root s e ns e of -
phys ica l s tr eng th An .

a djective a r kas h a s the s am e for ce a s dignus

, ,

in La tin or calens in equi va lens; or the Gr eek

axic s , used both for persona l dignity a nd for
econom ic val ue The sub s ta ntive a rgham lik e
.
,

p r eti um a nd valor i n La tin a nd the Gr eek ,

ti mé, h as the sam e double s en se A nd it .

s hou ld be noted here tha t this Greek w or d

ti me s ta nd s i n the sa m e r el a ti on with a rkhe a s ,

we shall pres ently see th a t nemesis s ta nds to

aidé s . A m an s pers ona l initia tive of whi ch he
’
,

him s elf 1s conscious a nd of whi ch others bec om e

“ ”
aware by his m a nifes ta tions of push is ,
,

a rkhe ti m e which p r ovis ional ly we m ay tra ns

’

, ,

late worth r a ther tha n honour is the recogni tion ,

of thi s qua lity by the others I n the b arony .

offer ed to Ach illes for exa m ple h is s ubjec ts

, ,
“ ”
will value him lik e a g od and express that ,

1 46
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
va l ue crudely enough i n the p resents they
, ,

bring ; less crudely too in the accom plishm ent

, ,
“ ”6 8
of his them i stes whi ch do them good It .

“
is in this s en s e tha t a r khe r eveal s a m a n in a ,

Gr eek p roverb which we fir s t find in a fourth

“
c entury con text ;
69
and a m a n is dear to all
” 7°
a nd va l ued when h is deeds k eep p ace with
—
h is wor d s a s ens e which is exa ctly p r es er ved
in the m oder n us age of the a djective ti m ios .

A R KH E AND I M P E RI U M
In early Rom e the sp ontan eous ini tiative of
a n executive offi ci a l w as des cr ibed by a wor d

which h a d a lm os t as m om en tous a his tor y as

a r khe it s elf in its p oliti cal a spect a nd m ight
, ,

h ave h a d a s im il ar career a s a philos ophica l

term if it h ad not been for a literary dis as ter ,

of which n ote m us t be ta k e n p r es e ntly To .

“
get things rea dy in La tin
, is p ar are; ,

“ ”
to get them r ea dy aga ins t a n occa s i on for e

s een is i m p er a r e
, S o we r ea d of i m p er ata p ens a
.
, ,

of a n exem p lar i m p er a ta:

71
ta sk s a ss igned ;
schemes
72
a copy of a p r oje cted plan
, S o too . , ,

a fa r m er i m p era t a rvi s when he is for earm e d

,

a ga i ns t a cc ident s of s e as on a nd pes t ;
73
in b ar
b arian Germ a ny scla terrce s eges i m p era tur ‘

‘
I O Vl S l o n 1 5 m a de fOr o n e c rop only off the
p
l and ; i ungere equos Ti tan celoei bus i mp er at
74

“ ”
H ori s the S un g od
, orders hi s car
- to be
1 47
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T H E GREEKS
e dy a t the pr oper tim e ; m or e litera lly s till
r a
75
,

lik e the m iddle voice of the Gr eek verb i mp er ,

“
aci egcm et m ihi om n i as sentari I ha ve prepa red ,
” 76
m ys elf to concur in it all The c ogna te .

verb al s ubs tantive for this k in d of for es ight

a nd initia tive is i m p eri um Her e is a n early .

—
exam ple of its us e from Pl a utus si quid op us
es t i m p er a ; i m p eri um exsequar If a nything ‘
,

is wa nted tell m e befor eha n d ; I will follow

,
” 77
your ins tructions Virgil couples it with
.

“ ”
p rcecep ta things a nticipa ted in accorda nce
, ,

with his cha racteris tic re phras ing of a n -

—
ide tica l th ought et I ovis i mp eri um cl cari
n

p rwcep ta p arenti s
73
.

B ut , whereas in Hom eric Greec e a nd a m ong

“ ”
its divi ne b orn k i ngs we found n o trace of
-

conferm ent of thi s i ni tia tive grace the m or e ,

com p os ite an d a rtificia l R om a n s ta te with a ,

far m or e crudely a ni m is tic b ackg r und to its

cultur e took at a ll events p r ecauti ons a ga inst
, , ,

the la ck of it Of Ki ng Num a it was tradi

.

tion a l th a t i p se de sa c i m p eri o curi atam legem

tuli t 79
a nd a n older a uth or ity des cribes the
°

tr a nsference of it to a new dyna sty : Tarqui nio

dedi t i m p eri um si m ul et s ola regni 8°
auth or ity ,

to initia te a nd terr itory o ver which to exercise

,

it the latter anti cip a ting one aspect of what

,

in l a ter tim es is the n eces s ary corr elati ve of

every regul ar i mp eri um nam ely a p rovi ncia , ,

1 48
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
within whi ch it is to be exercis ed The cere .

m ony of conferr ing i mp eri um thus ascr ibed to

"

Num a rem a in ed in ob serva nce throughout

,

Republican tim es a nd it wa s p os sible to delay

,

the enj oym en t of h is rightful initiative by a

regul a r ly elec ted offici al by the s im ple device
,

of p os tp oni ng the r itua l act of cons ecr ati on a s ,

one m ight im agi n e a c o ns tituti on a l k i ng de

b arr ed from exercis e of the r oyal pr eroga tive

until he h a d been cr own ed More signifi cant
.

s till is the R om a n c er em ony of s aluta tio where ,

by on the occasion of som e p articularly suc

cessfu l exercis e of per s on a l ini tiative in a well
or der ed vi c tor y the ass em bled tr oop s r eass erted

their lea der s p oss ession of i m p eri um form ally

’
,

s al uted h im as i m p er ator a nd wer e held to h a ve

,

— “
in s om e m ys tica l w e m ight even s ay m agical
”

— way enh a nced the efficien cy of the i mp eri um

’
he al rea dy h a d as Achilles subjects were to
,
”
ackn owledge his va l ue a s a g od by the gifts
they should bring All such enh a ncem ents by
.

’
r ehear s a l of a per s on s gift of i niti ative a re i n

Greek des ibed as

c r t i m a i — ack nowledgm e nts

by others of the ar khe inher en t in hi m The .

m agica l va lue of s uch itera ti on is very clearly

conceived am ong all uns ophis ti ca ted people a s ,

when the people of Ephesus r ep a ired the in

“
su lted m a jes ty of their goddes s all with on e
,

voice ab out the space of two hours cryi ng out ,

149
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
” 31
Nor is
’
‘
Great is Dia na of th e Ephes ia ns .

the practic e extinct in m odern p olitics ; a s the

Bellm a n s a id in the H unti ng of the S nar k
, ,

“
Wh at I tell you three tim es is true .

I
A R KH E M A NA
A ND

I n View of the peculi ar s ignifi ca nce a ttained

by the concepti on of arkhe a t a la ter stage of
Gr eek th ought it m ay be foun d ins tructive
,

to s tudy a t this p o i n t a term which h a s i n som e

r espec ts a s i m il ar im p ort in the phil os ophy of

its users . The wor d m a n a is us ed a m ong Mela

“
n es ia n pe oples t o den ote a forc e a ltogether
”

distinct from phys ical p ower which act s i n all

,

k inds of wa ys for good a n d evil a n d which it ,

is of the gr ea tes t a dva ntage to p os s es s or con

” “
trol ; a p ower or i nfluence n ot p h ysical a nd
,

in a way s uper na tura l ; b ut it s h ows its elf in

physical force or i n a ny kin d of power of excel
,
“
lence which a m a n p osses s es tha t is
wha t work s to effec t everything which is beyond
the ordinary p ower of m a n out side the com m on
,
” “
processes of n atur e . When one h a s g ot
it he ca n us e it a n d dir ect it b ut its for ce m ay
, ,

break forth at som e new p oi nt ; the presence

” “
of it is a scer ta ined by p ro of . This
p ower though im pers on al is a lwa ys connected
, ,

with som e pers on wh o dir ects it ; a ll spir its ha ve

” 82
it ghosts generally s om e m en
, , I n Poly
.

150
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
nesia n l a nguages the s a m e word m ea ns s uper
natur al p o wer divi n e a uthor ity h a vi ng q ua l
, ,

ities which ordin ary pers ons a nd things do not

” 83
p oss es s. It is a pplied for i nsta nce to a
, ,
“
wooden s word tha t h a s done deeds so wo n der
ful a s to p oss ess a s a nctity a nd p o wer of its
” “
o wn ; t o a m agic s ta ff give n to a m a n by his
“ ”
gr an dfa ther a n d in a m or e s ecul ar s ens e
”
“ ”
to chiefs a nd o ther person s gifted wi th p er
s ua s i on or other for m s of per s o n a l s k ill This
.

c oncepti on of m a n a h as bee n gen era lly r ega r ded

by s tuden ts of thes e m a tters a s a type specim en

of a widesp r e a d n oti on O f whi ch the or enda of
,

the Ir oquois a nd the wa konda of the Om ah a

people are exa m ples s ufficien tly well k n own
,

through c areful a n d sym p a thetic obs er va tion

to des er ve m ention her e 84
Such co ncepti on s
.

have been usua lly app roa ched fr om the p oi n t

of view in whi ch they th r ow light up on m agic ,

r el igi on
, or th os e a n ti cip a ti on s of phil osophy

which profess to expla in the gener a l structure

of thi ngs a nd the cours e of even ts ; a nd th e

a ttem pt h as been m a de t o i nterp ret som e of

the conception s a nd s till m ore s om e of the

,

phra ses of ea rly Greek phil os ophy i n term s of

, ,

thes e widesp rea d a nd very a r ch a ic n otions 85

.

Without ha z ar di ng a n O pini on a s to the s uccess

of thes e a ttem pt s it i s h owever perh ap s w or th
, , ,

while to ill us tr a te by s uch com p aris on s om e O f

15 1
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
the i ti ons which
assoc a s eme to cl n
thei g to
“
c onception of arkhe in its e ular a nd p olitica l
s c

m anifes ta ti ons if only to form a clear er idea

,

of the exten t to whi ch Gr eek ph r ase ol ogy s eem s

to h a ve clea r ed its elf of s om e of the m or e p os

iti v e im pli ca tion s of them a n d a dva nced to the
,

sim pler a nd m or e ra ti ona l View of wh a t a uthor

ity is.

I n the Om aha tr ibe chiefs wer e r espected

not only beca us e of their a uth or ity b ut a s h av ,

ing been fa vour ed by the uns een p owers wh o

h ad gr anted them help and s tr eng thened their
a bil ity to be s tea dfas t i n p urp os e duri ng the

years wherein they s truggled to perform the (

act s r equir ed to e nter the r a nk of chief Be .

ca us e of thi s rel a ti on to the uns een p o wers a

chief h a d to be delibera te i n s peech a nd i n

m ovem en t for all h is wor ds a nd a c ts wer e m ore

,

or le ss Con nected with the welf ar e of the people ,

a nd by the author ity inves ted in hi s offic e the

c hi ef w as allied t o the all r uli ng a nd m ys teri ous

W akonda . Disc ounting in the Hom eric c on

,

“ ”
c ep tion of the divi n e b orn ki ngs that a nthro
-
,

“
p om orp h ic p r es ent ation of the uns een p owers
”
wh o h ad gr anted them help ,whic h is c harac
t eristic of Oly m pia n r eligion a nd c onvert ed
,

“ ”
them is its elf into a fa ir c heck ed
-
m is tr ess of -

the-c er em onies in the dining hall a nd c ounc il

cham ber of the gods we r ec ognize in the
,

15 2
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
“
stru ggle to perfor m the ac ts r equir ed the ,

s am e n otion of pers onal effort whic h is c ons erved

“
in the Hom eric phr as e extort ing the or dina nc es
” “
of Zeus ; in the c hief s belief that all his
’

words a nd ac t s wer e m or e or les s c onn ec ted

”
with the welfar e of hi s people the s a m e
concepti on as tha t which pictur ed the
”
Hom eric chiefta i n as shepherd of the cla n s
“ ”
utteri ng p recepts which do them good ; a nd
“
in the expl ana tion th a t by the a uth ority
inves ted in h is offi ce the chi ef w as a llied to the
”
all r uli ng a n d m ys ter ious W a konda
-
, a counter
“
p art of hI in os the infa nt prodigy rul ing at
, ,
” “
five year s old wh o w as the confidant of gr eat
,
” “
Zeus a nd continued after dea th to s it h old
,

ing a golden s ceptr e giving them is tes to the

,

”
dea d . B ut in prop or tion a s the perfected
hum a nity of the Hom eric gods a nd com plete
,

hum aniza tion even of a b s tra ctions lik e the

Olym pia n themi s a nd di ke co n den sed into vivi d
“
m a ter ia l sh a pes the uns ee n a nd m ysterious
”
W a konda cir cum a m bient in Om ah a belief it ,

beca m e poss ible for Hom eric speech to exp r es s

the procedur e by which the di vine wis dom a nd
“
purpos e w as m a de a va il able for th e welfa r e of
”
the people through the pers ona l in itiative of
“ ”
its lor ds , in verb a l s ub s ta ntives from the
“ ”
vocabulary of everyda y life : l aying down
“ ” “
and establishing c us tom
, indicating
15 3
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
”
u e of action exerc ising push or ini tia
co r s s ,

“ ”
tive , m aki ng the people to g o either
”
s tr a ight a nd d oin g them goo d or in less ,
“ ”
happy insta n ces s im ply a sk ew
, .

This a ctuality a n d concr eten ess of presenta

tion in deed goes fa r to expla in the cir cum
, ,

s ta nce th a t i n o u r H o m er ic d oc um e n ts we m i ss

a ll des cr ipti on of s uch devi c es t o i ns ur e or

“
enh a nce the ini tia tive of lea ding m en a s ,

we were led to per ceive i n the cerem onia l of the

lea: curi ata a n d the s a luta ti o b y which the less
com pletely h um a ni zed bel i efs of ea r ly R om a ns

con ferr ed i m p eri um or s upplem en ted it by

“ ”
sym p a th etic r ite s of r e cog n iti o n a n d ther eby
,
“ ”
s uppl ied their l ack of th o s e divi ne b or n -

fam ilies in which in itia tive a uthor ity wa s tra ns

m itted in Ho m er i c s ociety .

N ot far outs ide the lim its of H om eri c t ra

dition on this m a tter s ta n ds the Hes iodic p or
tra it of the ba si leus a s p ubli c ser va nt a t a ,

s tage in the p oliti c a l devel op m en t of Ce n tr a l

Greece which ther e is every r ea so n to believe

“
t o h a ve been h is to ric a l , when the d ivin e
”
b orn fa m ilies of th e Hero ic Age wer e a lr ea dy
giving pla ce to the hea d m en of the k in s hip
groups which co n stituted the com m un ities of
the c on ques t a r ea i n tha t E a rly Iro n Age which
,

“ ”
followed ; though divin e b or n in d ividua ls were
-

s till to be m et a m ong the s co equa l p r i nces

e 86
.

15 4
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
Wh om soever the Mus es the da ughters of Zeus
, ,
” —
va lue the wor d is the s am e a s i s applied
to the r ecogniti on of Ach illes a uthority by h i s
’

— “
s ubjects a n d beh old h im begotten of Zeus

nur tur ed k i n gs up on his ton gue they p our

,

s weet dew , a n d for th from h is m outh flow

gen tle wor ds 87
U p on h im a ll the cl a ns g a ze
as he distinguishes a m ong them i s tes with
s tr a ightfor wa r d r ulings This m an by the
.
,

s ur en ess of h is p ublic s peec h c a n a b a te s k il

,

fully in a m om en t even a m ighty con ten tion .

F or to thi s en d are k i ngs p os s es s or s of wi s d om ,

tha t they m ay effec t redr ess to cla n sm en wh o

s uffer wr ong i n the pl ace o f m eeti ng
, quietly ,

per s ua din g with gen tle wor ds As he wa lk s .

to a n d fr o in the c ity they s eek h is fa vour as ,

’
they woul d a god s with gen tle s elf r espec t a n d
,
-
,

he i s em i n ent a m ong them a s they ga ther

r oun d. Such is the holy gift of the Mus es t o
”
m a nk ind .

We c a n har dly mi stak e in all thi s the counter

“
p art oi on e of thos e Om aha chiefs wh o h a d
to be deliber a te in speech a n d in m o vem ent ;
for a ll h is wor d s a n d a c ts wer e m or e or les s
co nn ec ted with the welf a r e of the people as ,
“
he s truggled to perform the a cts requir ed to
en ter the r a nk of chief Thos e chiefs too
.

“
wer e r espected a s h a vi ng been fa vour ed

by the uns een powers wh o h a d g r a nted them

,

15 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
help a nd s trengthen ed their a b ility t o be s tea d
”
fas t dur ing the yea rs S o in deed Hes iod
.
, ,

goes on widening h is conception of ini tia tive

,
“
beyond the p olitical F or from the Mus es a nd
.

far sh oo ti ng Ap oll o com e m en on ea r th wh o

-

ar e s i nger s a n d h arper s a nd fro m Ze us com e

,

k i ngs ; a n d he is bless ed wh om the Mus es l ove ,

a nd s weet is the v oice tha t fl o ws fr o m his

m outh a nd the p o et goes on to des cr ibe the

cons ol a tio n s of ver s e a nd s ong on high them es

, ,

t o m en in trouble e spec ia lly songs a b out the

,
“ ”
gods a nd the fam e of form er m en
, .

TH E WO R D A R KH E I N C L A S S I C A L GR E E K
I n vi ew of the s elec tion of the wor d ar khe by
Aristotle to denote in clus ively the function of
the citizen in the city s ta te it is n ecess ary -
,

to tr ace in s om e deta il the history of thi s wor d ,

a nd it s cogn a tes between its Hom er i c a n d its

four th ce ntury us ages Am ong the poets as

-
.
,

we should expect the a ctive verb r etai ns its

,

m ea ni n g to s ta rt
, a hym n for exa m ple a , ,

ca l a m i ty a cours e of wr ongd o i ng a r itua l

88
, ,

act or a p olitic a l c oven a n t sa nc tion ed by such

,
“
acts ; a n d in the New Tes ta m en t the ruler of
” “ ”
the fea s t is litera lly the sta rter of it lik e
-

Themi s in Olym pus I n the m iddle voice

.
,
“
t oo it is us ed a s in Hom er ;
, to begin from
”89 “ ”
Zeus , a s Dem od ocus bega n with the g od
15 6
 THE NO TI O N OF ORDINANCE
as inspir a tion s eiz ed h im Sim ila rly Ath e .
,
“
ni a ns r eturn i ng to their r a vaged c ity
, s tarted ,
” 90
them selves a building ; a n d the soul of a
-

“ ” 91
dying m a n s tarts its elf to dep art I n the .

p olitical s ens e Herod otus speak s of the m ob

,
“ ”
initia ting when it ta k es co ntro l of the s ta te
, .

B ut we ha ve a lso new us age n ow tra ns iti ona l ,

in Herodotus vi vid sk etch of the r is e of D eioces

’

to p ower 92
b ut a lre a dy m a tur e in other p as
,

s ages of the s am e wr iter the only p r e S ocr a ti c ,

-

think er (let us n ever forget) whose works a re

preser ved in full D eioces lik e a ny ca ndida te.
,

for Om a ha chiefta i ncy begins by delibera tely ,

doing chieflik e acts for the welfa r e of this ,

“ ”
people as if cour ting ini tia tive We a re .

r em i n ded of the less fortun a te Cyl on wh o lik e , ,

“
a no ther S a m s on grew h is ha ir long for a
,
” 93 “
tyr anny D eio ces t oo lik e Ther as when he
.
, , ,
”
ta sted initiative not ofiiee as we s ay b ut the
-
, ,

f eed
r o m t o s t t things in hi s own way which
a r —
“ “
he h a d been onl y cour ting before com pelled ,

the Medes to m ak e for them s elves o ne s i ngle

” 94
fortr es s a nd th e r es ult was im p eri um et s c la
,
“
regni , as E nni us s ay s of Tar quin
95
for he ,

concentra ted the Medi an na ti on onl y and ruled ,

”
over i t the sam e word now bein g us ed in its
,
!

full politica l significa nce It is in thi s sense .

tha t the overlor dship of Croes us is a n arkhé 96 ’

a nd an Atheni an ad m iral a fter the d eath of a

15 7
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“ ”"
llea gue h ad the whole arkhe over the sh ip s f 7
’

co

It is no w clear tha t in com p ounds the p refix

“ ” “
a rkhe (a s in our wor d s architec t a nd a r ch
”
bis hop ) descr ibes not m erely the fir s t or chief
m a n of a c om p a ny or orga n is a tion b ut the ,
“ ”
initia tory fun ction of h im wh o s ta rts the
others to work a nd origin a tes the design whi ch
,

they are to com plete A nd this appea l to .

Greek practical life confir m s the view tha t

wh a t is esse ntia l in the n otion of a r khe is j us t
“ ” “ ”
thi s initia tory push or drive with which
the gifted m a n im p oses h is will a nd plea sure - -

on the r es t This m eani ng i s even clear er in

.

”
p oetical phra ses such a s lor d o f the sea ,

” “ “
lor d of the thun der l or d of light or life ;
, ,
“ ”
a nd in na m e s o f the lea der of a crowd of
other people r o bbers wor shippers fea s ters 98
.
, , ,
“ ”
The fa m iliar architect in Greek is oftener
“ ” “ ”
m as ter work m a n tha n des ig ner as with ,

99
us .

Fin a lly both noun a n d verb a re us ed of the

,

s ola regn i o ver whic h s uch i m p eri um is exer

“
cised a s when B r a s ida s
, c o m es to Arn is s a firs t ,
” 1 00
p oint of the ar khe [dom in ion] of P erdicca s ,

or im per son a lly a s fa r a s thi s m ounta i n it

” 1°1
is ruled by Pers ia B ut the p r im itive m ea n
.

“ ”
ing of s ta rting r ecurs in unexpected phr as es
geographica lly of the peni ns ul a r terr itory of
,

the Cnidia ns turned [trending] towar d the sea

,

15 8
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
a nd being t ted fr om the Byb a ssia n
s ar
” 102
isthm us ; or m orph ol og i ca lly when a m an,

pulls a t the beg inning of the cor d where we

sh ould give him the
“
end
”
of it
” 3
.

T hes e r em ini s cences of the p rim ary m ea ni ng

pass gr a dua lly over into the sec o nda ry s ens es
in which the s ub s ta n tive ar khe is us ed i n cl a s
sical Gr eek . B ut it is diffit to be sur e tha t
the s econ dary s ens es are not rea lly nea r er to
the pr im ary th an h a s been s om etim es supp osed .

I n p a rtic ul ar the circum s ta nce th at a rkhe i s a

verba l subs ta ntive s ta nding in the s a m e r ela
,
“ ” “
tion to its ver b as logos wor d to legei n to
, , ,
“ ”
say , or tykhe ch a nc e to tykhei n
, to ,

ch a nce to m eet 1s s ig nifican t in it s elf

, a nd ,

s till m or e so when it is foun d th at thi s i s com

m on in the voca b ul ary of Greek p olitica l

AC H I E VE M E NT TE L OS A S C O RR E L ATI V E
O F INI T I A T IV E A R KH E

A good exam ple is the term which in the phil o

sophi ca l voca b ul a ry is the d ir ec t corr el a tive

of ar khe b ut i n its com m ones t p o litica l usa ges

,

either becom es a synonym of it or els e goes off ,

in to speci al m ea ni ngs which a t fir s t s ight ha ve

no conn exi on with it This word is telos com
.
,
“ ”
m only trans l ated end ar khe m ay often
’

as ,

”
be translated beginning Lik e arkhe it
.
,

15 9
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
has a g te verbco n a , tellei n ,
be to m ak e to
which is found la ter uncom p oun de d th ough I n ,

the Hom eric p oem s onl y its com p ound s a na ,

tellei n ep i tellei n occur

, , There is al so a d eriv
.

a tive Ver b telei n m ea ning s im m

“
, , y to bring to a
” “ ”
telos , to com plete At firs t s ight telos in
.

“ “ ”
H om er m eans sim ply end or conclusi on ;
“ ” “ ” 1 °4
telos of wa r for exa m ple or of speaki ng
, , .

“ ” 105
B ut phr as s lik e telos of death a nd s till
“
e ” 1 06
,

m ore , telos of m arr i a ge im ply m ore ; they

s ign ify th a t whi ch m ak es the even t deci s ive a nd

com plete ; not the c er em ony b ut the cons um ,

“
m a ti on of a m a rr iage Sim il ar ly in our han ds
, .
,

is the telos of war th a t of speeches in our de

,

”
cis ion s h ows telos with a ver b a l a n d dy na m i c

s ens e not m er ely s ub s t an tival a n d s ta ti c

, Still .

m or e clea rly in this — “

when a t l as t th e j oyous
hour s br ought forth the telos of our hiring then ,

La om edon outr ageous m a n wr es ted from us

, ,
” 1 °7 —
a ll our hir e the telos is the co m pletion of the
work for whi ch they wer e hi r ed their p ay com ,

p leting the tra ns ac ti on a s dea th m ay be s a id ,

to c om plete a life or the dec is i on a deb a te or

, ,

v i ct ory the Vi o len t effor ts which a chi eve it

.
In .

the p as sag e ab out Laom edon we ha ve a lso the

“
verb : we cam e from Zeus a nd la b our ed for
a year a t a n a gr eed hir e ; a n d he s h owed u s ou r
”
work a nd set i t us to do a nd of this the telos ,

of their hir ing a b ove quoted

, was the com ,

1 60
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
“
p leti on . the c om m on phra s e the telos of
In ,

speaki ng , we n ow see tha t the wor d h as the

sa m e forc e ; it is n ot m er ely the en d i n g o r ces

s a tion of ta lk b ut the dec is io n to which the

,

dis cus s ion h as n ow led ; a s life lea ds to dea th or ,

“
lab our to p ay S a ys on e speak er you will
.
,

speak lies n or will you p ut a telos to yo ur spea k

,
”1 °3 —
ing n ot th a t the li es w ould n ever en d b ut ,

tha t they could ha ve n o r es ult ; a n d again , ,

“
n ot even Achil les will p ut a telos up on a ll h i s
”
wor ds crowni ng speech with per s ua sion S o
, .
,

as I s h a ll p ut the telos of s peech in

”
thy heart n am ely cons equent ac tio n When
, , .

Hephaes tus is in ter rupted a t h is work 1 09

he h a d ,
“
p ut the wheel s o n h is tr ip o ds a nd they h a d
,

thus much telos b ut the or n a te ears h a d n ot yet

,

bee n p ut on ; them he was fitting a nd h am ,

”
m eri ng link s He was tha t is at this s tage of
.
, ,

r e a lizing h is d es ig n .

B ut wha t of the p as sage in the L ay of D olc n ,

“
wher e a m essenger is to g o to the h oly telos of
”
wa tchm en a nd s et them to do a n or der (where
the s am e wor d is used a s of La om ed on a b ove ,

“
s etti ng l a b our ers to work ) ; a n d ag a in qui ckly ,

they went a nd rea ched a telos of Thracia n

” 11 0
m en ? The whole lay is queer loos ely k nit ,

with the r est of the I li ad a nd suspec ted to be,

of la ter com p os ition ; b ut it is n o n e the less epic

in dicti on ; a nd her e telos is clea rly th e s quad

1 61
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
o pers ons to whom o rders a re given ta sk s are
f ,

s et ; their a cti on is the r es p on s e to a nd corr e ,

l ative of the i nitia tive of their com m a n der

,

which thos e or ders con vey This us e of telos .

per sis ts in c la ss ica l G r eek for a flock of birds , ,

a terr it or ia l c on ti nge n t a s qua dron of ca valr y

, ,

Hom eric us ages of the c ognate verb confirm

this gen era l s en s e of telos; q uite explicit i s the
m ea ni ng of perfor m a n ce in s uch phr a s es a s ,
“ ” 112 “
to fulfil bur ia l ; spea k wha t th ou thi nk es t ;
” 1 13 “
m y hea r t bids m e fulfil if I am able t o
,

” 114
fulfil a n d if it h as r ea ched fulfilm ent i n the ,

s ens e th a t telos is a tt a in ed i n a ny m a tter un der , ,

two con ditions ; fir s t the a bility of the agen t

,

a nd this we h a ve a l r e a dy s een depen d s on his

a r khe the quality of

,
“
pus h or i nitiative— a nd
”
,

“
s e con dly the co n curr en ce of the
, uns een
”
p owers a s a n Om ah a would say in this event
, , ,

The chief s will in quite m odern p arla nce m ust

’
, ,

be in a ccor d with the divi n e will .

Thus ar khe a n d telos while a lik e m a tter of

,

hum a n will a n d p ush are a lik e from Zeus

, .

The subjects of Achilles so often quoted a l ,

ulfil ben eath h is sceptr e h is or din an c es ;

a nd in his q ua rr el with Aga m em n on a n d its
“
tragic s equel the dec ision of Zeus wa s being
” 1 15
fulfilled . Thus too s een from outside
, , ,
“ ”
a rkhe re vea ls a m a n b ecause fulfilm ent telos , ,

1 62
 THE NOTION OF ORDINANCE
revea ls h im ; a s Menela us s ays as he sl ays the
“
b oa s tful O th ryoneus Thee w ould I p ra ise
,

a b o ve a ll m en if i n deed
, , thou wilt fulfil a ll
,
” 11 6
tha t th ou did s t p r om is e It is in deed ex
.
, ,

a ctly i n thi s s e n s e th a t S ol on a d v i s es C r oes us t o

“
l ook to the end of every m atter whither it ,
” 11 7
will arrive .

TE L O S AN D P R O VI N C I A
It is in p r ecis ely this s en s e tha t in cl a s s ica l
“ ”
Gr eek th os e in ar khe p ublic offic ia ls a re a lso
, ,

“ ”
thos e in telos ; a n d tha t telos m ea ns the fun ction
“
of s uch m en a s E uripides spea k s of the
, s leep
” 11 8
less fun ction s O f the eyes I n this aspec t .

telos lik e arkhe h as its p rec is e c o unterp a rt i n

, ,

Rom a n ter m inol og y in the p rovi nci a which is

,

the cor r ela tive of a ll i m p eri um th a t is n ot

expr es s ly unlim ited i nfini tum , This is a .

m or e pic tur es que b ut h a r dly m or e hom ely

“
wor d tha n telos for it is liter a lly the lea sh
,

“ ”
or tether within which a m a n in ves ted with
,

i m p eri um is fr ee to exerc is e i ni tia tive ; beyond

its ra dius he m ay b ark b ut ca nnot bite F or .

en tr y o n s uch function form a l phra s es a re

p r ovi nci a m i n i r e, i n p r oci n ci a m cum i m p erio
p rofi ci s ci ; a nd for r es ign i ng it p rovi nci am
11 9

dep on ere, or tr adere ; b ut p op ul a rly o ne could

, ,

say i n as s igni ng m il itary c om m a n d s S ici ni o ,

12 °
Vols ci , A quili o H ern i ci p r ovi nci a eveni t or of ,

1 63
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE G]
“
an a ssa s s n he dem a nded this fu1
i
” 12 1—
k ill m e in m y bed as Z E s ch ylus
“
th os e to wh om this telos h a s been a s
Th a t telos in l ater Greek should 1
“
us ed for va r i ous k i n ds of perfor m :
therefor e on ly wh a t we should ex
,

thes e two a re s ignifi ca n t a s illustra ti

,

histor y I n r espec t of the s ta te th e

.

“ ”
c itize n ,t oo h a s t o ,do h is bit It ,

s er vi ce
— a s the Th r aci an s s er ved i n
—
the L ay of D olon a n d by contrib ut
“
r es our ces ; co ns eque n tly to s ettle te
,
’

p ay o n e s t a xes ; a n d a person exem pt

or o ther p ublic duties 1s a teles — “
withe
A nd further a m o ng thes e p ublic ( 1
, ,

s er vi c e of the g o ds r a nk s high ,

a ny r eligi ous c er em o ny ; the

“
s uch r ite s is teletes perf or m
,

cur i ous acciden t the Rom a n eq

m os t intim a te k in d s of t
”
up on a n ew pl a n e of exper ie n ce
“p
Greek n o les s pr operly ca lled a
for m a n ce : for a t Eleus is the n a m e
of the My s teries wa s the Teles teri on

A R KH E A N D TE L OS TR A N S L A TE D B Y
A N D F I N I S I N LA T I N PH I L O

I nto the use m a de i n Greek phil os

wor ds we h a ve been discuss ing her e
1 64
 TH E NOTION OF ORDINAN C E

im proper to digres s a t this p oi nt O ur con .

s ideration of their Ro m a n eq ui valents in the ,

spher e of their p olitical a nd a dm inistrative

s en s es would however ha rdly be com plete
, , ,

without r efer enc e to the dis a ster which befell

philosophy gen era lly when La tin wr iters bega n
to p op ul arize the conceptions of G reek p h ilos o
phy a nd in vented a vern acular term i nol ogy
,

for them H a d Cicero pers is ted in his tra ns

.

l a tion of arkhai by i ni ti a 1 23
or foll owed up h is
,

ow n h appy ph r a s es a b out ca us a a s i m plyi ng i n

1 24—
itiati v e as well as p riority i n tim e ; s till m or e ,

h a d his p olitica l exper ienc e led h im to tr a n s

l te
a a rk he m —
by i p eri um the cours e of specula
tion m ight h ave run sm oother a nd reac hed con ,

clusi ons ( if not differ ent) m ore com p r ehensible

than they ha ve in fact been with the ren

, , ,

dering p ri nci p i um whi ch l a ys s tres s on p r iority

,

a nd s uper ior ity ra ther th a n on i ni ti a tive a n d

‘

ca usa lity I n a world wher e the origins a n d

.

lim itatio ns of i m p eri um were being forgotten

except by a ntiqua r ia n s a n d wher e the ca us a
,

ca usa ns of m os t thi ngs th a t m a tter ed w a s a

p r i ncep s the ch oice was as irr evoca ble as it wa s

,

fa ta l ; a nd it was not the only accident of thi s

k i nd . Wh a t m ore i n congr uous j uxta position
c ould h a ve bee n con ceived th a n th a t of fini s
”
with telos tr a nsla ting, perform a n ce by
“ ”
b oundary a nd corr ela ting p ri nci p i um with
,

1 65
Wh at m or e lam entable failur e of schol arship
’
than tha t if the title of Cicero s own tr eatis e
, ,

D e F i nibus B onorum et M a lorum be retra ns

,

la ted into Gr eek 125

it becom es im p oss ible to
'

r ecognize whether it is a tr e a ti s e on the p r i n

cip les of taxa ti on or on good a n d b ad p ublic

,

s er va nts ? A n d in no cas e could the G reek

“
wor ds refer to the La tter E nds of G ood a n d
B ad Men
”
, whic h is what

166
 LE C TURE IV

THE GREEK NO TI O N OF JU STIC E

B I KE .

TH R O U G H the two m a in trend s of political

developm ent which we ha ve been foll owing
encroachm ent of the s ta te on the triba l corp o
r a ti ons
, of wh os e m em bers it i s now felt to

cons is t, irrespective of their les s er loya lties ;

a nd e ncroa ch m ent o n the s olidarity of the
fa m ily an d cl a n on the p art of individua ls
,

intolera nt of com m una l restriction s or em b ark ed

on a w a y of life whi ch r em oved or a t le a s t

a lien a ted them fr om the r es t of their her edi

—
tary g oup a ncient a nd tra dition a l form s of
r

a uth or ity h a ve been tr a ced fa lli ng int o disr e

pute a n d disus e A n ew conception of wha t

.

a uthority m ea nt appears in the Hes iodi c de

”
scription of the m a n whom the Muses l o ve ;
“ ”
for while fro m Zeus com e k ings , (bela ted in
,

“
m a ny pl a ces ob s olete trib ute to the divi ne
,
”
b orn dyna sties of a dventurers in the Heroic
Age) there is n ow a n other s our ce of inspira tio n
,

_
the Mus es a nd Ap oll o I n Hes iodic theology
.

they too a re Zeus b orn ; b ut their rela tions

, ,
-

with m en a re not q uite thos e of Zeus Fro m.

1 67
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the Muses a n d Apollo com e singers a nd
”
harpers a nd thes e lik e the seer the phys icia n
, , , ,

a nd the arm ourer in Hom er ic society a re

, ,
“ ”
p ublic serva nts ; they ha ve a p ublic function
a nd r es p ons ibility t o perf orm as it m ay be

r equir ed— to com f ort th os e tha t m our n to ,

dissip a te ill th oughts a nd car es B ut beyond .

these the Mus es enh a nce the native ability of

“ ”
the Zeus n urtured k i ng It is to them that
- .

he owes the s avoi r fai re the m at jus te the g ra

, ,

ci ons presence the quiet I n fluence which

, ,

brings the others crowdi ng round him — lik e

the dea d round Minos in Ha des in ge ntle
‘

”
s elf r e spect ;
-
a l r ea dy that is in a m ood to
, ,

follow h is lea d wh a tever th at m ay be

, .

“
Now the pro ced ure of the m a n wh om the
,
”
Muses love is for the m ost p art described in
quite ge nera l term s ; it is rather the spirit in
which he a c ts tha n wh at he d oes, This .

“ ”
elicits th at gentle s elf r espec t in the others-

a nd enh a nces his in itia tive by their willi ng

concurr ence B ut in one p oint Hes iod is p re

.

“
c is e
, even tech ni ca l in his phra s es : The
,

cla ns m en a ll s ee h im distinguishing a m ong

”
them i s tes with s tra ightfor war d r uli ngs It .

is not in deed quite clear whether he dis tin

, ,

g uish es or dis cer ns them is tes a s such per ceiving ,

wha t is the will a nd plea sure of Zeus dire ctly ,

lik e a Hom eric chief or disti nguishes a m ong

, ,

1 68
 THE NO T I O N OF JU STICE
them istes l e dy exta nt tha t one which is
a r a ,

a pplicable to the m a tter in h a n d B ut the .

context of the Theogoni a is on the wh ole qu i te , ,

as clearly sub s eq uent to the peri od of con ques t

a nd r es ettle m ent as th at of the H om eri c p oem s

,

is p rojec ted b ack int o the Heroic Age whi ch

prec eded it An d th ough themi s tes a re still
.

part of the politica l outfit of Hesiodic s ociety ,

wha t chiefly pr eoccupies the p oet now is

a nother a spec t of s ocia l or der a n d p rer equi s ite

for well being ; wha t ar e descri b ed her e as di kai

-
,

a nd their collec tive s ub st a n ce which is di ké .

D I Ki
HO M E R'
IN

There were di kaz it is true in Hom eric

'

, ,

s oc iety a nd we ha ve a lr ea dy h ad t o a n ti cip a te
, ,

in genera l term s the establish m ent of their

,

exa ct quality D iké lik e arkhé i s a verb al

.
, ,
”
s ub s ta n tive of which the s te m m e ans t o
, sh o w
“ ”
or p oin t out ; in La tin the corr esp on ding
“ ” “
roo t yielded wor d s for to sa y a n d to p oint ,

”
out , for the a utocra tic di ctator with h is plen ary
“ ”
i m p eri um ; for the finger di gi tus with which , ,

you p oin t ; a n d ther e is tra ce in the lega l phra s e ,

dioi s ca usa for for m s s ak e of a n exact

’
, ,

counterp art of the G r eek diké a l ongs ide of the ,

La ti nized dica which i s a late l oa n wor d iden

,
-
,

tical with it Pr im arily then a n d in com m on

.
, ,

“ ”
speech , di ké is the w ay a thi ng happe ns as ,

1 69
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS

you would show a nother fell ow h ow to do it ,

or r ecogni z e it whe n it occu

1
rs F or exa m ple .
,
“ ”
it is the diké of old m en a way they h a ve to , ,
“
bathe eat a nd sleep warm to do them selves
, , ,
”2 “ ”
well . A nd it i s the di ké of divine k i ngs n ot
to say or do a nything out of or der in p ublic - 3 -
.

S o too Telem a chus s et out to inquire a b out

, ,
“
h is l os t fa ther from Nes tor s i nce he k nows ,

a ll a b out the ways a nd th ought of others he

will k n ow th a t is wha t Odyss eus is lik ely to
, ,

ha ve do ne with hi m self 4
A nd a s we sha ll s ee
.
, ,

this p op ul ar s en s e pers is ts in cl a ssica l Gr eek .

B ut by the s ide of this ther e is well es tab

, ,
-

ush ed H om er ic usage of di ké for p ron ounce

wa y things h appen under
“ ”
m ents a s to the
nor m a l cir cum s t a nc es which h a ve the f orc e of
,

a lega l r uli ng on a ny occa s ion when thi ngs h a ve

n ot gon e s o b ut the n orm a l or der of eve n ts h a s

,

been dis turbed This was one of the rem edia l

.

process es of civilis a tion which lik e them i stes , ,

the Cycl op s folk did n ot kn ow

- 5
I n Ha des .
,

it was for dikai th a t the dea d ask ed Minos ; 6

“ ”7
a nd with dikai a nd h is own s trength S ar ,

“ ”
p edon drew towa rd him Lyci a for gover
n a n ce . I n the tr ia l s cen e on the Shield of
Achilles two ta lents lie ther e befor e the bench
“
of elder s t o give t o h im wh o a lo ng w ith thes e
”8
speak s a di ké m os t s tra ightly ; wh o offers that ,

is , the cleares t r uli ng o n th e p oi nt of cus tom

1 70
 THE NOTION OF JU STIC E
which govern the m a tter in ques tion S o far a .
,

di ké is a r uli ng of a j udge or o ther wis e m a n on

a dispute betwee n other p ar ties It m ay be a.

“ ”
s tr aight r uli ng l ik e the a rbitra m ent of a m a n
,

of ag e a n d exper ie nce s uch as Pr i a m

, wh o ,
“
l ook s b oth befor e a nd a fter s o th a t it m ay
,
”9
be quite for the best on either ha nd ; or
“ “ ”
cr ook ed a nd a wry given with vi olence
, ,

s o tha t diké collec tively is drive n out beca us e

‘

,
“ ”
the voice of the gods is ignor ed D i ké col .

“
lec tively m ay b e driven out when m en ,

“
with violence dis c ern cr ook ed them is tes not ,

r ega r di ng the v oi c e of the

B ut di ké is a l so i n one p assage clearly the

, ,

s ta te m e nt of the a ggrieved pers on : wher e A nti ~

lochus protes ts th at he h as been o ver l ook ed in

the p rize givi ng after the fun eral ga m es a nd ,
“ ”
ri s i ng up a n s wer ed Achilles with a di ké
, tha t ,

is with a s ta tem ent of wha t sh oul d ha ve h ap

pened a nd did n ot 11
.I n one other p ass age
di ké m ay ha ve either s en s e Odysseus is
.

urgi ng Agam em n on not to fa il on the s ide of

“
generos ity in appea sing Achilles a nd then

let h im be contented with a r ich feas t a m ong

the huts th at you m ay lea ve n othing lacking
,
” 12 “ ”
of the diké , I s this diké the a w ar d of

c om pe ns atio n to which Aga m em non h a s a gr eed

, ,
“ ”
a nd h a s now to give e ffec t or is it the , c l a im

of Achill es whi ch th a t a ward was to sa tisfy ?

171
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF TH E GREEKS
Pr obably the form er beca us e Odysseus goes
,
“
on to say th at if thi s is d one Aga m em non , will
then be m or e obs erva nt of di ké than a nother ,

for it is no c aus e for ca vil tha t a kin g sh ould

g ive a m an full contentm ent when he was the
”
firs t to beh a ve h arshly Mor eo ver a t n o
.
,

point in the quarr el h a s Achilles stated a cl aim

for com pens ati on ; th a t was the pity of it th a t ,

he thought Aga m em non p as t forgiveness .

“ ” “
Thos e s ons of Achaea ns wh o ca rry a scep
“ ”
tre a nd
, extort them is tes from Zeus ar e ,
”
wielders of j ustice di kai a s we ha ve seen ” .
, ,
“
Such a one is Telem a chus in Ith aca since he !
,

dines a t equa l feas ts which it is proper for a

,

m an con versa nt with di kai to a ttend ; for all

” 14
invite him . And pers ons gr ea t a nd sm a ll
m ay ha ve the quality of a di ké; they beha ve
“ ”
or derly a n d norm a lly not , wildly lik e the
Cyclops folk a nd others wh o were not dikai oi
- 15
,

“
which pr ovis ion ally we m ay render j ust ,

though ra ther in the Fr ench s ens e of jus te than

in our own m ore legal a nd m oral sha de of m ean
ing .Thi s was what was wrong with the
s uitor s of Penel ope , because they are not
”
willing to woo in a ccorda nce with diké the ,
“
way de cent peo ple do their courti ng nor to g o ,

to their own pl a ce b ut s qua n der the p roper ty

,

a t their e as e over roughl y nor s p ar e it a t a ll

,
-
,
.

Els ewhere m en wh o a re not di kaioi ar e a lso

1 72
 THE NOTION OF JU STI C E
not intelligent on the other h a n d Athena ,
”
r ej oiced in a m a n di kaios a nd o f a good spir it
-
.

“ ” “ ”
This kind of j ustice is a lso fa ir a n d adm ir
“ “
a ble ; for it d oes not confoun or bring to
”1 7 “ ”
harm . Speech which is j ust is contra s ted
“
with wor ds 0 opp osi ng violence a nd the ki nd
“ ”
of harsh dealing with which Odyss eus gently
r ep roa ches Agam em non a nd i s exem pt from
,

s uch r ej oi n der Sum m ar ily the qualities of a

.
,

di kaios are i ntelli genc e c lea r hea ded ness good

,
-
,

will a bsence of violen ce ha rshness a nd b a d

, ,

tem per All civilized people a re di kaioi m ore

.

or less ,a nd in the Hym n to Aph r odite wild

”
nature a nd sh a dy groves a re c ontr as ted with
“ ”
the cities of m en wh o are dikazoi wh o k now
'

h ow to beha ve . It is i nstructive tha t eve n i n

thes e early p ass ages the dikai os is in telligent as
well a s good tem pered a n d m annerly
- 18
.

B ut this quali ty h a d its degrees Ag a m em .

“
non if he beh a ved ge nerous ly would be
, m ore
,
”
dikaios th a n a nother ; Cheiron wh o taught ,
“
the young Achill es was m ost dikoi as of the
,
” 19
Centaur s a nd o n the n orther n edge of the
,

world a re gracious hors e m ilk ers m ilk ea ters -

,
-
,
”2°
without livelih ood m ost di kai oi of m a nk in d
, .

“
La ter in a Hom er ic hym n the wa r g od is m a s
, ,

ter of the m en of opp os ing violenc e lea der of ,

” 21
folk m ost dikai oi as well as fell ow helpers of
,
-

Them is .
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
F or the b itr a ting in a dispute a nd
act of a r

givi ng a ruling there i s a n active verb di ka zein

, ,
'
,

us ed either of a n i n divid ua l or a b ody of m en

“
let h im decide for Troj an s a n d D a n a a ns a s
, ,

” 22 “ ” 23
is fit ; decide ye between the two of us ;
“
s on s of the Troj a ns decided a nd Pa ll as ,

”24 “
Athen e . I n the Tr ia l s cene on the s hield
-

the litiga nts wer e r ushing into cour t a n d the ,

“ ” 25
elders bega n to g l v e their r uling in tur n .

I n the m iddle voice the s am e ver b descr ibes the

“
doings of the litiga nt : them I defea ted s ta t ,

”
i ng m y ca s e by the ships i n the p a ssage
,

quoted a b o ve where the Troj a n and Athena

,

“
decided it S o a chief is des cribed discus s ing
.

m a ny quarrel s of y ouths s ta ti ng their cl a im s ; 26

“
a nd s o , t oo the dea d
, a sk ed for them selves

r uli ngs from their l or d exa ctly p araphras ing

,

the m ore form a l wor d 27

.

TH E NO T I O N or B I KE AF T E R HO ME R
We ha ve n ow to tra ce the notion of di ké
outs ide the H om er i c p o em s I n the firs t pl a ce
.
,

a s h a s been n o ted a l r ea dy b r iefly the H om er ic ,

“
a nd m os t elem en ta ry m ea ni n g of the wa y a ,
”
thing h appen s pers ists into cla s s ic a l tim es
, ,

a nd not a m on g the p oets onl y n or on ly of ,

“
hum a n beha viour n or of living thi ngs
, lWin e .

be it to befrien d a fri end ; b ut m y enem y ,

s eei ng he is m y en em y I will p urs ue the way of

, ,

1 74
 THE NOTION OF JU STI CE
a wolf ” 8
. A f urious m a n r oar s the way of i n
”29
vi ncible wa ter da shing do w n a m ounta in .

“
A philos opher m ay s ay it r em a ins then I , ,

think to be filled thr ough m y hearing from

,

” 3°
a l ien sourc e s the way of a wa terp ot
, .

The a dj ective dikai os is us ed lik e the Old ,

“ ”— “
E nglish kin dly m ea ni n g ,a ccor di ng to
” —
k in d of c ultiva ble la n d of th or oughb red ,
“ ”
h ors es which breed tr ue a n d of well beha ved ,
-

”
h or s es wh os e a ctions are n or m al in a m eta ,

phor a b out m uti n ous m en 31

It is im p orta nt to .

n ote th a t th i s usa ge i s n ot c onfi n ed t o or di n a r y

speech n or to p oetry b ut is em pl oyed a l s o by a

,

“ ”
phys ica l p hilos opher E m pedocles wh o speak s , ,

“ ”
of the di ké of s m ok e m ea n i ng the w a y s m ok e
,

beha ves 32
.

Secon dly a n d a ga in a s in Hom er diké is

, ,
“ ”
m a n s form ul a ti on of the w a y thi n gs ha ppen
’

nor m a lly whether such form ula be true or

,

“ ” “ ”
fa l s e , s tra ight or cr ook ed B ad k ings .

”
ca n s o t o speak
, do j ustice which is inj us tice
,

“
r e ally .S o Hesiod warns them : bear ing this
in m in d k i ngs d evour ers of g ifts m ak e
, , ,

s tr a ight y our di hai an d a lt ogether p ut out o f

” 33
m in d crook ed di hai a n d el s ewher e he de
,

s cr ibes h ow di ke per s on ified is m ish an dled

, ,

“ ” “
by s uch gift devouri ng men wh o distin
-
,

”
guish them i stes W ith crook ed di hai and dr ive ,
” “ ”
h er out a nd do n ot dis trib ute h er straight ,

1 75
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREE KS
“
t
con ras ting them with th os e wh o g ive s traight
di ha i to s tra ngers a nd dwellers in the dem os
a l ik e a nd do not tu
, r n as ide fr om the way of
“
di kéf m en whos e p oli s gr ows green a nd the
’

c l a ns bloss om in it a nd their wives bear

,
”34
childr e n lik e t o their s ir e s It is ch ara cter
.

’
istic of th e p a ra llelism between m a n s beh a viour
“ ”
a n d the way th i ngs happen in natur e which ,

h a s been n oticed a t the outs et tha t you could ,

not be r e a lly well b red unless you wer e th or

-
,

oug h bred too .

WE L L-B R E D A ND TH O R O U G H B R E D I N
EA R L Y GR E E CE
Th is is a con sidera tion which it is essentia l
to k eep i n m i n d in estim a ti ng the clai m s m ade
,

by the sp ok esm a n of the a nci en regi me in

Greek city sta tes during the seventh a nd sixth
-

c e ntur ies when the p olitica l excl usiveness of

,

th e origi na l corp ora tors — the k i ns hip groups -

whi ch h a d s unk their differ ences to bring the

defens ive p o li s n n —
i to bei g was being chal
lenged by a dventur er s a nd newcom ers as ,

opp or tun ities for i n ter cours e gr ew I n s uch .

a country a s the cr a dle l a n d of the Gr ee k s -

each oa s is of fer tile l an d intens ely cultiva ted

,

in s m all fr eeh olds by the lin ea l des cenda nts of

its fir s t Gr eek speak ing occup a nts was n early
-
,
“
en oug s elf s ufficient
-
in the s ens e idea lized
,

176
 THE NOTION OF JUSTICE
la ter by the philos ophers to provide a lm os t
,

perfec t conditions for inbr eeding a nd the estab

,

lis h m ent i n the biologica l s ens e of a hom o

, ,

g en eous a nd r ecogn iz able b r eed of m en Jus t .

beca us e thes e origina l occup a nts were for the

m os t p art not cl os ely r el a ted by blood yet
' —

alm os t a ll bel o nged to a n ot very W ide r a nge of

va rieties s im il a rly es ta blis hed during the long

ag e of Mi n o a n i ns ul a ti on— ther e was a m ple p r o
vis ion a ga in s t over clos e inbr eeding of the k in d
which h as led to enfeeblem ent of the s tock in
m a ny of the Pa cific is l a n d group s -
B ut j ust
.

becaus e [E g ea n synoeci sm in volved delibera te

accepta nce of s uch a ccidenta l n eighb ours as

socia l co p a rt ners the tr a ditio n a l exclus iven ess

-
,

of s uch ki ns hip gr oup s w as rel axed to the

-

extent th a t interm arr ia ge between such con

federa te cl a ns was a lm os t uni vers ally s a nc
tioned a n d co ns equently tha t r isk of over clos e
inbreeding wa s a voided a n d such enfeeble
,

m ent a t a ll events grea tly p os tp oned

, , Pa r a l
.

lels s ufficiently cl os e to be ins tructive as ill us

tra tions are the va r ieties of phys ica l type s till
recog n i s able i n the Gr eek is l a n ds a fter a s im ilar
,

period of s egr ega tion in m ediaeva l a nd even in

sub s equen t tim es ; in m a ny of the m or e i ns u

la ted di s tric ts of Italy ; in the well m a rk ed -

local br eeds of Welshm en a nd to s om e degr ee

in the phy si que of the m en of Devon Ham p ,

1 77
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
s hir e Berk shire the Vale of York a nd other
, , ,

geographi cal reg ions of Saxon Engl a nd ; and

a m ong the older fa milies of New E ngl a n d a nd

the s eab oard Sta tes of the Southeas t It is .

,

in deed from com p ara tive s tudy of such ex

,

am ples of wh a t m ay p rovi s iona lly be des cr ibed

as r egi onal s electi o n th a t a n es tim a te m ay be

,

form ed of the con ditions a nd m ore es peci ally,

of the lim its of tim e r equis ite for the e s ta b li sh

“ ” “ ”
m en t of s uch hum an s tra i ns or br eed s ;
a nd the concl us i on s eem s to be j us tified th a t

the period of a b out four c enturies fr om 1 100 ,

to 7 00 B C between the la s t fresh injectio n of

. .
,

new bl oo d i nt o thi s ZEg ean s tud fa r m a nd the -

begin ni ng of the period of r enewed intercours e

on a con s idera ble s ca le wa s l o ng en ough to h a ve
,

es ta blished s uch varieties each fa irly hom o ,

g e n eo us a
, n d m os t of them s ufficiently well
ch ar a cter ized to m ak e a l m os t a ny s ort of
s tra nger a fa ir ly cons picuous objec t .

Direct evidence as to physica l peculia rities ,

of cours e elude s us a l m os t wh olly

, Even the .

“ ”
va rieties of Greek beauty a s recor ded in
s cu lptur e vas e p ainti n g a nd coin types d uring
,
-
,
-

“ ”
the gr eat ag e of Hellen ic ar t p rob ably rep re
s e nt the conceptions of individua l a rtis ts
u
ra ther th a n the pec l i aritie s of r egi ona l or

p olitica l groups B ut the colla teral evidence of

.

the varieties of dialect an d perhaps a lso th e

,

1 78
 THE NO T I O N OF JU STI CE
loca l p eculia rities of wides prea d cults are ,

dir ect eviden c e that such differ entiation oc

curr ed a nd en a ble us to r ec ons titute —
‘
, a ga in

with the help of a na l ogies s uch as the distri

b ution of dia lec ts a nd s chool s of decora tive a rt
a m ong the m odern G reek is l a nds— the m a i n

outlin es of a pictur e of the city s ta te r egi m e -

,

as the exp r ess i on n ot of on e , b ut of m a ny ,

coll atera l a n d infinitely gra duated s ol utio ns

“ ”
of the p roblem of livi ng W ell un der n ea n
c on ditions a nd of p r ovidi ng tha t p r im ary p re
,

r equis ite of s uch intim a te co or dina tion of -

,

beha viour a s this regim e required nam ely a de , ,

qua te supply of citizens wh o were in no ordina ry

“ ”
s ens e equa l s a nd s im ila rs in their rea ction to
m os t of the i nciden ts of life i n the w ay which ,

the phil osopher s pos tula ted If there wa s not .

“ ”
a t a ny per i o d a p olitical a nim a l of s ta ndard
beha viour a nd perform a nce —a s ni neteenth cen -

“ ”
tury ec onom ists p ostul a ted a n ec onom ic m a n
with s ta nda rd habits of con sum ption produc ,

tion a n d s elf s eek in g a im s— there certa m

,
-

“
were in the Greek world well m ark ed Ath e -

” “ ” “ ” “ ” “
n ia n , B oeotia n Chia n , Lesbia n Rho
, ,
” “ ”
dia n , C reta n types of m en a ll r ecognis able , ,

a nd s om e of them lik e the wretched L eria ns

, ,

ludi cro usly co ns picuo us a m ong their co ntem

p ora ries .

Hesiod s
’
anticip a tion o f s uc h a s a e of t t thing s
179
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
is therefore instructive ill ustra tion of wh at a
“ ”
Greek m ea nt b oth by equality in the politica l
,
“ ”
s ens e a nd by
, a r i s tocra cy in the s ens e of
“
go vernm ent by the m en wh o were the fine
” “
fellows in the com m uni ty the fa ir a s well ,
- -

”
a s good
-
in a quite liter a l s ens e A n d equa lly .

ins tr uctive is wh a t at fir st s ight s eem s m os t

fa nta stic in the Pla tonic r eco ns truction of a
“ ”
city of j ust m en m a de perfect n a m ely th at , , ,

after m or e th a n t w o cen tur ies of in di s crim in a te

interbreeding it s eem ed h opeless to expec t th a t

,

a ny p olitica l r econ str ucti on wo uld be perm a

n en t o r
, indeed p ra ctica ble unless accompa
, , ,

nied by th or oughgoi ng s electi on of the bes t

s ur vivi ng s tr a i n s fr om a m ong the m ongr el

p op ula tio n a n d sys tem a tic m a ti ng of these
,

until a th oroughb r ed s to ck s h ould be re es tab -

lish ed Eq ua lity a n d s im il arity tha t is could

.
, ,

be esta blished per m a n en tly o nly by equa liza

tion with the best a nd ass im ila tion to a n,

ideal type .

D I K f: I N R E L AT I O N T O TH E MI S
A fresh point is ga ined from the sa m e p as sage
of He s iod a s t o the r el a ti o n between diha i a n d
“
them i s tes The l a tter bei n g the vo ice of the
.
,
”
gods r epresent the or der of the world a s the
,

go ds con ceive it a n d would h a ve it to b &

“
and b eh old it is very go od ;
, they are, th ere
18 0
 TH E NOTION OF JU STICE

fore gener a l s ta tem en ts lik e thos e form ula ted

, ,

by phys icis ts a n d la wyers B ut it is n ot .

“ ”
a lwa y s cle ar which of the divi n e voices
oi whi ch ther e a re m a ny a fter l ong exper ien c e
,

of m a ny k ings
— is m os t a pplica ble to a p arti c u
,

lar c as e . Her e the hum an in terpreter of the

m i s tes through ig nor a nc e or guile m ay fail t o
, ,
“ ”
discer n a n d a pply in h is di ke the form ula (as
, ,

a R om a n p m tor ca lled it ) which s hou l d gover n

hi s s ettlem e n t of the m a tter I n thi s even t.

“ ”
h is diké is a sk ew it does n ot fit the facts
, ,

though it m ay be con s istent with a them i s ; a n d

cons equently it is perm is s ible to speak of
“ ”
cr ook ed them i s tes a s W e h a ve a lr ea dy s een
, ,

in the s ens e th a t thi s rulin g does not fit tha t

“ ”
ca s e
.
35
The s am e con cepti on of a s tra ight
di ke? r ecurs in the a ppeal of the chorus to
“
Athena in the E umenides : b ut exam in e the c a s e
”
a nd dis c ern a s tra ight di ke F or Athen a .

“
replies by the ques ti on Should then the
, , ,
”
outcom e [ telos] of the accusa tion be mi n e ?
the ruli ng which dec ides the case bein g the
c ons um m ati on of the com pla int whi ch i ni

tiated
Ideally then in Hesiod as in H om er a
, , , ,
“
diké is a true dem ons tra tion of the wa y
”
things happen res ulting fr om honest in tel
, ,

lig ent applica ti on of a them i s tr uly discern ed ,

and rig h tly s elec ted to the facts of the cas e

,
.

18 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
A nd len d thi n e ear to di ké a nd p ut v io
no w

lence utterly o ut of thy th oughts F or this .

ru l e [nom os ] the S on of C ronos a rr anged for

m en : 37
to fish a nd wild beas ts a nd winged
fowl to eat on e a nother sin ce there is no di ké
, ,

in them ; b ut to m en he ga ve di ke which is by ,

far m os t exc ellen t ” ?8

Here di ké is tha t quality
of all true di ha i n am ely th a t they accor d with
, ,

the r ea l or der of things It is i n this s ens e .

“
that Hesiod speak s of Hek a te wh om Zeus ,

honoured [valued] a b o ve a ll a n d ga ve h er ,
”
fa ir gifts to h a ve a ss ignm en t
, th a t is to , ,

dec ide wh at h appens a nd when i n earth a nd ,

‘

the b arr en sea ; a nd sh e h a s a ls o h er p ortion

”—
of h onour r ecog n ition of h er ini tia tive as ,

39 “
we ha ve a lrea dy s een fro m the s ta rry sky ,

a nd h er wor th is ackn owledged a b ove a ll

”
a m on g im m orta l god s F or it is this goddess
.

“
wh o even s till fur ther s i n c e Zeus a l so k n ows
,

h er worth grea tly ass is ts wh om sh e will a nd

, ,

does him good a n d in pla c e of m eeting sh e

,
- -

m ak es em in en t wh om sh e will 4°
a m ong th e

c l a ns , a nd in diké sh e s its beside k ings

wh o have self r espect -
F or being hers elf the
. ,
“ ”
a uthor of all as s ignm ent a n d fitn ess am ong

things the k ing wh o h a s h er for hi s a s sessor

,
“
c ann ot err in h is dis cernm ent of the wa y
”
things r ea lly happen .

F or Hes iod too a s in Hom er diké is con

, , ,

1 82
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
trasted with violence ; the way of norm a l
“ ”
uncons tr a i n ed p roced ure with the crook ed
,

cours e r es ulting fr om for cible i n terfer en ce with

it Forc e violent enough to up set the founda

.
,

tions of society is com p a red to the reversa l

,
“
of the c ours es of r ivers U pward flow the .

s tr eam s of h oly r ivers a nd di ké a nd a ll thi ngs

,
”41 “ ”
ar e bent up on them s elves This is crook ed
.

“ ”
c on duct i n d eed for in the
, holy 3 r ivers is
the pr es ence of a gr ea t p ower of na tur e ; a
“
m oder n p oet m ight des cr ibe them a s living
”
wa ters .

D I KEPE RS O NI F I E D I N H E S I O D
I n the des cripti on of Hek a te pers onification
h as tak e n a nother cour s e a nd di ke r em ai ns ,

a b s tract ; b ut els ewher e Hes iod follows Hom er ic

prec eden t a n d m ak es h er a goddes s wi th a

,

pedigree 42
. H er fa ther is Zeus for di ké is sues ,

from h is will a nd pleasure H er m other a s

- - .
,

we mi ght a nti cip a te is the personified Themi s ;

,
“
for every di ke origi n a tes in a nd p r oceeds from , ,
“
a them i s . H er s is ters are E unom i a or der ,

“ ”
Eirene pea c e or uniform s equen ce of events ;
, ,
“ ”
a nd the th r ee Mo ira i des tinies wh o h a ve
, , ,

in comm i ss ion as it wer e m uch the sam e ,

functions as H ek ate in the previous pa ssage ,

“ ”
a nd lik e h er are ass ig n ed the
, , g rea tes t worth
by Zeus The firs t thr ee includi ng D i ke are
.
, ,

18 3
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
a lik e H orai wa tchers for they wa tch and
, ,

ob s er ve a s their n am e im plies
” the s equence
, ,

of na tur e s beh a vi our

’
the norm al doings of ,

m en a n d the c onfor m ity of b oth to c us tom ary

,

pr o cedur e while Eir ene as we ha ve a lr ea dy

, ,

s een s im ply i s the s ta te of thi n gs when nor m a l

,
“ ”
pr ocedure is un dis turbed by the sha ki ngs of
wa r (p .

H ow D i ké thus personified uphel d the , ,

n orm a l or der is ill ustr a ted by the s aying of

,
“
Her aclitus tha t the s un will not o vers tep
,

h i s lim its other wi s e the E ri nyes ,

” 44
a llies of D i ké wil l find him out , Here g rim .

pha ntom s from the folkl or e of a n older w orld

“ ”
a re a lli ed in the m ytholog ica l as well as the .

a dm i ni str a tive s ens e with the ver b a l s ub st an,

tive diké which exp ress es the outcom e of early

,

Hellenic rea soni ng A nd for a n in vers e p er .

sonificati on lik e th a t of Hes i od s Hek a te ther e

’

“
is a nother s ayi ng of Her a clitus 45
a b out cir ,
”
cuits , th a t is to sa y the p a ths of the wa n deri ng
,
“ ” “
pla nets of which the s un is over s eer a nd
,
”—
in spector to lim it a nd um pire
, goo d sporti ng
s l a ng this fr om the ra ce cours e— and p oint
,
“
-

out a ga in a nd a g a in a nd s h ow them r epea tedly

,

ch a nges a nd hor ai which ca rry everyone .

Here it is the sun tha t is per s onified a nd h is ,

“ ” “ ”
a ss is t an ts or a llies
, are the ob s er va tions
,
”
which assign to ea ch wa nder er h is intricate
184
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
course , as do e stewa r ds in a r eli a
the cour s -

bility tr ial or a cross country s teeplecha s e -

.

“ ”
This conception of D i ké as a ccura cy pers on
ified helps to expl a in a n other Her a clitea n say
“
ing ,
46
th a t b a d m en a re of opp os ite diké to m en
“ ”
of truth : their way tha t is is not the
, ,
“ ”
way of tr uth ; they foll ow a fter lying A nd .

“ ”
we m ay note her e tha t tr uth its elf for a ,
“ ”
Greek was literally not lea ving out of m in d
,

some pa rt of the facts which m us t be k ept in

view if the real sta te of thi ngs is to be per ceived

a nd s ta ted
47

Naturally per sonifica tion once effected a n d

, ,
“
constr uctive s pecul a tion em pl oyi ng m or e p o et
”
ica l term s a s wa s r em em bered of A naxim a n
,

n u r —
der in the s ixth c e t y m ost of all when ,

cos m ol ogi ca l n otio n s fr om B a byl oni a perh ap s ,

even fr om In dia wer e brought b ack by tr a v

,

ellers in Per sia n tim es— a n exten s ive s uper

s tructur e of m yth a nd a llegory was crea ted ,

with out however addi n g very m uch to the

, ,

ra nge of p olitical or s cie ntifi c thought a nd

'

nothi ng a t all to its lucidity I n the well.

known s um m ary of Pyth a gor ean d octrin e by

I am b lich us 48
for exam ple it is not the i denti
, ,

fica tion of Themi s D i ke and Nom os (repl a ci ng

, ,
“
Hesiod s E unomi a ) as ha ving
’
the sa m e
”
com mi s s ion on Oly m p us in the U n der world , ,
“ ”
and up and d own am ong p olei s r espec tively ,

1 85
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
tha t is of val ue b ut the con viction tra ns mi tted
, ,

onl y as a m otive a nd r ea s on for thi s gues s ,

“ ”
so th a t the m a n wh o does not do with di ké
wh a t he h as been set to do is shown to be
,

s im ulta neously wr ongi ng the whole or der of

”
thin gs (cosm os) ; tha t is he is out of gear with
,

G od a nd n a tur e as well as with his fell o w m en .

49

It is open to doubt h ow far these allegor ies

infl uenced or even in teres ted the or dinary
citizen a t a ny per io d of G r eek th ought ; a n d

a l s o whether they m ay sa fely be a s s um ed t o be

very m uc h ea rlier th a n th e l ate writings through

50
which we m ad e their a cqua inta nce .

D I KE FI F T H C E NT U R Y WR I T E RS
IN

More releva nt to the s ecul ar hi s tory of diké

are the fr equent occurr ences of the w or d i n

Herodotus a nd the Tr a gedia ns Foll owing di

.

r ec tly on the p r oc eedi ngs of th e de a d in Ha de s

”
wh o were a ski ng di hai fr om their l or d is the
c om m on Hero d otean ph r a s e for dem anding
sa ti sfacti on for i nj ur y , as when the k i ng of

C olchis a fter the elopem ent of Medea with

,
“
Jas on s en d s to G r eece t o dem a nd di hai of
,

the captur e a n d to dem a n d h is da ughter

back .
” 1
The Greek s r eply tha t the Or ienta ls
“ ”
ha ve not given dihai for the p revious cap
ture of 10 Here di hai s ignify the s a tis faction
.

r equir ed to r estor e thing s t o their norm al cours e .

186
 THE NOTION OF JU STI CE
“
Els ewher e the com plaina nt is s a id to tak e or
,
“ ”
a ccept dihai when he accepts the com pe ns a
,

tion offer ed fr om the p oint of view of the

“ ”
offe nder it i s s a id th a t from h i m di kai occ ur
“ ”
or com e into being The a ss ess or is s aid to
.

“
p u t up on the o ffen der a di k e either a t h is
,

own discr eti on or with defer en c e to the wi she s

,

of the c om pl a i n a nt a nd the o ffen der m a y

53
,
“
un dertak e to give dihai a s chosen by th e
” “

“
com pl a in a n t . I n the cas e of E venius they
bega n to as k him what diké he would ch oos e ,

if the m en of Ap oll on ia wer e willi ng to un der

”
tak e to give di hai for wha t they h ad d on e ,

a nd E v eni us r epli ed r eferr ing t o c ert a i n e s ta tes

, ,
“
tha t if he b ec am e p oss essed of them he would ,

for the futur e be with out gr udge a n d th a t thi s ,

” 54
diké if it occurr ed would s uffice for hi m
, , .

“
Such dihai further a re des cribed a s fulfilled
, ,

“ ”5 5
a nd br ought to a telos .

T o a ss es s a n d im p os e a di ké is di kazei n a s i n ,

Hom eric Gr eek 56

This m ay be d one either
.

“ ” “ ”
accor di ng t o wh a t is up r ight or s tra ight

using the qui te everyd ay wor d orthos ap p li ,

cable to m a ter i a l objec ts ” or it m ay be a n ,

“ ”
unj us t j udgm ent Herodotus us es di kazei n
.

a lso once for the utter ance of a n or acle th r ough

it s p riests
‘
when the m en of Telm ess us
”
or dai ned th a t S a r di s would be im p r egna ble

on a g iven con dition An d ther e is now a new

.

187
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
I b s ta nti v e, di kas tes , fir s t tra ns mi tted in the
hoep home of ZEs ch ylus , for one wh o p ro
oun c es di kai
58
.

Her e it is to be noted that there exists by

his tim e a whole voca b ulary of wor ds for things
“ ”
nd a cts which ar e not accor ding to di ké .

h us it is a t this s tage in the s tory th a t we fir st

‘

ncounter a nother ver b dikaioun derived from , ,

he a djec tive dika ios a nd us ed by Herod otus

, ,
“
ccor ding to S uidas i n two m ea ni ngs , to ,

“ ”
uni s a nd to co ns ider c ons ona n t with diké .

n two p ass ages o f Hero d otus certa inly the , ,

w or d r efers to puni sh m e nt for i n one a n O r i ,

“
h ta l m onarch if he found a nyone a cting
,

nsolently s ent for hi m a n d jus tified h im ac

,
”5 9
o r d in g to the des ert of h is wrongdoing .

I er e the word is used exactly as in Scottish ,

“
ega l phras e a crimi n al is
, j us tified when
“ ” “ ”
re is executed ; what is executed in a ny ,

ven t being the ruling of the j udge not the

, ,

I n the other p as s age a ls o des cr iptive

'

tfl e n der . ,

if Or ien ta l tyr a n ny a for bidden fes tiva l wa s

,
“
Lb a ndoned a nd the p r ies ts wer e
, j us tified
h a t is p a id the utterrh ost pena lty
,
60
A thir d i s .

“
im b ig u ous as befits the or acle of the
, rolli ng
” “
ton e ;
.
It sha ll fall up on m en wh o rule al one
-
,

”61
an d sh all j us tify C ori n th B ut as C ori nth.

l ad bee n the vic tim as well as the s cen e of

ni s g ov ern m ent S uidas d oubt a b out the m ea n

’
,

188
 THE NO T I O N OF JU STI CE
ing is reasonable , for els ewhere the word is
used in the other se ns e, as when Croes us says
“
to Cyrus , Sin ce th e god s ga ve m e to thee for
a s l a ve, I thi nk i t p rop er , if I ob s erve a nythi ng
”
further, to m ak e it kno wn to thee ; a nd of the
Pers ia ns it is s aid th at on their birthday they
“
thi nk it p rop er to s p r ea d a m ore plen tiful
”
ta ble th an on other da ys ; thi s is , in fact , their
di ke, the way birthda ys are k ept in Persi a 62
.

And this is th e com m on er us a ge as when M a r,

doni us against the a dvice of A rta b a z us urged

, ,

Xerxes to a tta ck the Gr eek force where he

“
found it, a ccording to Pers ia n custom ; a nd
he thus justifyi ng his opini on no one objected
, ,

a nd he p r eva il ed , for he , a nd not A rt a b az us , h a d

”63
com m a n d of the ar m y fr om the k i ng P in .

dar, h owever h as the wor d i n s om ething lik e

,
“
the positive s ens e ; when he speak s of custom
”64
[or law] justifyi ng extr em e vi olence th ough
,

with closer a dherence to the prim itive m ea ni ng

“ ”
of s etti ng s tra ight . E sch ylus t oo in a very, ,

difficult p as sage 65
describes the wick ed m a n
“
k icki ng the grea t a lta r of D iké to obli vi on a nd ,

wretched Reaso n [persuas ion] s uffers violence ;

b ut lik e b ad br onze with r ubbi ng a nd
, ,

blows it sh ows black sp ots when justified s ince

, ,

the child is pursui ng a winged bir d ]

tha t is under trea tm ent inten ded to m ak e it

,

behave like good bron ze it betrays its worth

,

1 89
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
less ness ; it h a s professed s om ethi ng beyond its
r ea l norm al beh a viou r ; the c hil d finds that he

c a nn ot fly a nd disas ter foll ows

, .

It is this prim itive aspect which explains

the a s socia tion of the pers onified D i ké wi th the
“ ” ’

gods below i n the fam ous li nes of Sophocles ,

wher e A ntigone a ns wers C r eon s ques tion why

’

“
s h e ve ntured to dis obey wh at he ca ll s thes e
”
la ws nomoi actua lly h is own edi ct : I t was
, ,

n ot Zeus wh o p roc l a im ed thes e nor D i ké

, ,

fellow lodger with the gods below wh o s et ,

‘
thes e l a ws a m ong m en nor did I think thy
’
,

procl am a tions h a ve so m uch force tha t being a ,

m a n th ou coulds t overrun the go d s unwritte n

’
, ,

” 66
a nd unsh ak en cus tom s . B ut n either i n
Soph ocles nor in the cha ra cteris a tions of D i ké
in fE s ch ylus is h er func tion s trictly or p ri
,

m a rily p unitive 67
.I n the S up p li a nts it is not
“ ” 68
s h e b ut a nother Zeus wh o j udges offences
a m ong the dea d with wh a t a r e des cr ibed as
“
la s t di hai ; though clearly wher ever thes e
“ ”
di hai wer e pers onified D i ké was fell o w lo dger ;
,
“ “
a nd in the C hoep hor oe The s wift turn of di ke
o vers ees s om e m en i n daylight a nd ,
” 69
s om e eterna l ni ght h old s . She guides n o
“
less the good ruler wh o ch oos es di ké as h is
” “ ”
a lly a nd dis cern s reverence to the gods ;
s h e is s till the sour ce of or der li ness r a ther th a n

the a venger of disor der .

190
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE

B I K E R E P L A C I N G N E ME S I S
B ut there is n evertheless a d ifference between
the quality of di ké in the H eroic Age a nd in the
“
Helleni c The H om eric ki ng being Zeus
.

”
born is qualified to ascerta in the di vine will
a nd apply it to the p a rti cula r cas e . Ther e
mi ght be a b ad k i ng here a nd ther e, but b e
,

tween p restige and fa m ily pride a nd a l arge

m easure of pers ona l , if not inherited a bility, ,
“
the system work ed ; the stron g m an k eepi ng
his p alace till a s tronger th a n he s h ould com e
”
up on hi m , as eventua lly befell . I n Hes iod
“
it is a nother picture : m ost k ings are b ad ;
“
they are devourers of gifts they fear not
G od nor regard m an ; their dispens a tion of
“ ”
j ustice is unj us t H ere a nd there the old
.

“
blood throws up a m an wh om the Muses
”
l ove b ut this is r are enough to be idea lized
, .

It is th e afterm ath of the con quest period a n ,

“ ” “ ”
iron ag e foll owing the heroic ; for Hes iod
is describi ng condi tions in the con ques t a r ea
of ce ntral Gr eec e . And wha t he des ider a tes
“ ”
a nd dem a nd s is not a r etur n to her oic con
ditions b ut the ob s er vance , by thos e now in
,

power , of an alr eady abs tra ct and even person

fied di ké, in perform i ng their actua l functions .

N or for him is there hope of im p ro vem ent ; a s

“
tim e goes on not even a m a n of h is oath a nd
of diké a nd of good n ess s h a ll find fa vour b ut ,,

19 1
 ‘
I I C AL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
In adoer of evil a nd insolence will they
th : di ké s hall be in the strong h and
Er espect sh all not be at all
- a nd ,

all A idés a n d Nemesis lea ve m ank i nd

”
to Olym p us .

m uch l ater s ta ge a nd with a differ ent

,

tive of th e p rehi s toric p ast in which ,

a clysm s were of n atur e s m ak ing n ot

’
,

Pl ato revers es this p rocess a nd d escr ibes ,

“
va l of A id6s am ong m en They s tr ove
.

to cong rega te a nd m a inta in them s elves ,

ndi ng p oleis : cons equently when they ,

ong reg a ted they bega n to wrong one

,
”— “
r quite litera lly to behave without
‘
a nd ther efor e i rr egul ar ly s eei ng th ey

I: the a rt of li vi ng i n a p oli s ; s o tha t they

ed a ga i n a nd were being des troyed .

1en fea ri ng for our rac e lest it per ish

, , ,
‘
I erm es b r i ngin g to m en A ides a nd D i ke ,

rder ers of p olei s a nd b ond s of fr ien dship

u

” 70
g m en together B ut here the con
.

A ido s is n ot Nemes is b ut D i ké and this

‘
’

ficant The va gue p opul ar feeling th a t

.

“ ”
tha t is not don e is r eplaced by the
e a nd m or e p r eci s e notion th at th ere i s

way as well a s m any wrong ways of

, ,

e verythi ng ; a nd th at a m ong m en of s elf

r espect for the other fell ow tak es the

1 cours e of a scertaini ng wh at he h abit

1 92
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
ually does and h ow he does it , a nd then tak ing

or derly , and
dra ws people nea rer together .

Now in th is Pla tonic phr as e we ar e not fa r

, ,

from the Aristotelia n view of soc iety as ha vi ng

origi na ted by coa les ce nce of na tural g r oup s

origina lly dis tinct a nd unconn ec ted ;

71
a nd of

the overcom ing of this m utual un acqua inta nce ,

“
as the grea tes t s tep towar d civil i z ed l ife : for
he wh o first introduced them to each other was
” 72
the author of the gr eates t blessings .

TH E FU N C TI O N OF D I KE I N TH E NA S C E NT
P OL I S
Now it is , thi s p recise p oint—so wh olly
at

incons is tent wi th the genera l p os ition which

Ar is totle is concern ed to defend tha t the p oli s ,
“ ”
cam e into exis tence i n the way of growth or
“ ”
naturally n ot by a ny convention or form a l
,

a gr ee m e n t— that his conception of the crucial

point in the form ation of city sta tes as he k new -

them anticip ates the di scovery in com p ara ,

tively recent tim es of the com pleteness of the

,

disintegra tion of the previ ous s oc ia l or der and ,

“
the his torical ca uses of thi s I n the r efugee .

”
s ta tes ,as we m ay conveniently call them a ll ,

sorts of m en from di fferent dis tr i cts of differ ent

, ,

tribes and system s of tribes speakin g different ,

di alects worshi pping different gods ob serving

, ,

19 3
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
different cus tom s a n d pr ohibition s fo un d them ,

s elves a c ci den ta lly a nd vi o len tly f or c ed i n t o

c l os e n eighb ourh oo d in r ef ugee a r e a s

,
-a nd i n ,

h a s tily ext em p or ized flo tilla s of pilgrim fa thers -

s eek i ng n ew h om es , a n d en co unter i n g ther e

other s uch soci a l wr eck age ; o r en countered ,

them s elves only r ec ently es tablished by l a ter ,

a rr iva l s
.

S om e sort of a ccidenta l s or ti ng together of

o ld n eighb our s or fell o w wor shippers
, we m ay ,

a ss um e to h a ve been h a ppen i ng fr om the firs t ,

a s h as bee n h appeni n g s i n ce the ca t astrophe

of 1 92 2 i n every r efugee ar e a of m oder n Gr eece

-
,

a n d a s h a ppe ns i n the c a fé s of the Gr eek

quarter i n a n A m er ic a n city ; a n d the tribe

73

n a m es of s om e of the o lder Io ni a n c ities a re

el o quen t m em oria ls of th is p roc es s .

“ ”
B ut t o co ng r ega te thus on the b a s is of
,

s i m il a r a n tec eden ts or cus t om s w as un av oid

,

a bly a l s o t o s egr ega te m en of differ e n t h abits ,

”

to r evive old feuds or a t bes t to accen tua te

,

c ontr as ts between the m ost coher ent a n d

s tr o ngly c h a r a c ter is ed elem en ts in the m i xed

m ul titude . And ther e are glim p s es in the ,

folk m em ory of m or e th a n one Gr eek city of ,

quarr el s a n d s ec es s ions r esulting fr om th at

“ ”
tragic l ack of di ke ; a b s ence th at is of the
, ,
“ ”
n ee dful a gr ee m en t a s t o wh a t was don e ,

“ ”
a n d wh a t n ot d on e ,between m en each of
1 94
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE

whom w a s only tryi ng to ob s er ve the w ay of

”
d oing things h abitua l to him self in h appier
da ys Every n ew country n eces sa rily p a s s es
.

thr ough this ph a s e of exper ienc e ; a n d th a t is

why this a n cien t a dven tur e of the r efugee
col o n is a ti on i s on e of th os e hi s tor i ca l o cc a s i o n s

which ca n n ot l os e their va l ue h owever diffic ult

,

it m ay be to r eco n s tr uct it in m or e tha n very

fragm en tary detail .

When we wer e dea ling with the ge nes is of

a uth ority , of i nitia tive i n dea li n g with e m er

g en cies of ge n era l co n cer n we s a w the divi n e

,

”
b or n hereditary chiefta in cies giving pl a c e to
the perso n a l em in en ce of gifted i n dividua ls ,

irrespective of their a ntecedents ; to p restige

b a s ed on a chievem ents ; to the conception of
“
a r khe a s a g ift of the go ds to the m a n wh om
the Mus es lo ve to the h on ours a lm os t divi ne
, ,
“
p a id by the r es t to the m a n wh o m a de them
”
to be a t h o m e ; a n d in due c our s e to the phi
“
IO S O p h er s con ceptio n of the m a n wh o fi rs t
’

m a de them a c qua i nted with ea ch other , as

“ ”
the a uthor of th e gr ea tes t bles sings .

A n d o n the s ide o f la w it wa s the s a m e a s in

a dm i ni s tr a ti on
. I n ho m ogen eous s oc ieties ,

s uch as th os e r u l ed by the Hom er ic ki ngs the ,

s upr e m e r ein force m ent of the s elf-r e spec t of

the in dividua l chief or comm oner Was the

, ,
-

gen era l opini on tha t this or that m i sconduct

1 95
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
would n ot j ust because it wa s not don e
do ,
a nd in a n a g e of a dven tur e s uch as th a t whi ch ,

produced the A ch aea n a nd the Troj an confed

er ac i es ther e wa s no less a gr ee m en t b a s ed on
, ,

exper ien ce a n d a rgum ent a s to the lim its of ,

s elf s eek i ng ; a n un wr itten co de of ge ntlem a nl y

-

co nld uc t of th a t chiva lry which is the p r od uct

,

of p r eci s ely th os e ci r cum sta nces of concur r en t

“
enterprise which ha ve created all the Heroic
”
Ages which his tory r ecor ds .

B ut in r efugee s ociety each m an or at bes t ,

each s till coher en t group of people wh atever

-
,

the bon d which s till k ept them together h a d ,

”
it s own w a y of doin g thing s its own custom s ,

of m a i ntena nce a nd intercour s e of l a n d tenur e , ,

m a rr iage worship a n d herewith as m a ny occ a

, ,
’
s i on s on which to fin d th a t the new neighb ours

c us t om s i n the s am e a ffa ir s of life wer e di ffer e nt ,

a n d even a bh orr e nt A n d ther e wer e now usu

.

“
a lly no —
divine b orn k ings or at best very
-
, ,

few of them lik e the C odrid emi gra nts from

,

—
Attica with r ecognized com petence to elicit
them i s tes from god s uni versa lly r ever ed The .

them i s tes cons equently r ecede fr om view and ,

the personified Them is becom es a m em ory of

a ncie nt d ays She h ad been the child a nd
.

“ ”
s ucces s or of Earth fir s t sour ce of r evela tion ,

a nd In h er tu r n sh e gives plac e to h er own ch ild ,

“ ”
wh o is Di ké, th at way of doin things whi ch
g ,

19 6
 THE NOTION OF JU STIC E

is now the con sort externa l s a n ction of

a nd

A idos , as Nem esi s the p ublic r es en tm en t

,
“ ”
of other r ep os itor ies of initia tive h a d bee n
,
“ ”
befor e An d this way of doin g things though
.
,

the gift of Zeus a nd a n es s entia l p art of the

,

na tur a l e n d owm en t a n d birth r ight of hum a ni ty ,

is n ow nevertheles s in its co n tent an d m ea ni ng

, ,

a di sc over y m a de by m a n ; or ra ther a s equen ce

, ,

of p a rticul ar dis c over ies m a de by a s ucc ess ion

of m en a ccum ul a ted i n hum a n m em or y a n d

,

in terp reted by r eas on a n d experience .

Thus ther e mi ght be a n d h a d been cro ok ed

, ,
”
di hai, which wer e r evea led a s per ver s io n s of the
“ ”
r ea l wa y of beh a vi our by s a d exper ien c e

tha t they did not tally either with each o ther ,

“ ”
o r with th os e unforgetting di ha i in which ,

n othi n g was left out of accoun t th a t wa s r ele

va nt to the m a tter B ut it wa s only in com

.

m unities wher e either ther e h a d n ever been

com plete i n terfus ion of a lien elem en ts as in ,
“ ”
the con ques t s ta tes which p r oduced the
cy ni c a l s a tir e of Hes io d a n d of Th eog n is ; or

wher e sub sequent even ts a n d a ltered cir cum

s ta n ces dr ew m en a p art a n d cr ea ted di ffer en c es

of s ta tus a n d beh a vi ou r which p r even ted them

“ ”
from k nowing on e an other a s i n the Les b os
,

of Al caeus or the Pa r os of Ar chil ochus that ,

“ ”
ther e was r isk of s uch p r eva len ce of crook ed
“ ”
fail ur e or neglect to dis cern di ha i a s thr eat ,

197
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
‘
en ed to drive A ides a n d its old s afeguar d
Nemesi s b a ck to Olym p us .

We are n ow in a p os ition to r econ struct the

s t a ges by whi ch the lega l pr ocedur e of a Gr eek

c ity s t a te i n cl a s s ic al tim es c a m e in to bei ng

-
.

The firs t s tage is p resented to us in exa m ples

a ttr ib uted to the Hero ic Age in the Hom er i c ,

p oem s ; a nd if it be objected th at the p oem s in

their pres en t form ca nn ot be sh own to g o b a ck
to the a g e which they des cribe a n d ther efore , , ,

a r e n ot tr us tw or thy witnes s t o its cus to m s ,

it will I think at a ll events be co nceded tha t

, , ,

the pr ocedur e described belo ngs to a stage of

s oci a l devel op m en t a t whi ch ( 1 ) s ociety w a s

s till tr ib a l ; (2 ) the cl a n s of which it c o n s i s ted

“
wer e still s o l oosely conn ected th a t the a venger
”
of b l ood s till cl a im ed h is opti o n of r efus i ng

wergeld a n d ta k i ng life for life ; (3 ) c ivil ca s es

,

were s till perhap s decided by the sp ok en diké

“ ”
of a divine b or n k ing ; b ut (4) the s ole court
-

of a ppea l i n a cri m i n a l cas e w a s a n a s s em bly of

elder m en s ittin g in open agord app ar ently ,

with out a ny k in d of p r es ident .

TH E TR I A L SC E N E O N T H E H O ME R I C
SH I E L D O F A c H I L L E s .

The fir st stage then i s p res ented to us i n

, ,

exam ples a ttr ib uted i n the Hom er ic p oem s to

the H eroic Age I n thes e j ustice is a d m i n
.

1 98
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
ister ed i n tw o wa ys applicable to two disti nct
,

k i n d s of ca se Civ il a ction s to us e m oder n

.
,

ter m in ol ogy i n which l os s or inj ury h a s been

,

i nflic ted by on e pers on on a nother of a k i n d ,

which per m its of r ep ar a tion a r e b r ought b y , .

“ ”
the c om pl ain a n t to the divin e b or n k ing -
,

wh o ex a m in es the fac ts a n d utters a di ké the ,

fulfilm en t of which s ets m a tter s s tra ight b e

tween the p a r ties .

C r im in al a cti on s on the other ha n d in volvi ng

, ,

viol a tio n of the corp or a te exis ten ce of o n e

tr ib a l gr oup thr ough the destr uction of o n e
,

of its m em b ers by a m em ber of a n o ther s uch

gro up withi n the s a m e com m un ity a r e s et ,

tled n ot by a ny r es titutio n in k in d (for th a t i n , ,

the cas e s upp os ed i s im p oss ible) ; b ut by the

,

m or e or l es s vol un ta ry accepta n c e of a co m

p en s a tio n s ub s tituted for the p r im itive p r a e

tice of r etr ib ution in k in d which (it is s een ) ,

would m er ely a dd a n other deed of violen ce to

tha t a lr ea dy d on e a n d in fa ct s ettle n othi ng
, , , ,

besides r obbing the com m unity of two go o d

fighting m en i n s tea d of on e The p r oc edur e in .

this k i n d of action is differ en t ; a n d wha tever

its p re ci s e for m it is som eth in g ap a r t from the
,

“ ”
c ivil j ur i s d i ctio n of the divin e b or n k ing -
.

It h a s bee n va rio us ly i nterp r eted even in quite ,

m o der n tim es a n d by c om peten t s tuden ts of

,

ear ly la w b ut with out com plete m a s ter y of the

,

19 9
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
evidence I n wha t foll ows it can only be
.

cl a im ed th at certa in m i s t ak es h a ve been de

t ected a n d a voided ; no cl a im is m a de th a t the

pic tur e is even n ow accura te a t a ll p oin ts .

“
The pa ssage is the fa mi liar Trial Scen e on
the Shield of Achilles (I li ad XVII 49 7 , ,

a nd its s t a tem en ts a re a s foll ows li ne by li n e ,

(49 7) clans were i n p lace o meeti ng as sem bled

- -

they a re laoi the a dult m a le p opul ation

,

of the com m unity gr ouped by k in dr ed s

, ,

a s they would be arr ayed in war or for ,

a ny other p ublic b us i n es s in their agor a

(p
. It is wha t in early Ro m e wa s .

“
c a lled com i ti a curi a ta; a c om ing to -

gether of curi az or k ins hip groups A nd .

(49 8 ) ther e a strife had ar i sen a nd two m en wer e

,

( 49 9 ) s tr i vi ng a bout bloodp ri ce of a m a n who had

di ed (or been ki lled) 74
The occ a sion o f
.

disp ute is in the p a st b ut s tr ife still ,

goes o n ; it h a s not been s ettled yet at ,

the m om en t depicted by the artis t of the

“
Shield The m ea ning of p oi né
. wer ,
“ ”
geld or price of blood is well a ttes ted
, , ,

in other Hom er ic p a ss ages 75

a nd a l s o the
,

facts ( a ) th a t for a dea th in b attle n o

p oi né w a s p a id (b) tha t p oi ne incl uded
76
,

r a n s om p a id for a living person in k illi ng ,

whom h is captor woul d ha ve been within

his r ights ; it cons equently origin ated as a
2 00
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
r a nsom for
the life of the m ur der er which ,

was forfeit un der the p r im itive p ractice

“
of life for life r etribution The
- -
tw o .

”
m en are clearly the m ur derer a nd the
a venger oi bl ood n ot their a dvoca tes as
- -
, ,

h as been s ugges ted thr ough a m is i nter

p reta tion of 5 08 which is discuss ed in its
plac e .

(49 9 ) the one as s erted that he p aid i t all nam ely , ,

the accustom ed pr ice of bl ood ; not tha t - - -

he had pa id it b ut th a t p a ym ent was

,

ther e tender ed for accepta nce Fr om

, .

a n other p ass age we le a r n tha t if s uch ,

p a ym en t was accepted by a ll concerned ,

the m ur der er could s tay in the country

without offen ce to others or r isk to h im
77
s elf ; b ut ther e w as the cha nce tha t
he h a d n ot in h is ass oil m ent included
a nd in s uch
78
ever yone conc erned , a

pr edica m ent he m ight fin d it sa fer to g o

a wa y .
79
Ther efore for grea ter [s ecurity
, ,

he is descr ibed as
(5 00a ) as serti ng i t to the countryside to the
. ,

whole crowd of onl ook ers 80

from the
di strict irr espec tive of sta tus or co
,

h erence or i nter es t in the b usiness ; it is

,

public notice r equir ed by cus tom so

, ,

a s to r ea ch everyo ne conc er ned .

(5 00 b.
) b u t he ( the o the r m a n ) den ied that he
20 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
took a ny of i t; th a t he had n on tak en
n ot

a ny thi ng a lr ea dy n or (a s w a s for m er ly
,

expla ined) th a t he h a d n ot h a d the op p or

t unity of tak i ng a n ythi ng 81
thr ough rei u ,

sa l of the a c cus ed m a n t o o ffer it ; b ut

“
tha t (in vulga r phr a s e) he wa s n ot tak
i ng a ny he w a s a ss erting tha t is his , ,

r ight to h a ve bl oo d for bl oo d - - .

(5 0 1 ) a nd both were hurryi ng , to get a s ettlem en t

a t (the h a nds of ) a m a n -who knows The -
.

”
wor d for settlem ent p ei r ar is liter , ,
”
a lly ,lik e telos the en ding of a ny
,

m a tter a fter which n othi ng fur ther c a n

,

h appen It is a ls o u sed lik e a rkhe for

.
, ,

the e n d of a rope or for a r ope us ed to

,

c o nfin e or ter m i na te the ac tivi ty of a ny

“ ”
thing The m a n wh o k n ows (i s tor) re
.
- -

curs i n the n a rr a ti ve of a d isp uted r a c e

82
,

wher e Agam em non is to act a s um pire

it con sequently den otes her e either the
wh ole b ody of elders wh o a re des cribed
in 5 03 bel ow or (m or e p rob a bly) the m a n ,

whoever he m ight be wh o even tua lly ,

utter ed the m ot juste wh ich w a s a c cepted

a s p utti n g the m a tter i n the r ight l ight ,

so th at b oth p art ies a ccepted h is form u

la tion When the wor d rec urs in p ost

.

Hom eric a nd i n cla ssical Gr eek it is

alwa y s i n its l iter a l s ens e
“ .

2 02
 THE NOTI ON OF JU STICE
(5 02 ) A nd cla ns - olk cheer ed on
f both , on ei ther

ha nd to help them Thes e ar e the k in s

.

m en of the two prin cip a ls concurring ,

in their r espective conten tio ns a n d p re ,

p ared to supp ort them a t n ee d : they a re

n ot the wh ole cro wd b ut c oher en t sec
,
,

tion s of it ea ch with its ow n locus s tan di

,

in the cas e .We a re r emi n ded ( 1 ) of the

Helvetia n tria l when O rg etor ix cam e
t o the pl a c e of m eeti n g lik e a S cotti sh
,

chiefta i n, with s o la rge a n a rm ed fol

l owing of cl a n sm en th at the c ourt wa s
o ver a wed a n d di ss olved ; (2 ) of the I ce
84

la ndic litiga nt s h a bitual ca r e t o in duc e

’

“
infl uential n eighb ours to r ide with h i m
” 85
to the a ss em bly .

(5 03a .
) and her alds were res tr ai ni ng the p eop le ,

the s ing ul ar laos being used a s we h a ve ,

a l r e a dy se e n (p . a s a colle ctive exp r e s

s i on for the wh ole a ss em bly i n it s orga n ic

bus iness tra nsa ction capacity ; it is the

-

hum a n con tent of a n agor a Th a t i s why .

“
it is controlled by her a lds kerykes wh o , ,

elsewher e in Hom er on ly a tten d on in di

vidual chiefs ; we m ay pr esum e tha t
“
thes e her a lds were the s ever a l kerykes
“ ”
of the old m en w h o app ear n ext i n the

(5 03b .
) and the old m en s a t on dres sed stones i n
2 03
LITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREE KS
a s acred r i ng , a nd they were holdi ng i n
thei r ha nds star es f o loud-voiced her alds .

Thes e elders are pr esum ed as fam iliar

figur es ; the pl ac e of their s es s ion is al so
fa m iliar a n d very br iefly descr ibed ; it
,

am plifie s in s tr uc tura l det a il the sk etch

of the agor ci i n the c a m p of Odyss eus

(p . a nd ra is es the ques tio n whether

the them is in tha t m eeting place was

“
a n extem p or ized dr um hea d counter
p art of this ri ng of m a so nry in a city a t -

pea ce It is n ot clear why thes e elder s

.

s h ould h old her a ld s s t a ves un less the

’

p oet inten ds to dis tin guish them from

”
divin e b or n k i ngs wh o h a d inherited
-

s t a ves of their own Fr om the a b s ence

.

of a ny m e n ti o n of a p r es iden t a n d fr om
,

the or der of their s itting it would s eem ,

“
r eason able t o infer th a t thi s is a r oun d
”
ta ble conferen ce between hea ds of co
equa l k i n dr ed groups B ut in tha t c a se
-
.
,
“
wh o or wh a t i s the i s tor the m a n wh o
,
-

”
k nows ? Either the wor d is us ed c ol
“ ”
lectiv ely for th a t which k nows
- -
as the
,

Icela ndi c thi ng is the assem bly whi ch

delibera tes a nd b arga ins ; or m us t we
“ ”
pictur e a pres identia l m an wh o k nows ,

“ ”
a nd r egar d the old m en a s h is as s essors ?

B ut it is difficult to explain h ow such a

2 04
 THE NOTION OF JU STI C E
pres iden t should ta k e n o active p art in
the pr oceedings ; a nd there ca n in fa ct , ,

be little doubt tha t the confer en ce here

is betwee n co equa l s a nd r ep r es en ts a n
-
,

al ter n a tive p r o ced ur e to th a t of th e

“ ”
di keha n dl ing chiefta in in civil ca s es
-
, .

Athenia n crim in a l pr ocedure offers a c l os e

a n a l ogy as we sh a ll see bel o w (p 2 3 1
, .

To them they were sp eedi ng a nd i n turn

“ ”
they were gi vi ng thei r dikai At th is .

p oint, a fter the des criptio n of the court ,

the n a rr a tive is r es um ed fr om 5 0 1 a .

The litiga nts foll owed by their support

,

ers , ar e depicted a rr ivi ng befor e the

c ircle of elder s a n d by a fa cile a r tis tic
, ,

co n ven ti o n the elders are s im ulta n eo usly

a rgui ng the c a s e : on the Shield its elf the

ges tures of their sta ves would be suffi

cie nt to indic a te thi s
86
Tha t it is the
.

elders not the litiga nts wh o a re now

, ,
“ ”
described as givi ng dikai is certa in
'

for the a ctive verb is never us ed els ewhere

except of the m an wh o is exa mining the
ca s e
87
. Of the litiga nt s action the ’
,

m iddle verb is us ed— to get a di ke given

“

(50 7) a nd there lay then i n the m ids t of them

two talents of gold, to gi ve to hi m who, to
“ ”
gether with them , shoul d utter a dike
205
POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREE K S
“
m os t s traightly The two talents ca n
.

“ ”
n ot be the bl ood pr ice as som e ha ve
-
,

s upp os ed b ecaus e el sewhere

,
39
ha lf a -

ta len t w as worth less tha n a n ox ; a whole

talen t con s equen tly m uch less tha n two
oxen ; yet a fem a le s l a ve w as worth four

oxen , a n d a fr ee m a n therefore very , ,

m uch m or e th a n tw o ta lents B ut if .

the t wo ta lents wer e a r ewar d for the

“
rul i ng eventua lly accepted a s m os t
” “
s tra ight (or r a ther , m os t s tr a ight ,
“
en i ng , contr ib uti ng m os t to p ut things
to wh om wer e they to be
p a id ? N ot to a ny m em ber of the court
of elders for they wer e p r es en t offi ci a lly
, ,

“ ”
a n d it w a s a ter m of a b us e to ca ll a k i ng
“ ” “
a devourer of gifts or a con sum er of ,
” 9°
the dem os : he wa s a public s er va nt ,

a nd h a d h is p roper m a i ntena nce ; the

chiefta i n of a cl a n s im il a r ly w a s ther e
, ,

as s p ok es m a n of h is ki n dred wh os e ,

i nter es t it wa s tha t public or der should

be vin dica ted Other p a s sages in which
.
,

“
the s a m e phra s e, together wit o ther s ,

o cc ur s a ll de note a n a ddition to the

,

group or cla ss descr ibed ; there is n o

91

differ en ce s uch a s h as been sugges ted

, ,

betwee n the usa ges of the I li ad a nd the

Odyssey The a lterna tive se em s una
.

206
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
vo ida ble (a nd i s wh olly congr uous with
wh a t we k n ow o f other pr ocedur es in
trib a l s ocieties ) tha t i n a n agord ther e
,

w a s fr eedom of s peech for a ll per s on s

qua lified to be pr es en t a n d th a t for the
,

vol un ta ry a n d effec tive help of s uch a n

a m i c us curi ae ther e w a s a c us t om a r y fee

of m o der a te a m oun t defi n ed in a dva n c e

, ,

a n d a wa r ded by the fa ct th a t the elders

“
a gr eed t o a d opt h is for m ula a s m or e
”
s tr a ighten i ng tha n their un a ided w is
dom A s Mr Zim m er n h a s s een
. .
92
this
,
“
fee is the lin ea l a n ces tor of the m uch
a b us ed fees which wer e p a id to the l a rge
”
p op ul a r j uries in fifth century Athen s ;
-

“
b ut if h is expl a n a tion tha t ,it is n ot
given to a ll the j us tic es on the bench ,

b ut o n ly to the s tra ightes t s peak er

‘ ’

,
”
m ea n s the s tr a ightes t s pe a k er a m ong

the j ustices them s elves he would s eem ,

to h a ve m i s s ed the s ign ifi ca n ce of h is
“
own wor ds F or the l a ter guildh a ll
.
'

fees , p ryta n ei a wer e p a id t o p op ul ar

,

cour ts the fun cti on of whi ch wa s to give

,

utter a n ce to tha t p ublic com m o n s ens e

which in the Hom er ic pictur e is in
her ent in a ny m em ber of a n agord not
to court s s uch as th a t of A reop agus a nd
its j udic i al com m ittees on whi ch de ,

2 07
 POLITICAL ID E AS OF THE GREEKS
volve d the functions of this early con
ferenc e of elders r epres enting the com
,

m o n in ter es t of their r espec tive cl ans .

Sum m a rizin g n ow the p r oc ed ur e des cribed in

this H om eric picture there is n o disp ute as to
,

the fac ts of the ca s e ; the m ur der is a dm itted ,

the m ur derer is k nown a n d within r ea ch the ,

bl ood pr ice h as been offer ed ; the only ques tion

-

is whether the a ven ger of bl ood m ust acc ept

,
- -

it or m ight cl a im hi s fr eedom to tak e life

,

for life ? Thi s is a p oi nt n ot of custom for b oth

-
,

cus t om s evidently exis ted a s a lter na tives b ut ,

of dis cus s ion a s in a ncient Ic ela n d a nd ch oi ce

, ,

of the p r efer a ble a lter n ative ; in the gen era l

in terest of all incorp orated cl ans a nd of the

,

discovery of s om e dike s om e way of describing

,

the s itua tio n whi ch will r econcile conflicting

,

cl a im s a n d br i ng appea s em ent a n d a cc ep tanc e of

,

the r es tor ed or der by a ll conc erned Such a

.

dike is pr ec is ely wha t in Rom a n la w is called a

form ula; in such a cas e as is a t issue on the ,

Shield S cene it m ight r un as follows : S i qui s

,

dui t, qui p a rens p oen am acci p ere nolueri t, s acer

“
es tod : If anyon e h as k illed a m a n and v olun
,

tarily off r
e ed bloo d pr ic e to his ki ndr ed if tha t ,

k i ns m an is not willing to accept blood pr ice let -

,
”—
him be ta bu e xcom m uni ca ted from convers e
“ ”
with fellow m en whos e way of doing things
2 08
 THE NOTION OF JU STI CE

is acc epta nce In s ofar a s the di ke in this case

.

“ ”
is a c hild of them is the p aren ta l them i s is
,
“
conceived t o be th a t for bl oo d spilt r es titution
,
” “ ”
foll o ws Tha t is the voic e of the go ds
.
,

their will a nd pleasure ; b ut the m a nn er of

- -

r es tit uti on is a m a tter for h um a n di s cuss ion a nd

“
a dj us tm en t a n d is efl ected by a diké by
,
’
find ,
”
ing a wa y of d o ing th a t which will be in deed
“ ”
r e s tituti on of the s t a te of things which the

m ur der er vi ol a ted .

Exactly in the sa m e way in the procedur e of ,

the Cr eta n city of G ortyn a if in a ny ca s e ,

br ought to court a n a ccepted way of beha viour

a lr e a dy exi s ts the function of the cour t is
,

“
s im ply let the giver of dihai pronounce h is - -

”—
di ke , form ulam det If however either .
, ,

the fac ts ar e not clear ly s ta ted or ther e is n o ,

acc epted pr i nciple of beh a vi ou r a pplicable to

“
the cas e procedur e goes fur ther : the giver
,
”
of di hai h as to be p ut un der a n obliga tion ,

“ ”
fenced in aga in s t evil contriva nce a nd hum a n
err or This oa th horkas is a cogn ate of
.
, ,
“
her kos a fe nce
, a n d of our exorcis m
, which ,
“
puts evil things a nd pers ons outs ide th e
”
fence . Sim il ar ly the Rom a n obligati o is a
,
“ ”
tethering of the m an s o tha t he ca nnot
s tr ay a nd run r is k s ; a r ein for cem ent of th a t

intern al res tra in t on con duct for which the

Rom an word is r eligi o With hi s own comm on .

2 09
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
s ense thus for tified he will hear truly the voice
of the god s a n d wh a t he n ow utters is a them i s
, ,

which lik e the Atheni a n thes moi which we

, ,

s h a ll encounter n ext becom es p art of the

,

p ublic s tor e of s uch uttera nces the cas e la w ,

-

of the city s ta te
- .

I n the n ext r ec ogniz a ble s tage of a dva nce

m en t which is a lr ea dy well withi n the p olitica l
,

history of the Hellen ic p oli s n am ely the p r o , ,

cedure of the Atheni a n s befor e the fir s t p ub

93 “
lica tion of a wr itten c ode the m agistrates
,
”
(arkhontes litera lly th os e wh o ar e initia ting
‘ ‘
, , ,

“ ” “
or ha ve a rkhe ) were com petent a ls o to
discern dihai which wer e s elf fhlfilled a nd not -
, ,

a s n owa da ys t o m ak e ( on ly ) pr el im i n ary dis

,
”
cer n m e nt . Their initia tive tha t is to say , ,

c arr ied the m a tter r ight thr ough to achieve

m en t with out in ter ven tion fr om a ny qua r ter

,

if there wer e a m b ig uities on the fa cts or a lter ,

n a tives in la w it w a s theirs t o dis tin guish them

,
“
a nd ch oos e tha t form ula which wa s m ost
s tr a ightening un der the cir cum s ta nces This .

is in exa ct a ccord with the pr oc edur e cons er ved

( till the fifth cen tur y pr ob a bly) a t G ortyna ;
,

a n d it was the r i s k of m i s tak en corrupt a n d , ,

“ ”
in either even t cr ook ed di ka i from s uch irr e
“ ”
sp o ns ible initia tors th a t led to the l ong
s eries of inno va ti o ns whi ch are the his tory of

Attic legal proc ed ure .

2 10
 THE NOTION OF JU STICE
WR I T T E N R U L I N G s A ND T H E I N S T I T U T I O N
o r TH E S M O TH E TE
“
Q uite n ew prov i si on for t ight c ohere nt
s ra , ,

”
unforgetful di ha i w a s m a de when the n ewly
p op ul ar ized a rt of wr iti ng w a s applied to the
c ons er va ti on of them for futur e us e Wr iting
.

in G r eek l a nd s d oes n ot s eem ever to h a ve

wholly becom e ob s olete ; th ough the rar ity of
its us e o n o ther th a n per ish a ble m a ter ia ls ,

a fter th e c oll a p s e of the Min oa n r egim e m a k es ,

it difficult to fo ll ow the cha nge fr o m the old

s ylla b a r ies to th os e a lpha betic s ys tem s which

a r e co m m o n to a ll Med i terr a n ea n c ultur es i n

the E a r ly Iron Age fr om the Phoeni cia n cities

,

on the Syr i a n coas t to the Iber i a n pe oples of a

l arge p art of Sp a in I n Attica its us e a nte

.

da tes a ll other s ym ptom s of r eviving i nter

.

cours e with les s h a ra s s ed l a n d s o vers ea in ,

a rts or i n d us tr ies ; a n d the e a r lies t Attic exa m ple

of it i s a t a ll eve nt s for a s em i p ubli c p urp os e

-
,

the des igna ti on of a pa inted jug a s the pr ize in

— “
a d a n c i n g m a tc h Whos oever n ow of a ll
da ncers m ak es s p or t m ost delicately this let ,

” 94
him r ec eiv e . The va s e ca nn ot well be la ter
tha n the s even th c en tury a n d (b ut for this
,

inscriptio n ) the s tyle of its f ab ric a nd deco

r a ti on w ould a s s ign it t o the eighth or ni nth .

I n the s eve nth c entury a t a ll events we m ay

, ,

be sure tha t ther e wer e people wh o coul d write ;

211
 POLI TICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
a nd it is in accord with thi s evidence tha t ,

Atheni a n tra dition pl a ced a b out the mi ddle of

tha t century the fir s t app ointm en t of official s
“ ”
ca lled thesm otheta i s etter s d ow n of thes moi
,
-
.

I n l a ter tim es they h a d the gen era l m a n age

m ent of the j udicia l sys tem a nd a l s o the cus ,

tody of officia l copies of all public en actm ents

a n d (m or e im p ort a n t s till ) the duty of a n nua lly

r eviewi ng them r ep or ti ng on a nom a lie s a n d

,

im perfections a nd dra fti ng the legis la tion neces

,

s a ry t o m ak e thi ngs wor k s m oo thl y None

95
.

of these , h owever ca n well ha ve been their

,

origi n a l func ti on beca us e when they wer e fir s t

,

a pp oi n ted ther e w a s no j udi ci a l s y s tem except

the unfettered initia tive of th ose m agistra tes

wh o tr ied cas es — we s ha ll h a ve to en quir e
pres ently wh o thes e wer e Ther e wa s n o legis .

l a tion in the s trict s ens e of the wor d a nd con ,

s equen tly no occa s io n for a m en di ng acts

96
.

Wh a t then wer e the thesmoi which they were

, , ,
“ ”
or igi n a lly cons tituted to s et d own ?

The wor d thesm os is r a r e It occurs only .

onc e in H o m er a n d in the quite ge n era l s ens e

,

of a r egul a r m o de of beh a vi our ; it is c on duct

in a ccor da n ce with wh a t is them i s as a logi s m os ,

“ ”
or r eck oni ng is a c a l cul a tion in a ccor da nce
“ ” “ ”
th logos r ea s on c o m m o n s en s e which
°

, or ,
“ ”
cons equently expla i ns its elf When Odysseus
.

a nd Penel ope wer e r euni ted after long a bs ence

2 12
 THE NOTION OF JUS TIC E
“
j oyous ly then they r ea ched the thesm os of their
” 97
bed of long ag o The Hom eric hym ns h a ve
.

“
the word once to r em a in in the harm less thesm oi
,
”
of peac e aga i n m e a ni n g a way of beha vi our
98
, .

S olon in the ear ly s ixth century says tha t he

wr ote thesmoi for the b a d a n d the good a lik e ,

a d apti ng to each a s tra ight dike a nd a few

lines earlier in the sam e p oem describi ng h is ,

“
economi c r eform s he sa ys tha t thes e thi ngs
,

I did by force yoki ng together violence a nd

,

dike a nd went thr ough [with them ] a s I p rom

,
”
is ed. H is a chievem en t ther efor e wa s a s eries , ,

of thesm oi forcibly sub stituted for those then

,

ob s erved b ut m ak ing it p oss ible ( a s th os e older

,
“ ”
ones did not) t o a d a pt a s tr aight di ke to
ea ch in dividua l s ca s e ’
1 °°
This was good con
.

tem p orary pra ctice for only a few years before

,

Draco h a d entitled with the s am e word thesm os

each of th e or di na nces which he found in ob ser
va nce E s ch ylus m ak es the Furies des cr ibe
.

“ ”
their own fa c ile a nd effec tive function a s
“
s olem n w a r ners of di s a s ters a nd h ar d for m e n ,
” “
to dissua de a n d a sk
, Wha t m ortal does not
,

r espec t a n d fe ar thi s hea r i ng from m e a thesmos

, ,

fa te decreed from the gods given effectually ?

-
,

I n m e i s [thi s] p r er oga tive fr om old tim e nor ,

” 1 01
do I la ck a ck n owledgm en t They a re .

“ ”
ch arged tha t is by hea ve n t o lay this
, , doom
“ ”
or ord inan ce on m en p r eci s ely a s a H om eri c
,

2 13
 POLITI CAL IDE AS OF THE GREEKS
ki ng r eveals the voic e of the god s I n the .

“
s am e p lay Athena s ays sh e will ord ain as a
”
thesmos for all tim e the procedure of the
“
Athenian m urder tri a l with s worn givers of
di hai the Furies greet this a nn oun cem ent a s a
“ ”
l a ndslide of new ordi nances ; b ut la ter Apollo
“
confir m s Athena s phras e adding that it is
’
,
”
in accor d with di ke . F or S oph ocles desir e ,
”
s it s by i n the initi a tives of gr ea t thesmoi ,
”
describing the ordina nce of m arriage which
“ ”
or da i ns the w ay of the s a ti sf action of it ,

quite in the H om eric s ens e a nd a few li nes

1 02

“
a fter thi s , now I m ys elf too a m carried out

s ide thesm oi a t s ight of thi s a nd c a n no l onger

, ,
”
r es tra i n founta i ns of te ars All norm al ob
.

serva nces tha t is gr ea t or s m a ll

— from m a tri
, ,

m on y to m a nn e rs — a re thes m oi Sim ila rly

.
,

Herodotus describing the high court of j ustice

,
“
in Pers ia s ays th a t the roy a l j us tic es give
,

di hai to the Pers ia n s a n d act a s i nterp reters

of their a nces tra l thesm oi a n d everythi ng is
,

” 1 03
referr ed to the m . Of their oc cas iona l di
lem m as he gives a n a b s ur d ins ta n ce To .

”
the en quiry of C a m bys es w h o wa s eccentric
,
“
an d w a nted to m arr y h is s i s ter they r eplied
,

wha t wa s at the s a m e tim e in a ccord with

di ke an d with out r isk [to them selves] s aying ,

tha t they foun d n o la w which enj oi n s th at a

brother should m arry a s ister b ut tha t they ,

2 14
 THE NO TI O N OF JU STICE
h ad discovered a nother perm itting the king
,

of Per s ia to do wh a t he lik Good la w ,

a nd s oun d p olicy too for C a m bys es h a d a

,
“ ” 1 °4
s hort way with ya l j udges
ro .

Thus the for m a l utter a nces of a public official

on m a tters of p roc ed ur e or beh a vi our were

thesm oi a nd it w as p rob a bly these th a t the

,
“ ”
thesmothetai wer e ins tit uted to set down in ,

the early d ays of Attic wr iting Vinogra doff .

“
s ays th a t they wer e originall y m agi stra tes
”1 05
form ul ating la w a s well a s enforcing it .

B ut he gives no r ea s on for s upp os ing tha t they

“ ”
form ula ted la w i n a ny other s en se th an as
“
a ll i nitia tive offi cers h a bitually did so when ,

“ ”
a ll the la w ther e was consisted of the thesmoi
,
“ ”
of s uch initia tors . Their num ber s ix is , ,

a nom a l ous , fittin g neither with the four fold -

cl ass ifica tio n of k i n d red s i n Atti ca n or with the ,

ten fold a rra ngem en t of whi ch ther e a re traces

-
,

there early a s well as in the trib al r eform of

,

Cleisthen es They a r e a l so the earlies t re

.

cor ded exam ple of a s tr i ctly c ollegia te m agis

tra cy a t Athens ; a nd they a re the firs t m a gis

trates whos e pl a ce of b usiness (thesmotheteion)
w as n am ed a fter them i n s tea d of r eta i ni ng
older a sso cia ti on s in its n am e tha n th os e of its

eventua l use The Atheni a n B asi leus for

.
,
“ ”
exam ple s at a t the B oukolion the cow shed
, ,
-

1 06
of s om e forgotten p a la ce or s a nctua ry ;
2 15
 POLITICAL IDEA S OF THE GREEKS
“ ’
the A rchon , in the hi ef s house
P rytaneion or c
“ ”
itself ; the the Lyceum
P olem archos , at

a n old ch apel on the dril l g r ound

outs ide the wa ll s reb uilt l a ter for h is p r oper

,

use b ut k eepi ng the old na m e E p ilykei on

, .

This is the m or e r em a rk able s ince the sta te

a rchives wer e n ot k ept a t the thes m othetei on

b ut i n the m etré on the tem ple of the Mother ,

of the G od s B ut their specia l p rem is es a nd

.

their a bnorm a l num bers cohere when we re

m em ber th a t the pr im itive a rkhe the i n itia tive ,

chieft a i ncy of Athens h a d bee n di s solved , i nt o

its p ri ncip a l functions a nd wa s held i n wh at
m ay be d es cribed as
“
dep a rtmenta l c om m is
sion . Thi s is cleares t in r ega r d to the P ole
m archos or W a r l or d whos e spec i a l i n itiative
,
-
,

w as firs t c onferr ed on him so tra dition s a id

‘

, ,
“
when in a n em ergency ther e wa s a k ing s oft
”
for fighting o ver ag e th a t is
, (lik e Theseus
-
,

when the people i n s tituted the offic e for I on ,

“
s en di ng for h im when n eed s eized on

or other wi s e unfit for field s e r vic e It is im .

p licit t oo i n the a ccoun t given of the A rchon

, , ,

a nd i n his n a m e a p r es en t p a rtic iple l ik e the

,

“ ” “
Latin r egent s ignifying a provis ion al ini
,

tiator whenever a k i ng wa s so to speak soft , ,

”
for b us iness ; a n d co n s equently l ong a p er
quisite of the old r oy a l fa m ily the M edo ntid ,

cl a n ; origi n a lly quite s upplem e nt a ry b ut as , ,

2 16
 THE NOTION OF JU STI C E
the A theni an C onsti tuti on p uts it m ag ni fied ,
”1 ° 7
by wha t was p ut up on it a k in d of offi c ia l,
“ ”
m a id of a ll work
- -
look ing for exa m ple after
-
, , ,

dis rep utable foreign worship s lik e tha t of

Dionysus which were quite beneath the n oti ce
,

of the high p r ies tly B as ileus a n d lik ely m or e

-
, ,

over , to r equir e the a tten d a nce of the chief

cons table ra ther tha n the a rchbishop espe ,

c ia lly i n the l a ter s tages of fes tivity .

“
Now ea ch of thes e coll a tera l chief execu
,
”
tiv es h a d of c our s e j udicia l a s well a s a d m in
, ,

istra tiv e com peten ce withi n the cl as s of p ublic

b usiness which cam e h is way a nd was h a bit
ua lly p rop ounding thes m oi lea di ng pri nciples ,

of beh a vi our as well a s di ha i to i nterp r et the m

,

in in divid ua l cas es A n d it wa s i nevita ble th a t

.
,

in tim e cas es which h a d s evera l a spects a ffect

, ,

ing for exa m ple i n divid ua l or k i n dred r ights

, ,

or divi n e p r er oga tives a s well a s p ublic s ecur ity ,

were liable to be decided differently accordi ng

as they wer e b r ought befor e a lay or m ilitary

or r eligi ous t rib un a l a n d wer e d ec ided un der

,

the thesm oi of gr owi ng sys tem s of civil m a rtial , ,

or ca n o n la w Moreover the new a rt of

.
,

writing wa s a t fi rs t a r a re art a nd m ys tery ;

h ow could the a rchon be s ure th a t h is c lever
”
wr iter h ad ta k en dow n h is wis e words a ccu
r a tely ? T wo pe ns bei n g better than one for ,
“ ”
exact record the thes m othetai or recor ders
,

2 17
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
were twin n ed : out of the notes of two wit
n es s es ever y w or d s h ou l d be es ta blished C on .

s equently , there cam e into bei ng prob ably ,

“
a t a b out the s a m e tim e th r ee p a ir s of
, r ec or d
”
ers ; a nd fr om the fi rs t with the sa m e obvi ous
,

m otive of s ecur i ng co or di n ati on a m ong the

-

three irresponsible j uris diction s a ll s ix found ,

it conven ien t to m ee t a nd com pa re notes a nd ,

were furnished with n ew p rem ises as th eir

com m on ofli ce . Hence the firs t collegiate
m a gi s tracy a t Athen s its c us tody of p ublic
,

re cor d s
, a nd it s r evi s ory function Hence .
,

too its eventua l a c q ui s ition of j udicia l func

,

tions of its own ; for if you could fin d out from

,

o ne of the thes m otheta i wli a t thes m oi ther e wer e ,

gover ni n g your ca s e wh a t need for intelligent

,

m en to trouble a n y of the thr ee p ri ncip a l

“ ”
i nitia tors ? The j uridica l fun ctions of the
“ ”
r e cor der i n the C ity of Lon d on a nd other
a ncie nt E ngli sh b or ough s ill us tra te the s a m e

devol ution of lega l b us ines s from a chief m agis

tra te to h is s cribe In deed s o fully o ccupied
.
,

”
did this b oa r d of r ecorder s even tually be
c om e th a t they h a d n o ti m e to per for m their

prim a ry task of tak i ng n otes in cour t a nd were ,

s uper s eded by a n e w s ecr eta r i a t o f s ix p a redr oi

n om i na ted t wo a p i ec e by ea ch of the p ri ncip a l

- -

j ustices to s it by them a n d r ecor d their r ulings ,

a s the thesm othetai h a d d on e or igi na lly

1 08
B ut .

2 18
 THE NOTION OF JUSTICE
’
it was y in S ol on s tim e when reform wa s
onl ,

in the air a nd when al s o lega l b usiness was

,
'

m ultiplying rapidly tha t the s ix thesmothetai

,

a nd the thr ee p ri ncip al offi c ers bega n or we r e ,

enj oined to m eet a ll together a nd beca m e

, ,
“
the a nom a l ous b oar d of n ine a rch on s which
h a d gen era l initi ative in Athenia n a dm inis
tr ation d ur in g the s ixth c e ntury H ow e as ily .

s uch a n om a lie s becom e acc epted a s p ar t of the

tra ditio na l order of things is sh own by the fact

tha t though the increas e of p ublic b usi ness ,

in the eighty years which s ep a ra te the r eform s

of S ol on from those of Cleis then es led to ,
“ ”
the crea tion of a first m agnitude s ec r et ary
-
,

gra m m a teus this gr a m m a teus th ough elected

, ,

in the sa m e w ay a nd a t the s am e tim e a s the

“
o ther A r ch ons a n d a m em ber of their
, col
” “
lege ,is never quoted a s the Secreta ry
”1 09 “
Regent (as the B as i leus wa s the Ki ng
“ ”
Regent a nd the wh ole b oa r d of r egen ts
“ ”
is n ever descr ibed a s the ten b ut a lways a s
“
the 9 the Ni ne A r chons a nd the Gram
m ateus .

There is no r ea s on for a s sum ing th a t the

r ecor d s of the thes m othetai wer e p ubli shed a t

first In deed if they h a d been access ible to

.
,

a ll it is d ifficult to s ee wh a t w a s the m ea ni ng
,

of th a t p ubli ca ti on of thesm oi by D r a co at ,

the end of the s eventh century which s o cl os ely ,

2 19
 P OLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
e em bles the publica tion of the form ula: by
r s

C n Fla vius at a n a nalogous s ta ge in the

.
,

developm ent of the lega l procedur e of the

“ ”
Rom a ns a nd the app ointm en t of a speak er
,
'

in the A lthi ng ass em bly in Icel a nd whos e ,

“ ”
duty it was being the m os t lear n ed la w m an
,
-

a va il a ble to r ec ite p ubli cly a ll the law (or

,

la ws ) that he k new in the cour se of the a nnua l

,

s ess i on Moreover writing is a n art which

.
,

m ay be well k n own a nd h abitua lly p ractis ed

by thos e wh o n eed it without being at a ll ,
“
com m on other wi se Even a m ong a m us ica
.

“ ”
people wha t p rop ortion of persons ca n write
,

m us ic ? B ut when s uch a n a rt h as begu n to be

em pl oyed for purp oses of p ublica tion by the ,

few wh o can write the num ber of those wh o

,

ca n r ea d with out them s elves wr iti ng i ncr eas es

, ,

rapidly F or one per son s im il arly wh o ca n

.
, ,
“ ”
wr ite m usic there m ay be a hundred or m ore
,

“ “
wh o ca n r ea d it to the extent 0, s i nging
”
from notes .

LE G A L C O D E O F G O R TYNA
TH E
It i s a further ques tion not easily a ns wered , ,

whether wh a t D ra c o p ubli shed wer e the thesmoi

of h is p r ede cessors or th os e whi ch he a dded
,

to the tr a dition a l s tock of thesm oi d uring h is

term of offic e or substituted for them B ut
, .

“
it is not of grea t im p orta nce for a s the giver , ,

220
 THE NOTION OF JUSTICE
of di hai equired to give h is r uling on
wa s r

every ca se subm itted to h im it was only a ,

m a tter of s ubm ittin g a l a rge var iety of ca s es

to obta i n a wh ole c ode of r ulings A nd the .

k nowledge th a t a clear hea ded a nd unp reju -

“ ”
diced m a n n ow h a d in itia tive in s uch m at
ters was itself enough to b ring into court m a ny
“
c a s es of i nj us tice wher e hitherto a crook ed
,

ruli ng h ad s eem ed a r em edy wor s e th a n the

dis eas e. At this p oin t the p ro cedur e a t

G ortyna is i nstr uctive 11 0
for ther e if the , ,

di kas tes foun d either the facts or the la w

O b scure he fortified him s elf a s we h a ve s ee n
, , ,
“
with a n obliga ti on a n d deliver ed a them i s
which w as a dded to the code a n d a t G ortyn a '

the code wa s public by the ti m e tha t we h a ve

a ny k no wledge o f it .

The m ode of publica tion a t G ortyna is

.

worthy of notice I n its pres ent form the .

thes m oi are ca r ved in r oughly cl as sified or der

,

of C l a us es on the i n n er fa c e of the wa ll of a
,

circul a r p ublic b uildi n g whi ch we m ay p res um e ,

to h a ve been the courth ous e a nd pr ob a bly ,

“
the covered i n succ ess o r of such a s a cred
-

”
cir cle o f s m oothed s ton es a s is des cr ibed i n
“ ”
the T ria l Scene (pp 2 03 As the i nscribed
.

building i s of fine Hellen ic m a sonry not earlier ,

th an the sixth century a nd a s the clauses ha ve ,

been classified it m ay be inferr ed that m ost

,

22 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
of thes e cl auses which a r e dr afted in the sam e
,

hyp othetica l for m as the thesm oi of D raco ,

h ad or igi n ated a s thes m oi of this or th a t G or

tyni a n dikas tes a n d h a d been sim ply p a inted
,

or s cr a tched on the b a r e w a ll of a n earlier

cour t h ous e j us t a s the decr ees conferr ing the
,

s ta tus of p r oxen os on c ert a in citizen s a n d thei r

descen da nts a re foun d in cis ed o n the wa lls of

the p ublic h all of Aptera a n other c ity of Crete
, ,

a nd a s m a n um i s s i on s wer e r egi s ter ed on the

terr a ce wa ll bel ow the Tem ple of Ap ollo a t

-

Delphi .
111
We a r e r emi n ded of th a t m inor
“ ”
function a ry the p a in ter p i ctor wh o a ttended
, ,

a R om a n p raetor a n d r e cor ded h is for m ulae ,

“
his lis ts of a ss essors a n d the l ik e on a white
‘

, ,

b oard a lbum which h as given its n am e in

,
”
,

l a ter tim es to a ny k in d of s crapb ook for m i sc el

la n eous n otes . A gen er a tion after D ra co the
pr a ctice of im m edia te p ublica ti on wa s well
es ta blished ; it is a ttested by the form in which
“ ”
S ol on s c ustum a l or collectio n of nomoi
’
,

in R om a n term inol ogy h is edi ctum w a s de —

v outly p r e s er ved by h i s s ucces s ors on th os e ,

kur bei s a n d a xon es the l a tter of which a t al l

,
“ ”
even ts a r e sh own by their n a m e o f pivots
,
“ ”
or s p i n dles
, t o h a ve h a d s om e of the c on
“ ”
v eni en c e of a m oder n r e volver b ook ca se .

With thes m oi a n d diha i o nce p ublished a nd ,

a s we see them a t G or tyn a r oughly cl as s ified ,

222
 T HE NOTION OF JU STIC E

as o pportun ity occurred , it was p ossible

“
a t A thens a fter D r aco , for exam ple for the
,

m a n wh o h ad exper ienced a n I nj ury (a

‘
fa ilur e of dike) to s en d such inform a tion to
’

the C ounc il of Ar eopag us m ak ing decla r a tion

. ,

in despite of wh a t n om os is his fa il ur e t o obta in

” 1 12
diké I n this p r oc ed ure the i n j ured p ers on
is p r esum ed to k n ow wha t l a ws ther e a r e which ,

of them a pplies t o h i s ca s e a n d in wh a t r espect

,
“ ”
the form ula of a p ublic giver of di hai h as - -

fa iled to give effect to its p r ovisi ons Later .

,
“
when the j udicia l ini tia tive of the gr ea t public
” “ ”
s er va n ts or r ege n ts h a d been r ed uced t o
pr eli m inary form ula tion of the issues a n d the ,

decis ion lay with a p op ul ar tr ibun al (p .

“
the onl y r em a in ing occa s ions for thes e i nfor
”
m a tions a ga i n s t them , or a ny o ther offici a l ,

wer e arbitra ry a cts in their executive cap acity ;

b ut it s eem s lik ely tha t thi s wa s a p r oper
h —
m ode a n d in deed
, , the onl y cons titutiona l
m ode—of b ri n gin g a n
“ ”
un j us t j udge to a
r eck oni ng in p r e— S ol oni a n days .

“
It is in this s ens e tha t the C oun cil of Areo
” “
pag us wa s guar dian of the nom oi a nd k ept ,

contin uous wa tch up on the [ h older s of] in itia

tive (arkhe) s o that they mi ght initia te in
” “
acc or d ance with the n om oi . F or s uch a p ubl ic
”
s er va nt to us e h is i ni tiative o ther wis e was
clea r ly a b rea ch of or der— oi the w ay thi ngs

223
 PO LITI CAL IDEAS OF T H E GREEKS
happen un der the custom s of tha t s tate
,

a nd this wa s the c om m on a nd i m m edia te

concer n of a ll the corp or a tor c l a ns C o ns e
-
.

quently it was for the r esp on sible headm en of

,

a ll th os e cl a ns t o co nfer a n d t ak e a gr eed acti on

on a ny such i n ciden t b rought to their n oti ce .

It wa s the a ccepta n c e in com m on of an a greed

- -

“ ”
way of living together by thes e corp or a tor
c la ns
, which h a d cons tituted tha t c ity sta te -

its elf in the p a s t ; it wa s the a ccepta nce of the

a r khe the pers ona l in itia tive of a n a gr eed i n di
,

vidual as the m ea ns for the enforcem ent of

,
“ ”
th a t way of living together on ill beha ved -

pers ons which h a d m a de pos s ible in cours e

,

of tim e the for m ul a ti on i n deta il of wh a t

, ,
“ ’
that way of livin g w a s ; a n d it is cons equently
for th os e wh o h ad a d m itted the s uffi ciency of
“ ”
this or tha t m a n s ini tia tive n ot indeed
’
, , ,

n eces s ar ily t o i nhibit h is exer c is e of it b ut t o ,

verify h is interp r et a tion of the fa cts or the

la w of a c a s e in which it is cl a im ed th a t he
,
“ ”
h as left som ething out which the com bin ed
“ ”
m em ory a n d com m on s ens e of the elders ,

in conferen c e ass em bled m a y s er ve to r e ca ll ,

”
so tha t truth— unforgetfuln ess — m ay be
"

“
es ta blished a nd ther ewi th the r eal way of
,
”
living together There r es ided that is in
.
, ,

the corp ora tor k in dr eds a n d wa s exp r ess ed

-
,

through their hea dm en in conference p r ec isely ,

2 24
 THE NOTI ON OF JU STI CE
wha t Aristotle eventually described as a n
“ ” 113
initia tive with out frontier .

F or the m om ent h owever we a re only con

, ,

cer ned wi th wh a t he goes on to de s cr ibe as the

“ ” “ ”
distin guis hing or critica l aspect of this
initiative whi ch confronts j udicia lly a given
,

event with the way of living to which s uch

a n event was expec ted a nd r eq uir ed t o conform ,
“ ” “ ”
a nd as we s ay
, , tries the cas e as we try a ,

sp are p art on a m achi ne We m us t r em em ber

.
,

h owever tha t this r es erve p ower of i nitia tive

,
“
h a d al s o a nother a spec t na m ely the del iber
, ,

”
a tive or qui te literally th a t which is tending
” “ ”
to deci s ion ; th a t is to m a k e up the m i n d
,

wha t the way of living rea lly is F or it is n ot .

neces sar ily the te m p or ary h older of i niti a tive

wh o h as left s om ething out of a ccount it

m ay ha ve been one of h is p redec es sors wh o
“ ” “ ”
form ulated a way which was not s traight .

PUB LI C O PI NI O N As C RI T I C I S M
or D I K AI
The significa nce of this two fold functi on -

of p ublic opini on— if we m a y ve n tur e so far

to a nti cip a te its n a tur e a t this s tage — begi ns to

be appa ren t a t the very n ext s tep in the develop
m en t of p ublic la w at Athens .

I n the proced ur e of G ortyna the di kas tes ,

h ad to protect and fortify him s elf with an

2 25
 POLITICAL I D EAS OF TH E GREEKS
o bligati on on two dis tinct occasions a ccor d ,

ing as it was the la w or the fa ct that was not

clear . The r em edy of a n Atheni an citizen
aga ins t a deci s ion whi ch wa s wr ong in la w - -
,
“ ”
was as we h a ve s een a n
, infor m a tion la id
,

before the C oun cil of Areopagus quoting the ,

“ ”
r eleva nt la w n om os ,It i s less clear wha t
.

rem edy he h a d if he ch a llenged the dec i s i on o n

the ground tha t it was wrong in fa ct B ut it - -

.

s eem s cle ar fr om the l a ter p roced ur e i n th os e

,

cl ass es of e n quir ies whi ch were s till withi n the

cog ni sa nce of the C ouncil of Ar eop a gu s or its

j udicial com m ittees tha t b oth k inds of appea l

,

h ad foll owed the s am e course a nd h ad been

a dj us ted in the s a m e w ay t o the n ext ph a s e

of j udicia l devel op m ent with whi ch we ha ve

,

now t o deal .

I n m a ny disp utes a n d b r ea ches of norm al

“ ”
or der the nor m a l
, way of d oing thi ngs was
obvi ous a n d the only q ues ti on wa s one of fa ct
, ,

whether ther e h a d been such a br each of order

or n ot I n such a c as e wh a t the dikas tes h a d
.

t o do wa s t w ofold : fir s t to form ul a te the

,

nor m a l order a nd i n the eve nt of distur b a nc e

, ,

s ta te the n or m a l w ay of r es tor i ng it to the sa ti s

fa ction of a ll p arties ; a nd then to as cer ta in

whether the fa cts were a s s ta ted by either
s ide. I n a c ivil ca s e a ffecting onl y the r ights
,

a nd inter es ts of in dividuals circum s ta nces ,

226
 TH E NOTION OF JU STICE
suc h as c ustom oi tra de extent o f d am age to
- -
,

pr operty a nd the lik e va ried widely a nd

, , ,

involved techni ca l p oi nts beyon d the p er

“
s ona l com petence of a ny or di nary p ublic
”
s er va nt ; a nd the obvi ous r em edy w as for the
“ ”
h older of ini tia tive t o r efer s uch a ca se ,

(after h is prelim ina ry investiga tion p ro a na ,

-

kris i s which r evealed its specia l chara cter)

,

either to a single pers on or to a com m ittee or

p a nel of pers on s with m or e or les s specia l
k nowledge of the m a tter together with a ,

form ula s um m a rising the p oi nts of la w a nd the ,

st a tem en ts of fa ct which h a d bee n es ta blished

’
by the m agistrate s p r o an a kri sis - -
.

“
Sim ilarly in a cr im in al ca s e involvi ng
, ,

brea ch of the corp ora te unity of a ki n dred

group or the i nfri ngem ent of a ny cus tom a ry
,

ob s er va nce or a b s ti ne nc e with risk ( a s w as

,

believed) of r eta lia tory a ction a ga i nst the

“ ”
c om m un ity as a wh ole the p ublic s er va nt
,

“ ”
or i nitia tor of the neces sa ry p ro ced ure for
—
the r estitution of nor m a l order in q uesti o ns
of h om icide a nd gr a ve r eligi ous offe nc e s
, the ,

bas ileus on wh om h a d des ce n ded this p r erog

,

— “
a tive of the hero ic k i ngship him self intro
”
duced the ques ti on to a co nfer e n c e of he a d m en
of c l a n s or in l a ter Athe n i a n p r oced ure t o a
, ,

“ ”
p a nel of r eferee s ep hetai dra wn by lot fr o m
, ,
“
its m em bers a nd left them to
, utter their
227
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
di kai ding to their View of the m atter
accor .
1 14

“
I n the fourth centur y this session of refer ees
was s till held under the open sky lik e the ,

co nfer e nce of elders in the Tri a l Scene ; a nd its

ch aracter a s a n as s em bl age of head s of k in d r ed

groups is further em pha sis ed by the s ta tem ent

“
tha t the bas ileus when he utters his di ketak es
off h is crown for th ough appoi nted by lot
, ,

as his p r edece ss ors h ad been s i nce 48 7 B C the

. .
,

bas ileus s till ra nk ed a s a co equa l a m ong other

-

chiefs of cl a ns , a s well a s a p ublic official

bringi ng the br each of order to their notice ;

he was a m em ber of the bench as well a s ,

public pros ecutor ; b ut if h e chose to a ct in the

form er capacity as one of his own refer ees he
, ,

dives ted him s elf of the sym b ol of h is public

offic e . I n the light of this Athenia n s ur viva l
it is ea sy to unders ta nd the s ol ution a d opted
by the a rtist of the Tr ia l Scene (p . when
“
he m ak es the dis puta nts ha s ten to the m a n
wh o k n ow s
-
, t o get a s ettlem ent b ut descr ibes
,

them a s arriving befor e a circle of elders with out

r ecog nis a ble p r es ident. A bas ileus in the H o
m er ic s ens e m a y well h a ve been ther e ; b ut to
m a k e him a m em ber of the court the p oet h as
“ ”
ta k en off h is cr own ; j us t a s he h as given the
“ ”
other elders o nly the sta ves of heralds i ns tea d
of their fa m ily s ceptr es .

I n m a tters which ca m e within its co m pe

228
 TH E NOTION OF JU STICE
tence—a nd very lik ely in som e which s trictly
—
did not the Atheni a n C our t of Ar eop agus ,
“ ”
lik e the public s er va nts wh os e tra ns itory
r ulings it eve ntua lly h a d m a de g ood its c l a im

to r ev iew on appea l h a d in the fir s t i ns ta n ce

,
“ “
un qua lified ini tia tive the council for m erly
wa s co m peten t t o fine a nd to im p r is on a nd t o
” 11 5
k ill
. B ut a new per iod of a dva nc em en t
open ed with the ch a lle nge of E um elides on
“
beha lf of one Lys im achus a ss erting tha t no
,

o n e ought to l os e his l ife with out the cogu i

s a n ce of a p a ne us ing the ter m dikas teri on
which was approp ria ted fr om the sixth century
on w ar d to the p a n el s of or di na ry citi z ens for
“ ”
the hearing of ca s es pr eviously exa m ined
“ ”
by one of the grea t j ustices as alr ea dy de
s cr ibed
1 16
. The r esult of this cha llenge wa s
a new nomos or form u , la tion of p ublic pr oced
ur e— phr ased we should note in the tr a dition al
, ,

form ula of a supp os ed event if the C o urt

‘

c ondem ns a nyone (to dea th ) for wr ongd oi ng ,

or fin es him the thesm othetai a re to subm it

,

the condem na ti ons or the fini ng s to the di ka s

ter ion a nd wha tever the dikas tai d ec ide by
,
”
vote is to sta nd
, . We note here first tha t , ,
“ ”
the new nomos went far beyond the specia l
ca s e ch allenged by E um elides a nd included
,

fin es as well as the dea th pena lty ; s econ dly ,

tha t the proper persons to pr es ent the court s

’

2 29
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
ver dict for co nfirm ation or reversal by the new
r evis i ng b ody a re the thesmotheta i i n their colle

gia te ca p a city ; the r ea s on bei ng tha t a s official

c us todia ns of a c cum ul a ted ca s e la w they wer e
-

the b ody best equipped to lay the whole ques

tion as for m ul a ted by the C our t befor e the
, ,

r evi s i ng b ody which by the co n ditions of its

,

or igi n w as n o p a n el of exper ts b ut a fa ir s a m ple

of or di nary citizen s e ns e .

S oLO NRE VO L U T I O N I N JUD I C I A L

’
s

PR O C E D U R E
Th ough it wa s only a s applied to the c om
m itt ees of m em bers of the a ncien t C ourt of
“ ”
Areop agus th a t the term r eferees ep hetai
, , ,

s ur v ived i n the j udi ci a l voca b ul a r y of Athens ,

“ “
the verb to r efer a nd its sub sta n tive r efer
,
”
ence ep hesi s r em a ined in use to des cribe the
, ,

procedure by which Sol on efl ected the grea test

’

of his thr ee r evoluti ons i n j udic ia l p r ocedur e .

The fir s t of thes e a s i s genera lly accepted

, ,

wa s m erely the sub s titution of a n ew thesm os

for the p r oc edur e p r evi ously custom a ry with a
defa ulti ng debtor — not to b orr ow o n per s on al
“

”
s ecur ity . This was a ch a nge within the co m
“ ”
p eten ce of a ny giver of dikai on a ny occ as i on
,

when in the ful ler com p rehens ion of all the

c ircum s ta n ces whi ch w a s vouch s a fed to h im

s elf
, he dec lared lik e a di kas tes of G ortyna
, ,

2 30
 THE NOTION OF J U STICE

tha t he kn ew no them i s a ppli cable to this case ,

a nd p r oceeded t o utter a n ew on e S o too in .

, ,

Rom e no p roetor w a s obliged to incorp ora te his

predec es s or s rehea rs al of h is k n owledge of the
’

“ ”
la w i n his own edict ; a nd no Icel a ndic
“
spe ak er w a s b oun d by the r ecita l s of ea rlier
”
la w m en
-
though it w a s usua lly conven ient
,

a n d j us t th a t he sh ould do so A l ate b ut.

’
i ns tr uctive Ro m a n exam ple is Cicer o s drastic
revi s i on of the edi ctum p erp etuum of h is Cili

c ia n p r o vi nce : o n e of the firs t l a wyers of R om e

h appening by a p olitical a ccident to be p ut

, ,

in ch a rge of a fro ntier p rovinc e which h ad

“ ”
s uffer ed j ustifica tion by the drum head p ro
cedur e of a m a teur gover nor s m or e or les s cor
,

r up tib le for a wh ole gen er a ti on

, .

“
S ol on s s econd in nova tion
’
to a ll ow a ny
,

o ne wh o wished t o i n ter ve n e i n a c as e on beh alf

”
of th os e wh o wer e bei ng wronged wa s lik ewis e
,
“ ”
within h is com petence a s a giver of di kai :
for it a m ounted in p rinciple onl y t o the recog
nition a new of the Hom eric volunteer i n the - -

“
crowd or a m i cus cur i ae
, whoever al ong with
,

them [the c ourt elders] sh oul d utter a di ké

-

which should be m os t p .

I n its new con text it h ad indeed a fresh m ea n

, ,

ing a s r ecognition of tha t res er ve p ower of

,

“ ”
initia tive in every citizen which we a re ,

com i ng to s ee to h a ve bee n fu n d am enta l i n

23 1 ,
 POLITI CAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
Greek notions of p olitical freedom .B ut
the notion itself was a ncient a nd it is note
’

worthy th at it should ha ve been in Attica so ,

ba ck ward in m any r espects j ust beca use its

,

s oc i al s tr uctur e wa s in c erta i n ways so ar ch a ic ,

“ ”
that this ancient r oot of in di vidual initia tive
s h ould h a ve bl os s om ed i nto s o ea r ly a fl ower .

B ut it i s on S ol on s third cha nge th a t our

’

“
a uth or ities lay the greatest s tr ess ,wher eby
they s ay the m ultitude chiefly acquir ed its
s tr ength n am ely the r efer ence to the dikas
,

terion ; for the p opul ace when it is m a s ter of the

”
verdict becom es m aster of the sta te
,
'
.There is
no n eed to s upp ose th a t it wa s in its elf a n inn o
“ ”
va tion in Athen s for one of the great justices
to r efer a difficult or technica l cas e to a n
a ss ess or . The P olem a rchos a t all events wh o
, ,
“ ”
as war lor d
- necess a r ily dea lt with all suits

between an Atheni a n a nd a foreigner b e —

caus e out of s uch quarr el s a r is e the cas u s belli
— the occas ions of war —ca n h ar dly h a ve
“
a voi ded m or e or less form al r efer ence of

j udic ial curiosities to the co nsul a r represent

’
a tive (p roxenos) of the foreign litiga nt s city ,

or to a ny k nowledgea ble citizen of it wh o h ap

pened to be within h a il B ut that was at the

.

“ ”
discretion of the giver of di hai him s elf He .

“
m ight disr ega r d the voice of th e wise s tra nger ,
“
as a corrupt k i ng disrega rded the voice of the
232
 TH E NOTION OF JU STICE
gods Wh at Solon did was to m ak e s uch
“ ”
r eference obliga tory i n a ll s er i ous s uits ; the
“ ”
g r ea t r ege nts , or public s er va nts with
,
“ ”
their separa te executive i n itia tive m erged for
a ll gr ea t occa s ion s in the collegia te com pe
“ ”
tence of the B oard of Nin e found their
,

j udicia l com petence s im i larly m erged by way

of p r elim i n ary r eview of the facts a nd law o f
“
the case such a s is perform ed by a p ublic
,
(

” “ ”
pros ecutor in the fro n tierless in itia tive of
,
”
the whole m ultitude of citizens ; exercised ,

it is true n orm ally by a p an el of its m em bers

, ,

l arger or sm a ller accor ding to circum sta nc es ;

,

b ut in thes e gr eater em ergenc ies (of the a b us e

of m agi s teri a l i nitia tive i n i ts exe cutive a spect)

a lways r es er ved to be wielded n ot by a ny del

,
“ ”
eg acy , b ut by the s o ver eig n people itself.

Gra dua lly a s evidence becom es a va il able

, ,

the extent to which the p oli s h a d ass erted

a nd exte n ded i ts com pete n ce to p r es cribe a

procedur e for the r ep a ir of breaches of or der

becom es app arent a nd especially its supple
,

m en ta ry a nd r egul ative function . The

breaches of order in s uch a com m unity were
nec es s ar ily in one or m or e of thr ee cl as ses :

offences wholly within the k i nship gr oup ,

offen ce s com m itted by a m em ber of one gr o up

aga i ns t a m em ber of a n other a nd offences

,

com m itted by a m em ber of o ne group aga i nst

2 33
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
a no ther group corp orately ; a nd the p oli s i nter
vened in ea ch of thes e cla ss es of offen ce in a
, ,

different w ay .

A b rea ch of or der within a ki nship group

w as i n p r in ciple a m a tter for the group its elf
,
.
,

to a dj us t th rough its ow n hea d m a n a n d i n -

,

unconstra i ned trib al s ociety it m a de n o dif

feren ce whether the offen ce concerned the
pers ona l p r operty or econ om ic a m eni ties of
r n c n r n —
the pe s o o ce ed which a re a very s m all
m a tter i n the s im pler a n d m or e com m una lly
con ducted s ocieties — or the t o ta l vit a lity of

the group when o n e of its m em bers h a s been

,

extinguished by the a ct of a k in sm an O n .

s uch oc cas ion s of d om e s tic bl ood — guilt we find

the descen da nts of Her acles for exa m ple ex , ,

pelling Tlepolem us a n d o ther Hom eric ex ,

a m ples of in depen den t a cti on of the bl ood

r el a tive s On ce in corp ora ted i n a p oli s o n

1 17
.
,

the o ther ha n d s uch a ki n ship gr oup found

,
-

it s i niti a tive o verr idden by th a t of the p ol iti ca l

whole p a rtly bec a use the dim inution of the
,

m a n p o wer of the da m aged group w a s a m a tter

-

“ ”
of p olitica l concern to the rest p artly b e ,

c a us e the d a m a ged gr oup w as very ill p r o

tec ted by its o wn r em edy of exp ul s ion if the ,

“ ”
exterm i na ted pers on wa s a ble to tak e c over
a m o ng frien ds a nd n eighb ours unco ncer n ed
in his bl ood guilt -
The b a ni shm ent form ulae
.

2 34
 THE NOTION OF JUSTIC E
pr on oun ced by Athenia n or G ortynia n or
“ ”
Rom a n public s er va nts aga i n st s uch offenders
”
exten d the fen ce or ta bu which c uts off the
, ,

c ri m i na l from his o w n gr oup t o ever y m em ber

,

of a ny a ss ocia ted group wh o con tinues to

tolera te his c om pa ny Exp ulsion thus becom es
.

n ot only gen tile b ut terr it or ia l ; a nd the p r im a ry

“
fun ctio n of such exter mi n a tion which wa s ,

to r em o ve r a ther th a n t o a nn ihil a te the offen der ,

is r ecognis a ble in the ven er a ble pr oc edur e of

“ ”
th e Athen ia n C ourt of the G uild Ha ll ,

p ryta nei on which dea lt wi th dea th s by v io

,

lence the ca use of which co uld n ot be traced

,

beyon d the dea dly weap on foun d i n or by the

,

corp s e : for i n this eve n t ,p ublic or der was

deem ed to h a ve been vin dica ted when th at
offe n di ng objec t h a d bee n cer em o ni ous ly a nd

offi ci a lly c as t for th fr om Attic terr itor y .

A breach of or der in the s econ d class b e ,

tween in divi dual m em ber s of tw o different

groups not infringi ng the vita lity of either of
,

the gr oups them s elves b ut onl y dera nging

,

“
the enj oym en t of extern a l goods by the
pa rties obviously c oncern ed the political so
,

ciety in which thos e gr oup s wer e corpora tors ,

b oth a s a provocation to r eta lia tory or vin dict

ive a cts a nd a s a k i n d of ofience for which it
,

was in the com m on i nter es t tha t the r em edy

sh ould be uniform ; a n d for which also the

235
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF T HE GREEKS
wi der experience of the p olitica s ociety

pro vided from a very early s tage the larger

, ,

s tor e of di ka i a nd thes m oi o n which to b as e the

desir ed un iform i ty Nothing pr evented the

.

s ettlem en t of a ny s uch affa ir either betwee n

the p ar ties or th rough the good offices of their

,

r espec tive k insm en a n d fr ien ds It was o nly .

“ ”
when thes e kin ds of first a i d fa iled to r es tore
things to their n orm al cours e th a t the aggrieved
“ ”
pa rty h a d h is a ppea l to the public s er va nt ,

“ ”
the m a n wh o kno ws in h is official ca pac ity ,

for the exercis e of his in iti a tive ; in the bes t

event to utter a di ke ( form ula m dare) which
,
!

wa s s ufficient guide to the

“
way to beha ve ; ”

or, faili ng a greem ent of this im m edia te k ind ,

through the un certa inty or com plexity of the

fa cts to nom in a te a m ore leisured and expert
,

dikas tes or a p a nel of s uch m en to g o into

, ,

the m atter in all its bear ings a nd es tablish ,

the fa cts a nd therewith the practica l effec t

,

t o be given to the form ula I n Pers ia as we

.
,
“ ”
ha ve s een such di kastai were roya l j ustices
, ,

bas i li koi di ka stai holdi ng their com m iss ion

,

from the m on arch as sole s our ce of p ublic

“ ”
ini tia tive ; in a Gr eek s ta te they mi ght
acc u r a tely be descr ibed as p oli tikoi dikas ta i ,
“ ”
justic es of the p olis their func tion being to
,

interpr et a nd apply in pa rticul ar ins ta nces

“ ”
the genera l pri n ciples on which our people
2 36
 THE NO T I O N OF JU STICE
beha ve . The r es ult of their la b our s r ecor ded
,

in due cours e a n d codified fr om tim e to ti m e

by thesm othetai thesmop hyla kes a nd the lik e
, , ,

was c om m entary a nd in terp r eta tion ever ,

growing a nd a lso ever gently shifting a body

, ,

of c a s e la w foun ded
-
,indeed up on tra ditional
,

c us tom s a nd h a b i ts of beh a vi our a nd der ivi ng

,

th eir coheren ce a nd l ogica l va lidity from them ,

b ut form a lly s ta ti ng for th e m os t p ar t not

thes e p rinciples them selves but p recepts hyp o ,

thetically express ed for the r es tora tion of

,

p ublic order in the event of a lm os t every con

ceiv ab le type of infr i ngem e n t which s tupidity

or m a lice h a d effe cted i n the p as t .

I n the third cl ass of b reaches of order when ,

the act of a n in divid ua l m em ber of o ne incor

p orated group i nfri nged the vita lity of a n other
group a n d im pa ired its tota lity by elim in ating
or s eri ous ly d am agi ng one of its corp or a tors ,

i nterventio n on the p a rt of the p oli s tak es a

different form a n d initia tes a quite different
p r oc edure F or this brea ch of or der is a n a ct
.

”
of wa r a r evers io n to the
, turbulence which
the p olis h a d com e in to being to p r eclude ;
a n d it is the fi rs t functi on of the p oli s t o in s ur e

each of its corp ora tor group s aga inst s uch

-

s ta te of w a r by p r ovis i on for the c o opera tion

-

of a ll those groups them selves aga i ns t all

a ggressors from withi n as from without
, .

23 7
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Co nsequently a ll the cl a ns through the j oint
, ,

initia tive of their hea d m en i n conference tak e ,

cogni sa nce b oth of the f a ct s a n d of the la w of

the ca s e It is s ign ific an t too tha t this

.
, ,

“ ”
j oint initia tive w a s its elf i nvok ed by the
“
r im a ry a n d m os t ve n er a ble of a ll public
p
s er va nts for at Athens for exa m ple
, , it ,

“ ”
is the k i ng ( bas ileus ) wh o introduces the
cas e to the p a n el of elders wearing r oya l
,

insignia ; a n d it is he wh o — wha tever p a rt

“ ”
he m ay ha ve tak en a s a co eq ua l peer a m ong
-

the other elders in the discus s ion of the ca se ,

“ ”—
s tripping off h is cr own r e s um es h is r oy a l

function when the ver dict is p ublished a n d is

»

privileged to pr oc la im th e exclusion of the

”
crim i na l from wh a t is custo m a ry a m ong
nor m a l c itize n s A nd it sh ould be noted her e
.
,

a s ill us tra ti ng wh a t the di s ti nction w a s between

“ ”
a ll this cl ass 0 cr i m in a l o ffenc es a nd the ,
“ ”
civil ca s es whi ch o nly con cer ned p os s es s i o ns

a nd other a m eni ties th a t the bas i leus h a d cog

,

nis a nce n ot only of h om i cide m a n sl aughter

, ,

a nd m ur der i n a ll its degr ees in clud ing the

,

”
pictures que exter m in a tion of the ownerless
“ ”
a xe or spe a r whic h did the dee d b ut a ls o of ,

a ll as sa ults up on the person a l dign ity of the

c itizen — a ll i nfr i gem ent of h i s m a n a or oren da

n
( to recur o nce m or e to n on E uropea n a na l ogies )
-
,

“ ” “ ”
his frontierles s in iti a tive a s a fr ee m a n of
2 38
 TH E NOTION OF JU STI CE
this p oli s ; a nd, aga in , a ll t such a s a rs on
ac s

a nd m ag ical p r acti c es , whereby natura l forces

either were or were believed to be let l oos e
, ,

to the detrim ent of a co equa l m em ber of this

-

politica l society .

Now in a ll thes e a spec ts of its interventi on

,

to r ep a ir b r eaches of or der the p oli s was at the

,

sam e tim e e ncr oa chi ng o n the p rer oga tives a n d

functions of the older ki nship gr oup s a nd a lso

-

facilita ting concurr ent encroa chm ents by the

“ ”
free in dividua l on the com petence of h is
o wn ki ns hip gr oup to con trol hi s per s onal
-

initia tive Tra dition a l sol utions of inter na l

.

disputes on old triba l lin es wer e being cha llenged

“ ”
by appea l to the public s er va nt a nd h is
ass e ss ors ; tr ib a l idiosy n cr as ies wer e bei ng o ver

ruled a n d wer e disappear i ng ; and out of a

ch aos of fa m ily usa ges a coher ent s ys tem a nd ,

eventua lly a m ore or less com pletely written

code of p r iva te la w em er ged ; varying no ,

doubt in deta il between p oli s a nd p oli s during

, ,

the l ong centur ies of com p a r a tive ins ulation ,

b ut s eldom p ass ing far beyon d the s tr icter li m it

im p os ed by simi lar eco n om ic experience a nd
ultim a tely geographica l contr ol o n the effor ts
,

of e a ch g roup of k i n sm e n to m ak e the m os t of

their own plot ( kleros) of Gr eek s oil whi ch s enti

,

m ent a n d i nher ited fa m iliarity en do wed with a

personality lik e that of its corp orate cultiva tors .

2 39
 POLI TI CAL I DE AS OF TH E GR EE KS
But it was not until the new opp ortun ities
.
-

both for the use a nd for the a b use of those

kleroi which r es ulted fr om the r es tora tion of
,

com p ara tively peaceful i ntercou r se over sea

ways tha t this encroach m ent of the p olis on

,

the kinship group in its econom ic aspect

-
, ,

becam e appreciable ; a nd only in prop ortion

as these a b us es of corp ora te p r operty bec om e

liable to lea d to disp utes between the groups

them selves and between a group a nd its own
,

m a l contents does this k i n d of in ter vention a nd

,

m on ignifica nt I n civil cas es betwee n a

or s .
,

k i nship group a nd its ow n s elf s eek in g m em bers

-
,
“ ”
politica l j ustice ga ve guidance m or e im pe
rious as well as wi s er th a n the narro w and

p ossibly prej udiced ruling of a cl an chief a nd ,

w as com m only in vok ed ; wher eas in or dinary ,

cr im i na l c as es betwee n r el a tives the old cl an

,

proced ure was not m erely pres erved b ut sanc

tioned by the p oli s a s m ay be s een in the
,

four th cen tury ca se between Socra tes frien d ’

E uthyphron a nd his fa ther 11 9

Sta te j ur is diction
.
,

in fa ct h ad begun by being s upplem entary t o

,

tha t of the elem ents of the s ta te ; a nd never

quite l ost consciousness of its origin or of its ,

es s entia lly r egul a tive a nd rem edia l m iss ion .

 LE C TU RE V

T HE
GREEK NOTION OF LAW ,

IN THE WORLD AROUND US AN D IN

H UM AN AFFAI RS

WI T H the ins titution of thes m othetai a nd ,

reg ul ar wr itten r ec or d s of the ruli n gs of the

“ “
p rincip a l public s er va nts , or m en with
initi a tive
, we ha ve rea ched a point in the
devel op m ent of the Gr eek city s ta te a t which
-
,

it beca m e p ossible for intelligent a n d p ro vi

dent m en to sur vey this accum ul ated experien ce ,

to tak e s tock of its contents a n d cl a ssify them ,

as we h a ve s ee n h appeni n g a t G ortyna a nd
,

to supplem en t its om is s io ns a s occas ion a r ose

, .

B ut thes e occa s ions were c asua l ; they depen ded

on the accide n t of quarr el s a n d offences ; a nd

if the p ublic j ustices were do ing their work

ar ight, ever y s uch questio n a ccidentally p re
,

s en ted to them for s ettlem en t , left one l oop

hole the les s in a growi ng n etwork of ca se la w -
,

for the m os t p a rt of grea t a ntiquity a nd by

,

this tim e of a nonym ous or igin B ut there

.

w as little s ys tem or coher en c e in s uch a col

lec tion of thesmm and dihai ; a nd it was long
before even the need wa s felt for such a rough
241
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
l ifica tion by claus es as occur r ed for
c ass ,

exam ple a t G ortyna

, .

It is in the new s ettlem ents i n the west ,

a l ong the coas ts of s outh It a ly a n d Si cily th a t ,

the first a ttem pts s eem to ha ve been m a de t o

c odify s uch c as e la w
-
. Her e the lega l codes of
Za leucus a nd C h aro nda s com piled in the fir s t
,

ins ta nce for a p a rticular col ony wer e a dopted

,

gra dually by o ther s ta tes from the m om ent

,

of their f oun d a ti on. They wer e pr ob ably i n

the fir s t i ns ta nc e clas sified cas e b ook s lik e the
-
,
“ ”
work of the n a m eless r ecor der a t G ortyna ,

b ut they do n ot s eem to h a ve needed m uch

r evis i on o r s upplem ent ; s o w e m ay as s um e

th at they wer e fair ly ext ens ive and the fruit ,

of l o ng a n d var ied en quir y W h at ga ve them

.

their value was n ot their phil os ophic b a s is nor ,

their con venient a rra ngem en t b ut the m ass ive

,

foun da tion of experience wider a nd older than

th at of the st a tes which a dopted them ; a nd the
r el a tive un ifor mi ty whi ch they br ought a b out
_

between the lega l pr oc edur e of neighb our ing

c ities i n fa irly fr ee in tercour s e with ea ch other
, .

Som e if not a ll of these m or e fa m ous c om

, ,

p ila ti ons h a d the s a nction of the ora cle of

Delphi perhaps even s om e rev1sI on of their
,

contents in the light of the gro wing a nd event

ually very wide an d deta iled k nowled ge which
D elphi ca m e to p osses s as to the do ings of all
24 2
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
ki nds of Gr eek s Of thei r c ontents we k now
.

a l m os t n othi ng except wha t ca n be ga thered

,

from the arr a ngem en t a nd s ub s ta nce of the

“ ”
Rom a n C o de of the Twelve Ta bles the ,

r es ult of a r evi s io n of older R om a n cas e la w -

in the l ight of experien c e of the c ontem porary

work ing of the Gr eek c odes ga thered by a
“
r oving c om m i ss i o n of Ro m a n s learned in the
”
law i n the years im m edia tely before 45 0 R C .

Exc ept for the codifica tion of Athenia n cas e

la w by Dr aco l a te in the s eventh c entury the
, ,

cla us es of whi ch b or e the r ub r ic thes mos the ,

wor d us ed to describe thes e ea rly codes is not

thes moi n or them i s tes n or diha i a s m ight h a ve ,

been expected b ut n om oi ; a n d i n l ater tim es

,

there a re in n um erable appea l s n ot only a t

Athens where our inform a tion is fullest b ut
, ,

“
elsewhere to the a nces tra l n om oi as to a
,

body of rules of beha viour p ositive a nd dis ,

cip lin a ry as well a s p r eca utiona ry r etrib utive

, , ,

or r em edi a l We ha ve m et with the wor d o nce

.

a l rea dy i n Hes i od s c om p a ri s o n of the ways o f

’
,

m en wh o ha ve dike with th os e of wild ani m a l s

, ,

which ha ve n ot ; a nd this nomos is described

“ ”
given by Zeus to m a n
‘

as .

Wha t then did the wor d n omos m ean ? H ow

, ,

a nd by wha t s ta ges did it com e t o be u sed i n

its eventua l s en s e of a s ta tute ; a nd h ow ,

further did it com e to be used not only for the

,

2 43
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
m os t in vi olable s ta ndar ds of c iv ic beha vi our ,

”
the n om oi of the p olis b ut a ls o for the m erely
,
“
co nvention a ob s er va nce of a n a gr eed c o ur s e

of p roced ur e lia ble a t a ny tim e t o be r es ign ed

,

or r evi s ed by the p ar ties t o it or their p olitica l

s ucces s or s ? A n d h ow do es it com e a b out tha t

the rhetorica l a nd even the phil os ophical
“ ”
a ntithes i s t o this r evo ca ble conve nti on is
“ ”
not the a nces tr a l cus t om which was i n ,

fa ct so gener ally a nd ten a ciously ob s erved b ut

, ,

a c oncepti on of phy s ica l gro wth exp ress ed

,

by the word p hysi s which n ever form ed p art

,

of the curr e n t p o litic a l voc a b ul a ry b ut w as b or

rowed fr om p opula r biolo gy a nd beca m e

speci a liz ed a s a s cientific a nd n a tur a li s t r a ther

th a n a p olitica l n otion This en quiry obvi ously

.

will lea d us r a ther far beyon d the n arrow scope

of G r eek p olitic a l idea s b ut it will s oo n be
,

clear h ow i m perfectly thes e ca n be under s tood

without it .

The verb a l subs t antive n6mos its elf does not

occur in the H om er ic p oem s b ut the verb is
,

com m on a nd a nother verb a l s ub s ta ntive nombs

, , ,

is used s evera l tim es . The verb us ed a ctively

, ,

“ ”
m ea ns p r im arily to p a s ture a fl ock a s the
,

“
Cycl ops cam e upon Odyss eus p as tur ing h is
” 1 “ ”
sheep ; it is us ed a l s o for dis tr ibuti ng p or
tion s of food a t a fea s t a nd o ther form a l
2
,

sh ares ? a nd thi s appea rs to be th e root m eani ng

244
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
of the subs ta ntives a ls o I n the m i ddl e
.

“ ”
voice the verb m ea ns to p a stur e ones elf or ,
“ ”4 “ ”
gra z e , or m or e gen er a lly to r a nge over
, ,
“ ” “ ”
or inh a bit a district 6
exploiting its re
,

s ourc es n a tu r a l or m a n m a de a n d occa s i on a lly

6 - 7
,
“ ”
i n the s ens e o f r a va gi ng with fir e 8
Thes e .

s enses p er s is t i n c l a s s ica l G r eek a nd i n Her o d

‘
9
,

otus we h a ve the s ub s ta n tive n omds nom a des ,

for m en in p a s tor a l life 10

. Th ucydides co ntr a s ts
“
com m o n p a s tur e of a fr ontier di s tr i ct by the
“
herds m en of two s ta tes with s edenta ry inb ah
,

”
ita tion of it by either com m uni ty 11
B ut .

[E s ch ylus h a s the m iddle voic e for the as sig n

m ent of a s ha r e a nd in Her od otus a n d
12
,

Thucydides this deriva tive s ense is c om m on “ .

Meta phor icall y Her odotus h a s the wor d often

,

for p olitica l a dm inis tra tion n ot however quite , , ,

without s uggestion of profit accruing to the

“ ” “
r uler ; a n d E s ch ylus for ha n dling or wield
14
,

”
ing with appropr ia te sk ill a tiller a shield , ,

the tongue or a uth or ity gen era lly a l m ost in

,
15
,

the s ens e of the H om er ic fr equentative nom ad , .

Indeed it is n ot unlik ely tha t we ha ve here

,

o ne of th os e el us ive p op ul a r etym ologies which

deflect the significa nce of wor ds a nd m ak e it

difficult to conn ec t s econda ry a nd tech ni ca l
m eani ngs with p r im a ry We shall sh ortly
.

“g
find theos , thus p opul a rly deri ved
“ ”
from a stem m eaning to p ut quite uncon ,

2 45
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
nec ted with it ; a n d o ther qua int ex a m ples
of G r eek p op ula r ety m ol ogy will confr ont us

la ter o n p ages 2 5 3—35 7 Of the thr ee verbal

.

s ub s t a ntives n om é s ( oxy tone ) a nd nam e (a lso

,

oxytone) need not det a i n us l on g Nom é s i n

.

“ ” 16
H om er is sim ply p a s ture a n d a l s o m or e
“ ”
generally the r a nge of a discussi on Hesiod .

h as the wor d in the l a tter s ens e 17

a n d for the
,
“ ”
c ours e of the n orth wind A n otable
18
.

Hom eric p assage couples n ombs with ethea ,

“ “ ”
the ranc with the ha un ts of a dr ove of
hors es a nd Her odotus describes h ow i n
19
,

Scythia a shrin e of the war g od is es ta blished

“
r a nch by r a n ch for e a ch of the chiefta i ncies

a nd h ow each nom a rch or ra nch chief m ix es -

”2 °
a b owl of wi n e a nn ua lly on h i s o wn n om bs .

Sim ilar ly name which is p ost Hom eri c is

, ,
-
,
“ ”
us ed b oth for p as tur e by Her odotus Xen o ,

ph on Ar istotle a n d l a ter wr iters

, , by Pl a to
“ ”2 2 ”
for fo dder ,a nd p a s ture a nd by Dem os
,

th enes i n m or e verb a l s ens e for the dis trib u

, ,

tion of a n in her ita nce Her odotus h a s it in a n

.

im p orta nt p a s sage describing the func tion s o f

the gods wh o are s o called he s ays (conn ectin g
, ,

the wor d theos with the stem which r eappears

“
in them is and thesi s) beca us e putting them
, ,
”
in or der they held a ll things a nd a ll n om a i
, ,
”
m ea ni ng a ll dep artm ents or r a nges of

activity i n whi ch usage he i s f oll owed once by

,

2 46
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
Plato With n om e m us t
be contra sted a
23
.

word , nom a i a a lm os t c onfi ned to Herod otus

,
24
,
“
a nd us ed by h im only in the s en s e of cus tom ,

proper to the other sub s ta ntive nom os with ;

p ar oxytone a cc ent with which we have next

,

to dea l 25
.

This other sub sta ntive nom os is not us ed , ,

in the H om er ic p o em s a t a ll ; a n d in two of the

three Hes iodic p a ssages it ca n not be quite
c er ta i n whi ch of the t w o for m s i s i nten ded .

“
F or in one of them wher e the Mus es s ing the
,

n om oi of a ll a n d celeb r a te the go od ethea of

,
” 26
im m o r t a l s b oth term s echo the H om eric
,

”
phra se a b out the ethea a n d n omos of h or s e s
“ ” “ ”
in which it is their h a unts a nd ra nch
p a stur e th a t a r e m ea nt S o to o when it i s .
, ,
“
sa i d th a t the s on of Kron os a ssigned this
nom o to m en
s — to fish a n d beasts a n d wi nged
bir ds to ea t o n e a n other s ince ther e is n o dike,
”
in them b ut to m en he ga ve di ke ther e is a t
, ,

“
lea st a punni ng all usion to the m ea ni ng p a s
” “ ” 27
ture or s usten a nce I n the thir d p a s s age
.

of Hes iod ho wever ther e ca n be n o m is tak e :

, ,
“
for n ow when a ny on e of m e n up on the ea r th
perform i ng fa ir r ites s upplicates a ccor ding to
”2 8
nom os , he ca ll s o n Heca te Here we h a ve .

the s am e s ens e of custom a s in the t wo

“ ’
other ea r ly c it a tio n s C h ilon s a dvi ce to
, obey
”
the nomoi and Per i a n der s to use old nomoi
,
’
,

2 47
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
”2 9
a nd fresh victuals The spec ia l m usica l
.

” “
use of the wor d for a tune as the cus to ,
”
m ary intona tion of cer ta in words is found ,

a l s o fa ir ly e arly in th e Hom eric H ym n to

,

30
A p ollo .

Of the us e of this wor d befor e the end of the

fifth c entury ther e a re n ot m a ny exam ples .

Her od otus illustra tes the width of its collo

u i l m ea ni ng— a wide as th a t of d i ke— i n the
q a s
“ ”
r epea ted phra s e by n om os of han ds m ea ni ng ,

“ ”
in ha nd to ha n d fig h ting
- - 31
which com es
,

us e of the verb
’
r ea lly ver y n e ar t o fE s ch ylus
“ ”
for wielding a shield or other im plem ent .

“
Sophocles us es it i n the s en s e of n a tura l la w ,

the norm al cour s e o f events on earth which ,

m a n in h is p r ide of r ea s on o verr ides ; an d he

“
c ouples it with the oa th b oun d di ké of the
-

”32
gods . F or a s im il a r a ss ocia tio n with dike
in hum a n a ffa irs E ur ipides m ak es Thes eus
,
“
.

s ay : I m ak e lega l c l a i m (di ke) to b ury the

”33
dead conserving the nom os of a ll Gr eek s
, .

The crucial p a ss age however is in Her odotus

, ,
’

a n ecdote of the expl a na ti on of G r eek di scipli ne

“
given by Dem ar atus to Xerxes : fr ee th ough
they be they are n ot free in a ll r espects for
, ,

they ha ve over them a m a ster even N om os , ,

befor e wh om they a re in a we even m or e tha n

”
thy people are befor e th ee 0 k ing ! ,

From nom os itself there is a l s o a derivative

2 48
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
verb n om i zei n to trea t a s custom ary o r
, , , ,
”
m or e gen era lly to hold a cus tom ary opin ion
,

a b out a thi ng The fa tal cha rge a ga i nst S o

.

cra tes for exam ple w as n ot on ly th at he

, , ,
“ ”
s p oiled young m en by h is tea ching m a de ,
“ ”
them th at is ca r eles s in their ob s er va nce of
, ,

Athenia n custom b ut tha t he did n ot ob serve

,
”
the gods whom the city ob s er ves or a ccepts
a s custom ary
34
. A n d the p op ul a r s ens e is the
s am e i n m odern a s i n a n cie nt Gr eek to —
,
“ ”
expect things in or dinary cours e to h appen
, ,

this way or th a t .

“
Though nom os in the s ense of wha t is c us
” “
tom ary or norm a does not appea r i n
Hom er ic vocab ula ry it h as o n e Hom eric cog ,

na te which des er ves n otic e befor e we p a ss o n

to the legal con c epti on which em erges i n

cl a ssi cal Gr eek This wor d i s nem esi s stri ctly
.
,

“ ”
a verb al sub s ta ntive m eanin g a s signm ent
“ ”
or a ss ess m en t of sh ar es b ut a l r ea dy s pec ia l
,

i zed i n Hom eri c s peec h to s ignify the e stim a te

form ed by a bys ta n der a b out a breach of norm a l
beha viour Ther e i s the les s n eed to exam i ne
.

this us age a t len gth becaus e it h as been fully

,

expla in ed by Pr ofes sor Gilbert Murray i n h is

R is e of the Gr eek E p i c 35
a n d s et i n i ts p roper
,

light as corr el a tive of aidé s for which the ,

“ ”
n ear es t equiva le nt i s wh a t we ca ll s elf r espect - .

I n s im ples t ter m s a ides is m y feeling th a t thi s

,

2 49
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
’
is a k ind of
thing tha t I don t do : nemes i s
is m y feeli ng tha t this i s a thing th a t he does n t
’

“ ”
do if he is n or m a l a n d all r ight a nd tha t ,

even if he is d oing it he w ould n ot do it if ,

there wer e n ot s om ethi ng out of the or dinary

with h im ; a nd s im il arly n em esi s i s the other
, ,

fell ow s feeling tha t I a m doing s om ething

’

which it is n ot m ine to do in the ordin ary ,

cour s e of eve n ts .

H ow thi s specia l usage of nem es i s c am e to be

h a s been ingeni ously s ugges ted by M r C orn .

for d fr om fea tur es i n the cult of a pers onified

,
36

N em es i s at Rh am nus i n Attic a Here the .

'

goddes s wa s r ep resented by Helleni c a rtists

c arryi ng a n a pple or a n a pple b r a n ch with i ts

fr uit a n d wea ri ng em blem a tic s tags in h er ha ir

, .

Mora lised a n d per s on ified thus sh e is yet ,

r ecogn i sa ble by thes e a ttr ib utes a s O ur La dy

o f the Wil d Pl aces a n d Wild Thi ngs , wh o ,

“ ”
giveth them their m ea t in due s ea s on a nd
pres ides over their h aunts lik e Dia n a N em o ,

r ensi s i n h er gr ove a t Nem i in La tium with its

“
golden b oug a n d th a t A rt emi s A grotera ,
”
O ur L ady of the Was tes to whom a k i ng of ,

Sp arta s acrificed at the o utset of a m ilita ry

expedition a ri te de p as s age befor e infr inge
37
,

m ent of the no m a n s l a n d between h is country

’
- -

a n d the e n em y s wher e unca nny s oun ds a n d

’
,

glim ps es of its denizen s P a n a nd the Nym phs ,

250
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN S OCIETY
wh o ge the wildern ess s o easily sp r ea d
ra n ,
“ ”
p anic fea r a m ong a m ilitia nOt yet in ur ed
t o w arfar e I n thi s a spect N em esis not only
.

“ ” “
a s s igns to ea ch of h er fos terlings its p or
”
tion , b ut r es ents a n d r epel s e n cr oa chm ent .

S O too in e ar ly Ita ly the s our c e of fertility

, , , ,

Priap us is al s o guardia n of r ura l b oun daries ;

,

a n d i n Atti ca h i s counterp a rt Her m es s a n c

, ,

tions b oth p oss es sion a nd pr oductiv ity in the

or din ar y c our s e of thi ng s a n d bless es a l s o the
,

“ ”
win dfall of unfor eseen b ut no less pr o vi
—
dentia l events goo d h ar ves t tr ea sur e tr ove -
, ,

un ear n ed i n cr em en t of ever y sor t a n d k i n d .

A s N em es is s ta n d s to n om os i n b oth its s ens es , ,

“ ” “ ”
of . p asture a nd custom ary or der a nd a s ,
“ ” “
L aches is a ll otm ent
, t o lachos a
, s h ar e, so ,

F ortun a n o less ver b a lly phra s ed s ta n d s t o

, ,

“ ”
ferr e i n th a t s h e b r i n g s b o th n or m a l m a i n

ten an ce a n d exc epti on a l luck Wh a t p art .

w a s pl a yed if a n y by the La dy N em es i s a t
, ,

’
Rha m nus i n specifica lly s ocia l a fla ir s we do not
yet k n ow b ut it wa s n ot with out r ea s on tha t
,

“ ”
Rom a n legen d b r ought the fi r st la w m a n -
,

Num a to the La dy of the Gr ove for con

,

fir m ation of h i s code of beh a vi our ; or tha t the

“ ”
m en wh om tha t w ay of l ife wa s design ed to
bring together into n or m a l r el a tions of give
a n d t ak e
-
of a s s ig nm en t a n d m utua l r es pec t
, ,

were them s elves co n gr ega ted fugitives from

25 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the crook ed dealings of their o wn people in ,

that asylum or outla n d sa n ctuary which as ,

“
Livy described it la ter w a s the pl a ce which
,

is now fenced off a s you g o d own the s lope

”3 8
between the two gr oves ; a n em us lik e th a t
“
of O ur La dy of the G ro ve a t A ricia a nd the ,

rur a l tr ee s a n ctua r ies descr ibed s till l a ter by

-

Pliny 39
Tha t N emesi s personified as signed
, ,

goo d things to m en a s well a s evil is clear from

Pin dar s des cription of h er B ut it is qui te
’
4°

in a ccor d with the p ol iti ca l unh appiness of the

a g e of Hes i od th a t sh e i s des cr ibed a lr ea dy in
“ ” 41
the Theogoni a a s a b a ne to m en .

Of a widespr ea d ob s er va nce of such l oca l

p owers sa ncti oni ng a ll otm ent a nd peaceful
“
enj oym en t of n atur e s gifts ’
we ha ve a
,

pictures que glim p s e i n Pl a to s occa sional r etro

’

“ ”
sp ects of the G olden Age a s el oquent of
,

his acqua i nta n ce with th e folk l or e of hi s

c oun try m en a s h i s b r illi a nt geol ogi cal sk etch
,

in the C ri ti as is of h is k n owledge of Gr eek

” 42 “
coun try s ide Di vi ne p ower s he s ays
.
, h ad ,

divided a m ong them selves lik e her dsm en the

, ,

a ni m a l s by k i n d s a n d dr oves ea ch bei ng s elf

, ,

s uffi cien t for a ll their n eed s t o th os e wh om he

p a s tured s o tha t there w a s n othing fierce

,
“ ”
[litera lly lik e the wilderness ] n or a ny
,

ea ting of One a nother a nd no war between

,
”
them nor even p a r ty feeling a t all
, We .

25 2
 THE NO T I O N OF LAW IN SOCIETY
’
e ll Herodotus guess tha t the gods wer e s o
r ca
“ ”
ca lled beca us e they s et thi ngs i n or der a nd
“ ” 43
held all p astures . A nd it w as the function
of Nem esi s to s uper vis e a nd sa ncti on this
“
app orti on m e nt : a ll thes e in the s econ d a g e
, ,

Nem esi s j oined r es pectively with spir its a ncient

’
a nd earthly , the o verseers of m en s work s to ,

wh om the divi ne r uler of a ll com m itted a d m i n

” 44 “
istra tion in the univers e . F or gods o nce
up on a tim e a llotted am ong them s elves the
whole ea rth by its r egions not by s trife ; an d,
“
r eceivi ng wh a t w as a k i n t o them [or their
’
ow n by a llotm ents of dike th ey s ettled down
in their di s tricts a nd s ettling s o their flock s
,

like herdsm en they b rought us up as p oss es

,

s ions a n d nu r s li ngs of their own laying

,

ha nd upon us by pers ua sion of soul ac cor ding ,

to their ow n i ntelligen ce ; th us le a ding us they

” 45
conti nued t o guide a ll th a t w as m orta l It .

, be d oubted either tha t the four th

ca n h a r dly

c entury phil os opher i s m ak i ng phil ol ogi ca l pl ay

with the two a spects of nom os a nd its cognate

words or th at h is j ustifica tio n for d oing so was
,

the general belief in earlier tim es a ttested by ,

the cult of Nem esi s at Rha m nus tha t norm a l ,

order i n h um a n a ffa ir s coher ed with or der in

surroun ding na tu r e a nd der ived its s a nction

ultim a tely from a w orld or der whi ch was one

-

a nd the s am e for all .

25 3
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
B ut h ow d o es discover a nd r ecogni s e the
m an
“ ”
n or m a l way of beh a viour which r en der s t o ,

every m a n his due a nd pr ecludes n em es is in

, ,
“
its Hom er ic s ens e of a feel ing th a t th is s ort
” “
of thing w on t do m or e p r ecis ely is n t
’ ’
or , , ,

”
don e a m o ng people lik e our selves ? We ha ve
’
s een a l r ea dy th a t a s e arly a s Hes i o d s tim e
”
it is m a n s specifica lly hum a n a s signm ent
’

from the s on of Kr onos tha t he h a s di ke; tha t

,
“ ”
this diké is for the best because it p r even ts
“ ”
m en from ea ting each other as m o der n
,

car ni vora ha ve l ap sed i nto doing sin ce the

“ ”
G olden Age ; a nd tha t a dike i s the expr es
s i on of m a n s a b il ity t o di s tingui sh a m ong con
’

flicting p ra ctic es wh a t the n orm a l coherent

w a y of do ing things is a n d to ex
”
p r es s i n a
,

verb a l a nd m em ora ble form ula tha t i nter

p reta tion o f thes e or th os e fa cts i n the light
“ ”
of s uch a ge n er a l wa y of beh a vio ur which , ,

o nc e f or m ula ted m ak es the r es titutio n of n or

,

m a l or der n ot o n ly p oss ible b ut obvious a nd

ea sies t for a ll p a rties .

P H YS I S E AR L Y GR E E K
IN

Wha t h owever is it which the discerni ng

, , ,

m a n appr ec ia tes a s being a t the s a m e tim e

“ ” “ ”
c us tom a ry or nom os o bvi ous when o nce
, ,
“ ”
p ointed out in a di ke a nd initia tory as a ,

com p ulsive arkhe towa r d r es titutio n a nd norm al

254
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
a pp ortionm ent ? The a ns wer to this question
m us t be f oun d through exam i n a tion of wha t i n
c l a ssi ca l G r eek c om e s to be the very a ntith e

s i s of n om os n a m ely
, the corr ela tive notion
,

or p hysi s Only o nce does p hysi s occur i n the

.

Hom eric p oem s ; b ut its us age there is ins truct

ive a s a ll Hom er ic us ages are s o l ong as we
, ,

tr ea t them fa irly a nd s qua rely a s exa m ples ,

of very early G r eek a nd do n ot c onfus e our

,

m in d s by c om p a r in g them with usa ges of

cl ass i ca l tim es s ep ar a te by f our c en turies or
,

m ore of tim e a n d by a m ill r a ce of li n guistic

,

a n d c ultur a l a dva ncem ent unp a ra lleled until

the Ren a issa n ce if even then Herm es is

, .

expl ainin g to Odyss eus the m oly pl a nt which ,

is a m agical (or w as it t o be a phys ica l ? )

a ntidote t o the m ag ic p oti on of Circe which ,
“ ’ ”
ch a nged m en s m ode of growth a nd ca us ed

them to becom e bris tly a ll o ver a nd to grovel

“
lik e pigs . S o speak ing then he b rought m e , ,

a hea l i ng herb (p harm a kon )

-
pulli ng it out of ,

the gr oun d a n d showed m e the growing

, ,

”
p hysi s of it
, A nd then the pla n t is des cribed :
.

a t the r oot it w a s bla ck b ut the fl ower lik e,

” 46
unto m ilk Now thes e two pec uliarities
.
,

s ta n d, one at the begi nni n g of the gr owi ng

process of the pla nt the other at its com pletion

, .

If you want to find m oly i n the dea d s ea son ,

you m us t look for a bl ack r oot ; in sp r ing or

25 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
sum m er it will ha ve a m ilk white flower The .

foliage app arently wa s not noteworthy The .

p hysi s then of the m oly pla nt is its pr oceed

-
, ,

ings while it is bec om i n g a m atur e pla nt in

full fl ower from being m er ely a black r oot in
,

the gr oun d G alen s com m ent tha t the word

.
’

“ ”
des cr ibes the appear a nce of the pl ant does not
47
quite exh aus t its verb a l a ctive s ignifica nc e ;
it is not m erely the r es ulta nt a ppeara nce b ut the
s equen ce of even ts by whi ch the m oly com es t o

h a ve s uch a n a ppeara nce Lik e other ver b a l

.

s ub s ta n tives in Hom er it de notes the a cti on or

,

process s ignified in the verb a l stem The im p or t .

a nc e of this will bec om e clea r er a s we proc eed .

Hes iod does not happen to use the wor d

p hysi s a n d a p art from l a te quota tio ns from
, ,

the Ionia n phys icists the n ext us ages which

,

hav e been pr es er ved are th os e of Pin dar a nd

E s ch ylus . Pin dar s eem s to us e p hysis in the
s am e s ens e as its cogn a te p hyé whi ch b oth I n , ,

Hom er a nd in Herodotus a lwa ys m ea ns ,

“ ”
growth a s the r esult of a com pleted pr ocess
“
of growing Of one m an S trep siades he
.
, ,
“ ”
c om p ar es the Cour age a nd the growt h tha t ,

is s ta tur e us i ng p hyé ; of a nother M eli ss us

“ ” 48
, , , ,

tha t he h a s n ot the p hysis of the giga ntic

Or ion ; tha t is either in th e Hom eric s ense
, , ,
“ ”
the w ay of g rowin g th at a giant or a m oly
“
pl ant h as or el s e the r esulta nt g ro
,

25 6
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
In a very pt fr agm ent a lso a ttributed
co rr u ,

to Pindar ,
49
som e c om m en ta tors ha ve ass igned
“
not only the fa m ous phra s e nomos is ki ng of
,
“
a ll to the p oet b ut a l s o the wor ds in a ccor d
,
”
a nc e with p hysis ; others however m or e , ,

r easo nably tak e the m to be p a rt of the four th

c entury c o n text of the quota tion I n an other .

doubtful fragm ent Pindar is m a de to s ay

50

“
that sla ves ha ve com puls ion to bear worr ies
”
of other people a nd a hear t of a lien p hysi s ;
,

tha t is which h as com e to be wha t it is lik e

, ,

a m oly pl a nt by a differ en t p r oc ess of gr owi ng

-
, .

More cer ta inly he com p ar es m en with gods

51

“
in r espect of either (their) grea t intelligence
”
or, indeed (their) p hysi s
, n a m ely, the way ,

they ha ve grown up a nd bec om e fully m en .

F or exa m ple ther e was onc e up on a tim e a n

,
“
infa nt Zeus a nd in o ther r espec ts also such
, ,

as s leep a nd other weak ness es Zeus a ccordi ng , ,

to the fa bles was quite undivi nely hum a n

, .

E sch ylus us es the wor d fiv e tim es of

the b uild of for eig n girls of Pers ia ns in the

,

prim e of life of the effec t of pes tilence on the

,
“ ” —
or igi na l phy i
s cal p ocess in orm al en the
r n m
” “ ”
w ay they gro w of the r ight h a n ded ness -
,

“
in the m a gica l s ens e of certa i n bir ds in the
,
”
way they grow a n d of the r ela ti on s between
,

the s un and th e earth Of thes e the la st .

na m ed a l on e pr es e nts a ny difficulty No one .

,

25 7
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
sa ys the poet k n o ws the fac ts to r ec ite
, ,

them clearly except the sun which nourishes

,

the p hysi s of earth It h a s been suggested

.

tha t this is m erely a p ar aphra s e for the earth

“ ”
itself or for the earth a n d a ll livi n g things
, ,

b ut in View of ear ly a nd widesp rea d beliefs

a b out the Vit a lizi ng effec t of s unl ight there ,

i s no r ea s on to hesita te to tr a ns l ate quite

“
litera lly ; the s un which n our is hes the growing
of e ar th , n am ely the p roc ess by which th e
,

earth its elf s our ce of a ll terr estria l m anifes

,

ta tions of l ife com es to be wha t it is by its

, ,
“ ”
ow n p r o cess of gr o wi ng ; a p r oc ess as origin a l
“
or or igi n a ti ve as th a t a scr ibed to m en in ,

a p r evi ous p a ss age while yet unstri ck en by

,

disea se .

N o w ther e is n o d oubt th a t i n the fifth a nd

,
.

fourth centuries or din ary people used p hysi s

“ ”
very l oos ely a s we use the wor d n a tur e
,
!

“
when we speak of s om ethin g of the n a tur e of
” “
a n a cc iden t m ea ning s im ply
, som e s ort of
” “
a cc ide n t ; Pl a t o for ex am ple s peak s 0
, s om e,
” “
other s uch p hy s i s m e a n i n g so
,m e other
“ ”
s uch ca us e , or thing co n sider ed as the
ca us e (i n th i s i n s t a n ce ) of the degen er a ti on of

soc iety
53
, though even am ong such exa m ples
m a ny s till r eta i n a va guely ver b a l i m plica tion .

B ut it is n o les s clear fr om the rar e early

us ages a lr ea dy n oted th a t wher e it h a d a ny
25 8
 THE NO TI O N OF LAW IN SOCIETY
“
m or e pr ecis e m ea ning it w a s tha t of the p ro
,
”
c ess o f gr owi ng which we should expect
,

fr om its verb a l for m .

HE R O D O TU S
P H YS I S IN

This is especia lly clea r in the us age of the

wor d by Her od otus o n wh os e inti m acy with
,

Ionia n m odes of thought a n d liter ary id iom

ther e is no n eed to i n sis t When the ki ng of .

E thiopia a sk ed the m ess engers of King C a m

“
b yses , Wha t d o es the k ing ea t a nd h ow ,
”
long a tim e a t m ost does a Per s ia n live ? they
, ,

“
s a id tha t he ea ts b rea d expl a ini ng the p hysi s
,

of the whe a t a n d th a t eighty yea rs wer e

,

a s s ign ed to a m a n a s the l on ge s t co m ple m en t

of life .At this the [Ethiopi a n s a id tha t he

w a s n ot a t a ll s urpr is ed if they live o n ly few
years m ak ing dung their
, N o w the ,

o n ly p o i nt a t wh i ch d ung could h a ve c o m e

in to the argum ent w as i n the course of expl a in

i ng h ow whea t wa s gr own a n d c o n s equently ,

the p hys is of whea t in this p a s s age m us t either

be or incl ude the wh ole gr owth p r ocess fr om
, ,
-

s eedcor n to h ar ve sted gr a in p r ecis ely a s i n ,

the Hom eric accoun t of the m oly pla nt Wha t -

.

w a s n ew to the E thiop ia n whos e ow n vi c tua l s,

wer e r oas t m ea t with m ilk to dr ink wa s tha t ,

a nythi ng edible c ould be m ade t o gr ow out of

”

th e ground leas t of a ll with the a id of m a n ur e

, .

25 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Sim il ar ly i n descr ibing the hipp op otam us
,
55

“
Hero do tus s ays th a t it exhibits a p hysi s of a
spec ies of this k i nd : it is f our footed two toed -
,
-
,
’
hoofs of a n ox s nub n os e with a hors e s m a ne
,
-
, ,
’
s h owing j a gged teeth a h or s e s ta il a nd cry
, ,

in s ize a s big a s the la rges t ox Now these ,

ch a r ac ter s a r e give n in or der of the s ignific a nce

of ea ch a s the cr ea tur e gro ws to wa r d m a tu r ity ;

a b aby h ip p o is o bvious ly four legged a nd o n -

e

in spection exhibits two toes b ut it certa inly ,

“ ”
h a s not yet the h oofs of a n ox ; onl y l a ter
s till d oes it a c quir e its a d u lt tusk s a nd m a ne ,

or a tta i n the b ulk of the l a rges t ox .

Aga in whe n a n Egyptia n pr iest is exa m ining

,
“ ”
a b ull t o see whether it i s of the s a cr ed Apis
“ ”
s ort he
, l ook s a lso a t the h a irs of the ta il to
“
disco ver if they ha ve grown i n accor d a nce
” 56
with the p hysi s ,tha t is with the ki n d of
,

gr owing which produces double h airs and sh ows

“ ”
the a ni m al to be a n Apis b ull Her e the - .

s ub s ta nti ve p hysi s a nd its c og n a te ver b s ta n d -

I n the text s ide by s ide a n d i n exactly the sa m e

s en s e .

T wo other p assages sho w clea rly tha t for

Her odotus p hysis w as not co nfined to describing
or dinary biologica l life b ut incl uded b oth
geological pr oces s es a n d the beha viour of m en .

“
Of the Egyptia n Delta he s ays th a t it is clear
th at the Egyp t to wh ich Greeks m ak e voyages
2 60
 TH E NOTI ON OF LAW IN SO C IETY
is l a nd dditionally acquir ed by the Egyp tians
a

a nd a gift of the river for th e p hysi s

,

[m ode of growth or ext ens ion] of the la n d of

Egypt is a s foll ows When you firs t sa il .

’
towar d it a nd are s till a da y s run fr om la nd ,

if you hea ve a soundi ng lea d you will bring -

up m ud a nd be in eleven fa th om s
, This .

s h ows th a t there is a p our i n g for war d of the

”
earth to this extent n am ely m ud b ottom in
,
-

eleven fath om s— a very rar e occurrence off

a ny G r eek r iver
“7
The p hysi s th a t is by which
.
, ,
“
Egyptia n territory gro ws l arger is a p ouring ,
”
forwa r d a geol ogical p rocess of s edi m enta
,

tion ; the word is a verb al s ubs ta ntive a nd

nothi ng m ore .

Els ewher e too Herodotus speak s of two

,
68
,
“
Sp arta n s a s m en well begotten I n p hysis a nd ,
”
r is en to the fi rs t pla ce i n wea lth o nce ag a i n ,

coupli ng the s ub s ta ntive wi th a ver b exp r essi ng

or di n ary biologi ca l gro wth .

O n the other h a n d dis cuss in g the legen dary

,

a ttem pt of the Egyptia ns to s acr ifice Her acles ,

“
and hi s m ons tr ous r ep ri s a l s he sa y s th a t when
,

the Greek s s ay this they seem to m e to be

quite without exper ien ce of the p hysi s and
nom oi of the Egypti a n s for s eei ng it is not
,

perm is s ible for them to s a cr ifice a nim a ls except

s uch as ar e clea n bea s ts a n d gee s e h ow s h ould
, ,

they sacrifice m en ? A nd further h ow h as it ,

2 61
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T H E GREE KS

p hysi s , tha t Hera cles being (a s they s ay) a lone

, ,

a nd s till m er ely h um a n s h oul d s l a y so m a ny

,
”
m yr i a ds a s the s tory r el a tes ? 59

Her e on b oth occas io ns of its use p hysi s

, ,

s igni fies the n or m a l cour s e of eve n ts ; E g yptia ns

a re m en of a c er t a i n a ver a ge s ize a n d s tr en gth

, ,

a n d of a cultur e n o les s a sc er ta i na ble in whi ch ,

hum a n s a crific es are j ust as unl ik ely to occur

as a n Egyptia n either thr ee feet hi gh or thir

teen .

B ut ther e i s a further p oin t es tablis hed her e

fr om Hero dotus ass oc ia tion of p hysi s with
’

n om oi Tha nk s to the r ecent r es ea rches of

.

H ec a t aeus a n d nearly t wo c entur ies of com

,

m er cia l i n ter cour s e between Gr eek s a n d E gyp

ti a ns a go od dea l of the p hysi s of Egypt a nd its
,

p eople h ad been form ul a ted b y Gr eek s i n

gen er a l d escriptio n s whi ch were in the s a m e
,

s ens e nom oi as the Gr eek pr a ctica l experience

tha t win e is s weet a n d vin egar is s our is a

or a n Atheni a n s p o li ti ca l exper ien ce
’
nom os , ,

s ince S ol on s tim e
’
tha t if he h a d not ta ught
,

h is sOn a tr a de h is own cla im on th a t s on for

,

m a inte n a n ce in old a g e w as dis r ega r ded B ut .

though ther e was a good deal about Egypt in

were m a ny things going on in Egypt its elf

tha t wer e not in cluded Thes e too were . , ,

—
p a rt of the p hysi s o Egypt the way thin gs
f
2 62
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIE TY
on the re
— th ough n either Egyptia n k i ng
g o

nor G reek a nth r op ol ogis t or geog r apher h a d

as yet for m ul ated them into a nomos S o .

Herod otus in order to be com pr ehensive in

,

h is condem na tion of the ignor a nce of certa in

Greek s ab out Egypt h a d to use the double
,

phras e a nd speak of the p hysis a nd nom oi

,

of the Egypti a n s .

I n vi ew of this quite clear a nd s im ple con

’
cep tion of a n om os as m a n s tr a ns cript or

form ula tion of som e proc ess which norm a lly

goes on in the world a roun d us cons idered a s ,

an elem ent in th a t com plex a ll em braci ng ,

-

”
proces s which is the cours e of events in the
’
l arges t s en se Herod otus a ccount of the sa nc
,

tion of custo m des er ves ca reful s tudy C us .

60
tom s he says vary widely
, , Greek s b urn
.

their dea d rel a tives ; the C alla tia n In dia ns ea t

them ; each a lik e w ould be horrified a t the
s ugge s tio n th a t they s h ould do as the other

does : a nd it was proof of the m a dness of King

C am bys es tha t he set him s elf to r idicule
“
ritua l s a nd cus tom s : for if one were to
propos e to a ll m en th at they should s elect a s
c us tom s ( nom ai ) thos e that wer e bes t am ong
r
all the cus tom s ther e are each people a fter
, ,

c a r eful r eview , would choos e their own : s o

m uch the best a r e e a ch accus tom ed to think
their own cus tom s Well this h as a lways
.
,

2 63
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
ightly Pindar s eem s
’
been m an s cus om ,t a nd r

to m e to h a ve sp ok en i n the vers e C ustom

‘
,
’
i s ki ng of all The s anction of custom
.
,

that is is the obs erved form ula tion of that

,

a sp ect of h u m a ni ty which is its ob ser va nce

of custom s ; its tolera nce tha t is of habitual , ,

m odes of beh a vi our beca us e whether a b so , ,

lutely the m os t efli cient or not they a re for ,

us her e a nd now wh a t we m ay count up on

”

other pe ople ob s er vi n g a nd sh ape o u r own,

beh avi our a ccor dingly .

Thi s aspec t of nom os a s m a n s form ulation ’

of a c us tom h a bit r egula rity of p rocedure

, , ,

either i n the outer world or in m en s dea lings ’

with each other is fun dam ental in the exp la

,

n a tion of the G r eek view of life give n by the ,

dep os ed a nd exiled Sp a rta n k ing Dem ara tus

to Xer xes , a nd a l r ea dy quoted m ore tha n
o nce.
61
F or the r eason given for Gr eek r ev ,

erence for la w a s form ul a tion of custom a nd ,

“
for Gr eek confor mi ty to it is th at they do ,

wh atever it bids a nd it bids the s a m e thing

,
“
a lwa y s H ow great a contras t to the bid
”
din g of a Pers ia n k i ng lik e C am bys es or ,

Xerxes liable to whim s or fits of tem per !

,

A dn h ow c l os ely ak i n— h a d Dem ara tus or ,

Her odotus him self bee n privileged to k now

,

— “
the Pers ia n s better to tha t la w of the M edes
” “
a nd Per s i a ns which a lter eth not thos e an ,

2 64
 TH E NOTION OF LA W IN SOCIETY

ces tral custom s which it was the function of

,
“ ”
the royal j ustices to in terpr et in its ap pli ca
tion to ques tions of everyda y con duct !
I n another sayi ng of Dem ara tus th a t i nter ,
“
dependence oi hum a n and r egional ways of
”
beha ving whi ch is hin ted b ut not fully ex
,

press ed in the p as sage a bout the funera l

c us tom s of Gr eek s a nd C a lla tia ns is explic it
62
.
,
“
Poverty is a lways our fell ow l o dger in Gr eece ,
” “
a nd efficiency is a thi ng ac quir ed or s uper ,

induced wrought out by wis dom a nd over

,
”
m aster ing nom os . Gr eec e tha t is is s o
, ,

a us ter e a r egi on tha t it i s only the right s ort

of m a n , s toopi ng to con quer by confor m ity

“
to its s tern con ditions wh o ca n m ak e good
,

there ; good im p uls es a nd initiative he m ay

h a ve h ad in the begi nni ng if he h as been there
,

a lway s ; good cus tom s he m ay h a ve h a d whe n

he ca m e in to Gr eec e from el s ewher e ; b ut ,

a b or igi na l or im m igr a nt the condition n ot

, ,

m er ely of goo dness b ut of m a intena nce a t a ll

, ,
“ ”
is th at i n Gr eece he does as the Greek s do ,

a nd him s elf b ecom es G r eek This is the for

.

“ ”
m ulatio n a s a n overm a s teri ng nom os of

tha t which every Gr eek in his inwar d being

, ,
“ ”
k new as the h an dicr aft of wi s dom a nd as ,

h is own p hysis or p rocess of upgrowing into

G reek n ess .

This is the c onc eption of nom os as the rea

2 65
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
sona ble form ula tion of p hysis on which Hera ,
“ ”
c litus in s i s ted th a t one m us t ins ist a nd for ,
“ ”
which o ne m ust conten d a s one fights for ,

“ ’
the wa lls oi one s p oli s a nd m or e va lia ntly ,
”63
s till
. F or with out s uch reasona ble as sur a nce
of a n or derly s eque nce a nd coher ence a m ong
“
events m a n h a s a s despera tely l os t his
,
”
bearings in the world a b out h im as in the ,

captur e a nd s ack of h is c ita del a nd h om e .

“ ”
This too is the custom a ry in a ll thi ngs
, , ,

as E m ped ocles ca lled it which ext end s con ,

tinuously th rough a ll seei ng sk y a nd in ex -

”
h a ustib le light ; n ot a s ub s ta n ce still less a ny ,

k in d of origi n b ut or der ly pr ocess es s uch

, ,

a s the codifier of a nces tra l cus tom s i n a h um a n

society could r a ti ona li ze in the fa m ili ar for

m ula , If a ny m a n sha ll then let h im

p aying b a ck in a ccorda nce with this
,
”
s tra i ght s etti ng -
whatever i s requisite to
,

r es tor e a ll thi ngs a n d a ll per s on s concer n ed ,

a s if there h a d bee n n o dep artur e fr om or der

lines s It is in this sens e tha t for A n a xi

.
,
“ ”
m a n der i n the fi rs t d a wn of I onia n phys ica l
,
“
inquiry tha t out of which things tha t are
, , , ,

h a d their com i ng into being is th a t i nto which ,

their dissolution ta k es pl a ce in accorda nce ,

” 64
with wha t is due p lu s b a l a nc i ng m i nus ,

c r edit b a l a nci ng debit j us t a s in or de rly c o ur s e

,

of b us i ness a m ong m e n they give di ke

2 66
 THE NOTI ON OF LAW I N SOCI ETY
a nd r ep aration to her for their breach
o ne a not
”
of dikei n accor d a nc e with the or der of tim e
-
,

the balance betwee n the various factors inclin

i ng first this way then th at
, La ter com m en
.

ta tors thought th a t A naxi m a n der wa s us i ng

“ ”
som ewh a t p oeti ca l term s in thi s p as s age ;
b ut were they m or e p oetic a l th a n when a
m odern m athem a ti cia n s a ys tha t (x i y) 2 - -

“ ”
equals x +2 xy+y ; or when a chem i s t says
2 2

“ ”
tha t 2 Na C l+H 2 S O 4 equa l s Na2 S O 4 +2 H C l
in a ccor dance with the or der of tim e in ,
“ ”
the s ens e tha t however equa l the two
s ta te s of thi ngs m ay be in r ega rd to total
,

weight or otherwis e they ca nnot exis t except

,

in chronol ogica l s equence i n r egard to the

s am e p ortions of chem i ca l m a ter ia l s ?

This in sistence on the chronologica l or

tem p ora l aspect of custom as fo rm ul a ted i n a
nomos , a nd of nom os as a n i nterp r et a ti on of

som e a spect of h e p roc ess of p hysi s i

t s c on ,

sp icuous aga i n i n a well kn ow n p a s s age of

-

“
Euripides : 65
for it is s light cos t to accept
tha t this holds good wh a tever h e the divi ne
, ,

a nd the cus t om ary ever i n l ong tim e a n d wh a t ,

”
h as com e to be by p hysis Once a ga in we
“

a re r em in ded of the wide ca uti ous outl ook of

,
“
Her odotus where he illustra tes the growing
,
66

”
pr oc ess of Egypt by the com p aris on of the
s edim e nt-ch ok ed gulf a s he c ons iders the Nile
,

2 67
 POLITI CAL ID EAS O F THE GREEKS
va lley to be with the gulf of the Red S ea not
, ,

yet chok ed but destin ed (he think s) to be s o

, ,

a s s oon as the Nile D elta h as becom e so m uch

“
s ilted th at the fl ood foll ows the s weet wa ter -

”
ca na l and falls in to the Gulf of Sue z Un .

likely enough to the cas ual eye ; but , in

”
leng th of tim e everything mi ght happen ;
“
a nd , sim ila r ly elsewhere he says , wh at is ,
”
sa id I wr ite ; a nd every thing might happen
”

, ,

the p otentialities of the great cours e of events

outrun ni ng m an s p ower to d escribe a nd for
’

m ula te them .

I n the sam e genera l s ens e of the way thi ngs

grow p hysi s is us ed a lso by Sophocles b oth
,

of hum an upgr owi ng as when Eteocles is ,

“ ”
d es cribed as m or e recent in p hysi s th an his
elder brother a nd of the process which m ak es
,

such things as the sea continue to be as they

are. Som etim es an a djective is a dded to sho w

what p articul ar g rowth process is m eant a s -
, ,
“
for ins ta nce It was no m orta l p hysi s of m en
‘

that gave h im bir th or in a phras e of a buse , ,

“ ”
you would p rovok e the p hys is of a s tone ,

that is m ak e a s tone beha ve other wi se th a n a

,

norm a l s tone does

67
Not u nnaturally there
.

was a ten dency s uch as is com m on t o a ll ,

la nguages to use the m er ely verbal sub sta n

,

tive as if it were a n a bstract term ; b ut a m ong

the p hysicis ts them s elves Em pedocles was
2 68
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SO C IETY
vigor ous i n hi s protes t aga i nst th is as when
,
“
he s ays tha t ther e is no p hysi s of all m orta l
68

things nor even a ny en d in des tructive d ea th

, ,

b ut o nl y m ixi ng a nd s ep a ra tion of thi ngs

,

m ixed a n d p hysi s is a na m e given to thos e

,

”
[pr oces s es] a m ong m en . T o r ega rd p hysi s ,

either by w ay of first cause or of fundam en

,

tal s ub s ta nce a s a ny k i n d of en tity w a s for

, ,

him a t bes t a figure of s peech a t worst a ,

diseas e of la nguage if not of th ought All .

th a t existed wer e things tha t m ixed a n d sep

a r ated ; you mi ght spea k of p r oc ess e s ,b ut not
of qua lities other wi s e th a n a s a j a rgon or
s l a ng for co ncis ely des cr ibi ng p r oces s es Tha t
.

i s h ow it cam e a b out tha t while denying in

“ ”
this p a s sage tha t there is a ny such thing
a s p hysi s Em pedocles him s elf repea tedly us es
,

the wor d in its s trict verb a l s ens e ; for exam ple :

69

“ ”
the p hysi s of lim b s h as been di storted ,

m ea ni ng th a t in c erta in c ircum s ta nces they

do not gr o w s tra ight ; exactly as the norm al
growth of things is described by Hi pp ocra tes 7°
,

prob ably foll owi ng the teaching of Her aclitus

gods a rr a nged the p hysis of a ll things ,

a n d a ll th a t god s set in or der , forever a re

s tr a ight b oth things s traight a nd things not
,

s tr a ight ; s om e a ni m a ls th a t i s h a ve cr ook ed
, ,

lim bs but th at is beca use the p roces s of growth

,

W h ich they exem plify p r od uced crook ed lim bs

2 69
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
in p roducing tha t k i nd of lim b at all W hether .

“ ”
i n length of tim e the corresp ondi ng lim b s of
s ub s equen t i ndi v idual s woul d be m ore or les s , ,

cr ook ed , was a further ques tion j us t as it ,

“
wa s a fur ther g rowt not to be excl uded

from Herodotea n geo l ogy for the Red S ea to

,
“ ’
ch a nge wh a t S oph o cles ca lled the s e a s s a lt
”
p hysi s a n d becom e a s ec on d Delta .

B ut if p hysi s be a p r ocess of gr owi ng a nd ,

a ll n om os be m a n s for m ul a ti on of s uch gr owth

’
,

h ow does it com e a b out th a t from the l a tter ,

pa rt of the fifth c entury on wa r d p hysi s a n d ,

n om os are c on tras ted a n d opp os ed a n d Ar i s

,

totle a c en tury l a ter h a s to dis cuss the question

“ ”
whether soc iety a nd the p oli s exist by p hysi s
‘

“ ”
or by nom os ; in the r ea l world of things a s
they a re or by a convention a l us a ge agr eed
,

a m ong m en a nd a lter a ble lik e a ny other s uch

,

a gr eem en t , by a fr esh convention to a dopt

a n other us age ?

It hardly n eeds to be s ta ted tha t m a n while ,

he h as a n exceptio n ally long infa ncy which ,

m a de s om e k in d of s ta ble fa m il y life a n d ,

politica l supers tr uctur e to protec t a nd ins ure

it n ecessary if m en wer e to con ti nue to be a t
,

a ll , h a s a l so a n excepti ona lly l ong m a turity ,

’
duri ng which with few exceptions m en s
, ,

c h a r a cters a n d p r i nciples ch a n ge very li ttle ,

and th eir cond uc t foll ows a nd exem p lifies the

2 70
 THE NOTI ON OF LAW I N SO CIE TY
s et of tions which they ac quir ed duri ng
no

ad oles cence I n s om e ki nds of exter n al cir

.

cu m sta nces as for exam ple i n p astor a l societies

, ,

ther e is so little occas ion for change in view ,

of the m on oton ous s ta bility of their s urroun d

ings a nd this ear ly ac quis ition a nd long exem p

, ,

lific ation of p ri n ciples of con duct is so cl os ely

“ ”
i n accor d with the wa y things happen th at ,

it g l v es ris e neither to in co n venien ce nor to

discus s ion Ther e ha ve been ob ser ved h ow
.
,

ever other types of s ociety am ong j ungle

, ,

dwellers a n d hunting tr ibes where conditions

,

a re li a ble t o ch a n ge ra pidly or wher e the

,

com m uni ty its elf ch a nges its c ircum s ta nce s ;

where consequently the r ace is to the s wift

, , ,

the b a ttle to the s trong a nd the spo il s of life

,

to the p ushf ul a nd br a i ny a m ong the r i si ng

gener a tion . I n s uch a p r edicam ent the
m em ory a n d exper ience of old ag e m ay well
be a t a discount ; the old a re despised or even ,
“
despa tched ; a nd the wa y things happen ,
’

m ay cha n ge rapidly a s the initi ative of the

,

m om enta ry lea ders m ay direc t An d thir dly

.
, ,

it h a s been r epea tedl y found that if through ,

exces s of p op ula tion o ver sub s is ten ce increa sed

,

facili ty for in tercour se between c om m uni ties

of com p ar a ble b ut va r ied exper ienc e or other ,

cha nges of c ir cum st a n ce

, a s t able r egim e

passes over into a n uns ta ble an incongrui ty

,

271
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GR EEKS
is perceived— which ind eed h ad not even
, ,

—
existed ea lier between the p hysis or process
r

which now goes on in the surroundi ng world ,

a nd the nom oi or for m u l a tion of the sui ta ble

hum a n r esp onse to it which for a while p ast
, ,

a t all even ts , h a d descr ibed it with sufficient

a c curacy t o s er ve as a guide for con duct That .

differ ent com m unities a tta ined the sam e g en

era l end by differen t m ea ns a nd tha t often ,

ther e s eem ed to be no very obvi ous rea s on for

thes e differ en ces suggested th a t there wa s a n
,

elem ent of hum an caprice perh aps even of ,

im pish ch a nce in the form s tak en by s uch

,

loca l nom oi ; a n d on the other h an d ster n ,

c on tr ol of exter n a l r egi onal factors in a country

, ,

s uch as the G r eek cra dle la n d -

s eem ed to be
,

perh ap s even m ore r esp onsible tha n it actually

w a s for the m or e fun d am enta l s imil ar ities
,

a nd the con dition s whi ch enf or ced them

‘

Al so we h a ve to r eca ll a t this p oint wha t ,

was only b riefly n oted a t the outs et (p .

that while the p olis wa s encroa ching fr om

a b ove, a nd fr om without on the tra ditions
,

a nd cus tom s of its cons tituen t k i n ship gr oup s -

,

new opp or tun ities for indi vidual enterp r is e

wer e being offered by m ore peaceful con
ditions a nd m or e frequent a nd ea sy i ntercours e ,

a nd wer e lea di ng t o s im il ar e ncr oachm ent on

thos e uniform ities of beha viour am ong m em

272
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
bers of a ny such g roup which the austerer ,
“ ”
conditions of the Dark Age h ad im p osed .

More especially was thi s encr oachm ent of the

individual on the solidar ity of the k inship
g r o up f ac ilita ted a nd eve,n e n c our aged a n d
provok ed by the n ew in vention of m eta llic
,

cur r e ncy a nd the di s covery tha t it wa s p os

,

s ible not onl y to m ak e wea lth by i n di vid ua l

“ ”
p us a nd bra in s far from hom e b ut to ,

r ea lize it i n to a n em i nently p or ta ble form a nd ,

’
tra nsp ort it at will into the owner s hom e
city or el s ewher e a nd s o give him a person a l
, ,

cons ider a tion a nd infl uence quite other th a n

fell for ex am ple to the lot of a younger s on

, , ,

however pushful a nd bra iny so l ong a s the ,

s ole car eer open to h im w as to help cultiva te

the fam ily fr eehold whi ch however a dequa te

, ,

to m a i nta i n its ow n ers wa s im m ova ble a nd, ,

a l s o p r actica lly unr ea liz able un der the cus t om ,

of the l oca lity a nd the p oli s which p r otect ed

71
a nd dom i na ted it .

P H YS I S AND N OM OS IN PH Y S I C S A ND

PO L I TI C S
Now it was in this difficult ph as e of tra n
,

s ition from com p a r a tively s t a ble not to say ,

s tag na nt conditions
, to the r apid a n d com pl ex
,

a dva ncem ent of the s ix th a nd fifth c en tur ies

B c
. . tha t the double pr oblem co nfronted the
,

27 3
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF T HE GRE E KS
Greek people of finding out what was r eally
,
”
going on b oth in the world a round and in
their own city sta te com m uni ties ; of di stin
-

g ui shi n g betwee n the c on fu s i n g a nd pe r ve r s e

ways in which things actua lly were being don e
a nd the com p a ra tively sim ple f or m ul a tions of

wha t wa s done with gen eral cons en t on p re

vions occa sions in view of the com m on habit
,
“ ”
of ju stic es a nd other form ula tors of dikai
to r efer new cas es to old c ust om s which not
only did not fit them a nd led to i ncong r uous

a nd unfor es een cons eque nces whe n they wer e

so applied b ut a l s o clearly h a d not bee n for

,

m ula ted them s elves with a ny k nowledge or

experience of the ki n d of p roblem which wa s
now to be s olved A nd thes e p roblem s a s
.
,

we h a ve s een thr oughout wer e them s elves of

,

—
two k in ds p roble m s in the i nterpr eta ti on of
the externa l w orld a nd problem s in the inter
’

p re t a t io n of s oc iety a n d m e n s de a li n g s with
each other I n b oth k in ds of p roble m it was
.

onl y a m a tter of tim e a n d occ as i on for th a t

incongruity between p hysis a n d n omos to b e

com e p r a c tica lly i n t oler a ble ; a nd whe n th a t

happened it was the nom oi tha t br ok e down

a nd ga ve w ay F or it wa s m a tter of c om m on
.

experience th at though things es ta blished by

“
nomos , co nve nti ona lly wer e a lter able wi th
,

com p ara tive ea se there were other m a tters

,

2 74
 THE NOTION OF LAW I N SO C IETY
which were far m ore difli cult to Change The .

res ult w as a grea t period of in ves tigati on a nd

“ ” “ ”
criticis m in
, p olitics a nd physics a lik e ;
a gen era ti on of gr ea t l a wgiver s nom othetai , ,
“ ”
writers down of cus tom s as the old thes mo
-
,
“ ”
theta i h a d been wr iters dow n of or dina nces
-

for p ublic offici al s ; a nd at the s a m e tim e of wha t

“ ”
the Gr eeks ca lled p hysiologoi descr ibers a nd ,

“ ”
expla iners of p hysi s ; a nd it will ea s ily be
s een h ow the functions of r es ea r chers i nto la w

a nd r es ea rc ers i n to the world a roun d cam e

to over l ap a nd i nterl ock a l ong a b roa d fr on t

where it wa s difficul t to s ay whether wha t
needed r ea dj us tm e nt wa s the h um a n or the

non hum a n fa ctor in the p r oblem

- .

’
Tak e for exam ple S olon s r eorga niz ation
, ,

of Atheni a n agr icultur e O n the o ne h a n d

.
,

he dea ls with politica l a b us es en sla vem ent of a

,

citizen for debt a b us e of the m a gi s tra te s

’
,

initia tive restrictio ns in the i nterest of the

,
’
k inship group on a m a n s fr eed om to di sp os e
of his p roperty by will r es tr i cti o ns o n th a t
,

im m em or ia l right of the p r iva te citize n to

“ ”
speak up i n c ourt o n beha lf o f o ne p arty o r
a nother in a s uit a nd p r op ound a form ula
,

which should s ettle the ca se B ut on the .

,

other h a n d we find him r estricti ng the p ro

,

duction of gra in encouraging tha t of wine a nd

,

esp ec ially of oil for which phy sically Attica

,

2 75
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
is m uch better suited ; ins isting on a fa ther s ’

obliga ti on t o tea ch h is s on a tr a de ; r e a dj us ti ng

the sys tem of currency so as to s uit the new

tren d of com m erce which r es ulted from his
r evol uti on in a g ric ultur e ; a n d i n the s tory of

his fa m ous vi sit to C r oesus of Lydia we find

him p r es ented as the for em os t econom is t of
his ag e ca lled in to r eview the fina nces a nd
,

organ iz ation of the gr ea tes t m er ch a n t p ri nc e

-

of th a t ag e a nd a dvi s e h im whether everyt hi ng

,

h ad been done a s it sh ould be .From the

acc ount of this vis it by Her od otus — whether
the visit itself be a his torica l even t or not
it is clear tha t wha t w a s expec ted of s uch a
n om othetes or p hysi ologos— l a wgiver or r es ear ch

s tuden t i n s om e b r a n ch of scie n ce— wa s th a t

he sh ould firs t m ak e him s elf ac quainted with

the fa cts of the cas e the pr oc ess es which wer e
,

n ow goi ng on a nd lea di ng t o the curr e n t

,

pr oblem s j ust a s a phys icia n i s expec ted to

,

begin by diagnosi s of the dis ea se from its

sym pt om s ; a nd the n on, the ba sis of thi s
k nowledge a nd h is other exper ience of s uch
m a tters t o form ul a te fr esh nom oi or r evis e a nd
, ,

r efo rm ul a te old on es i n s uch a w ay as to m ak e

,

th em acc or d with h is new r ecog nition of wh a t

r ea lly goes o n ; a n d a ll this ca n be d on e a nd i s

to be d one in the vi ew of this ph as e of Greek

,

thought by rationa l in spection of the facts a nd

276
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SO C IETY
ra tional interp reta tion of them in their actua l
r ela tion to ea ch other O nly a genera tion
.

before Solon the Athenia ns h a d sought to cur e

,

their p olitica l troubles by the m agic arts of

Epim eni des of Crete ; so cl os ely were the phys
ica l a nd the hum a n factors believed to be
intertwined in such a ffa ir s Now S olon s
’
.
,

own a ccount of hi s p r oceedings shows

a p ur ely r a tion al a nd hum a n e outl ook a n d

m ethod tak ing ap art , as Her a clitus p ut it

72
,
“
accor di n g to it s p hysi s , a n d dem ons tra ti ng

h ow things s ta n d A nd Hera clitus th ough

'

.
,

a pp ar ently his work cam e eve ntua lly un der

“
the genera l ca tegory of b ook s concer ni ng
”
p hysi s, tr eated conti nuously the three topics
“ ” “ ”
a b out the wh ole a nd a b out the p oli s a nd
“ ” “
a b out the god s : it w as des cr ibed a s a n exa ct
s teer i ng ch ar t for
-
the es tim a tion of hum a n
” 73 “ ”
life ; a n d the steer ing its elf was a chi eved
“
by th a t one thi ng wis e to k now j udgm ent
, ,
” 74
which steers all things through all whi c h is
“
els ewhere ca lled by h im sim ply com m on
” “ ” 75 “
s e ns e or s tra ight thi nki ng . Thi s com
”
m on s ens e i n our s elves corr esp on d s som ehow
—for th a t “pr oblem of k nowledge ” wa s not
solved i n Gr eek tim es a ny m or e th a n it h a s
— “
been solved in m oder n with tha t which
” 76
su rroun ds us being r e a s on able a nd cohere n t
, .

“
It is in this s ense tha t for Heraclitus all hum an
2 77
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
nom oi ar e nour s i hed by one the divi ne ; for it
,

h a s forc e to a s gr ea t a degr ee a s it will s an d is

, ,
” 77
s uffi c ien t unto a ll a n d yet ther e is m or e
, .

“ ” ’
This divin e nom os i s clear ly the gods own
form ula tion of all the rea lity ther e is as they ,

i n their wi s d om com p rehe n d it All hum a n

.

n om o i h a ve their va l ue a n d exp r ess s om e a spect

or o ther of r ea lity of wh a t r eall y h appens

, ,

in sofar as they ar e tr a nscripts from the s am e

grea t origin al the r ea l or der of even ts ; and
,

s uch i s thi s gr ea t fa b ri c of k n o wa ble r ea lity

tha t it is hopeless to expec t hum a n form ula tion

to c om p ri s e or exh a us t its m ea ni n g .

Her aclitus deal s a l so i n a very in structive

wa y with the r ea sons why hum a n n omoi a re
foun d to diverge so l am enta bly from this
“ ” 78 “
divine law . F or reas on being comm on to
”—
a ll
, m os t m en live the wor d den otes only
— “
their physica l a nim a l life
, a s if they h ad a

way of thi nk i ng of their own C ons equently ,

“ ”
the way m en think m ay diverge from the
“ ”
w a y things h appen A nd then in a s trik ing
.

“
phra s e he descr ibes what r eally s tr a ight
“ ” “
think ing or com m on s ens e achieves : it
is n othi ng el s e th a n the expl a ini ng of the fashion
”
of the a dm i ni s tr a ti on of the wh ole Rea l .

genui n e thi nk in g th a t is whether a b out physics

, ,

or a b out p olitics is a n intell igible p r es enta

,

tion of the way i n which things r eally g o on .

27 8
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
The a chievem ents i n detail of this r eal, ,
”
thi nk ing are wha t Hera clitus call s guom ai ,

“ ” “ ”
concl us i ons or opi ni o n s a cts of m enta l ,

decis ion H is ow n tr ea tis e or perhap s the

.
,
“
p olitica l p a rt of it he described a s a n opini on
,
”
a b out h a bits h is con cl us io ns ab out hum a n
,

ch ar acter a n d beh a vi our B ut he p r ocee ds z79

.

“
m a n s ch a rac ter [or w a y of doing things]
’

h as n ot g ot gn om ai b ut div i ne ch ar acter h as
, .

M a n— p oor child —listens to the deity ,

as a child t o a grown m a n T o G od a ll
things a re fa ir a n d good a nd in accor d with
di ke; b ut m en h a ve conceived s om e thi ngs a s
with out di ke a nd [only] s om e things a s i n
,
”
accor d with it Yet by r es earch a nd ab ove
.
,
“
a ll by s elf s tudy k nowledge ca n com e a ll
:
-
,

m en h a ve their cha nc e to com e t o k now them

”
s elve s a nd to thi nk s tr a ight .

Thus j ust as Hom er a n d Hesiod at a n

, ,
”
earlier s ta ge coul d speak of crook ed di kai
, ,

of a m a n m a de j us tic e which w as its elf unj us t

-
,

s o we h a ve her e the di s covery th a t m a n m a de -

c ustom s a n d p ublic en actm ents b ased on them

, ,

m ay be a s in accur a te a n d s tupid a description

of wh a t h um a n n a tur e r ea lly is a s a child s
’

,
“
a ttem p t t o un der s ta n d a nd r epea t the grown
up ta of its elders .

T o this s ta ge of Gr eek th ought p r ob ably

bel ongs a s eries of a n ec dotes hk e that of
'

2 79
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Cr oesus a nd Sol on in Herodo tus r ep orting , ,

vari ous ques tions a sk ed by Cr oesus of other

“
wa nderi ng scholars a nd their a ns wers to
them .
80
Croesus a sk s A n ach arsis a grea t ,
“
tra veller a n d n a tur a lis t Wh a t does he think ,
’
the m ost m anly i n the world ? Anach a rs is
r eplies The m os t fer ocious of the a nim a ls
, ,

for they al on e die with out hes ita tion for free
, ,
”
dom . T his wa s s urp r is ing e nough a nd C roe ,
“
s us a sk s ag a i n Wh a t he think s m ost in accord
,
” “
with di ké The a ns wer aga in is The m os t
.
,

ferocious wild bea sts for they al one live a ccor d

,

ing to p hysis not accor di ng to custom s nomoi

, , ,

for p hysi s is the cr ea tion of G od b ut n om os a n ,

or di n a nce of m a n a n d it i s m or e in accor d
,

wi th diketo foll o w [m a k e use of] the in ven tions

”
of G od tha n th o se of m en
, Then Croes us .

“
a s k s a ga in (t o pull the leg of the s age a s ,

D iodorus unk i n dly says) 81

whether the wil d ,

bea s ts are a l s o the wis es t crea tures a nd Ana ,

ch a r s is expl a i ns th a t it is the s pec i al qua lity of

wis d om to prefer the unforgetful ness of p hysis

to the or din a n ce of nom os Here the p oint is .

tha t only in p hysi s the r ea l or der of events

, ,
“
is every circum s ta nce included s o th a t phys ,
“ ”
ica truth is unforgetful of the sm allest
deta il whereas m an s legis l a tion as we know
,
’
,

to our cos t is often very b a dly dr afted

, .

“
The physica phil os op hy m ainly of Ionian ,

2 80
 9
THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
or igin the m a in features of which we ha ve been
,

tr a cing her e p a s sed o ver to Athens la te in

,

the fifth century with Archela us of Miletus

,
82
.

Hi s o w n tea cher A n a xa gor as h ad vis ited

, ,

Athen s s om e while befor e b ut h a d been s o ,

im p rudent as to decl ar e th a t the sun wa s a

m a ss of h ot s t on e a s l a rge a s Pel op onn es e th at ,

is som e eighty m iles in dia m eter ; a nd he h a d

,

h a d to dep art quick ly out of Attica Socra tes .

,

wh o h a d sa t un der A n a x agor a s is sa id to h a ve ,
“ ”
learn ed physics a ls o fr om Archela us a nd ,

it is quite lik ely tha t the a llus ion s in the pla ys

“ ”
of Ar is topha nes to p hysis a n d physica l
learni ng gen era lly m ay be derived m ainly
,

fr om Archelaus however a m using it m ay

,

h a ve been to p al m them off as S ocra tic a t a ,

tim e when Socr a tes wa s p as s ing o ver to the

a lter n a tive s t a n dp oi n t which w a s kn ow n as
“ ”
the phil osophy of behaviour B ut we a re .
,
“
told Archela us too da bbled in beha viour for
, , , ,

he h as specul a ted ab out nom oi good a nd in ,

”—
a ccor d with di ké c us tom s th at is to say , ,
“
a nd their goo d n ess a n d rightn ess ; fr om whom
S ocra tes b orr o wing by h is im provem ents wa s
, ,
”
s upp os ed to h a ve in vented this him s elf .

Another sym ptom of a dva nc ed or r a ther of , , ,

la te o ver m a tur e opinions is the s tatem en t

,
-

“
tha t he tries t o contribute s om ething fr esh
ab out the com ing into exis tence of the
28 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
univers e a m a tter which h is p r ed ec ess or s
, ,
“ ”
m or e s trictly physica l in their in qui ries ,

h ad left ra ther s ever ely alone Of hi s p olitical

.

a nd m ora l theor ies we only k n ow

83
that he
“
us ed to say tha t r ighteo us ness a nd b a s eness
exis ted not in p hysis b ut i n n om ”
os ; tha t is to

say lik e the a b s tra ct p hysi s itself for Em pe

,

docles they h a d n o r ea l exi s ten ce in the world

,

of r ea l thi ngs b ut wer e n a m es s uper a dded by

,

m en to des cr ibe this or tha t ki n d of behav iour

when exhibited by m en which no one woul d ,
“ ” ” “ “
ca ll j ust or unj us t r ight , or wrong ,

when exhibited by the wild beas ts of Anach ar

S IS .

“
TH E NO TI O N OF U N W R I T T E N L AW
“ ”
Thi s m ay ha ve been good physics but it ,

h a d disa s trous eflects b oth m or a lly a nd p olit

’

ically i n Greece F or this dep r ecia tion of p ub

.

h ely form ula ted custom r ec og nized n o distinc

tion between codified practice of the cour ts
a nd the tr a diti ona l m ora lity a nd econom y of

old k inship gr oup s or betwee n either of thes e

,
”
a n d th os e a n ces tr a l c ust om s t o which s ta tes
m en a nd litiga nts a lik e m a de im p ass io n ed
appea l s with out telli ng us ver y m uch a b out

their content It cam e too a t a m om ent when

.
, ,

the two opposite encroa chm ents of the p oli s ,

from ab ove a nd with out of the p ushful indi ,

28 2
 THE NOTION or LAW m SO CI ETY
vi dual from wi thi n and beneath h ad nearly ,

br ok en down the s anctions of old trib al society .

Thus were reveal ed to each other a suprem e

form of s ociety the state non e too sur e of its
, ,

ow n ultim a te s a ncti on beyon d the fact th a t

,
“ ”
a n ces tra l cus tom s ,vaguely a ss erted a nd ,

ins tinctively or tra dition ally obs erved h ad ,

s er ved it well enough in the p a s t ; and con ,

fronting this s ta te the i ndi vidua l cons cious of

, ,

h is o wn im m edia te n eed s a im s a nd a bilities

, , ,

fretted a n d a ntagonized by the la st str uggles

o f the cl a n a n d the h ous e fa ther to k eep him -

“ ”
in lea din g s tr in gs al ong the a ncient ways ,

b ut very ill equipped to di s ting ui sh between

ob solete c us tom a n d the n ew c o ncepti ons of

purely p olitica l obliga tion a n d pur ely m oral ,

s elf critic i s m
-
, which the Hom eric literatur e ,

the oracle a t Delphi a nd a ll s ch ools of con

,

tem por ary spec ul a tion wer e at o ne in incul

,

cati ng , h owever grea tly phil os ophic teachers

differ ed a s to the p r ecis e conten t of citi zens hip or ,

di sputed the com p atibility of good citizenship

with a n idea lly good life for the citizen h im w lf .

W a s ther e then a ny di s ti nc tion to be dr a wn

, ,

between arbitr ary m a n m ade nom oi a nd such

-

a nom os a s h a d been p rocl a im ed by Her aclitus ,

the one divin e law ful ly descriptive of m a n s

,
’

place in the world a nd of h is p ath thr ough it ?

,

Socrates seem s to ha ve thought so if we m ay ,

283
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF TH E GREEKS
j udge from a conversation r ecor ded by Xeno
pho n b ut h is a rg um ent is n ot very co nclusive ;
84
,

it dem onstr ates ra ther tha t the diffic ulty was

, ,

perceived tha n tha t m uch progr es s h ad bee n

,

m a de towar d fin ding a s anction Socr a tes .

begins by the as s um ption tha t nomos and

dike a re the s am e wh a t is accor din g to one is
-

a ccor ding to the o ther a l s o T o this his friend

.

“
Hi ppia s a grees D o you s upp os e then Hi p
.
, ,
”
pias tha t there a re any unwr itten la ws ?
,

m ea m ng by this l a ws which r ep r es en t in g en
,

era l the workings of hum a n m ind a nd character ,

not the spec ia l r eacti ons of p ar tic u lar gr oup s

of m en t o r egiona l c irc um s ta nces Hippias .

“
agree s a ga i n : they a r e thos e which are ob
”
s er ved i n every country in the s am e w ay ,

b ut he gives n o ins ta nc es a nd it would in deed , , ,

ha ve been difficult a t tha t sta ge of geo graphica l

di scovery to dem o ns tr a te a ny s uch univer sal
“
pr in ciples of beha viour Would you s ay.
,

” “
then , s ays S ocra tes that thes e l a ws were
,
” “ ”
enacted by m ank in d ? H ow coul d th a t be ,
“
is the r eply s eein g th a t m a nki n d cou
, l d n ever
ha ve com e all together a n d would not ha ve ,
”
un der s tood each other if they h a d ? Then
whom do you suppose to ha ve en acted these
”
nomoi ? Hippias a dopts the curr ent ety
m ology a nd s ays th a t he thi nk s the god s
,
“
ordained thes e nomoi for m en F or exam ple .
,

284
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIE TY

am Ong all m a nk ind

it is the firs t of O bs erva nces ,

to r ever ence gods S ocra tes a dds a nother

exam ple honour p aid everywhere to p arents
, .

“ ”
B ut wha t is the s anction of thes e unwr itten
la ws ? Hippias suggests the wra th of G od ,
“ ”
which he describes as the grea tes t di ke ,

m a ni fested i n n atura l r etribution ; people wh o

dishonour the god s a nd their pa rents peri sh
m is erably This ra ther ingenuous view does
.

n ot s a tisfy S ocr a tes ; he d oubts eve n whether

there is s uch a thing as a n univers a l di ke a ny ,

m or e tha n a n uni ver s a l nom os of m e n s i n

’

v ention . Much m ore in acc or da nce with exp e ‘

rience is h is s econ d s ugges tion tha t the p en

,

”
a lties for b r ea ch of unwritten l a ws are s ocia l ;
a n ir r eligi o us or unfilia l m a n i s a voided by h is

frien ds This is the prim itive Hom eric doc

.

trine of nem esis p ublic opi ni on reinforcing

, ,

’
a idé s
, a m a n s own s elf r espect a n d good
-

feeli ng This for Socra tes is where the gods

.
, ,

c om e i nto the s tory ; it i s a di v i n e p rovis ion

th a t m en should feel this r es entm en t when ,

cer ta i n a c ts a re com m itted withi n their k en .

Thus the unwritten la w c arries its o w n sa nctio n ,

in a n a utom a tic r eacti on of h um a nity a nd m a n ,

ca nn ot be s upp os ed to ha ve m a de him s elf

beha ve lik e th a t Wh a t m a n h a s done o n
.
,

the other hand i s to dis cover by experience of

,

h is own g od m ad e p r edes ti n ed m ak e-up tha t

,
-
,

2 85
 POLITI CAL ID EAS OF TH E GR EEKS
“
certa in k inds of beha viour do not do a nd
“ ”
will not do This di s co very he form ula tes
.

a s a nomos a s he ascerta i ns the orbit of a pl a net

, ,

by tria l a nd error It is in this sense for

.
,
“
exam ple th a t Heraclitus h a d said I investi
, ,

ga ted m yse a nd th a t the G od in Delphi

“ ”
enj oined every Gr eek to k now thys elf .

B ut it is s till left a m a tter for r es ea rch wha t ,

O b s erva nces are of this f un da m enta l phys ical

k ind b as ed on the p hysis of m en a nd wha t

, ,

a re o nl y seemi ngly s o a n d not univers a l or

,

n ec es sa ry b ut only very wide sp read be ca us e

very gener a lly convenient A Greek for .

,

exam ple h onoured h is fa ther a nd b ore his

,

na m e ; he a l s o b ur n ed his bOdy a fter dea th A .

C a lla tia n In di a n a te h is dea d fa ther ; whether

he honoured h im in life a n d h ow we a re not , ,

infor m ed A Lycia n b ore his m other s n am e

.
’
,
’
not h is fa ther s ; did he dis h o nour hi s fa ther

ther eby a nd if so h o w ? Socra tes hi m s elf in

, , ,

the conversa tion with Hippia s is not yet very ,

fa r beyon d the s ta n dp oi nt of Ar chel a us th at ,

“ ” “ ”
good a nd b a d a r e not qua lities inher ent
in things them s elves b ut ep ithets applied by
,

m a nk i n d to c ert a i n ac ts a n d s itua tio ns a s a

r es ult of thei r o w n exper ie nc es .

TH E PH I L O S O PH Y O F MA NN E R S
It is at this p oint tha t Greek th ought s eems
286
 TH E NO TIO N O F LAW I N SOC I E TY

to undergo a ther sudden conv ersro n

ra .

Hi therto it h ad been p reoccupied with con

tem p la tion of the world a roun d a s a n or derly ,

in telligible whole with hum a nity only less

,

ea sily intelli gible bec a us e its or derliness r ested

on r el a ti ons betwee n m en a n d ever ythi ng el s e ,

in cluding other m en m ore c om p r ehens ive a n d

,

va ried tha n a ny other cr ea tur e enj oyed Now .

,

hum a ni ty its elf l oom ed up between the think er

a nd the r es t of the uni ver s e with the p r evi ous
,

question s H ow do we k n ow a n ything a t a ll
,

a b out either ours elves or the w or ld beyo n d ?

A nd wha t is it tha t p r events b oth o ur k no wl

edge from being a ccur a te a n d com plete a nd ,

our r ea ction to wh a t we k n o w fr om bei ng a s

,

effective in its r esults a s our im agi na tion a nd

will w ould lea d us to expect ?
There were rea s on s enough for this pessi
m i sm . T h e s ixth c entury h a d en ded with a
new p olitica l m o vem en t i n full fl ood to s uper ,

s ede old r es tr ic tio ns a n d i nter m edia te l oy a ltie s ,

a n d t o s et a n em a nc ip a ted i n divid ua l face to

fa ce wi th a disem b a rr a s s ed sta te in the new ,

type of ins titution which its supp orters

“
descr ibed a s a n is on om y equa lity of app ortion
,
” —
m en t , a n d its opp on e nts perhaps som e of
its fr ie nds a l s o— a s dem ocracy
“
con tr ol
, by
”
the countryside o ver war lor d s l a ndlor ds-
, ,

m on ey lor ds a n d a ll m inorities a lik e

-
, The .

287
 POLI TI CAL I DEAS OF THE GR EEKS
‘

fifth century h ad opened with the wonderful

deli verance of Gr eek l a n ds from incorpora tion
in the l arges t a n d m os t efficient ad mi nis trative
m achi ne th a t the wor ld h a d kn o wn the Pers i a n
,

Em pir e This salva tio n h a d in grea t part been

.

wrought by the s ta te which h a d gone furthes t

in the n ew p olitical experim ent ; a nd it was in
confidence th a t this Atheni a n s ta te c ould be

trusted to com plete the work of libera tion in

'

the yea rs foll owi ng the stra tegi cal defea t of the
Persia n forces tha t the s ta tes which h a d m os t
,

to l os e i n cas e of accident or m is beha vi our

, ,

p ut their fortun es deliber a tely in Atheni a n

h a n ds and a nticip a ted the Pl a tonic notion of
,
“
beha viour accor di ng to dike by doing their
,

own b us i n ess an d n ot m eddli ng while the

,

Atheni a n fleet perform ed its p art of the b a r

ga i n a nd k ept Per s ia n forces out of reach of
,

the s eab oar d a nd its Gr eek c ities .

B ut the c entury which h a d begun so h ope

fully ended in gen era l di s a s ter Sm all abuses
.

h a d been a ll owed to becom e the o cc a si on of

gra ve scan da ls ; sm all qua rr els h a d bee n ag g ra
va ted i nto gr eat wa r s ; econom i c r iva lr ies h a d

m a s quer a ded as differ enc es of p olitica l

pri nciple ; a nd p olitical principles defensible ,

in them s elves h a d been applied in pr actice

,

with r esults which woul d h a ve bee n crim i na l

i n p r iva te life a nd wer e app alling in their
,

288
 THE NOTI ON OF LAW IN SOCIETY
enormi ty even to people accus tom ed to r eal
war . I n p a rticul ar gr an ted th a t in phys ics
,

th e one p oun d weight h as n o c l a im or r edr ess

-

a ga i n s t the two p oun d weight i n the other

-

s ca le , did it n ecessarily foll ow tha t the inh ab

ita nts of Mel os h a d no locus s tandi befor e the
tribun a l of hum a ni ty in face of the inh abitants
of Athens ?

Clearly wha t was out of order her e was not

the world in genera l wi th its phys ica l proc
- -
,
“
es s es b ut m an s outl ook a n d a im s en throned
,
’
,

in hi s p oli s wr es ti ng a s ide th e nomoi of the

,
”
earth a nd the oa th fenced di ke of the go ds
,
- .

Wha t was wa nted was wha t Heraclitus h a d

tried to supply a j udgm ent about m anners
, ,
“
a n exac t s teeri ng ch ar t for the es tim a ti on
”
of m a n s life’
B ut it was not from the
.

—
phys icis ts of I oni a not even from their latest
disciple Archel aus— tha t the n ext s tep for
,

wa r d was to com e though their phys ical ,

s tudi es were to bea r fr uit aga in in due season ,

as we sh al l s ee .

PH I LO S O PH I E S O F TH E WE S T ER N
TH E
GR E E K S
Now it was the cla im of the em a ncip ated
,
“
indi vidual a s agains t the a nces tra l custom
, ,

tha t though cus tom r epr es ented fa ir ly enough

“ ”
the wis dom of our fa thers tha t wisdom was ,

2 89
 POLI TI CAL IDE AS OF TH E GREEKS
no longer a trustworthy guide ; p artly beca use
’
o ur fa thers tra n script of wha t was qui te
properly being d on e in the s ixth or s eventh
c entury di d n ot a ppear to accor d with wh at

the fifth c entury thought it k new ab out its

o wn goings on a nd cons equently n ee ded
,

r evi s i on ; p a rtly because the external wor ld

was a m or e sp a ci ous a nd us a ble place th a n it
h a d been in the ear ly d ays of the col oni al
m ovem ent or before them And not only
.

did the worl d of sens e s eem differ ent m ore ,

intelligible and a better guide to hum an

,
“ ”
r efor m ers
, in th e Ioni a n phys ica l s chool ; the
wes tern col onies whi ch h a d contributed s o
,

effec tively to the c odifica tio n of public a nd

pr ivate law in the six th century or earlier by
, ,

their written codes wer e introducing n ew

,

m eth od s of i n quir y b oth in to the p roblem s of

n a tur e a n d in to p oliti cs a nd m or als a nd a
,

n ew s ta n dp oin t a n d outl ook profoun dl y dif

,

fer ent from the Ionia n th ough Pythagoras

, ,

one of the gr ea tes t of thes e wes tern think er s ,

w a s a pp ar en tly of Ioni a n origin a nd th ough

,

the Pyth agor ea n use of a n alogy between

phys ical a nd hum a n affa irs is its elf a spec ial
“
outgr owth of views s om ewh at p oetica lly
”
expr ess ed alr ea dy by An a xim ander Sta tis .

tical r el ati ons between a whole and its p arts ,

or betwee n the differ en t p ar ts of the sam e

290
 THE NO TI O N OF LAW IN SOCIETY
whole c a n obvio us ly be pushed m uch further
,

when they a re m a them a tica lly expr ess ed tha n

when they a re in physica l ter m s a s with A n axi,

m a n der or bi ol og ica l as with Archel a us a nd

, ,

Socra tes if o nly beca use exper im ental v erifi

,

c a ti on oi a m a them a ti ca l a rgum ent s eem ed

n either p ra cti ca ble nor neces s a ry The P yth a

.

g orea n expl a n a tion of j us tice a s in som e s ens e

“ ”
a s quar e number or a p r operty of s uch a
,

n um ber bega n by being a r efi n em ent o n the

,

p r -
e H om e r i c n o ti o n o f r et a li a t or y r ep ara tion
for a b nor m a l beha vi our ; it en d ed as a phil os oph
ical sa nction either for dem ocra cy beca us e a s
, ,
“ ”
a num ber is s qua r e so long a s its p art s

r em ai n equal so a s ta te was inferr ed t o be

,
“ ”
in a ccor da nce with di ke if its p arts (n a m ely ,

its citizen s a nd their functions ) were equa l ;

or el s e for a ri s tocr acy a nd a s pec ia lized hie

r arch y of abil ities a n d functi on s if we a rgue

,

with Pla to tha t j ustice is a pri nciple of a dj ust

m en t , b ut ta k e differ ences of a bili ty a nd
“
tra ining into account in as signi ng to each h is
”
due ; or if we g o further a nd tak e a cc ount
, ,

with Ar is totle “ of differe nc es of m otive in

,
“ ”
corr ective j ustice as well as of persona l
“
qua lity in distributive .

I n its na tive Wes t thi s k i nd of reas oni ng

,

s eem s to h a ve h ad tem p or ar y vogue as the

29 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
’
br ow p oliticia ns fir s t in Pythagoras own
,

a d opted c ity C rot on la ter i n Ta r entum wher e

, , ,

Ar chyt as m a n aged to persua de hi s fell ow

c itizens th a t h is exc eption a l m erits entitled
h im to hold O ffi ce s even tim es as often a s
a nces tr a l cus tom a ll o wed The s am e happen ed
.

a ls o in Thebes wher e
, the city began to
flourish as s oo n as the rulers beca m e p hiloso
” 36
p h ers $ a nd it w as the contem p orar y fac t of
“ ”
philos opher ki ngdom s of this k in d tha t ex
-

’
pl a ins the r em edy prop os ed i n Pla to s Rep ubli c
for contem p or a ry p olitical di sor ders a nd a l so ,

the s chem e of refor m pr ojected by him for

Syr acus e un der encouragem ent from its tyr a nt
, ,

Dionysius whos e esti m a te of hi s own m erits as

,

a r uler w as as s eventy ti m es s even .

B ut thes e wes tern s ch ool s h ad a larger

im p or ta nce indir ectly tha n in thes e occa siona l
experim ents in professoria l a d m inis tra tion .

A nd the r eason for this is easil y s een A s the .

would b e libera ted in dividua l la unched o ut

- -

into his ca m pa ign ag a in s t a nces tra l cus tom s ,

he found him self very s oon i n the deep wa ters

“
of his ow n ig nor a n ce b oth of the way things
”
r ea lly h appen a nd of everyt hi ng el s e except ,

the cla s s ica l educa tion through Hom er Hes iod

, , ,

a n d other ea r ly p oets which wa s th e only

,

tr a ining a va ilable Then in the la tter half

.
,

of the fifth century the dem and for som ething

,

2 92
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIE TY
m ore efficient in the la w cour t in the a ss em bly
, , ,

a nd in b us i ness ra ther s udden ly cr ea ted the

, _

“
s upply of s tudents a nd teachers of hum ani
”
ties of va rious k inds ; from gra m m ar and com
p osition to na tur a l s cien ce m orals p olitics
, , , .

Most im p orta nt of all a ttention was dir ected

,

to a p r evi ous ques ti on with out s om e a ns wer

,

to which it wa s difficult to see h ow a ny other

problem could be approached with a ny hope
of a sol ution n am ely H ow do we k n o w a ny
, ,

thing a t a ll? W h a t is the n a tur e of truth ?

A nd h ow ca n the tr uth of a ny s ta tem ent or
c oncl us ion a b out a nythi ng be a s certa in ed or ,

dem ons tr a ted to others ?

With the answer to thes e ques tions whi ch ,

are p r oblem s n ot of p oliti cs b ut of l ogi c a n d

p sychol ogy we are not here con cerned n or

, ,

even dir ec tly with the m or e nearly a llied

questions a s to the n a ture of goodness a nd
bea uty inevi ta bly r a is ed by the Athenia n
,

cla im in the gen er a tion of Per icles a nd Phid ias

,

a nd S oph oc les t o h a ve di s cover ed the s ecr et of

,

b oth ; a nd by counter cl a im s of Pel op onn esia n

,

a rtis ts i n their m a s terpieces a nd of Sp a r t a n

,

s ta tes m en i n p oliti ca l life tha t Atheni a n a rt

,

w as not the l a s t w or d on the r ea liz a ti on of

“ ”
beauty nor the gilded cage of the Athenia n
,
“ ”
Em pire the l as t s tag e towa r d s elf s ufficiency -

“ ”
and equality for Gr eek s ta tes It needs .

293
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
hardly to be noted too th a t the coll ap se of
, ,

the Atheni a n super s ta te s o clos ely foll owed

-
,

by the failur e of Sp arta either to repla ce tha t

r egim e by a better or to guar a ntee t o h er
,
“
neighb ours the freedom for which m a ny of
them h a d been fighting thr ough out left a la rge ,

num ber of c ity s ta tes in a p os ition of p r ec a

-

r ious i ndepen dence for whi ch their l ong tute

l age a nd l a ck of r esp on s ibility for large decisions

h a d s er i ous ly unfitted them Wh a t wonder
.
,

then if ther e was a widesprea d inter es t i n a ny

,

fr esh m eth od tha t m ight be sugges ted for ,

increasing the ca p acity of the or din ary m a n

“ ” “
for a cting i n accor d a nce with tha t r ea l
”
way of beh a viour a b out which everyone w a s
talk ing b ut a b out which m os t people s eem ed
,

to k now s o little ; while s om e of th ose wh o

ta lk ed l oudes t or m os t fluently wer e m os t
ea s ily up set by a pers on lik e Socra tes wh o ,

only pr ofess ed to k n ow n othin g a t a ll b ut s o ,

obvi ous ly k new at lea s t h o w to r ed uce o ther

people to the sam e s ta te a s him s elf .

Am ong the exc esses of the Sophistic m o ve

m en t then a n d a l on gside of the n ew birth of
, ,

l ogically c ogen t r ea so ni ng on a ll subjects a lik e ,

wha t is s ignifica nt in the p olitica l thought of

Gr eece in the la te fifth a n d early fourth
c en tur ies i s the gen er al de s ir e of the or dina ry
,

citizen t o bec om e better equipped b oth to form

294
 T HE NOTION O F L AW I N SOCIETY
o pi ni ons of h is own a nd to criticis e opini on s
pres ented to h im o n m a tters of a dm ini stra
tion a nd conduct a lik e This was quite com
.

p a tible with a n i ncr easi ng willingness to hand

o ver the r esp o ns ible b us i nes s o f a dm i ni s tr a

tion to the m a n wh o r ea lly k n ew ; in warfa re

to the profes si on a l s oldier in la w a n d m edic in e
,

t o the tra i ned p ra ctiti on er i n p olitics to m or e

,

“
o r less s elf tra i ned a n d s elf a dverti s ed
-
p ublic
-

” “ ”
m en , or, m or e a ccura tely pla tform m en
, ,

for the pl a tfor m w a s too often their o nly sur e

groun d in public life a n d the s cene of the
,

h abitual a n d rapid disillusi onm en t of a ll con

c er ned . Yet the in stin ct wa s s oun d a nd the ,

a ttem pts tha t were m a de to p r ovide this

p olitical cr afts m a n ship wer e soun d a ls o i nso ,
“ ”
far a s they wer e h o nes t a s m a n y S ophis ts
,

s eem t o h a ve been , accor di n g to their lights .

The com m on a rgum ent fr om the specia l a rts

to the s upr em e a rt of p oliti ca l lea dership wa s
soun d a l so . It m ay be th a t in grea t cr is es
“
p olitics often dem a n d ins ti nct r a ther tha n
”
s c ien tific W i s d om fr om the p oliti ci a n ; b ut is
this not so a l s o in w ar a nd m usic a n d in the
, ,

p r actice of la w a nd m edicine ? O r r a ther , ,

s uch p olitica l i n sti n ct is s om ethi ng s uper a dded

t o the tra i ni ng a nd exper ience which is p r e

s um ed as a m a tter of cour s e in the lea di ng m en

of every other p r ofes s i o n .

29 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREE KS
TH E
IN T E R PR E TA T I O N O F L A W
Clearly wha t was needed wa s not so m uch a
“
fresh review a n d r e form ula tion of the wa y
-

”
things h appen in physics or in politics g en
er a lly a s a cl os er control by Wh a t was r e ason
,

a ble a nd cons i s te n t with thi s in the m ak e up,

-

of the i n divid ua l citizen over the des ir es a n d

,

im puls es which he experienced in a world so

full of opp ortuni ties a nd n ow so s tripped of
,

s afeguar d s a n d r es tr a i n ts s uch as h a d p r o

tected his for e fa ther s within their k inship

-

gr oup a nd tightly orga nized p oli s E sch ylus .

,

whos e m em ory could g o b a ck to days before

the wor st estr a ngem ent h a d happen ed between
Pers ia n a n d Gr eek h a d sk etch ed a dua list
, ,

a lm os t Z or o a s tr i a n , s ol uti on of the p r oblem

of evil with the Olym pia n go ds clean cut as

, ,
-

in bro nze or m a rble on m a n s better h a n d to

’
, ,

give h im their help if he would accept it b ut ,

with a sh apeles s m on strous forc e on his o ther

,

ha n d a n ate exter n a l to h im lik e the gods to

, , ,

be a dm i tted or excluded a t h is own fr ee will

, ,

fr om h is inn er couns el s At m os t he a ttr ibutes

.

t o h is own city go ddes s Athen a — lik e a Hebr ew

prophet exem pting Jeh ovah from h is co n
“ —
f
dem nation o the gods o the a ti f n o ns an

initiative in the w ar between Olym pia ns a n d

a te r einf or ci ng hum a n r e ason i n the s ea r ch
,

“ ”
for a why which sh a ll lea d m a n clear of all
296
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
th a t Sophocles for W h om the grea t s tr uggle
.
,

between the old ca n on la w of Athena s trib una l

’

s ea ted un der the open s k y o n the Ar eop a gus

r ock a nd the new c ivil l a wyer s of the p os t w a r

,
-

gener a tion wa s b ut a m em ory of h is b oyhoo d

, ,

a dva nces to the concepti o n of a confl i c t o f

l a ws ; etern al oath—
“ ”
fenc ed dike of the god s “ ”

’
fac ing m a n s extem p orized expedients so fa r ,
“ ”
from unforgetful tha t they n eglect the
grea ter m a tters o n which the co her ence of
society its elf depen d s : a n d the d ark for m less

a te tur ns out t o be the s h a d o w c a s t by m a n s

’

o wn op a c ity to light With the groun d th us

.

“ ”
c lea r ed of the Z oro as tri a n a dvers a r y ,E urip
ides h a d little difficulty in disp os ing of the
—
tra ditiona l Olym pia n s ta tua ry gr a cio us a n d
cheer i ng th ough it w a s
'
— which c um ber ed the

for ecourt of the Hous e of Rea so n a nd refor

,
“ ”
m ul a t ed tha t which is divi n e a s a n a spect
“ ”
of tha t which is i n a ccor d with n om os ; a nd
in the Pl atonic p sych ol ogy the whole confl ict
of forc es i s tr a n s ferr ed within the wa lls of the

c ity of M a n S ou
“ ”
-
l , the counterp art of the
faction r idden p olis of the fourth century
-
.

Principles of con duct in deed a re a ssum ed to

, ,

“ ”
exist a n ultim a te Idea of the Goo d
, lik e
,
“
thos e l aws of the Gr eek s a ccor ding to which
even the idea l s ta te wil l s till m ak e war on
enem ies ; b ut there is o nc e a ga in the pr evious
297
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
question fir st h ow m an ca n k n ow wha t tha t
, ,

goodnes s is ; a nd then h ow even if he k nows ,

it he ca n bring the r es t of him self into the

,
“ ”
way of beh a viour which lea ds ther eto It .

is the counterp art a n d i n great m easur e the

,

expla na tio n of th t l a k
, a c o f —
in itia tive a nd
s ti ll m or e of willi n g r esp on s e to r eason a ble
,

ini tia tive —in the p olitica l world which h a d ,

been p ara lys ing everything fro m the dea th of

Pericles to the a cces s io n of Philip of Maced o n .

“
PH YS I C S A NDMA NN E R S R E C O N C I L E D
’
I N AR I S T O T L E S TE A C H I N G

Only by way of r eaction from extra vaga nc es

“ ”
b oth of the phil osophy of m a nn er s a n d the
“ ”
western phil os ophy of a b s tra ction s do es the
Io nia n co nception of n omos a s the for m ula tion
of p hysi s com e o n c e a ga i n i n to vi ew in the ,

phys ica l phil os ophy of Ari stotle a n d n o less ,

i n its m ora l a nd p oliti ca l counterp art ; a n d

“ ”
ther ewith the s a m e k in eti c con ception of
“ ” “ ”
h
p y s i s a s ch a n ge r a the r th a n ei ther origin
“ ” “ ”
or s ub s tr a tum F or in the phys ica l p hi
.

losop h y of Ar istotle the p r ovi nce o f phys ics is

“
existenc e not in its elf b ut ra ther i n sofar
, , ,
”
as it p articip a tes in ch a nge ; a n d th e wor d
“ ” “ ”—
us ed for this ch a nge or m o vem en t or
“ ”
perh ap s m ore a ccura tely s till this proc ess
, ,
“
is exp la ined a s incl uding a ll k in d s of p r oc
298
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN S O C IE TY
ess es ch a n ges of a m oun t a nd a ltera tions of ,

qua lity as well as m otions i n sp ace In deed

, .
,

it m ight give the c los est r en dering of a ll to

“
descr ibe the s ubject of phys ics a s exis ten ce
”
p articip a tin g in p r oc esses The s tudent of.

p hy s i s h a s t o be c om e a cqua inted with it not ,

only in r espec t o f the m a te r ia l i n whi ch thes e

proc ess es are m a n ifes ted b ut of the conception ,

“ ” “ ”
of pr oc ess or p r ocedur e its elf ; a n d s eeing
87

tha t every p roc es s initia tes som ehow s om e ,

when a nd som ewher e a nd by a chievem en t

, ,

gives pla ce to s om e fur ther pr oces s i n the s am e

m a ter ia l the phys ic is t h as to be a c qua i n ted
,

with all a spects of ca us a tion 88

He is m or e .
,

over , s peci a lly qua lified by thi s va r ied exp e

rience of p r oces s es in r el a ti on to o n e a n other ,

a nd of m a ter i a l s un dergo i n g p r oces s es a n d p a r

“ ”
ticip a ting in them to form ula te hyp othes es
,

or for m u l a tions of the p roc ed ur e —the w ay

things ha ppen— im plicit in this or tha t proc ess ,
“
which as Aris totle p uts it
, s tr i ng together ,
”
for the m os t p a rt the fac ts of ob s er va tion ,
’
on the conn ectin g thr e a d of the phy s icis t s

interp r eta tion 89

This h abit of m in d he is
.
,

m or eo ver a t p a in s to con tr a s t with th a t of the

,
“
logician s wh o fr om their m a ny expla na tions
, ,

logoi are without p r a ctice i n ob s er ving wha t

,

a c tua lly goes on a n d bec a us e they r ega r d too

,

few of the facts com e m or e ea sily to a n expl ana

,

299
 POLITI C AL IDEAS OF TH E GREEKS
tion thei r explanation s a n d their form ulae ,
“ ”
h owever a re not with out forgetful n ess of
,

a ll th a t is r eleva n t a nd
, cons equently run

the r isk of n ot being true .

“
All thin gs exist i n p hysi s which appea r
to h a ve i n them s elves a n initia tive [a r khe]
of p roc ess e s a n d a rr es t of pr oces s es — m ove
m en ts growth a n d dec a y a n d a ll for m s of
, ,

” 9°
a ltera tion . Such p hysi s is contra sted with
hum a n sk ill to m ak e things m ove or incr eas e ,
“
or di m i n i s h or exhibit ch a nges
, in tha t sk ill ,

is i nitia tive i n a nother ; p hysi s initia tive in ,

” 91
the thing its elf for m a n begets m a n
, or a s , ,

— “
Topsy s till m or e pr ecisely expr ess es it I
“
spec t I g rowed Such things in their
’
.

r o wi n g — t o r eve rt t o our e a r lier ren dering

g
of the G r eek ph r a s e fr om som e in itia tive in
‘

them selves continuously exhibiting s om e p r oc

,
”
es s, r ea ch s om e a ch i evem en t telos in c on
, ,

trast with things which h appen by c oincidence ,

“
which are r es ults of ch a nce S o when this or .

”—
occurs a lwa y s or us ual ly a nd in phys ics it
“
i s in this s en s e a lway s if nothing s ta nd s
“
in the way— it is not coincidence n or by
“
ch a nc e a nd a s a n ill us tra ti on of the k in d of
”
life which (in a nother pa s sage) he describes
the phys icis t as obs er ving a ll the life which
‘

“
only c oexi s ts with m a tter — h e r efer s t o a
”
m a n d oc tor ing him s elf for p hys i s is l ik e tha t
, ,

3 00
 THE NO T I O N OF LAW IN SOCIETY
“
in the s en se tha t i n s uch a process we a re
l uck y en ough to be i n a p os ition to fin d out
from the initia tor him s elf wha t it is tha t ,

ini tia tes the whole tra in of pr oc ess es between

the sta rt a nd the fini sh of the cur e S o too if we .
,

cou l d only s ee the other s ide of th e shield or ,

get behin d the ta pestry of n a ture s wea ving ’

we should see he think s j us t a s com plete a

, ,

s equence n ot of effec t on ca us e onl y b ut of

, ,

c a us e on m otive i n the litera l s ens e i n which

,
“ ”
a m otive is a n i ni tia tory ar khe It is in this .

s ens e tha t A ri s t otle a ll o ws hi m s elf to sa y th at

“ ” “ ”
p hysi s in ten d s or wa n ts t o pr od uce cer
ta in r esul ts ; a n d this in a p olitica l context 92

“ ”
as to th e inten ded phys ica l s uperior ity of
free m en over sl a ves though he a dm its that
“

we som etim es fin d the opp os ite A nd s im i .

,

larly he r ega r ds a ll p roc ess es hum a n a nd

, ,

“ ”
s oci a l a s well a s phy s ic a l a s initia ted in this
,

s en s e th a t the telos or achievem ent is corre

, , ,

la ted with som e a rkhé a t the ini tia tive en d of

f

“
the growth proc ess -
S o ever y p olis exis ts
.

in a p hysi s a t a ll events if the first as s ocia tions

,

did s o for it is the telos of them ; a nd their

,

p hys i s is a telos F or wha t ea ch thing is when

.

its com ing into exi s te nc e h as been achieved

(h a s reached its telos ) this we s ay is the p hys is
of each —
thing m an hors e household for , , ,
” 93
exam p le .

30 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Wha t the s tudent of p hys is then h as to do , ,

is to p rop oun d a r kh a i ; to expr es s th a t is i n , ,

l anguage the various k i nds of ini tiatives which

res ult in p r oces s es a nd lea d t o a chievem en ts
“ ”
or r es ults i n the w orld a b out us
94
Th e or der .

“ ”
or s y s tem which em erges look s as he graph ,

ically puts it lik e the orga niz a tio n of a n a rm y

, ,

n either wh olly inher en t in the m a ter i a l in whic h

“ ”
s uch order is exhibited n or wholly im p os ed ,

from without ; in a n ar m y there is dis cipline ,

a c erta in r el a ti on between m a n a nd m a n a nd ,

between them a ll a nd the telos which is success ,

in war ; b ut ther e is a l s o the fa ct of the com

“ ”
m a nder a n d th a t is a n i ni ti a tive a nd a livin g
,

force m a nifest in this m a ter ia l a nd not other

wis e .
95
A n d Ar is totle goes s o far a s to g ive .

the grea ter i nitia tive in this ins ta nce a t lea s t

, ,
“
to the pers on a l liv i ng forc e ; for he does n ot
exis t beca use of the system b ut tha t sys tem ,

beca us e of h im With a nother gen era l tha t

.
,

is the a rm y would be differ en tly arra nged ; it

,

would in deed be a different arm y

, , .

’
The ca utious description of the phys ic is t s
genera lis a tions a s link ing up his ob ser vations
“ ”
to a grea t exten t is fur ther expla ined by the
discussion of m ons trosities biol ogical a nd other , .

“
F or p hysis lik e G od (wh o is the gen er
, of
“ ”
ar m y)
’
na tu re s m ak es nothing us eless ly
, ,
“
and alwa ys m ak es of wh a t is p oss ible the
, ,

302
 ‘

TH E NOTI ON or L A W I N SO CIE TY
” 96
bes t . Yet ther e a re exceptio ns which need ,
“
to be expl a in ed The m on s tr os ity teras is , ,

o n e of the thi ngs bey on d [ outs ide] the way

things grow p hysi s b ut n ot beyon d [outside]
, ,

a ll p hys is b ut tha t which m ostly

,

a nd it onl y oc cu rs when the p r oces s of gr owth - -

,

h
p y s i s n a c
,co r d a n c e with the p a r ti c ul a r k i n d ,

eidos d o es n ot d om i n a te th a t accor di ng to the

,
” “
m a teria l This a ttrib uti on of a n im pish ki nd
.

of li fe not exhibited ex cept in the m a ter ia l ,

though we ha ve a lr ea dy encountered som e

thi ng oi the kind as the proper s tudy of the
phys icis t is s o little in accor d wi th the m or e
,
“ ”
nor m a l r ep res ent a tion of the m a ter ia l in
Ar istotle s p h iloSop h y a s to l ook a s if in
’
,

desp a ir he wer e ha ving r ecour s e to a n alm ost

Z oroa stria n dualis m with a per vers e force ,

counter work i ng a ga i ns t the or der ly i niti a tive

-

“ ”
which m ak es things grow as they m os tly
do . Sp on ta n eous varia tion fr om one eidos
to a n other of which he gives r ep uted exa m ples
,

am ong pl a nt s a nd b or der lin e form s of life

97 -
, ,

lik e s om e sea creatur es which m ight be either

-

pla nt or a nim a l 98
ill ustra te a n evolutionary
,
“ ”
as pect of the proc ess whi ch is p hysi s : it
“
p ass es conti nuously from the lifeless to the
a nim a l s thr ough thi ngs which ar e alive b ut not

a nim al s a nd lead s to the

99
s uch as sp onges ;
,

conclus ion th at between a nim a l s a nd m an too , ,

303
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF TH E GR E EKS
’
ther e is gra da ti on : a n a nim a l s function is not
only to perpetuate its k i n d b ut to k now som e
“
thing a b out its surroun dings for they ha ve ,

perception a nd perception is k nowledge of a

,

Of habitua l ways of beha vi our there

“ ”
a re traces a lr ea dy in a ll a ni m al s m ore ,

clearly in th os e which h a ve wh a t he c a ll s

ethos — a tem per a m en t s u sceptible to tr a i ni ng

— a nd most of a ll in m an ; “for this [hum a n
, ,
” 101
ethos ] h as p hysi s b r ought to full a chievem ent .

C urrent di sputes he a dds about the hom o

, ,

g eneity of all life or th e s ignifica nce of the

differ enc es which som e h a d detec ted W ithin
its wh ole range ar e as i n con cl us ive as they a re
, ,

bec a use the disputa nts s eem to have confined

their obs ervation s to hum a nity a n d neglec ted ,

the form s in which the process of growi ng h as

n ot gon e so far .

F or two r ea so ns it h as bee n n ec es s ary to

“ ”
descr ibe in s om e deta il the phys ical p h iloso
phy of Ar istotle The fir s t is th a t it is the
.

b a ck groun d a n d pres um ed subs tr uctur e of h is

m ora l a nd p olitic al philos ophy a nd des er ves
gr ea ter a ttention tha n is com m onl y p aid to it
by interpr eters of thes e other parts of h is
s y s tem . A nd s econ dly it is this s ide of
, ,
’
Aristotle s teaching tha t is m ost clear ly app re
“
cia te d as a r econcilia ti on of the philosophy of
” “
beha viour with the Ionia n phil osophy of
304
 T HE NOTI ON OF LAW IN SOCIETY

gr owth proc ess es

-
H is exam in a tion of h um a n
.

c on duct begin s with a form ula tion of the

p opul ar notion of well being in term s which -

are pur ely biologica l M a n lik e a ll other

.
,

beings h a s a specifi c functio n as well a s the

, ,

gen er ic a nim a l function of m a inta ini ng a n d

perpetua ting a p ar ticul ar k i n d of p hysis this
spec ifica lly h um a n function is the m a in te
n a n c e a n d perpet ua ti on of a p a r ticul a r k i n d ,

com plexity a nd
, in ten sity of perception s
, ,

des ir es in telligenc e in a growth pro ces s— a

, ,
-

hum an lifetim e— which a chi eves utm os t

efficiency by r easo n a ble co O per a tion of a ll -

thes e m a nifes ta tions of the k i n d of life i n a - -

m a teri al which a hum a n being is

, It p resum es .

n ot on ly nor m al s urroun ding s — a n d by norm a l

a re m ea n t the phy s ica l con ditions of G r eek

l a n ds such as we ha ve a lr ea dy s een them to

,

—
b e b ut a lso norm a l neighb ours a nd a ssocia tes ,

on whom to p ractis e cons ider a tion b enev o ,

lence a nd in its fulles t a n d highes t aspect tha t

,
“ ”
frien dship with out which a n ea rthly p ara
’
dis e were b ut a C rus oe s Isl a n d A n d it r ecurs .

to the biol ogi cal m o de of p r es en ta tion a t the

highest p oin t wher e cla sh between r ation a l
,

genera lity a nd im pis h p articul ar is m m ight

“
s eem to be leas t liable to r ecu r ; for this i s the
p hysi s of the r eason able m a n a re es ta bli sh
-
,

m ent of nomos wher e it fa ll s sh ort by r ea s on

,

3 05
 POLITI CAL I DE AS OF T HE GR EE KS
” 1 02
of its gen era lity Even o n the hum a n
.

pla ne growth proc ess es can only be form ul a ted

,
-

with what m ight be j ustly descr ibed as a b io

“ ”
logical degr ee oi acc ur a cy Mons ters tha t
.
,

is a re stil l lia ble to occur wher e by som e fr eak

, ,
“
of ch a nce the gr owth a ccording to the type
does not k eep its hold on th a t accor di ng to the
“
m a ter i al .M en are m ostly hum a n e a nd
”

r ea son able b ut n ot quite al wa y s ; a few m en

,

s eem ,to our un a ided k nowledge to h a ve bee n ,

“ ’ “
m a de in va i n the idiot with a way of
”
think ing of hi s own is as little a m enable to
“
nor m a l tr ea tm e nt as the gen ius wh os e way of
”
think ing is a lso pec uliar to him s elf s o tha t ,

he tak es into account thi ngs whi ch we others

“ ”
ha ve left out a nd so sees true
, O n s uch .

occa s ions a nd in f a ce of s uch a nom a lies the ,

rigid a cc ur a cy of a gen era l form ula or nom os

n ec es sar ily lea ves out of acc ou n t the ver y facts

which are of the es senc e of the pr oblem ; a nd

to ta k e thes e i nto accoun t a nd devi s e a new ,

form ula which will expr es s them in their tr ue

r ela tion to the o ther fa cts in the cas e is the ,
“ ” “
p hysi s of the r ea son a ble m a n ; a r ees ta blish
” “ ”
m ent of nomos by setting s tra ight this
p articul ar dis turb an ce of it .

A nd it is n ot wholly a ccidenta l tha t thi s

“ ”
r ecu rr ence tobio logica l phys ic a l termi n ology
,

foll ows clos ely on a discus s ion of the m ea ning

3 06
 T HE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
of the p opul ar wor d di kaion which str ictly ,
“
a nd or igi n a lly m ea n t i n a cc orda nc e with a
” “ ”
di ke . The Pytha gor ea n or l ogica l s chool
of a b s tr a c t d ogm a tic s pec ul a tio n h a d s t a r ted

quite r ea s onably with tha t p rim itive c us to m

of r et a l i a t io n a s o ff er in g the typica l form ula for

the res tor a tio n of o utra ged or der . Whether

their s ource w as B a bylo ni a n C onfuc ia n o r the
, ,

m or e ac c es s ible i us gen ti um of Ita li a n pea s a n try

“ ”— ’
in a s ta te of n a tur e lik e Mo ntes quieu s
“ ” ’ “
Iro quois a nd Hur o n or Rous s ea u s C a rib
,
” —
o n the b a nk s of the O r i n oco do es not con cer n
us her e . Wha t is im p or ta nt is tha t this n otion
of p hysi s i s m a them a tic a lly a b s tr a c t : theft or
“ ”
da m age to th e a m oun t of 2 dem a n d s p re
“ ”
c isely 2 of r eta li a ti o n ,a n d s o forth B ut .
,

a s Ar i s totle h a s n o difficulty in s h o wi ng
1 03
,

s uch a b s tr a c t j us ti ce b r ea k s d own when a pplied

“
to the f a c ts of da ily life n either i n
'

di s trib u
” “
tive nor i n cor r ec tive procedure will r e
” “
ta lia tion o r r ecip r ocity r e establish or der-
.

When we a re m ea s ur ing com m odities a nd c a n

obta i n a gr eem en t a s t o a ra tio of exch a nge

between them r ec ip r ocity is the founda tion of

,
“
c ivil so ci ety , for by do ing in r etur n wh a t i s
”
p rop or tiona te the p olis h old s together B ut
.

i n m a tter s of con duc t not of p ro duc e P yth a

, ,

g orea n r eta li a tio n b r ings us b a ck a b ruptly to

“
the Hom er ic Tri al Scen e : The one sa id that
30 7
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
he p a id in full ; the other th at he wa s not ,

tak ing a ny ; the la w w as c lea r a n d the facts ; ,

yet decis ion tarr ied a nd tw o ta len ts lay there

,
“
for the m a n wh o a l o n g with the i nterp r eter s
of the la w sh ould so for m ul a te the is sues as to
“ ” “
s tr a ighten things o ut A n d this is the
.

p ro c ed ur e o f the r ea so n a ble m a n to re es ta b ,
-

lish the rule where it fa ll s sh ort through its

,
”
gener a li ty .

TH E GR E E K NO T I O N OF LAW IN RO MAN
JU R I S P R U D E N C E
In the m i n d of the Gr eek m an in the - -

” —
s tr ee t , then n o less th a n in tha t o f the p ro
fes sio n a l c itizen j us tic e in the cour ts a nd of
-
,

the phil osopher wh o s o nearly r isk ed defa ult

“
in h is duties a s a c itizen a t a ll j us tice ,
“ ” “
equity , s elf r e spect
-
p ublic opini on
, ,

a n d wh a tever other a spect or p r oce d u r e es ta b

lish ed n orm a l r el a ti on s betwee n m a n a nd m a n ,

o r r e— es tablished them a fter infringem en t w as ,

a n a ttem pt on the p ar t of h um a n r eas on a n d

in telligen ce to wr es t fr om the surrounding

“
world its s ec ret of h ow thin gs r ea lly ha ppen
, ,
“ ”
a s a H om er ic k i n g wrested from the m i nd o f
“ ”
Zeus h is or din a n ces for the g uida nce of m en
to fulfil m en t of h is will a nd plea s ur e-
I n this
- .

“ ” ”
s ens e, p olitics a nd m ora l s a re no m ore
and no les s th an t w o ch a pters in the same code ,

308
 TH E NOTI ON OF LAW IN SOCIETY
“
two ta bles of the sam e la w form ul a ting , ,

a nd ever r eform ul a tin g the on e a m an s duty

’
,

towa rd his n eighbour a nd towar d his neigh

,

b our s collectively in a city s ta te ; the o ther -

“
W h a t we ca n bes t i nterp ret a s h is duty towa rd
him se
It is rem ark able a n d con cl us ive evidence of
the contrib ution of Gr eek thought to Rom a n
law tha t the defi nition or ra ther group of , ,

accepted des c riptio ns of la w i n its es s e ntia l

features pr efixed to Jus tini a n s D i ges t differs

,
1 04 ’
,

only in a s i ngle wor d— the s ub s titution of the

“ ” “
Chris tia n G od for the Olym pi a n gods
from the text o f a well k nown p a ss a ge in -

’
Dem os thenes speech i n the c a se of A ristog eito n .

“
This is la w to which it is p roper tha t a ll m en
,
”—
sh ould conf orm for m any r ea son s
, a n d we

n ote a t the outs et as i n so m a n y o ther co n

,

nexions th a t the r el a tion between the Greek

,

a nd th at la w whic h was h is k i ng w a s not th a t

of m a s ter a n d s er van t b ut of teacher a n d

,

pupil Then fo llow the r easons which a re

.
,
“
essen ti a lly four : chiefly bec ause every nomos
[rule of la w] is a discovery a nd gift of G od [or
a n O pi n ion of s e nsible m en a r es tit u ,

tion of things don e a m iss voluntary a nd inv ol ,

untary a n d a genera l com p act of a p olis i n

,

a cc or d a nc e with which it i s p roper for a ll i n

tha t p olis to live E ach of thes e aspec ts of

309
 POLITI CAL I DE AS OF TH E GREE KS
law des erves s ep ara te exam in ation in the light
of conclu s ions a l r ea dy ten ta tively r eac hed .

“
Firs t in law as i nven tion and gift of gods , we
,

edia te p r o totype of thos e

“ ”
gods , the Pla toni c spirits dai m ones , specia l
,

provi dences giving to all ki n ds of beings i n

their r espective en vir onm en ts a ll thi ng s need
“
ful to norm al s elf-s ufficient m a i ntena nce in
”
a ccor da nce wi th the w ay things gr o w ; un der

s uper vis ion of Nem esis , in disputable beca us e

in a ccor d a nce with a ll the fac ts a nd leavi ng
,

nothi ng out of account ; a n d behi n d thi s l oom s

“
up the Hero dotea n notion of gods a s th os e
'

wh o s et all in or der a nd held all feeding

groun ds . No less we r ecognis e the opera tion
of s up r em e and unfetter ed in tell igenc e in ves ,
“ ”
tig a ti ng a na lys ing the way things g r o w
, a nd
,

litera lly discoveri ng its pr ocess es a nd their ,

irrefutable beca us e all com prehen ding coher

-

ence This divi ne code if we m ay s o describe

.
,

the com plete r esult of this divi n e ob s er va tion

a nd a n a ly s i s,being its elf the a ll-wise for m u
latio n of wh at a ctua lly ha ppens is al so the all
,
“ ”
b eneficent will of Zeus . beca us e Zeus h im
s elf d oe s not ,will not (for he k nows all a nd
—
k nowledge is goodness ) , a n d to con tem pla te
m om en ta rily wh a t is a lm os t un think abl e
ca nnot overr ide th a t Nec ess ity which is the

r ealis ati on of thi ngs a s they h a ve com e to be,

3 10
 TH E NOTION OF LAw IN SOCIETY
“
beca us e so It is the gift of go ds
they were .

to m en beca us e now as of old m en can if they

, , , ,
“ ”
will extort the wi ll of Zeus a n d expres s it in
,

their own words ; a nd every s uch form ul ation

of wh a t r ea lly h appens i s a n omos proper for ,

m en to ob s er ve All hum a n nom oi tha t is

.
, ,
“ ” “
are nurtur ed as Her ac litus s a id
, by o ne ,
”
n omos ; the div i n e ; from this they d erive their

ini tia tive their dri v ing p ower ; in politics as

, ,
“
in phys ics speaki ng with i ntelligence
, it is ,

for our good to fortify ours elves in tha t which is

”— — “
com m on in a ll the genera l form ula as a

p oli s fort ifies its elf i n its n om os a nd f ar m or e ,

”
fir m ly .

Secondly law is a n op i nion of s ens i ble men

, .

“
They too lik e p oets a nd m ins trels are n ur
, , ,
”
tured by one n om os which i s div i ne ; for the
m us icia n h as h is nom oi with their own canon s .

“ ”
A nd their opini on h as val ue in two sens es , .

Isocr a tes exp r ess ed b oth when com m ending ,

“
to the court a m ong l a ws the m ost a n cient ,
”
(origin al ) am ong a r gum ents the m os t r ecent
, .

“ ”
The m ost origin a l a m ong general r ules he
com m e nds bec a us e the s e h a ve st oo d the tes t

of m or e va r ied applic a ti on a nd h ave m or e , ,

“ ”
over , or igi n a ted m ore p roc ess es of r es titu
tion exercis ed wider influence a nd acquir ed
, ,

higher es teem F or it is n ot their ag e ven er

.
—

able tho ugh they were — tha t counted but ,

31 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
their effi ciency O n the other h a nd am ong
.
1 05
,

the applications of general rules in argum ent ,

a nd confere nce to fr es h circum s ta nces as they

,
“ ”
ar is e he com m en ds the freshest beca us e thes e
a re the pi oneers of ou r experience of the unex
“ ”
ha nsted m ea ni ng of th ose or igina tive phras es .

It was the soun d a dvice of a well k nown E ng lish -

“
couns el t o hi s j uni or s to look up that new
cas e
’
— the m os t r ecent em b odim ent of old
principle in pr a ctica l guida nce A nd this m or e .

“ “
especia lly is tha t com m o n s ens e or practica l
” ”
wisdom of which a nom os was the opini on
in D em osthenes phr as e ; th ough the other is
“ ’

not excl uded a nd

, indeed was its elf once
, ,
“
freshest when the pai nt was W et on Solo n s
”
,
’

revolvi ng notice b oar d s -

F or it is one of the
.

s tr a nges t p ar a d oxes in the his tory of Gr eek

la ws a nd constitutions th at i n a n ag e when
“
society , a s h a s been sa id wa s m oving lik e
,

quick silver ,an im p or ta nce which at first

s ight s eem s exaggera ted was a ttributed to
tra ditio n al a nd often very a n cient form ula ; a nd
m uch i ngen uity was expen ded in i nterp r eting
these older phra ses a nd n otio ns s o a s to cover
the fa cts of contem p orary b us iness Hen ce .

the frequent a ppea ls of the plea ders in the ,

“ ”
four th century to the nom oi of our fa thers
, ,

a nd the c ar e with which the a nces tr a l custom

of Atheni a n p ublic life w a s r e cons tructed when ,

312
 THE NOTION OF LAW IN SOCIETY
sa n ity with norm a l circum sta nces retur ned
to the s urvivors of th at org y of constitutiona l
experim ent which bega n am ong the frien ds of
Antiphon a nd en ded with th ose of C ritias
, .

“
Thi r dly in la w a s restitution of thi ngs done
,
”
am is s voluntary a nd i nvolunta ry
, we ha ve ,

explicitly the sa m e notion of the procedure of

j ustice as a r es tora tion of a n outraged or der
a n i nitia tive for ce which s ets thi ngs stra ight

a nd fr ee to g o on as us ua l when they ha ve
,
“ ”
som eh ow by force becom e crook ed a nd
—
j a m m ed which we ha ve been following from
Hom eric a ntiquity a nd m eet aga in in Aris
,

to tle s d escr iption of j us tic e dikaiosyné as

’
, ,
“
a n exce lle nce wher eby ea ch m a n h old s wh a t
” 1 "6
is his own a nd as is the cus tom nom os ;
, ,
“
whereas its opposite— adiki a where there is no ,
”— “
di ké is th a t wher eby he hold s wh at belongs
to a no ther a nd not a s is the cus tom L aw .

“ ”
a nd j us tice th a t is r es tor e
, , the sta te of things ,

norm a l a n d cus tom ary which h as been dis

,
”
turb ed i n a b s e nce of di ke by beha viour , ,

tha t is which is the nega tive a nd contra dictory

,
“ ”
of the wa y of s tra ight livi ng whi ch coul d
-
,

be des cribed in such a di ke or form ula Jus .

—
tice tha t is to a m plify Aristotle s phras e ’
,
“ ” “ ”
is not only dis tr ib utive b ut r e dis trib utive ; -

of law in O pera ti on
- -
r ed r es s of grieva nces is a
,

prim ary ch aracteristic .

3 13
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF T H E GREEKS
A nd law-in -opera tion is lim ited to cr im es
not
“ ”
or thi ngs done a m is s deliber a tely It i s a .

proces s of r esearch supplem enting the current

,

s tock of k nowledge a n d exper ienc e n o less th a n ,

of r ed r ess a pplyi n g th a t s tor e of form ula t o

,

defea t the s chem es of a b nor m a l per sons We .

a re r em i n ded of th os e not i nfr eq ue nt cas es in ,

“
m o der n la w where a disputed p oin t is
, ta k en
”
to court in c ool a nd frien dly fa shion i n order
“
s im ply to di scover by exper i m e nt wh a t the
”
law of the m a tter is A n d i n thi s s ens e the
.

Atheni a n cour ts a t a ll even ts lik e English

, ,

“
c our ts of j us ti ce wer e liter a lly
, m aki ng law
a ll the tim e ; confirm ing defi ni ng r efi ning
, , ,
“
the cas e la w of the pa st its elf the opini on of
-
,
” “
s en s ible m en a pplied to the prim itive in
”
v ention a n d gift of go ds ; a n d p r ovidi ng the

m a ter i a l in the h a n ds of the college of thes m o

theta i for their a n nua l r ep or t to the s overeign
“
people on the work i ng of the nomoi of their
,

”
fa thers a n d for the schedule of form al a nd
,

m a teri a l am en dm en ts a ppen ded t o it which ,

it was the fi rs t r egula r b usin ess of the Atheni a n

m as s m eeting to discus s a t the New Ye ar .

A nd this p ro ces s of r es earch— inevitably ,

h owever uncons ciously cum ula tive into the

,
—
“ ”
work ing 0 cus tom ar y beha viour i n a wor ld
which w as exp a n ding r apidly a nd enrichn ,

its inh abit a nts with un p recedented i nterch a nge

3 14
 THE NOTI ON OF LAW IN SOCIETY
of com m o dities an d am eni ties a nd idea s ga ve
, , ,

expression within each field of its opera tion

, ,

to a com plex of tr adi tions expedients a nd

, ,

as pir ations in the sh ape of a n expla na tory

,

a nal ys is of their as s um pti ons a n d i m p lica ti on s ,

which va ried fr om city to city in its p artie

ulars b ut w as pr eve nted from m or e th a n s uch
,

alm ost acciden tal diver gences by the gen er a l

uniform ity of the conditions of life a nd of the ,

ini tial s tructur e or l ack of s tructure of the

, ,

com m unities them s elves whi ch we wer e forc ed

,

to r ecognis e a t the outs et Her e in deed we

.
, ,
“
ha ve a nother r eas on why the m os t or igi nal
”
nom oi wer e bes t for the further b ack a n
,

ob s er va nce or a form ula cou l d be traced the ,

m or e sur ely was it foun d to c oher e with s im il ar

early s olutions o f the sa m e elem entar y prob
lem s i n other b ut s im il a r soc ieties a nd the ,

br oa der therefore the bas is of divine in ven

, ,

tion a nd hum a n concur r ence therein on which ,

this cons ensus a ppear ed to r es t The sig nifi .

ca nc e of this we al re ad y h ad occa s ion to r ec on

“
s ider (p when we cam e to the unwritten
nom oi as the fourth c entury philosophers
-

conc eived them Mea nwhile within the broad

.
,

guiding li nes tr ac ed by geogr aphic econ om ic , ,

“
a nd eth nic uniformi ties ea ch suc
, c om plex
” “
of ethica l r ules as form ed the cus t o m of our
”
fathers in a Gr eek c ity s ta te wa s dem on -
,

3 15
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
strably rela tive— o nce a nyone took the trouble
—
to exam i ne it not m erely to the ethos i n the ,

Ar is totelia n s ens e of the m en wh o ob s erved it

, ,

b ut als o to their ethea in the H om eric use of the

wor d for habitua l ab ode .

“
Fourthly a nd finally law is the general
, ,

com p ac t of a state i n accorda nce with whi ch i t i s

,

”
p rop er tha t all i n tha t sta te s hould li ve Here .

we h ave explicitly the recognition of the regiona l

a nd p ar ti cul ar qua lity of Hellenic law to which ,

we ha ve a lrea dy been led a n d to its chara cter,

“
as a n ag r eed b ody of descr ipti ons of the way
“
people beha ve the things that are done
, ,

in a p articul ar city and its terr itory T o p ut .

“
the m atter in a phrase c ustom exists by cus
,
”
tom , ob s erv a n c e by being ob served The .

s am e co nclus ion is p r es en ted not quite unex

,

—
p ectedly as we are now a ble to see after ,

ou r a na lys is of the r el a tio n betwee n nom os

h
a nd p ysi s — by Ar is totle in his dis cus sion of the
“
validity of contracts . F or a c om p a ct is
n omos of a sort spec ia l [
, between indi vid uals]
a nd in m a tter of deta il : a nd it is not the c om

p ac ts which m ak e the nom os va lid b ut the ,

nom oi which m ak e va lid the com p acts in accor d

a nc e with th em . A n d incl usively the nom os

, ,

itself is a com pa ct of a k in d s o tha t who ever ,

break s fa ith or m ak es void a com pact is m ak

”1 ° 7
i ng void the nom oi . Individual brea ch of
 THE NO T I O N OF LAW IN SOCIETY

i ndividua l com pa c t i n a p a rticular m a tter

im plies a n d i nvolves b rea ch of the n omos or
gen era l ob s er va nce tha t com pac ts o nce m a de
,

ar e ob s er ved . A n d th a t gener a l ob s er va nc e
is its elf for A ris totle a com p act between you
, ,

a nd m e to ob s er ve com p ac ts ; a n ag r eed a s

sum pti on n ot s o m uch th a t this s h a ll be our

com m on w ay of beh a vi our in r espect of ea ch

other as a s c ien tific dis co very by com p a r i s o n

, ,

of ou r r espec tive beha viours th a t we a r e

,

cr ea tur es of th a t sor t by wh om c er ta i n ki n ds
,

of thi n gs a nd am ong them contract b r eak i ng

,
-
,

“ ’
a re n ot d on e a di sc over y which no o ne b ut
-

a l una tic w ould p rofes s t o h a ve m a de as b e

“
tween him s elf a n d fish or beast or winged
”
bir ds , bec aus e as Hes iod exp ress ed it l o ng
,

“ ”
ag o ther e is n o s uch w ay in them wher ea s
103
, ,

it is the nom os or form ula tion of h um a n beha

vi our th a t m en as a ma tter of ob s er va tion
“ ”
do cus tom a r ily k eep fa ith ; j us t as they
“ ”
custo m ar ily tell the truth accordi ng to the
kn owledge th a t they h a ve .

I n this r espect it m ay be sugges ted th a t

Gr eek reflection o n this m a tter a nticip a tes a nd
even tra nscen ds the des criptio n given r ec e ntly ,

by Profes sor de Montm orency of jur isp r u ,

“
dence as the study of hum a n p ri nci p i a or l a ws
”
of m otion in the Newto ni a n s e ns e as descrip,

tions of the way thi ngs ac tually happe n 1 09

.

3 17
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Of thes e hum a n p ri nci p i a he for m ul ates the
firs t a s foll ows : F ides est serva nda — “
Tr oth
”
m us t be k ept ; or in other w or ds i us s uum
, ,
”
cuique T o every o ne his due . Now this
,

accor ds well e n ough with the K a nti a n n oti on

“
of the m or a l a n d p oliti ca l w or ld a s a r ea l m o f
”
en d s wherein ea ch fell owm a n i s a n e n d l ik e
,

h i s fell o ws i ncl udi ng m y s elf their fell owm an

, ,

n ot a m eans either t o m y en ds or t o the en ds

of a ny other m a n B ut does it quite a tta in

.

“
to the Newt oni a n objectivi ty of the fir st la w
” “
of m oti on in phys ics tha t m ovem e nt con
,

ti n ues [r a ther th a n m us t or s hould c onti nue]

”
in the s a m e dir ec tion a nd wi th the s a m e speed ?
’
A n d is n ot the phys ic is t s ob s erva nce of the
h si s o f m a n — the way tha t is in whi ch
p y , ,

n or m a l m en n orm a lly beh a ve

— m or e p r ecis ely
for m ula ted in the wor ds i nter hom i nes fides
,

s er va tur, th an in the com m en da tory or im per

a tive for m t o which r efer ence h a s been m a de ?

This in deed is the di ke uniquely peculiar to

, ,

m a nki n d . If yo u foun d a cr ea tur e beha vin g

so, you could n ot b ut di s s oc ia te it from a ny
thing fi shy or bestial ; you m us t ra nk it unerr
ingly as m an .

318
 LE CTUR E VI

THE NOTION OF FREEDOM,

THE MAN A ND THE CITIZ EN

WH E N the hea d of a Rom a n househ old for

m a lly r elea s ed fro m h is own p a ter n a l a uth ority
—
from ob s er va n ce tha t is of his initia tive
, ,

in a ll f am ily a ffa ir s— a son wh o wa s of m a tur e

ag e a nd s oun d j udgm e n t a n d th u
, s per mi tted

h im to becom e in hi s t ur n p a ter fam i li as lik e

“ ”
him s elf he wa s s a id liberare to m a k e liber ;
, ,
’
a n d a m a n s li beri , a ccor di n gly a re h is grown
,

up i n depen den t s on s
, A nd when s uch a son
.

bec a m e liber he entered into a new direct

im m ediate pers onal r ela tion with the s ta te :
he wa s no l o nger i n m anu p a tri s un der the ,

h a n d a nd guid a nce of h is fa ther ; he was in

“ ”
the fulles t s ens e ci vis , dom estica ted or ,
“
disc iplined to cons idera te tolera nt con duc t
,

to o ther ci ves of the sa m e ci vi tas b ut a b o ve ,

“ ”
a ll
, he was li ber , grown up F or other
.

m em bers of hi s fa ther s h ou —
’
s eh old a s la ve ,
“
for exam pl e — m ight be p ut out of ha nd
”
,
“ ”
m a nu m is s i or , liber a ted a s he h a d been ;
“ ”
a nd , given the sam e person a l grown up -

3 19
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
e
n ss , though their entry i nto full r el ationship
with the ci vi tas was p ostp oned in cons ider a
tion of a lien a ncestry and only befell their,

childr en . They were liberti not liberi lik e ,

th e fr eeb or n .

Now th ough the Gr eek city sta tes of which

,
-

we k no w m os t h ad a fa m ily life far less rigidly

“ ”
s ta ble a n d a c cor ded fa r gr ea ter fr eedom of
’
a ction to grown s ons dur i ng their fathers
—

lifetim e the Gr eek la n gua ge h a d nevertheles s

,

the pr ecis e lin g uistic counterp art of the Rom a n

li ber only sli ghtly disguis ed in the form eleu
,

theros ; a nd its p rima ry m ea ni ng w as exa ctly

“ ”—
the s a m e : it m ea nt grown up a ble con
-
,

s eque ntly to tak e ca re of y ours elf ; com p etent

,

to tak e ca r e of o thers in the f our phys ica l

a s s oc i a ti ons recognized by Ar i s totle and by ,

Gr eek lega l pr actic e l on g before h is tim e ; to be

r esp on s ible for wife childr en
, s l a ves a nd the
, ,

esta te ; litera lly un der the l as t hea ding for the

, ,

“ ”
la n d of h is fa thers or wh atever portion of
,

it fell to hi s sh ar e in due cours e T o realize .

h ow a well b r ed a nd well educa ted young m a n

- -

r ega r d ed thes e r esp ons ibilities r ea d th at m ost ,

“
gra cious a nd hum orous ess a y on H ow to be
”
Happy th ough Ma rr ied the ( E conom icus of
,

“
B ut to whom wa s this gr own up citizen -

resp on s ible ? I n r ega r d to his wife there was ,

32 0
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM

the wife s fam ily ; a nd their rem edy in cas e of

’
,

—
misconduct or ill trea tm ent if rem onstra nce ,

outwar d sym ptom of their nemesis aga ins t

l —
his behaviour fa i ed was to ta k e the fa cts
,

to a p ublic j usti ce a nd as k for a dike which ,

sh ould set th a t s tra ight in the fas hi on a lrea dy

fa m iliar from our Lectur e IV He s im ila rly .

, ,

could b ring hom e to h er a nd to h er k i ns m en

r es p ons ib ility for m is beh a viour on h er p art .

A nd bes ides in m any a Gr eek p oli s flig h ty

, , ,

or un s eem ly beh a viou r of a wife if it occ urred ,

in p ublic b rought h er into dis cipli n ary col

,

lis ion with the i nitia tive of the public wi fe

”
warden and the m a jes ty of a nc es tra l nomoi
,
.

on the subj ec t of wom a n s pl a ce in the s ta te

’
.

Sim il arly if h is childr en wer e neglected or

, ,

nois y or other wis e a b n orm a l i n their lives the

, ,
“ ”
child ward e n
-
was at h a n d to s et th a t m atter
“
s tr aight too lik e the ,bea dle in a n old E nglish
village His s la ve too was no m ore at his
. , ,

m ercy th an a m od ern costerm onger s donk ey :

’

he was entitled to apply for a di ke from the

proper ofiicial in the event of ill tr ea tm ent ,

a n d to be tra ns ferr ed to a nother m as ter if the

facts m ad e thi s the m ost prudent pr eca ution

for the futur e A nd for n eglec t of hi s farm
.
,

in a ddition to the cr iticis m s a nd com pla ints

of the n eighb ours
— a n other as pec t of nem esi s

a nd hi s own arr ear s of taxa ti on ther e was ,

32 1
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“ ”
the field war den s initiative to k eep him up
-
’
,

a t le as t to the m i nim um of in telligent eff ort .

There is no r eas on to believe th a t an or di

n ary Gr eek hous ehol der i n the fifth century

was m or e s eri ously worr ied by this k in d of

public supervis io n th a n a m oder n citizen is by
the educa tion officer the B oard of Ag ricultur e
, ,

the Society for the Pr even tion of Cruelty to

Anim als He h a d been brought up to con
.

form to a way of beha viour which h ad at a ll ,

even ts s tood the tes t of a bout fiv e centuries

,

as l ong as fr om the Ita lia n Rena is sa nc e a nd

the in ven tio n of pri nting to our own tim e .

Of this the norm a l c itizen was pr oud e nough ;

a nd it h ad s to od a l s o
— th ough this he coul d
har dly be exp ec ted to r ea lize— the test of s l ow
r e a s ona ble r em odelli ng in det a il as m a nn er s
,

m atur ed a n d n eeds m ultiplied together with

, ,

the m ean s to s a tisfy them I n its gener al .

fea tur es this way of life r es em bled tho se which

preva iled in s om e hun dr eds of other city
s ta te s l ar ge a n d s m a ll so th a t a G r eek wh os e
, ,
“ ”
bus in ess m a de it n ec es s ary for h im to l o dge ,

as he expr ess ed it in a nother c ity either

, ,

tem pora rily or a s often h appen ed ha bitually

, , ,

foun d no m ore difficulty i n m ak ing him s elf

“ ”
a t h om e a n d i ncons picuous th a n a n Am er ica n

in C ape Town or Sydn ey Yet quite a p art

.

from differ en ces of di alec t whi ch were quite

,

32 2
 THE NO T I O N OF FREEDOM
as e g i ble a s between E nglish a nd L ow
r co n s a

la nd Scottish an d the m ore s uperficia l a nd

,

intelligible contra s ts between the gr ea t s ea

p orts a nd in dustrial c en tres such as C or inth , ,

Ephesus or Miletus a n d the very num er ous

, ,

c ities which h a d h a d no s uch exception a l

fortune there was n ot a p oli s in Gr eek la n ds
,

which h ad not that a ll perva ding in dividua lity -

of beh a vi our a nd outl ook, which made i ts ,

«

or di na ry citizen en during the ordin a ry s ur

,

pris es a nd accidents of foreign tra vel tha nk ,

G od lik e the Ph a ri s ee th at he w a s n ot a s other

, ,

m en are , m en of S i ci n o s or Ph oleg a n dr os , or

even th os e im p oss ible fellows i n the n ext b ay

to h is ow n ; or p ra is e Zeus a n d the Gr ac es on ,
“
h is r eturn beca us e a fter a ll thereis n o pl ac e
, , ,

“
lik e h om e Tr uly a s Her odotus wrote if
.
, ,

a ll m en were fr ee to s elect the b est a m o ng a ll

the c ustoms there a r e you would find th a t ,

ea ch people chos e their ow n a s being bes t in ,

”
a ccor d with their ow n w ay of beh a vi our .

The gr eat ma j ority of the Gr eek people did

not wi sh thi ngs other wi s e ; they gro a n ed un der
“ ”
no tyra nny of custom a ny m ore th a n they
“ ”
co n sc i ous ly idea l i z ed the r eig n of la w An d .

A n a ch a r s is did h is coun trym en i nj ustice when

he s aid tha t only the beasts of the field fo ught
without r es er ve for fr eedom (p Her a .

clitus a dvi ce to fight i n beh a lf of th e nom os of

’

3 23
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the p oli s as on efights for its f ortr ess wall only ,

p ut into w or ds the na tura l instinct of the

citizen a nd the h ou s e fa ther F or the p oli s
-
.
,

which h a d com e into being to k eep m en alive ,

h ad in ess e nti a l s a chieved a higher pu rp os e ,

the s up r em e en d i n deed of a ll soc iety ; it

, ,

existed to ins ure to them felicity all the felic ,

—
ity that wa s p os s ible to m en a n d i ndeed
7
, ,

s m c —
t i was u h in Greek l ands a nd under a
h
Gr eek sky .

Wherein this felicity was thought to c ons ist ,

by Greek s of the fourth c entury we ha ve ,

in Aristotle s s um m ary of cur

’
a l re a dy s een ,

r ent opi ni on s (p A nd i n deed in es sen

.
, ,
“
tials the fir st a n d widest of them
, p rosp erity ,
”
with effic iency does not fa ll far short of
,
’
Pl ato s idea l of beha viour according to dike
which is th e cod e of r ules for the gr eat ga m e
of life — “ ’
to do on e s own b us in ess a nd not ,
” ’
m eddle with other p eople s com bi ning as , ,

this do es b oth tables of the la w as they were

, ,
“
engra ved upo n the tem ple a t Delphi Know ,
” “ ”
thys elf a n d Nothing in exces s F or to db .

’
one s own b us i ness o ne m us t h a ve ta k e n o ne s
‘ ’

ow n m ea sure a s well a s the m ea sur e of o ne s

’
,
“ ” “ ” ’
fellows ; a ll m eddling is in exc es s of on e s
own bu s i n es s i n life a nd s ure S ign of inefi
,
“ ”
ciency as well a s of a n exces s of
, p ush .

But while there was general a gr eem en t a s

32 4
 TH E N OTION OF FR E E DOM
”
to the object of society the en d of the p olis , ,

ther e was wide differen ce of opini on h ow it

w a s to be r ea lized F or the m ea ns wer e
.

partly m a ter ia l p a rtly form a l p artly p ersonal ;

, ,

a nd i n r egar d to each th er e w as controversy .

M AT E R I A L RE S T R I C T I O N S O N GR E E K
FR E E D O M
F or a while the m a ter i a l m ea n s of well
,

being seem to ha ve incr ea s ed con cur r ently

with the p opul a tion a n d its m a ter ia l n eeds .

Terrace a griculture increa s ed the c ultiva ble

-

ar ea ; tr ee cr op s s uch as vi n e a n d olive s upple

, ,

m ented cer eal s m ilk p r od ucts a nd m ea t a s

,
-
, ,

the b as is of subsistence Tem p orary over .

p opul ation when ther e was n o m or e l a nd at

,

hom e to be expl oited wa s r elieved firs t by

,

col on is a tion then as in Solon s Attica by

, ,
’

m or e s pecia lis ed a gr icultur e an d va rious m a nu,

fa ctur es whi ch intercours e with the c oloni al

r egions m a de p oss ible ; a nd c om m erc ia l wea lth ,

due to i ndi vidua l initia tive held m or e com ,

p letely a t the pers on al disp os a l of its cr ea tors ,

a n d m a de p orta ble as we ha ve s een a lr ea dy

, ,

by the a doption of m etallic s ta n dar ds of val ue ,

gave the in dividual an enh anced va lue a nd

s ign ifica nce whi ch was cum ul ative
, In .

s ocieties in evita bly s o s m a ll a nd i nca p a ble of

extens ion such indi vidua l efficiency a nd ca p ac

,

3 25
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE G REEKS
ity for initia tive bec a m e a nd r em a ined a
s our c e of s er i ous a nxiety n ot unk nown in
,

o ther types of com m unity i n other countr ies

”
a n d peri o ds of hi st ory If initia tive di s
.

“
pl a yed the m a n it wa s wealt , tha t m a de
h im in the s en se th a t it ga ve h im wher ewith a l
,

t o displ ay s uch i n itia tive a s he h a d And for .

“
wea lt the Gr eek l a nguage concr ete a n d ,

co nc i s e a s ever us ed a pl ura l for m m eani ng

~

,
“ ” ”1
liter a lly things tha t help or a re us eful .

N o o ne disp uted in Gr eek a ny m or e tha n i n

Hebr ew cosm ology th a t though the S on of
C ronos h a d n ot given m en a n omos which con
tem p la ted their ea ti ng one a n other he h a d ,
“ ”
a s s ig n ed t o them a s their portion all tha t
“ ”
ea rth h olds : unto you it is given for m eat ,

s o fa r a s hum a n i ni tia tive sh ould expl oit a nd

“
dom estica te it wr esting a s ide the nomoi of
,
”
the ea rth wi nning m etal s from s tones gra in
, ,

crop s fr om S cythi a n p r a iries Mi les ia n ca rpet

,

wa r es from the wool of Phrygia a nd Cyr ene ;

utilis ing too for their own en ds the l ab our
, ,

of s uch other m en as wer e unable to m ak e good

their cla im to use their own lab our a s they

“
plea sed 2
. Such m en wer e not eleutheroi fr ee ,
”
m en , bec aus e they did not s eem quite
“ ”
grown up ; that a Gr eek S hould c atch them
y oung and give them a sp or ting chanc e to
,
”
work up t o gr own up n ess and s elf m astery
- - -

326
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
lik e h is own w as in his view n ot a s m uc h r eas on
,

able as obvious ; even if this phil a n thr opy wa s

ha rd to distinguis h from the l a b our hunger -

which bes et the gre a t c en turies of Gr eec e a s it ,

“
bes et the firs t s t ag es of our own indus tri a l
revoluti on .

With the procedure of in dustry a nd com

m erce Gr eek p o litica l th ought even in its
, ,
“
cl os es t appr oa c hes t o a p o litica e co n o m y ,

wa s a lm os t unconcer ned ; less bec a us e it k n ew

a nd th ought very little a b out i t th a n be ca us e

the q ues tion for s ta tesm en a n d th oughtful

c itizens was n ot a s in o ur ow n in dus tr ia l r evo
,

lution h ow to a c quire wealth b ut wh a t to do

, ,
“ ”
with the usable things which exi sted a lrea dy .

I n this r espec t Gr eek p olitica l th ought i n ,

th ose pha ses of it which we ca n bes t foll ow ,

in the wr iters of the four th c entury i s a wh ole ,

s tage a hea d of our own a nd for th a t r ea son

,

s peci a lly des erves our a ttention F or the .

per iod of the indi vidual fortunes rela tively ,

va st in com parison wi th the r es ources of the

,

s ta te , s eem s to corr esp on d r a ther with th a t

of co loni a l exploita tion ; a nd the m on eyed

“ ”
b oss in politica l life to the a g e of tyr a n ts
in the s eventh a n d s ixt h centuries There .

wer e very r ich m en it is true in the fifth

, ,

century— Cim on C allias

, Nicias to nam e
, ,

onl y Atheni a n s — but their wea lth wa s not a

32 7
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
p ubli c da nger a nd it was only on the out
,

s k ir ts of the city s ta te r egim e th at pr iva te

-

wealth d om in ated a politica l situation in ,

Thessa lian a nd Macedoni an dynas ts in Maus,

s ollus with hi s C ari a n b ar ony superp os ed on a

Hellenic p oli s ; in E vag oras of S al am is m er ,

ch a n t p ri nce i n
-
Cyp rus as well as twenty
“ ”
s ec on d in des cen t fro m a divine b orn king
of the Her oic Age ; in Dionys ius of Syra cus e ,
“ ”
wh o h a d s truck oil in the s upply of m erc e
n aries ,the m os t m a rk eta ble of comm odities
in a generation of inces sant warfa re a nd us ed
,

b oth his capita l a nd h is s tock in tra de to

- -

expl oit the Gr eek West as well as to defend it

a ga ins t n ati on al enemi es a nd rival s old a nd
,

new .

PR IV A T E WE A L TH A ND I TS OB L I GA T I O N S
There were good reasons for this m a ter ia l
“ ” “
r es tr icti on on the utilities or external
”
goods at the disp osal of the Gr eek individual :
the physica l p overty of the country a l a nd ,

of thir sty lim es ton es a nd d usty schi s ts ; the

s im pli city a nd b ack war d n es s of the cus tom ary

m eth od s of agriculture ; the sh orta ge of l a b our ,

due to per ennia l sh orta ge of sustena nce ; the

difficul ty a nd ins ecurity of comm unica ti ons ,

m ountain p a ss es a nd s ea wa ys being alik e no

“
m a n s l an d infested by outl a ws and ad vent
’
-

3 28
 T HE NOTION OF FREEDOM
” 3
urers ; the preca riousness m or eover of all , ,

wea lth in a world wher e accident dis ea se

, , ,

violence n ot to speak of the p olitica l sp ort

,
“
a nd gam ble of reg ul a r war m ade the a ct of
,

G od a far m ore s erious m a tter tha n could be

c over ed as with ours elves
, by a cl aus e in a n
,

4
in sura nce p olicy Then m or e rem edi able h ad
.
, ,

a little com m on s ens e bee n devoted to it ther e ,

was the s entim en ta l r es tr iction on the a lien

a ti on of fam ily es ta te th a t inher ited inj unc tion
,
“ ”
not t o h a nd on dim i ni shed wha t the living
tr us tees h ad r eceived from the las t dea d a uces
tor for the m a intena nce not of them s elves
,

a nd their living i ss ue only b ut of their s uc ces sors

for all tim e There was als o the childi shly

.

“
elem entary notion of fina nce a nd m a nage
” “ ”
m ent whi ch sa w no r ea son why the p r ogeny
,

of a b orr owed m ar e or cow s h ould not be r e

tur ned in p art a t lea s t to the owner a l ong

“
with the p rincip al b ut b oggled at the n otion
,
“
th a t a l oan of curr ent coins coul d b r eed
”5
m oney , by way of inter est for whi ch the ,
“ ”
business wor d was still tokos progeny
-
, .

O n the other ha nd as h as been hi nted ,

a lrea dy ey ery Greek kn ew well enough h ow

,

har d it was to accum ul ate wea lth and h ow ,

“ ”
m ons trous an a dva ntage r ealis able utilities
ga ve to their p ossessor in the da ily struggle to
“ ”
live well and he cons equently k ept a very
,

32 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
wa tchful eye on a ny neighb our wh o s eem ed t o
“ ”
ha ve utilities a t his disp osal Am ong the .

na tives of B r itis h C olum bia i n quite r ecent ,

tim es a m a n s only s ecure inves tm ent for the

,
’

profits of hun ting or m er e la b our in a lum ber

ca m p or c a nni ng f a ct ory was to di s tr ib ute it
,

a m ong the m em bers of h is ow n c om m uni ty ;

for only so wa s he sur e of the help he was

c er ta i n to r equir e s oon er or l a ter when the
“

luck was no l onger h is way A nd this is no .

isola ted insta n ce S o for exa m ple Croes us liter

.
, ,

a lly sh ower ed g old up on Alc m aeon the Athen

ia n confident th a t if the k ingdom of Lydia

,

ever needs Atheni a n help it will be for Alc ,

“ ”
m aeon to do wha t is d on e by a m a n in h is
p o s ition It wa s a b a d b argain as things
.
,

turn ed out for when C roes us wa nted help it

,

w a s n ot the A lcm aeoni dae b ut Pis is tra tus wh o

, ,

w as in co n trol of Atheni a n a ffa ir s a nd C r oesus ,

fa iled to liquid a te h i s in vestm ent S o t oo he .

, ,

ga ve gold to the Sp a rta ns when they cam e ,

quite pr ep ar ed to b uy i n the Lydia n gold m a r -

“
k et b ut he expec ted s om ethi ng i n r etur n by
,
”
a nd by , a nd when the Sp a rt a ns foun d th a t

they h a d inopp ortunely l os t their field a rm y ,

j ust when C roesus p ut up h is s ign al of di s tr ess ,

they to ok the onl y hon ourable course tha t

r em a i n ed to them coll ec ted
, s ub scripti ons ,

and r ep a id the l oa n in gold .

330
 TH E NOTION OF FREEDO M
Sim ilarly in a Gr eek city wea lth of a ll
, ,

other ki n ds lik e l a n ded p r operty w as i n tr us t

, ,

for r ea s on able p ro viden t us e ; it w a s an affair

“ ”
of utilities a nd n o m an w a s expected a ny ,

m or e tha n in the s im il a r circum s ta nc es in

“ ”
Pales tine to k eep h is ta len t in a n apk i n
, .

That wa s in deed on e of the grieva nces a ga inst

the new p ortable wealth which com m erce a nd ,

a b o ve a ll m on ey len din g cr ea ted If a m a n s ’

- .
, ,

far m pr ospered a n d he bega n to lay field to

field it was a p r ocess which the n eighb ours
,

cou ld w a tch— a nd s top if it went t o o fa r for

genera l convenien ce It mi ght on the other .

,

h a n d be good policy to bri n g im p over ished

,

esta tes and la ndles s c apita lists together a s ,

So lon did fi na ncing Attic a gr icultur e out of

,
“ ”
the invis ible im p orts o f Attic tra de a nd ship
“
ping a nd turni ng da ngerously vola tile util
,
”
ities into the fix ed a ssets r epr esented by b arns ,

oil p ress es fr uit tr ee s a n d the lik e

-
,
-
, .

“ ”
B ut what was don e in o r di n ary cir cum
s ta nces was som ethi ng s i m pler h um a n er m or e , ,
“ ”
gr acio us a n d in the highes t sens e p olitic
, ,

na m ely wha t was cour t eously k nown as a

'

“ ”
public s ervic e or li turgy Am ong ours elves
, .

the word liturgy h as been r educed to signify

“

public acts of obs er vance and r ecognition to

the Giver of Good I n Gr eece the giver of .

g ood was the p olis which i ncluded the god s as ,

33 1
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF T HE GR EE KS
well as the citizens — s leeping p artners perhaps , ,

thos e gods a nd a little lia ble to be asleep or

, ,

pur suing lik e B aa l of Mount C arm el when

, ,

you p ut up your s ignal of dis tr ess ; but in

older d a ys they h a d helped the city a nd if ,
“
their wors hi ppers r em em bered them as is ,
”
done it was n ot in the na tur e of things tha t
,

they could utterly forget S o it was to the .

p olis tha t the p rosper ous indivi dual was led

to tur n by ex a m ple by pr ecept by h is own
, , ,

s elf r espect
-
a nd the forc e of p ublic op ini on
,
“ ”
in supp ort of wh a t is done C ustom ar ily .
,

whole departm ents of wha t we sh ould n ow

“ ”
co s ider the p ubli c s er v ice were fina nc ed
n “
a nd a dm inis ter ed by way of such b enevo
lences ”
,much as Tudor and Stuart k ings
a ttem pted t o dir ec t the n ew m a de wea lth of -

E nglish m ercha n ts a nd a dven tur er s into publi c

ch annel s by s im il a r though less successful
euphem i sm s Shi p s of war for exa m ple public
.
, ,

festivals a nd especia lly m usica l a nd dra m atic

perform a nces public b uildings m onum ents
, , ,
“
a nd utilities of every k in d were equipped ,

and m a n a n
. i t i ed by this s ub s titute for a s uper

ta x on in dividua l p rosperity The cus tom . ,

it is true har dened as tim e went on into a

,

sys tem a nd a s ched ule a nd eventually , in ,

Athens at all events sh owed s igns of break ing

, ,
‘

down ; but th roughout the grea t days of the

3 32
 THE NO TI O N OF FREEDOM
p oli s it was the m ea ns whereby the personal
a b ilities a nd s till m or e the persona l ta stes of

the C itizen were enlis ted in the public s er vice ,

in a ddition t o the state s reasonable sh are in

’

“ ”
h is utilities that is to s ay his r ealizable
, ,

PU B LI C WE A L T H A ND I T S R E S PO NS IB I LI TI E S
B ut though the p riva te fortunes of Greek
citi z ens i n the fourth c entury wer e not u s ua lly

a ll owed to becom e l a rge e nough to ac hieve

p olitica l d om i na tion for their individual p oss es

s ors, there w a s nevertheles s s ufficient range of
difference betwee n the richest a nd the p oorest
“
to m ak e the old ques tion urgent H ow is
,

priva te wea lth being us ed a nd does it con

,

trib ute in prop ortion to its am ount to the

, ,
”
gener a l well being ?-
C o nsidering that is the
, ,
“
num ber of the s ta te in p op ul a tion a nd in ,
”
estim ated a m ount of us a ble things is this ,
“
or th a t p oli s as n ea r to prosperity with eifi
”
ciency or wh a tever other defi niti on of felicity

was loca lly p r eferr ed a s a n econom ist l ik e

,

“ ”
Solon or a physiologist a n d e ngi neer lik e
, ,

Em pedocles m ight be expected to figur e it

,

out to be ? A s i n the r egim e when C roesus

“ ” “
h ad the initia tive it wa s nec essary to look
,

”
to the end ,and not the ch ro nol ogi ca l term i

nation onl y b ut the consum m ati on of tha t

,

33 3
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS

p roc ss of a c
e hievem ent the way things gr ow
,

in this or tha t s ociety .

I n the s upr em e exam pl e of gr ea t and well

earned wea lth in Gr eek h a n ds— this tim e i n
the h a nds not of an in divi dua l b ut of the
o li s of the Athe n i a n s — criticis m took the s a m e
p
line a nd ask ed the s am e question Every
.

b ody k new wh a t the origin a l b a rga in h ad been ,

a fter the defea t of the Pers i a n i n va ders of

Greec e The pr im ary condition of s ecurity

.

wa s na va l s upr em acy .
6
Athens un dertook to
r elieve a llied s ta tes of the per s on a l s er vi ce

n ec ess ar y for thi s en d i n c on s idera ti on of a n

,

a gr eed (a nd ve y m odes t) a nnua l levy Athe ns

r .

fulfilled h er O bliga ti on s and (so long a s no

,

third p arty in terfered with other occa sions

,

for war) h a d som ething o ver out of the levy as ,

well a s h er a gr eed com pensa tio n for h er m a nage

m ent N o ques tion h owever s eem s to h a ve been
. , ,

ra i s ed a s to the p r op r iety of thi s m a n agem e nt ;

the trouble cam e o ver the uses to which the

Athenia n s p ut their a ccum ul a ted b a la nces No w, .

this a s in all other insta nces wher e there wa s

,

wea lth to be applied a nd expended w as a m a tter ,

“
of i niti a tive i n the spen der He m ight k n ow
.

” “ ”
him self a nd do h is ow n b us iness without
” “ ”
m eddling or excess , or he m ight a ct in

s uch a w ay a s to infr i n ge the com peten ce a nd

opp ortunity of h is fell o w s to do the s am e .

334
 THE N OTION O F FR EE DOM

Now in the p olitica l

, well as the econom ic
as

circum s ta nces of the Greek s a ccum ula ted

,
,

wea lth was exception a lly difficul t to use a nd

a l s o p oor a s the co untry a nd the people g en
,

era lly wer e , it wa s usua lly difficult to a void

“ ”
occa s i o n a l win dfa lls j us t bec a us e the ch apter
,

of accide nts was s o r ich i n un fo r es een epi so des .

The p roblem too w as com plica ted by tra

, ,

dition a l belief in divi n e jea lous y of hum a n

affluence , s till m or e of h um a n i n iti a tive
, a nd ,

by custom s based o n thos e beliefs which m ade ,

c ert a i n k i n ds of expen ditur e for the con cilia tio n

’
or m er ely the felic ity of the c ity s go d s a he a vy
’
firs t ch a rge on fortune s gift s It wa s not .

everybody wh o lik e the A lc m aeonidae could

, ,

firs t conc l ude a con tra ct for the r eb uildin g of

the tem ple at Delphi then a cquir e the r epu
,

ta tion of ha vi ng em pl oyed m arble wher e only

lim eston e wa s in the b a rga i n a n d escape detec ,

tion for over two thous a n d years thr ough the ,

excellence of the cem en t which they sub stituted

for m arble .

TH EPE R S I A N I N C U B U S O N G R E E K
FR E E D O M
“
A further m ateria l lim ita tion on the gr own
”
up ness of the Gr eek s r esulted fr om the
-

historical a ccident of the ris e of Per s ia a nd ,

the restr iction of the field of coloni a l enter

33 5
 POLITI CAL ID EAS O F TH E GR EEKS
pris e to th ose few r egions which escape ab sorp
tion into the Persia n Em p ire Cons equentl y .
,

the struggle for exis tence becam e suddenly

s ever er a nd the c om petition k ee ner between
,

the Gr eek s ta tes alr eady m os t irr evocably

c om m itted to for eign e nterp ri s es on a ny very

large scale ; cons equently a ga in the tem p ta

, ,

tion m or e seve r e to som e p olei s tha n to others

, ,

to throw in their lot with the new im per ial

r egim e a nd e nj oy at all eve nts som e of the old
,

fa cilities whi ch h ad r esulted from s im il ar de

p en dence on the Lydia n ki ngs of Sa rdis We .

ha ve only to rea d in their li teral s ense the m ore

his torica l phra s es about the s erva nt of the
”
Lor d even Cyrus in the la ter chapters of the
, ,

book of Is a iah to r ea lize wha t prospect of

.

peac e and pr osperity opened before the Heb r ew

r em na nt a t the c l ose of its B a byl oni a n exile ;
a nd the p o litic a l s ignifica n ce of th os e r epea ted
“ ”
a ppea l s to the isl a nds to hear the good news
a nd com e i nto the Pers i a n fo ld A nd Miletus .
,
’
a t a ll eve nts did c om e into the fold a t Cyr us
, ,

fir st in vi tation a nd r em a in ed ha n d in gl ove
,
- -

with the new m asters for n ea rly ha lf a c entury .

It would be out of pla ce her e to tr a ce in

deta il the tr agic stages by which the m is under
s ta ndi ng of each other deepened between
Pers ia ns a nd Gr eek s a nd the na tionalist a nd
,

par ochialis t tren d which was given thereby

336
 TH E NO TI O N OF FREEDOM
to the grea t a dva nce in Greek p olitica l thought
which was a lr ea dy tak i ng pla ce when Cyr us
a n d his Per s ia ns appear ed on the s cen e Th a t
.

the Pers ia n was not in cap a ble of under

”
s ta n di ng democr a cy wa s believed by H erodo
tus a t a ll events ; b ut the p o licy or l ack of
,

p oli cy of the m or e dem ocr a tic s ta tes thr ew

,

the Pers ia n s into the arm s of the r eaction ary

elem en ts in Greec e with even m or e m om en t
,

ous r es ults th a n the s a m e s itua tion pr od uc ed

’
la ter during Rom e s ini tia tion into the Gr eek
,

p olitica l world .

F or in the m er e p ur s ui t of efficiency in ,

dea ling with thes e sm all b ut energetic a nd

superfi ci a lly turb ulent com m unities the Per s ia n
,
“
governm en t m ad e one fa tal m is ta k e ; by re
”
cognis ing as its perm a n ent ins tr um en t o f
“
l oca l a dm inistra tion either the chief public
”
s erva n t of the m om ent or the c itizen wh oever
, ,

he wa s wh o seem ed to ha ve the gr ea test

,

c ap ac ity for in iti a tive a n d the wides t personal

,

influen ce Persia litera lly s topped th e clock

, ,

a nd der a nged the custom ary cir cul a tion of

op p or tuni ties for p ubli c ser vic e a nd — it m us t
,

—
be a dded for the ab use of s uch occa s ion for
ini tia tive ; a nd the dis m a y a nd despera te
cours es th a t this error of p olicy p r ovok ed ar e

c onclus ive evi d en c e th a t Ar is totle s diagn os is

’

“
of citiz ens hip as the cap acity on either side of
3 37
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF TH E GR EEKS
‘

”
initia ting and being initia ted for w as as true
of the s ixt h c en tury a s of the four th .

“
N ow it wa s this equa lity of a llotm en t
,

—
is onom i a a s Her od otus ca ll s it which w as the
,
“ ”
p olitica l equiva len t of grown up n ess in the
- -
,

Gr eek use of eleutheri a It h a s other a spects

.

” “
too : equa lity in p ublic m eeting a nd in
” —
p ublic speech for is egori a m a y m ean either .

a n d p r ob a bly did conn ote b oth — a nd i s otelei a ,

“
equality of perform a nce m or e especia lly
,

in r egar d to the a s s ignm ent of the less a gr ee

a ble occa s i ons of p ublic s er vi ce s uch a s dr ill
,

a nd p a ym en t of t a xes Those s uperfi cia l r e

.

s tr i ctio ns a nd i n terfer ences in pr iva te a ffa ir s

with which we bega n wer e as innocuous a s they

appe a r ed to the or din ar y Gr ee k h ous eh older ,

less because o n the wh ole they were r ea son

, ,

a bly a n d ch a r itably enfor c ed th a n bec ause

,

they wer e enforced by m en wh o h a d p riva te

“
a ffa ir s of their o w n a nd i nterp r eted a nc es tra l
”
n om oi in the light of their own exper ien ce of
s uch a dmi ni s tr a ti o n befor e their br ief term
'

of p ublic s er vi c e a nd with the k n owledge th a t

,

a t its cl os e they wer e t o c om e un der the s im il a r

ins pec tion a nd a dm o nition of other citizens a s

or di na ry a s them s elves I n such a n a dm inis
.

“ ’
tra tio n to do on e s own busi n ess a nd not ,

m eddle w as a high s ta n dar d of publi c s er vice ,

yet not im p oss ible of a tta inm ent a nd very clos e ,

3 38
 THE NO TI O N OF FREEDOM
i ndeed to a ny conceiva ble idea l of j ustice ,

“ ”
if j us tice wa s to be a s its Gr eek nam e im plies
, ,

the qua lity of accor da nc e with di ke the norm a l ,

“ ”
way of doi ng wh a tever h as to be do n e the ,
“ ”
r em edia l w a y of s tr a ightenin g out whatever
”
h as been don e crook edly .

MI N O R I T Y GO VE R NM E NT
There wer e of cour s e differ ences of degree
, ,

between one p olis a n d a no ther in r espect to ,

“ ”
the a tta inm en t of this gro wn up ness by - -

the whole of the a dul t m ale p opula tio n ; quite

ap a rt from the dis a s trous wr ench given by
the Pers ia n interferen ce to the contem p orary
trend of p olitica l evolution a m ong the Greek s .

I n the con ques t s ta tes of Ma inl a n d Gr eece

-

(pp 8 6 8 8 ) la rge elem ents even of the lega lly

.
-

“
free p op ula tio n wer e very fa r fr om gr own up
'
-

i n the p olitica l s ens e I n m a n y m or e a m inor

.

ity va rious ly p ons tituted a nd distingui shed ,

by birthright , her editary la n downership ,

acquir ed wea lth

-
, s k ill or , dis cipli ne in wa r ,
”
m onop olized initia tive in r ega r d to a ll
or di na ry occa s ions a n d us ed it as s uch m i nor
, ,

ities frequently do to obs truc t p olitica l initia

,

tive outs ide the privileged circle Som e of .

“
these oliga rchies p rob a bly deserved the con
dem na tion p our ed on them by their actua l
victim$ and by di sp a s s iona te ph iloSop h ers too
, ,

33 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
as governm ents I n the inter es t of the gover n
or s b ut we begi n t o k n o w enough of the
public work of s om e of them to r ea lis e tha t ,

for or din ary c ircum s ta n ces of the ki n d us ua lly

foun d in Gr eek l a n ds this k in d of go vern m ent
,
“
w a s in deed in a true s en s e go vernm en t i n the
”
inter es t of the whole ; a n d tha t in p oint of
th oroughbred descen t h om ogeneity of exp e ,

rience and outl o ok a nd effi cie n t con du

, ct of

the s m all a m ount of public b us in ess which

“
c a m e befor e them they were truly a r istoc
,

r a cies ; s t a tes,tha t is wher e p ower wa s in

,

”
the ha nds of the bes t people Certa inly .
,

it s eem s to ha ve been in s om e of thes e m in ority ,

r uled s t a tes th a t the gen er a l welf ar e of the p op

ula tion w a s bes t m a i nta i n ed a nd th a t s tability

,
.
,

which a lm ost a ll Gr eek s ta tes so p a thetica lly

des ired a n d s ee m ed in genera l s o little able
'

to s ecur e i n deta il w a s bes t guara n teed

, N o to .

r iously it w as in s uch s ta tes th a t m os t a ttentio n

w a s p a id to the s tr ict upb r i ngin g of the y oung ;

“ ”
a n d Ar i s totle s des cr ipti on of the
’
a im of
“ ”
this type of p olis as educa tion is b or ne out
by the few insta n ces in which a n ything is
k nown of their p ublic pr ovis ion for it It was .

not i n deed s o m uch a s ys tem as a n idea l of

, ,

c onform ity to type th a t w as s et b efor e the

young p eople b oys a nd girl s a lik e As a

, .

“ ”
Greek econom ized fina nce by benevolences ,

3 40
 THE NOT I ON OF FREEDOM
so he a nticip a ted teac hi ng by h abitua tion ;
“ ”
in the gr a ve r es pe ct s h own b y elders t o

childr en ,no less th a n i n th a t r equir ed of

childr en t o war d a dults we ha ve a s trik ing

,
“ ”
exam ple of tha t will to beha ve
- -
which
” “
em pl oyed for obedience the wor d for being
”
persua ded yet r ega r ded a fa ther a s poss ess ing
,
“ ”
in the n a tur e of thi n gs i ni tia tive in r es pect
of h is s ons a t a ll even ts un til h abits of r ight
, ,

initia tive wer e fir ml y im pl anted i n them too .

A nd we m us t r em em ber th a t in s o s im ple a n d
a us ter e a m ode of life a s w a s im p os ed on the

Gr eek people by its c ircum sta n ces a very much

l arger p art of life tha n a m ong our in door
living selves wa s spen t i n the p ublic view .

The pr im itive a rr a ngem ents of a Gr eek pr iva te

hous e m a de s uch pr iva cy a s it affor ded the
privilege of the wom en a n d childr en wh o ,

mi ght indeed be hear d on all h an ds b ut

, , ,

were very little to be s een an d fa irly drove ,

the m en out of do or s fro m breakf ast or before , ,

“
till bedtim e so tha t a m a n wh o m er ely l ook ed
,
”
a fter h is own a ffa ir s wa s r egar ded as eccentric
or defe ctive .

I n s uch con ditions it is ea sil y s een tha t

”
education as a n a im of public life a nd of the
, ,

p olis whi ch m a de it p oss ible wa s by no m ea ns

,
“ ”
confin ed t o s t a tes which wer e a r is tocra c ie s ,

in the cons titutional s ens e C onform ity to a

.

34 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
type of beha viour wa s d oubtles s ea sier to
m a i nta i n a m ong c itizen s of h om ogeneous
descent ; b ut it wa s the b o a s t of the grea tes t
“
of the Athe nia n s th a t our c ity as a wh ole is

an educa tion for Greece a nd our citizens

, ,

m a n for m a n h a ve no equa l s for fr eed om of

,

spirit , vers a tility of a chievem ent a n d entire ,

”7
s elf s uffic iency of b o dy a nd m i n d
-
The dif
.

fer ence Was less i n the ideal of the p oli s as a

s ch ool of ch a r acter th a n i n the conception
which this or th a t city form ed of what the
type of ch ar acter should be .

“
While the aris tocra cies , by which Ari s
to tle a nd h is con tem p orar ies m ea nt the s ta tes
i n which bir thr ight r em a i n ed m or e or less
a b sol utely the c on diti on of p ol iti c a l p ivilege
r ,

not unn a tur a lly con centr a ted their a ttention

on thi s educa tive fun cti on th a t m a in a lter

,

na tive type of m i n or ity r ule which p op u

-
, l a rly
“ ” “ ”
wa s ol iga r chy , b ut s tr ictly its tim ocra tic
— ’ “ ”
variety beca use a m a n s a s s es sm ent in the
fi n a n cia l s en se w a s a ccepted a s eviden ce of
h is p ol itic a l ut il ity— h as bee n con signed to
r a ther ill c on s ider ed di sr ep ute on the gr oun d
-

”
tha t its objec t o r idea l w a s the a ccum ula tio n
of wea lth . Th at this i s a n in com plete a nalys is
of the fa c ts s eem s t o foll ow fr om the cons ider

a ti o n th a t n either a s p oliti ca l wh o les n or i n

,

a nythin g th a t we k n ow of their c itizens i n di

3 42
 THE NO TI O N OF FREEDOM
vidually does a ny s ta te fully exem plify the
,

description ; though it m ust be a dm itted tha t

none of our infor m a tion com es fr om withi n

such a s ta te a n d m uch of it fr om un succ es s ful

,

or at all eve nts r es entful r iva l s of s ta tes s uch

, ,

a s C or i nth a n d so m e of the wes ter n c ol on ies

which h a d a ll owed their birthright l im itatio n s

to l ap s e with out fa lli ng i nto the other extr em e
“ ”
of dem ocra tic prom is cuity B ut it is n ote .

worthy th a t for o ne of the six form a l types of

gover nm ent which Ar is totle s a nalys is es tab ’

lishes ther e is n ot o nly n o exam ple quoted

,
8

but even n o n a m e th a t c ould be applied Yet .

“
gover nm en t by the m a j ority being the r icher , ,
”
in the i nteres t of the wh ole c a n h a r dly h a ve
,

been unk n own a m ong s o m a ny gra des of

privilege a nd qualification a s are a ctua lly
.

found .

Q uite a p a rt in deed from the la ck of

, ,

insta nces of Gr eek sta tes which either delib

erat ely ho a rded or a llowed their lea ding
,

citizen s to a ccum ul a te we alth s uch a s itua tion ,

is s o unl ik e a n ythin g wh ich the beh a vi our

of the G r eek people w ould lea d us to expec t

as pr ob a ble th a t a ll owa nc e m us t be m a de for

,

mi sin terp r eta tion Very m a ny s ta tes in the

.

Greek world it is true h a d very little us e

, ,

for gr eat wea lth ; they c ould b uil d tem ples

and p ublic m onum ent s if they h a d a g ood

343
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
har ves t or a suc cessful r a id on their n eighb our s ;
b ut bey on d s uch elem en ta ry l uxur ies n either
their territ ory nor their p op ula tion could be
im proved by ca pita l expen diture : a nd the
sa m e c a us es whi ch r es tr i c ted i n ves t m ent m a de

it a l m os t i m p oss ible th a t they s hould habit

ually ha ve s urpl us wea lth t o i nves t .

B ut i n the few s ta tes whi ch wer e r eally

la unched on a ca reer of eco n o m ic expl oitation ,

things were very different O n the o n e occasion

.

when we sh ould ha ve expected C ori nth to

liquida te a ccum ula ted wea lth if either sh e ,

or h er c itizen s h a d it n a m ely when the ob v i ous

, ,

m eth od of defea ting the p r ojects of C orcyr a

w a s to outbid h er for con tro l of the n ew c o l o ni a l
venture at E p ida m nus we fin d the C or in thi an
,

govern m ent fran k ly going in to such m on ey

m ark et as ther e w a s a nd r a i si n g the n ec es s a ry
,

ca s h by debe ntur es s ecur ed o n l a n d a ll otm en ts

i n the projected s ettlem en t 9

H o w m uch of
.

this is sue wa s tak en up by C orinthian citizens

we a re n ot inform ed b ut the a dvertis em ent
,

a t a ll even ts w a s p ubl i c ; the s h a r es so t o

,

speak wer e n ot un der wr itten

, A n d the r ea s on
.

p resum ably wa s n ot tha t the com m uni ty a s

,

a whole wa s p oor , b ut tha t a s in other m er

,

c a ntile com m uni ties a ll the wealth ther e wa s

,

a t a ny m om en t w a s em pl oyed as fa s t a s it

wa s m ade i n enterpr i s es lik e tha t which h a d

344
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
e ted it I n s uch a com m un ity a ncient or
“

cr a .
,

m odern , the m or e toler a n t p ublic opini on

becom es of gr ea t wea lth in com p ara tively few
ha n ds the better for everyon e co n cerned
, .

“
C apital it h a s b een cy n ica lly s a id i s a
, ,

term of ab us e for the other fell ow s s a vi ngs ’

when em pl oyed to cr ea te opp or tunities for

”
l ab our ; a n d a t C or inth l a b our w as welc om ed ,

encoura ged a n d r ewa r ded beca us e this w a s

, ,

m or e n ea r ly a capita l is t s ta te tha n m o s t of it s
conte m p ora r i es
10
. N or is ther e a ny r e a s o n
to believe th a t the ra ce feud which h a d e m bit
-

tered the ea r lier his tor y of C or i n th w as r epl aced

by a cla ss feud a fter the fa ll of the tyra nny ;
-

we m ay perh ap s infer tha t wha t wa s left of

the l a n ded fa m ilies a fter the r efor m s of Phei
-

don foun d c on s ol a ti on in the victua ll ing of the

ll

i ndustr ia l a n d m erca ntile p opula tion .

I n a r is tocra cies i n th e s tr icter s ens e wh er e

, ,

citi zen ship r em a i n ed a birthr ight the t ota l

,

n um ber s of the c l as s thus b or n t o gover n wer e

in a ny cas e sm a ll an d beca m e r el a tively s m a ll er

,

whenever l oca l facilities a ttr acted r es iden t

a lien s i n a ny n um ber or a ll o wed the n a t ur a l

incr ease of the peasa n try fr ee or serf o n the

, ,

c oun try s ide A n d it beca m e a b sol utely sm a ller

.

when the gra dua l exha ustion of th e soil ,

destruction of fruit trees a nd other i n vested

c ap i ta l by w a r a n d the dim i ni s hi ng va l ue of
,

3 45
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
the p r oduce in com petition with oversea sup
,

plies m a de life r ela tively har der a nd incr eased

,

the tem ptation to r estr ict the s iz e of th e free

fam ilies which is a lr ea dy r ec ognisable in
,

Hes iod s tim e a n d w as widely r ecogni s ed as

’
,

j ustifia ble in public la w .

I n the tim ocr acies ,on the other han d ,

n um bers wer e onl y lim ited by the m a ter i a l

pr osperity of the whole com m uni ty a nd by ,

the w ay in which its m ater ia l wea lth wa s dis

tr ibuted between the r icher a n d the p oor er
c itizen s .The qua lifica tion for pr ivil ege being
exter nal a n d fortuitous c ould be m a de str icter
,

or l a xer by a gr eem en t to i ncr eas e the fighting

,

force or the p opularity of the go ver ni ng cla s s ;

or on the other h a n d t o p r even t the go ver ni ng
, ,

b ody from becom ing unm a n ageably l a rge .

The l a ck of hom ogeneity am ong the m em bers

of s uch a s tate w a s c om pen sa ted by cl os e

com m uni ty of m a ter ia l i nter es ts ; b ut this

c om m uni ty of in ter es t s j us t beca us e it wa s
,

m a ter ia l a nd for tuitous r i sk ed econ om ic clea v

,

a g e oi a di sa s tr ous k i n d a nd wa s a m a i n c a use

of th a t c onfus ion of m a j or ity gover nm e nt with

gover nm ent by the p oor for the p oor which ,

m ak es the his tory of Gr eek con s tit utions

s uch m on ot onous a nd yet s uch ob s cur e r ea d

i ng in the perio d for which we h ave m ost

evidence .

346
 THE NO TI O N OF FREEDOM
D EM O CRACY M AJ ORITY G OV ERNM EN T
AS

Of only very few dem ocracies h a ve we a t

a ll a deq ua te r ecor ds a n d of o n ly one is our
,

inform a tion sufficiently deta iled to dem on

s tr a te h o w c om pletely dem o cra tic it w a s .

F or the tr iba l r efo r m s of the Atheni a n s t a te

by Cleisthen es in th e l a st year s of the s ixth
,

c ent ury r epl ac ed a r igidly her edit a r y c itizen

,

s hip by a form of go ver nm e n t which w a s a s

n ew as it w a s p r ec i s ely des cr ibed by wh a t

m ay ha ve been the n ew w or d demokm ti a

governm ent by a ll fr ee inha bita nts of the
coun try s ide . Attica h a d reta in ed a s we ha ve ,

a l r ea dy s ee n in exc eption a l degr ee its p re

,

Helleni c s ettlem ents i n s m a ll open town ship s

—descr ibed in quite Hom er ic fa s hion a s demoi
, ,

p — ithe f ifi lw y ll
( . 7 3 ) e r un o rt e d a a s or a t a ,

events dism a ntled when the p oli s pr otected

,

by Athen a on its pr ec ipitous ta ble r ock beca m e -

the o n e cita del of the whole Attic peni n sula .

Ma ny of thes e open township s bor e the n am es

of c l a n s ; s om e fa r up countr y p rob ably s till
-

con si s ted m a i nly of the m em ber s of s uc h a

cl a n , b ut in tim e ther e ca m e to be r esiden t

a l ien s in m os t of them liber a ted sla ves in a ll ;
,

a nd , fur ther m em ber s of o n e to wnship a nd

,

cl a n wer e fr ee by the feder a l c us t om a scr i bed

,

to the ini tia tive of Thes eus t o s ettle i n a ny ,

o ther to wns hip a s b us in ess or ac qua in ta n ce

34 7
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
p rom pted Thes e dames Cleis thenes a cc epted
.

a s they s tood with their a ct ua l fr ee p op ul a ti on

, ,

wha tever its a ntec edents in s ub stitution for ,

the old k in ship groups he a ss oc iated these local

-

constituen cies a pp a re ntly qu i te a rbitr arily in

new l a rger group s a nd thes e , ( with spec ial
pr ec autions to s ep a ra te n eighb ouring dames)
i n ten new tr ibes which wer e now the ,
“
im m ediate cons tituents of the p olitica l P olis
”
of the Atheni a n s The r esult was litera lly
.

dem okr ati a go ver n m ent

, by the country
s ide p opul ation of Attica in a n unusua lly ,

litera l s ense unbiased by ties of either ki n

,

ship or n eighb ourh ood or i n dividua l wea lth .

H ow com plete w a s thi s fus ion of old a nd new

personal in teres ts a n d l oya lties is illus tra ted
a nd n o doubt thi s w as i nte n ti on a l a s Her o ,

—
dotus ob s er ves b y i ncl uding am ong fic titious
“ ”
a nc es tors of the n ew C leis th eni c tr ibes ( a ll

the r es t of whom a re great n a m es of ea rly

Athenia n tra diti on) Aj a x the pri n ce of Sal amis
, ,
“ ” “
in the Heroic Age ; a nd h im he a dded ,

though he wa s a foreigner beca use he w a s a

'

n eighb our to their to wn a nd a go od fighti ng

” 12
fr iend. F or the s ole a nd a b s ol ute criteri a
’
o f a m an s worthi n ess to be e nr olled i n a n

Attic dame were to be bona fide r esidence on

Attic s oil a nd l oya lty to the defenc e of the
,

Athen ia n P oli s .

348
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
It is a n i nteresting question a n d not witho ut
,

im p orta nc e as an illus tr a t io n of Gr eek p olitica l

th ought in this per iod of cli m a x wha t the p r o ,

vi sion s of Cleisthen es a n d h is coll ab ora tors

“ ”
wer e for the perpetua tion of this dem ocra tic
,

regim e . We k n ow tha t i n the f ourth century

“ ”
a ca n dida te for p olitica l ini tia tive h a d to
s how , in a nc ien t for m th a t his p a r ents a nd
,

gr a n dpa ren ts h a d been by birth Attic citizens

of thi s or th a t dem e; b ut bey on d thi s p oi nt

he h a d only to sh ow i n wh a t dam e his a nces

'

’
tor s hea rth fire a nd fa m ily tom b a nd conse
-
,

quen tly h is dom icile h a d been

,
13
This form ul a
.

no d oubt go es b ack to a per i o d when m a ny

genui ne c itizen s would ha ve been un able to

s how a ny dam e of whi ch their gr e a t gr a n d

fa ther h a d been a birthright m em ber beca use ,

”
he h a d been one of Cleisthenes people
‘ ’

wh o h a d been r egi s tered o n the s tren gth of

loya lty a nd bon a e dom i cile only B ut why .

w as not thi s form ul a ch a nged when the term s

of a d m iss ion to the a r ch on s hip wer e a lter ed

in 45 8 ? Yet by th a t tim e fifty years or so

,

after the r evol ution of Cleis the n es there ca n ,

ha ve bee n hardl y a ny surv ivor s of the or igi nal

“ ”
people of Cleisthenes wh o wer e a dm i tted on
“ ”
their hearth fire qualifica tion ; a nd it is at
-

lea st a n open question whether the retention

of the origi na l form ula in 45 8 d oes not p oi nt

34 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF TH E GREEKS
to the c on tinuous a dm iss ion after Cleisthen es
,
’

tim e of new c itizen s qua lified by r esiden ce

,

in a dem e a n d a ttes ted by loy a lty b ut not ,

of Attic des cen t m uch a s S ol on h a d e ncour aged

,
“
this k in d of des ira ble alien to settle in
Attica with s om e im pl ied prospect of incor
p ora ti o n i n d ue ti m.e Tha t ab out this tim e
there were in Athen s m a ny s uch citizens ,

im per fectly qua lified by des c ent is clear from

,

the dra s tic r evis ion of the citizen roll ab out -

45 1 which excl uded a l a rge num ber of pers ons

,

w h o would h a ve been q ua lified by r esidence ,

if the C leisth enic ter m s of a dm is sio n h a d been

r eta i n ed ; a n d it is s ig nific a n t th a t thi s r evi si on
14

o ccurr ed j us t t w o full ge n er a ti ons after the

r evo l uti o n of Cleis then es a nd co n sequently

,

a t the e arlies t d a te when it w a s p ossible to

in s is t on the rule of des cen t fr om citizen s on

”
b oth sides with out h a rdship to descenda nts
,
“ ”
'

of the or igi n a l people of Cleis then es . The

pretext for this r ea ctio n ary revisio n w a s tha t
ther e were too m a ny citizen s a lr ea dy ; b ut the
occ a s i on of thi s di s cover y w a s the di s tr ib uti on

of a ben efa cti on of for ei gn fo od s tuff a nd it is ,

clea r fr om thi s th a t Athe n s h a d a l r ea dy out

_

lived the period of rel a tively cheap food s upply

which foll owed the defea t of the Persia ns a nd
the orga ni za tio n by Aristides of a defensive
lea gue un der Athen ia n m a n a gem ent .

35 0
 THE NOTI ON O F FRE E DOM
We ha ve only to co n tra s t with this fa il ure
”
of n er ve o n the p a rt of the Athe n i a n s a t this

tim e the effect s of the O pp o s ite p olicy purs ued

by R om e a t the corr esp on din g sta ge in h er
p olitica l history a n d we sha ll r ea lise h ow n a r
r owly Athen s m iss ed the ch a n c e of becom i ng
“ ”
an in clus ive s ta te of the Rom an type a nd
, ,

thereby providin g a quite differ en t s equel to

her r eally r evolution a ry p as t from tha t which
‘

a ctu a lly befell . Th a t idea s of this sort were

’
in the a ir in Hero dotus gen er a tion which is ,

a l so th a t of Per icles is cl ea r fr om h is wis e

,

wor ds ab out a n ea rlier schem e of Th ales for

“
the cities of Ion ia tha t they sh ould have on e
,

place of com m on coun cil b ut th at the

p olei s though i n h abited a s bef ore s h ould r a nk
, ,

” 15
a s if they wer e dem es ; a la n which would
'

“
ha ve been p rofita ble even before Io ni a wa s
”
ru i ned ; a n d p r ofitable too for Ioni a in the
, ,
’
wr iter s own day if citizen s of a n Ioni a n p olis
,

h a d bee n fr ee to qualify for m em ber s hip o f a n

Attic dame after bon a fide r es iden ce ther ein
-
,
“
a n d s o to becom e corpor a tors i n the U nited
”
Sta tes of Attica ins tea d of contr ib utory
,

m em bers to its defen sw e lea gue .

JU S TI C E IN ATH E N i AN D EM O CRACY
That with thes e m ongr el a ntecedents
, ,
”
dem ocra cy a s practised in Attica n ecess arily
35 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF T H E GREEKS
t
s oo d for a tolera tion of individual peen
wide
li arities goes with out s ayi ng : its p ol itica l
“ ”
objec t i n the Aris totelia n s ens e wa s inevi
, ,
“ ”
tably freed om i n a s ens e unk n own a nd
a lm os t incon ceiva ble befor e Yet the lea ding.

ca s e, for th os e wh o h a d foll owed the wh ole

cour s e of even ts w a s in Atti ca it s elf i n the d a y s
,

when it was the a sylum an d s orting—ground

“ ”
a nd m o ther of hom es a way from hom e i n
- - -

the is la nds and beyon d Herodotus a s we .

,

ha ve a lr ea dy s een tak es quiet pleasure in

,

disclosing the for eign or igin of one grea t

Athenia n fam ily after a n other Pisi s tra tid , ,

Alcm aeoni d G ep h yraea n a n d the wor shipper s

, ,
“ ”
of a C ari an Zeus to whom I s ag ora s belonged ,

him self t he lea der n ow of the opposition to

Cleisthenes T o fill i n the deta il of thi s p ic
.

tur e of the new fu s i on of old a nd n ew cus tom s ,

i n every dame of Attica we ha ve only t o ,

r em em ber th a t b oth befor e a nd after C leis

th enes Atti c a nd n on Atti c n om oi wer e l i a ble

,
-

to be differ en t i n a lm os t every p oin t of detail ;

a nd th a t for this very r ea s on a ll lega l di sputes

in whi ch one of the p a rties wa s a foreigner

“ ”
c am e n ot befor e the
, Archon whos e com pe ,
“ ”
tence wa s solely in the a nc estral custom of
”
Attica b ut before the Polem arch or W ar
, ,

lord because he m ight at a ll events ha ve

, , ,

s om e notion — or be a ble to acquire it at need

35 2
 TH E NOTION OF FREED O M
of h ow they s ettle this s ort of thing in Thebes
or Mega ra or iE g i n a .With the C leisth enic .

enfra nchis em en t of every willing a n d resp ec

“ ”
ta ble m etic or r es iden t a lien i n Attica the
-
,
’
Polem arch s cour t bec am e for a while a soli
tude ; b ut hea ven help the Archo n ! No won
der tha t the old h abit of referr ing c a s es of
“ ”
unusua l difficulty fr om the p ublic s er va nt
to a m or e exper t ass ess or (dikas tes ) or p a n el of
such a s s ess ors opportun ely con ver ted by S olo n
,

into a n obliga tion ga ve r is e i n thi s new cris is

,

to a m a ss of i n terp r eta tive dika i which r econ

,

c iled the old lega l tr a diti on s of the Atheni a n s

“
to the varied expec ta tion s a n d cl a im s of C leis
’ ”
th en es people wh o m i ght ha ve bee n b r ought
up anywher e a nd un der a ny sor t of cus tom s .

C a n we won der tha t the h a bit of believing

tha t the Atheni an p a nel courts were s tea dily
-

“ ”
m ak ing la w a s well a s interp r eting it cam e ,

to be deep r ooted ?
Tha t this aspect of j udicial proc edur e wa s
clearly a nd s tea dily r ecog n is ed a t Athe ns a nd ,

tha t for this very r eason r egar d should be h a d

to the public i nter es t of the p oli s its elf a s well
as to the s pir it of a nc es tr a l cus tom which the

cour t w a s t o i n terp ret is c lear fr om s uch a

,

p a ss age a s this fr om Dem os then es speech in

,
’

“
the ca se of D ionys odorus 16
D o n ot forget
.

that in form ula ting a s ingle di ké now you are

, ,

35 3
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF THE GREEKS
dra fti ng a nom os for the wh ole of our tr a de ,

a nd ther e are her e m a ny wh o ha ve m a de

s e f ar i ng
a thei r c ar eer w a tchi ng h ow y ou
,

decide this a ffa ir F or if you tak e the view

.

tha t a greem en ts m a de between people ought

to be bi n d in g a n d tr ea t th os e wh o br eak them
,

without m ercy thos e w h o h a ve capital to lend

,

will be the m ore willin g to pr ov ide it a n d ,

thereby your tra de will be i n creas ed

“

I n this
in sta nce obvious ly h on es ty w a s the best
, ,

p olicy a high s ta n d ar d of beh a viour its own

,

r ewar d a nd
, decision r ela tively ea sy F or .

equa lity is eas ily m ea sur ed a n d as Ar is totle , ,

“
puts it in contra cts tha t which is in accord
, ,

with di ké is a k in d of equality a nd tha t which ,

is not is i n equa l ity n ot taki ng o ther m a tters

, ,

into account b ut num erically ; for it m ak es no

,

differen ce whether it w as a gentlem a n wh o

depr ived a cad of h is due or a cad a gentle ,
”1 7
m an .

B ut ther e was a lwa ys a r is k especia lly in the ,

“ ”
a ss ignm e nt of p ublic a dva ntages or bene
fits— m ea n i n g by this tho s e which it was in the
,

power of the govern ing b ody of the p oli s to

“
—
distribute a s it plea s ed to tak e in to account ”

s uch o ther m a tters a s the person ality cir ,

cum st a n ces or even the opini on s of thos e

, ,

en titled to p a rticip a te Ar istotle indeed .

, ,

accepts this a pp aren tly as inevitable a n d

, , ,

35 4
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
e t i ly the pr ac tice wa s widesprea d
c r a n .
18
H is
t orica lly the r ea so n for this view is obvious
, ,

for the ear lier dis tr ib ution s of this k i n d were

.

em ergen cy gr a n ts fr om p ublic s ources i n a lle

-

v ia tion of widesp r e a d di s tr e s s ; a nd ther e w a s

the s a m e r ea s on for gra dua ting a dole of food

in a ccor d a nce with the need of the r ec ip ient ,

a s for gr a dua ti n g the levy on foo d s t ock s fr o m ,

which it wa s iss ued in a ccor d a n ce with the

,
’
r es er ve s i n the r i ch m en s b a r n s
.

E conom ica lly it w a s defen sible in sofar a s the

,

ack n o wledged occup a n ts of fer tile terr itory

or a con venien t p ort wer e a t l i berty to m a k e
‘

their o w n ter m s with per s on s fr om els ewhere

“
for a s har e in the enj oy m en t of thos e exter na l
”
goo ds or with thos e of their ow n c ountrym en
,

w h o were pr ofitin g m os t from s uch enj oym en t ,

for a c orr esp on din g sh a r e i n the r esp ons ibility

for defenc e .A n d p oliti ca lly ther e wa s r e a son
for the cl a im o n the p ar t of each pers on
,

a dm itted to be exceptio n a lly qualified to

s us t a i n the b ur den s of defe nc e a n d m a in ten a nc e ,

to h a ve a c orr esp on ding voic e i n a d m ini s tr a

tion a nd the gen era l tren d of p ublic policy .

“ ”
Equality of app or tio nm ent w a s the m ost
bea utiful phra se in the l a ngua ge as Her odotus
,

h a d sa id l ong ag o 19
, b ut it w a s a l s o the m os t
gas eous unless s om e agr eem en t exis ted a s to
,

the p o ints in which equa lity wa s to count .

35 5
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
O r wa s it the only r em edy tha t a n individual
wh o th ought th a t he w as not being tr ea ted
“
by h is n eighb ours wi th the k i n d of p ropor
”
i
t n e
o a t eq ua l i ty th a t h i s s elf -
r espec t de
m a n ded should tak e h is o w n belo ngings a nd
,
”2 0
depa rt whither he plea sed tak ing the qui te
,

r ea l r i sk tha t n o other comm uni ty wa nted

to h a ve h im a t a ll ?
The a n swer was of course that in a ffa irs
, ,

s o com plex as th os e of h um a n a s soc i a tion s no

“ ”
form ul a tion of wha t really happens , in a
general rule, w a s applicable without qualifi
ca tio n s t o the o ccurr ences of everyd a y l ife .

“
A n om os could never p r es cribe the bes t p roc e
dur e a nd m os t in a ccor d wi th di ké by com pre
hen ding a ccur a tely in its term s wha t was the
bes t a t the sa m e tim e for everybody F or .

the dissim il a ri ties a m o ng m en them s elves a nd

am ong the thi n gs they do a n d the fac t th a t
,

( s o to speak ) n othing ever k eep s quiet in hum a n

a ffa irs , do n ot permi t a ny k i n d of s k ill W h a t

ever to yield a n y un qua lified r es ult in a ny

m a tter , un der a ny i
c rc um s a nc s t e wha tever
” 21
a nd o ver a ny per io d of i mt e .

TH E G REEK NO TI O N OF E Q U A L I TY AS
“ ”
R E A S O NA B L E N E s s
F or thi s i n applicability of form al rul es to
’
th e feckless diversity of m en s actua l doings ,

35 6
 T H E NOTION OF FREE D OM

there was only one r em edy a qua lity the ,

Gr eek word for which is a lm os t untra ns l atable ,

th ough its m eani ng is evident from Greek

us age . Wh at ep i ei kei a m ea nt in the firs t
ins ta nce is not quite clear for ther e are two ,

verba l s tem s with either of which it s eem s to

ha ve been popularly connected ; a nd as often ,

h appens it m a tters less his torically whether

,

a thi ng is true th a n whether it is believed t o

be so Whether then the pr im itive ep iei kes

.
, ,

was the m a n wh o yi elded m ore th an ther e w as

form a l j ustification for yieldi ng in a con
tentions m atter or the m a n wh o saw more
,

reas on th a n the others — a n d m a de them s ee

—
it too in the way of beha vi our which he
p rop osed h is peculia r efficien cy la y in the fa ct
,
“
th a t wha t he s a id a nd did wa s i n a ccorda n ce
with di ke not h owever a long the lin es of
, , ,

a nomos b ut of r e es ta bli s hm en t ( or rectifica

,
-

tion) of wha t is in accor d with b oth nom os a n d

”22
diké. El sewhere the sa m e qua lity i s descr ibed
“
as th a t which is in a ccor d with di keb ut aga in s t
”
the written n om os a state of things which
,

r es ults s om eti m es from defe ctive ob s er va ti on

on the p a rt of the a uth ors of l a ws s om etim es ,

from their in ability to give a clea r definition

a t a ll p oin ts s o tha t they h a ve been obliged
,

“
at one p oin t to s peak in un iver s a l term s at ,
”23
a nother point not b ut only in genera l
, .

35 7
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF TH E GREEKS
Thi s then is the p hysis the m ode of pr oc edure
, , , ,
“ ” “
of the equita ble m a n a re esta blishm e nt ,
-

of nomos at the p oi n t wher e it fa ll s sh ort

,

th rough its universa lity ; for this is h ow it

com es a b out th a t everyt hi ng is i n a ccor da n ce

with nomos nam ely that a b out s om e things

, ,

it is im poss ible to form ula te a nomos s o th a t ,

wha t is needed is a spec ia l dec is ion F or in .

m a tters which a re indefinite the rule too is ,

” 24
indefinite .

Here we find us ed in a qui te gen era l s ens e

“ ”
of a speci a l deci s ion in equi ty the tech nica l ,
“ ”
term p sep hi sm a for one of thos e votings or
“ ”
r es ol utions of the wh ole h ous e by which the
s over eign pe ople a t Athen s
, a n d p r es um ably ,

i n other dem ocracies ca rried on dir ectly its

,

c urr e nt public busin ess a t the s a m e tim e ,

a d a p ti ng its c ustom a ry p r actice to p art icul a r

in cidents as they occurr ed a n d a l so providing ,

thr ough its s ecr eta ria l archives the m a teria ls

“ ”
for th a t a nnua l review of the a nc estra l nom oi
them s elves by the thesm othetai with the object
, ,
” “
of j us t s uch a re es ta bli sh m ent
-
or r ec tifi
”
ca tio n of th os e n om oi im m em oria lly sacr ed
,

as they wer e if in a ny p oin t they were dis

,

co ver ed t o h a ve for m ula ted in accura tely or

ob s c ur ely the p hysi s of a n Atheni a n or of ,

“
Athenia n s in gen era l ; the way things are
” “ ”
done or n ot d one in the demes of Attica
, , .

35 8
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
There were gra ve r isks in such a procedur e .

“
Supp ose the m ob took th e initia tive , as
“
Herodotus puts it 25
, were its votings
“
however expr ess ive of its own im pul sive way
— “
of beh a vi our a t the m om ent a ny m or e in
”
accor d a nce with di ke th an the or ders of
a n unscrup ul ous or m i s guided k i ng ? Clearly
26

n ot, a nd Athen i an p ublic p r oc ed ur e a t a ll

events r ecognis ed this a nd m a de it a funda

,

“
m enta l p rinciple th a t the citizen wh os e fr on
”
tierless initia tive h a d p r om pted h im to s uch
a p rop os al wa s person a lly resp ons ible for the

co ns equences of its a d opti on by his fell ow s ;

a nd this r esp onsibility rem a in ed with him

until the thesm otheta i in their a nnual review
of p ublic p r o c eedi ngs a b solved h im on the

groun d th at there w a s n othing in h is p r o

“ ”
posa l that was contrary to the nom oi . B ut
m ea nwhile , m ischief m ight ens ue tha t was
irrep ar able : a nd further s uch an error of
, ,

j udgm ent as the Mytilen aean decree or the con

dem n a tion of the gener a l s after A rg inus aa m ight
“ ”
be form ally in a ccor d with the nomoi a nd
yet a very gra ve dep a rture from the way
”
things are done am ong nor m a l a nd r eason a ble
'

people It wa s indeed the r isk a nd the hi s

.
,

toric o ccurrence of irrep arable m istak es of this

,

ki nd which led to wide sp r ea d dis trus t of a

-

“
typ e of constitution in which the fr ontierless
35 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
initia tive of the ordinary citizen cam e so
“ ”
near to m ob rule
-
in default of just tha t
,

spir it of re as ona ble equity which a ccording ,

to the defe nders of dem ocracy h a d nowher e ,

el se such b oundless scope for its exercis e .

T H E S TAT E A ND TH E I ND IV ID U AL
H ere then we com e once aga in, to the p oi nt
,

at which th a t unqua lified a nd unp r ecede nted

encounter between the state a nd the individual ,

“ ”
em a ncip ated a lik e fr om the a n ces tral custom s
of the trib al soc iety a nd its k inship -g roup s

which h a d inter vened between them so long ,

beca m e a m a tter of very pr actica l concern

to s tatesm en a nd of a nxiety to p olitic al thi nk ers .

The rem edy was obvious a s we ha ve s een ; ,

tha t the gen era l r ules furnished by the s ta te

sh ould be a pplied t o the e nterp r i s es a nd asp ir

a tion s of the i n divid ual so i nfini tely a nd p er

,
“
p lex i n l
g y va r i ous ,s o as t o r e es ta b li s -

r ea s onable or der with out i nf r i ngem ent of r ea

s on able fr eed om . B ut h ow was the rem edy

to be applied ?
The question h as been often discuss ed h ow
it cam e ab out th at with political idea s s o
clear ly a nd e arly defined a nd s uch e n dowm ent
,

of n a tur a l a bility the Greek people h a d a

,

p olitical hi story s o ch ec quered a nd dis app oint

ing a nd in s om e r espects even so futile
, Look .

3 60
 THE NOTION OF FREEDO M
ing back as he was a lrea dy able t o do over the ,

m os t br illia nt period of p olitica l cons tr uction ,

Ari stotle supplies at a ll events an outlin e of

, ,
.

the a n swer If m en are to be good a nd useful

.

individuals a nd ther ewith good a n d useful

,

m em bers of a well or der ed s ta te thr ee thi ngs

-
,

a re in dispens able —breeding trai ni ng r ea , ,

s oni ng .

E Q U ALI TY IN BR E E D
By breeding he still m ea ns what the older
a r is t ocracies h a d so jeal ously m a i nta i n ed p ur ity ,

a nd hom ogeneity of descent as the best ,

gua ra n tee for s ureness a nd uniform ity of reac

tion to circ um sta nces 27
Now it wa s p re.
,

c isely this hom ogeneity which m ost Greek

’
com m unities h ad l os t by Aris totle s tim e
, ,

through the rela xa tion of k inship grouping -

,
“ ”
a nd the tem p ta tions of a r ich m a tch out
'

s ide the c ir cle of l ong es ta bli shed c orp ora tor -

fa m ilies A nd of this m oder n pr om iscuity

.
,

Athen s the type specim en of extrem e dem oc

,
-

r a cy, was a t the s am e tim e the conspicuous

inst a nce I n its p urely biolog ica l a spect this
.

grea t experim ent h as been discus sed by D oc

tor B a teson 28
The effects of the crossi ng of
.

p ure s train s are alread y well k nown from

experim ents on m any species of plants a nd
anim a l s Am ong the first crosses ther e are
.
-

36 1
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
e t i to be m a ny in dividuals of unus ual
c r a n

qua lities a nd exceptiona l vigour s om e r epro ,

ducing character istics of one of the p arenta l

stra i ns
, s om e th os e of the other B ut there .

“
is n o s ecur ity th at thes e sp orts will them
s elves b r eed tr ue h owever carefully m ated
,

with their lik e a nd in the n ext genera tion

, ,
“ ”
am ong the s econ d cr os s es
-
there will no less
,

cer ta inl y be a l a rge p rop ortion of i n di v id ua l s

“ ”
wh o a re in every s ens e of the w or d ill b r ed ; of -

p oor phys ique incom p osite dysharm on ic build

, , ,

u ncerta i n tem per a nd uns table ch a r a cter

, .

Now this h a d been p recisely the exper ience

,

of Athens i n the genera ti ons foll owi ng the

r evol uti on of Clei sthenes D own to this p oi n t

.

in their history with very few exceptions s uch

,
'
,

a s the m a rri a ge of M eg a cles s on of Al cm aeon

, ,

with the heir ess of the tyra nt of Sicy on n ot ,

“ ”
m er ely the Attic nobility b ut the p op ul a tion
,

of every Attic dem e h ad been of p urely

'

Attic descent for s om e five centuries Then .

the b ar to m ixed m arriages wa s a b ruptly

r em oved ; a nd i n the ge nera ti on which wa s

gr owi ng up after the Persia n Wars ther e w as ,

a n outb r eak of exubera nt e nergy i n a ll r a nk s

of life which h as s eld om been equa lled if ever , .

It wa s not only th at in the p ositions of p oliti ca l

initiative there were m en lik e Cim on (wh o
wa s p artly Thrac ian a n d not quite Greek either
,

36 2
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
in appearance or i n tem peram ent) , Th ucy
dides , son of M elesias , a nd Per icles ; it wa s
the s am e am ong the p otters the sculptors , ,

the bronze work ers a b ove all am ong the

-
,

soldiers s ea m en
, a n d tr a der s wh o m a de the
,

r ep uta tion whi ch the Atheni a n s r eta i ned until

“ ”
the outbreak of the great wa r in 43 2 B ut in .

the course of tha t war we find Socra tes ra ising

the questi on whether hum an effi cien cy is her ed
itary a ns wering it i n the nega tive ; a nd ill us
,

tra ting his pess im ism by the exam ples of thos e

sa m e m en of excepti ona l a bility wh ose own ,

child r en were of quite or dinary a bility if ,

not even a n a nxiety to thei r frien ds A nd

29
.

her e too wha t ca n only be describ ed a s a loss

, ,
“ ” “ ”
of n er ve or tone wa s genera l T o the n ew .

”
sh ock of a ge ner a l war the s ec on d c ros s -

Atheni ans r ea cted quite otherwise than their

gra n dfathers h a d done in the Pers ia n cris is .

Their tem pers wer e unc erta in their j udgm en t ,

c l ouded by p a nic a n d p r ej udic e prob ably ,

even their physique up set i n a way th a t m a de

them ea sier victim s to war crowding a nd ins a n-

ita ry surr oundings th a n they m ight other wise

ha ve been Ab ove all there w a s a nota ble la ck
.

of m en of initia tive a n d l ea der ship together ,

with a s up erfiuity of ill b a la n ced tem pera -

,

m en ta l en thus ia s ts c ra nk s
, and wind b ags ;
,
-

the one really a ble m a n Al cibia des belonging

, ,

3 63
 POLI TI CAL ID EAS OF TH E GR EEKS
to the sam e a ncient an d exceptionally original
fam ily which h ad thrown up Pericles am ong
“ ”
its own s econ d cross es-
a nd her ea fter dis
,

a ppea rs from public life W h at wonder if .

people began to ta k e note of thes e s igns of the

tim es a n d if Sp arta was th ought to o we m uch
,

of its s ucc ess in the grea t war to its a b s ten ti on

fr om th a t fa cile r eceptivity which h a d blotted

the escutcheon of Athens .

E Q U AL I TY IN T R AINI N G
Aristotle s s econd r equirem ent for g ood
’

c itizen ship is tra ining : a nd in this r espec t ,

too the s ta te which h ad been the pion eer in

,

p olitica l experim ent h a d been the victim of

r ecurr i ng a c cide n ts F or a ny p ubli c s ystem
.

of educati on fa m ily s olid ar ity w a s s till quite

unpr epar ed d own to S ocra tes tim e ; Alcibia des

’ ’

trea tm ent of h is tea cher s only p ut the fine

p oint on the practica l problem of m oulding this
hum a n quick s ilver a t a ll ; a nd the only c on
tem p or ary sk etch of a schoolm a ster is the m or e
eloquent beca use it is hum our not ca rica tur e 30
, .

C onsequently s uch education as was p ossible

,

wa s the b us i n es s of the fa ther a nd the b oy s

’

elder rela tives for the wom en under the eco

, ,

n om ic h a n di ca p of Gr eek s ociety c ould do ,

little for h im after the nurs ery sta ge Even .

’
Alcestis Euripides idea l of wha t a Gr eek
,

364
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
m other m ight be worr ies herself b ut little
,

a b out the future of h er b oy though a good ,

dea l a bout the futur e of h er g ir 31

B ut thr ee .

tim es dur ing the fifth century Athens endured

the a vage
r s o f a r a r—
ge e l a aga i n s t the
n w
Per s ia ns aga in st the League of the La nd
,

Powers fr om 4 60 to 445 a nd a ga in a ga i n s t ,

the World of Rea ction a fter 432 ; not to m ention

the gra ve l osses susta ined by the w ay between ,

“ ”
4 7 6 a nd 460 i n the , little wa rs in cidenta l
to the r ep a r a tio n per io d a fter the Persia n
-

r etr ea t Seldom in the history of a ny co m

. ,

m u nity h as the y oung gen era tion h a d to

,

fac e its r espon sibilities ea rlier or with less ,

of that habitua l im perceptible a nd m ost

, ,
“
p otent discipline of s eei ng h ow fa ther do es
”
it. Seldom con sequen tly h a s ther e been
, ,

gr ea ter n eed of som e profe ss ion a l s ub stitute

for th a t hom e tra in ing or gr ea ter a l a cr ity of
-
,

r esp ons e t o the offers of for eig n tea che r s wh e n ,

“ ”
they bega n to com e Tha t the S ophis tic
m o vem ent cen tred in Athe n s a s it did is the
c lear es t p roof b oth of the s ever ity of the s tra i n

on Athen ia n intellect a n d tem per im pos ed ,

by thos e am a zing exper iences ; a n d a ls o of the

”
will to learn exhibited by the y oung A th e
- -

nia n a nd on the wh o le tolera ted (a nd r ightly )

, , ,

by his elder s Wha t is instructive a s well a s

.

p a the ti c a b o ut S tr ep s ia d es i n the C louds of

3 65
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
Ar istoph a n es is n ot tha t the old m an k n ows
,

n othi n g a b out educa tio n h im s elf either in

,

theory or t o p r a ctis e it b ut tha t he i s a ll too

, ,
“
r ea dy to r egi s ter h i s so n i n the fir s t thinking
”
sh op he com es a cr os s to m ak e good his ow n
,
’
om is si on s . Sim ila rly the whole pla n of Pl a to s
,

R ep ubli c a nd s till m or e of h is L aws pr es um es

, ,

a genera l i nteres t i n educa tion a l p roblem s

a m ong or di n a r y pe ople ca s ually m et
, which ,
°

h as n o p ara llel in litera tur e until the Reviva l

of Lea r n ing a n d perh ap s in our ow n tim e
, .

E Q U ALI TY I N I N T ELLI G EN C E
“ ” “
B ut b oth br eeding a nd tr a inin g a re
for Ar is totle p relim in a ries only i n the creation
,

of a g oo d m a n a n d a good citizen .They a re

the con ditio n s for tha t fr eedom a n d fa cility
“ ”
with which the m a ture gr o wn up individual
-

is expected to use h is ow n r ea s on b oth in ,

person al a n d i n public a ffa ir s This r a tional

.

intellectua l i dea l of c itizenship is exem plified

in th e n ota ble wor d r egul a r ly us ed to ch ar ac
“ ”
teriz e the des ira ble a lien whom a c ity s tate -

“ ”
from tim e to tim e delighted to honour by
enrollm ent a m ong the m en of its own sort .

Let breedi ng a nd tr a ining h a ve been wh a t

for tune ga ve wha t m a de a m an accepta ble
,

for incorp ora tio n i n a society s o exclusi ve a s

every Greek city was in pri nciple wa s that ,

366
 TH E NOTION O F FREE D O M

he wa s of a
good intelligenc e towar d us .

N ot s entim en tal l oya lty or phys ica l herois m , ,

or m agn ificen t ben evolen c e b ut a n hon es t , ,

’
im p artia l m an s applica tion of h a r d com m on
“ ”
s en s e , b usin es s a cum en unforgetful sta tes ,
’
m a n ship to the c ity s oc c a si on s a nd perplex
,
“ ”
ities w a s h is title to this or der of m er it
, .

N or was this a n ea sy ta sk for a s we h a ve , ,

“ ”
s een , the idea ls of p olitica l i ni tia tive s tood
“
high O n the one ha n d ther e wer e the a n
.

”
c es tr a l c us tom s which h ad b r ought the city
through grea t perils in the p a st s om etim es a ,
“ ”
wr itten con stitution though the l a test a nd
,
'

c ompletes t exa m ple of a r ech a rter ed con s ti

“
tution sh ows h ow little of the a n ces tr a l
”
cus tom s it wa s thought n ecessary to r e
hear s e in deta il on such a n occa s ion ; s om e
tim es a tra dition a l c ode pr ecariously extorted ,
“ ”
as c a s e la w fr om the
-
p ublic s erva nts or the
“
c ouncil of elder s a s the them i s tes a f or eti m e
,
“ ”
were wres ted fr om the m in d of Zeus O n .

the other w a s a n ever ch a nging world of r iva l

-

s ta tes a n d gr oupi n gs of s t a te s r iva l enterp r izes

'

of in dividual s a n d a s soci a ti ons of n a rrower

s cope th a n the s t a te a n d bey on d a ll the P er

,

s ia n in cubus the C a rthagini a n incub us in

, ,

due tim e the Ma cedoni a n in cub us of which ,

no one w a s qua lified to s a y whether it w a s ,

as I socra tes h oped a r evel a tion of the m in d

,

367
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEK
S

of Zeus the undoing of Pers ia or a s Dem os

for , ,

th enes fea r ed a levi a th a n wh os e devas ta tion

,

of the G r eek cult ur e which the c ity s t ate h a d -

cr ea ted a nd wa s m a i n ta ini ng c ould be a ver ted

,

on ly a s Herac litus h a d phr a s ed it

, by ins ist ,

ence o n the custom of the city a s on the for ,

tr ess wa ll a nd yet m or e in s istently

, .

—
Between thos e custom s di fferent for each
c ity a nd r ightly differi ng as a ll a g r eed beca us e
, , ,

no two city s ta tes wer e or cou

- l d b e qui te the
, ,

s a m e— a n d these circ um s ta nces no les s dif ,

ferently a ffecti ng ea ch s evera l s ta te i n its ,

r el a tion for exa m ple with the levia th a n of the

, ,

m om en t— a dj us tm en t w a s p os s ible o nly by
”
the exercis e of that goo d intelligence whi ch
wa s s o va l ued i n the f or eign ben efa ctor a nd ,

s o h ar d to ens ur e i n the h om e b r ed a n d h om e
-

tra ined F or it w a s pr ecisely the r evela tion

.

to this l ater pha s e of Hellenis m of tha t ,

“ ”
gift of the Mus es which Hes io d h a d cele
“ ”
b r ated in the sa lt of the ea rth as he p er ,

ceiv ed the m i n the E arly Iron Age I n the .

individual b oth i n hi s priva te a ffa ir s and in

,

hi s dis ch arge of p ub lic obliga tions it is wh a t is ,

“ ”
descr ibed unifor m ly as r ea son ableness or ,

i n the s ens e alr ea dy des cr ibed ; as

the will to tak e less a n d g ive m ore tha n the
, ,
“ ”
s tr ic t nor m a l way of doin g things p res um ed
or requir ed th a t you should It was the .

3 68
 THE NOTION OF F REEDOM

quality m ost ad m ired and valued just becaus e ,

it was the h ardest to exhibit for people with ,

the stern upbringing intellec tual a lertn ess

, ,

and a b oun ding vita lity of the G r eeks It is the .

re i nterp reta tion to a m or e ruthles sly r a ti ona l

ag e of wh at a idés a n d nemes is h ad exp ress ed

,

in days when the risk of disturb a nce was less

from sk ill and subtlety tha n fro m exubera nt
“
will to p ower
- -
Pericles cl a im ed this reas on
.

a bleness a s the ch a ra cter i s tic of Atheni ans a s

he idea lized them believi ng dem ocracy to be

,

cap able of this a nd pr ed isp osing m en to it ;

a nd in the fourth c e ntur y the opp on en ts of

dem ocratic shifts a nd excess es cla im ed it for

them selves in m itiga tion at a ll events of the
, , ,

ch arge th at bec a use they m a de b oth en d s m eet

“
i n their own concer ns they wer e enem ies of
”
the peop le wh o were tak i ng such car e that
,

those ends should not overl ap by m uch .

’
R E AS O N AB L E N E S S IN P L AT o s L A WS
“
If we ask h ow an exp onent of e ble r asona
”
nes s thought this kin d of efficiency no less ,

m or a l th a n p olitica l m ight be a tta in ed a nd

,

prop agated we fin d a r a ther s trik ing a nswer

, ,

less in the R ep ubli c than in the L aws It is .

the old an swer tha t m a n lik e any o ther a nim a l

, ,

h as a p hysi s a way of growth throughout life

, ,

of hi s own ; that this p r ocess of gr owth ca n bes t

3 69
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
be o bs er ved a nd ca n only be counted o n for
,

nor m a l r ea cti ons in well bred exa m ples a nd

,
-

hom ogeneous groups ; tha t its r ea ctions va ry

in deta il a ccor ding to exter n a l cir cum s ta n ces ,

a nd th a t con s equ ently o nl y the m os t general

ru l es of con duc t ca n be rega r ded a s uni versa lly
valid whil e ap art fr om thes e the nom os i n each
,
-

“ ”
s ta te is the genera l opini on of the com m u
ni ty.
“ Tra ining to conform ity with esta b
lish ed cus tom is b a s ed o n the a ssum ption th a t
doing a thing right is its elf a s ource of sa tis
“ ”
faction an d th a t this joy of well doing can
,
-

be cultiva ted from infa nt days ; there is a 35

r ight way a n d a wr ong way or r a ther a tr uly

, , ,

hum a n way a s dis ti nct fr om a puppylik e or

goatis h way of sk ipping a nd pra ncing ; m a n ,
“
indeed m ight be described a s the only da ncing
,
”
a ni m a l in the s a m e s ens e a s he is the only
“ ”
p olitica l a ni m a l ,bec a use as Hesio d said
, ,

ther e i s no dike in thos e o thers n o recogn ition

,

“
of a w ay of d oing things a s bei n g a lon e

truly efficient becaus e in a ccor d with a ll the

,

con ditions .An d s o throughout the whole

s chem e of r ef orm T o give only one i ns ta nce
. ,

of m om enta ry i nter es t ,O b ser va nces i n r ega rd

to the c on sum ption of a l c oho l a re to be for

m ula ted by m en of experien ce in s uch m a tters ,

a c quai n ted with the r ea l pr oper ties of liquor ,

accus tom ed to use it with out a b us e a n d in

,

3 70
 T HE NOTION OF FREEDOM
“
tha t spec ia l sens e e ble tha t they
r a sona

k now h ow to com m uni ca te their own m oder

a tion t o the r es t of the dr i nki ng p a rty i- ”6

“
This is going b ack to n a ture with a v en
g ea nce ; b ut it wa s the r etur n to n a ture not
of the sa va ge b ut of the s cien tific a nth rop olo

gist The Atheni a n speak er i n the L aws is

.

uniform ly r espec tful to the p rohibition l a ws -

a nd other peculia rities of h is Sp a rta n a nd

Creta n fr iends ; if they a re good custom s they ,

will r evea l their goodness by conform ity with

the circum sta nces which ga ve rise to them ;
and m ea n while they h a ve the ben efit of the

doubt while he exp ounds a m or e excellent

,

wa y a s he s ees it
, A nd the Sp arta n p ays
.

the Athenia n i n r etur n the well deserved -

com plim ent th a t whe n a n Athe n i a n i s g oo d ,

37 “
he is very very good j ust beca use
, , they
a l one are goo d witho ut c om p ul s ion sp onta ne
,

o usly by divin e en dowm ent gen uinely a nd

, , ,
”
in no way a rtificia lly ; while the C reta n m or e ,

ingenuously groun ds h is own devotio n to them

,

on the hi s tor i ca l fac t th a t they m or e th a n j us ti

fied a C r eta n expert s diagnos i s th a t they were

’

“ ”
indeed all r ight .

G O O D MA N A ND G OOD C I TIZ EN
Thi s is i n deed som ething to set aga in st the
stock com p l a i nt s of p olitici a ns and other car

3 71
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
toonis ts gainst Atheni a n dem ocracy It was
a .

in f ac t a question of degr ee a s well as of the ,

ch a nce th a t we k n o w m or e b oth for good and

,

for evil ab out tha t gr ea t exper im ent in p olit

,

ical fr eedom ; about the only city s ta te in which -

“
the individua l was r ea lly a llowed to be grown
”
up even if he grew up to be nois ier m or e ,

flig h ty m or e im practi ca ble i n h is politica l

, ,

beh a viour th a n h is bes t friends h a d hoped or

, ,

tha n those wh o a nnoyed him could endur e .

A nd the r easo n why dem ocra tic Athens held

together a t a ll wa s the s a m e only in l a rger ,

m ea sur e a s th a t which m a i nta in ed the s m alles t

,
“ ”
a nd cl os e st a ri s tocr acy n a m ely
, the con ,
“
v iction th a t ab ove a nd beyon d all a nces tr a l

cus tom , a ll r egiona l control s a ll pers on al ,

lea dership of p ublic s erva n ts ther e r em a in ed ,

“
i n e ach i n divid ua l corpora tor a n i nitia tive ,

frontierless delibera tive a nd critica l the voice

, ,

of h um a n r e a so n fa ci n g fa cts opi ni ons a nd, ,

tra dition s open eyed a nd open m inded a nd i n

- -
,
“ ”
a very r ea l s en s e m ak i ng the best of them ,
“
i n co nfide nce tha t it m ight be well with the
”
p olls of Athen s or of Ph oleg a n dros i n which
, ,

his lot wa s ca s t Not a lwa ys very r eas onable

.

i n r etrospec t ; s om etim es very unr easonable ,

as it s p oss essor s could on occas ion r ealize

withi n twenty four h ours a nd repa ir their
-

folly as the Atheni a ns did o ver the revolt of

372
 TH E NOTI ON OF FREE DOM
Myt ilen e ; b ut a lways in principle a nd usually ,

in pr actic e the be s t th a t or din a ry m en under ,

or di n a ry c ir c um s ta n ce s of p oliti ca l em erge ncy ,

could be expec ted t o offer to their s ta te on ,

whos e s ecur ity a nd efficiency their own cha nc e

“ ”
of a good life depended .

“
GR EE K R E AS O N AB L E N E s s A T WO R K
Indeed wha t is im p ressive i n the practica l
, , ,

every day work ing of the Gr eek states oli

-
,

g archi es a nd dem ocracies alik e is the grea t ,

am oun t a nd fine quality of the routi ne work

of a d m inis tr a ti on of j udicia l business of

, ,

politica l deliberation a b out em ergencies a s they

ar os e
, which r esulted when Gr eek p olitica l
ideas of which a n outline only h as been
,

a ttem pted her e were applied under or din ary

,

cir cum s ta nces to the or din a ry m a i n tena nce

of thes e highly spec ializ ed c om m uni ties It .

was not every day nor once i n a c entury

, ,

am ong s om e hun d r ed s of s uch c ities tha t ,

there was a deba te on revolted Mytilene or a ,

trial of the genera l s after the sp oiled vi ctory

of Arg i nus ae or a c on dem na tion of S ocr a te s
,
“
for ob s er ving gods wh om the city does n ot
”
ob s er ve . It is in the speeches drafted by
the profess ional a dvoca tes a nd am ong these , , ,

r a ther in the cl os ely argued pleadi ngs in

private ca ses tha n in the gas eous or im p a s
,

3 73
 POLITICAL I DE AS OF T H E GREEKS
s i oned a ppea ls of p oliticia ns tha t we m ak e
,

“ ”
the ac qua inta nce of the r ea son able m a n ,

speak er a nd a udien c e a lik e It is even ra ther

.

“
in the cr isp incis ive drafting of thos e r esol u
”
tions of the whole hous e which p olitica l
theoris ts regar ded a s s o da ngero us a nd i ns i d ~

”
ious a r iva l to a n ces tra l cus tom s tha t we
r e alize h ow a n Athe ni a n c iti zen e a r ned his

m o des t Com pen s a tio n for the l oss of a da y s

’

“ ”
work a tten ding to p ublic busi ness F or
.

those phr a s es a re of a m a teur dr a fting r eviewed

,
’
by a gover nm ent of less th a n a year s exp eri
en ce of office a n d n ot o nly a dopted b ut
,

am en ded by a m a s s m eeti ng i n the ope n a ir ,

on a cr owd w or n hill s ide

-
, with a n a m a teur
pl a tform com m ittee a n d am a teur speak er s
,
”
for the bil l as well as a ga ins t it . Onl y a
high s ense of public efficien cy on the p art of
“ ”
am a teur p ublic s er va n ts i n all sor ts of
c iv il s er vi ce b us i n es s
-
, as well as a m on g the

p anels of or din a ry citizens wh o r eviewed the

year s work of s uch m en k ept the r outine
’
,

a dmi ni s tr a ti on of a c ity lik e Athen s fr om ch aos .

O nl y a s ens e of p ublic r esp on sibility fa r m ore

highl y devel oped tha n is com m onl y a ttr ibuted
to Greek c ouncil s a n d m a s s m eetings c ould
h a ve k ept direct perso na l a dm inis tra tion going
a t a ll , however l am en ta ble the work ings of
pani c or prej udi ce on c erta in crucial occa s ions ,

37 4
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
or in a few cla sses of accus a tions on which we
ha ve us ua lly o nly the c om m ents of those wh o
sy m p a thi s ed m or e or less s tr on gly with the
“
condem n ed . A n d wher e the en em y up on the
”
fr ontier s to od i n the grea t p olitica l i ss ues we
, ,

m us t r em em ber th a t the en em y within the

ga tes wa s to be s uspected a n d feared i n such
“ ”
tr ials as th a t of the c or n dealers for p rofi
-

“ ”
teering a t the expen se of a s overeign people ,

on a m a rgin of s ub s i s tenc e between plen ty a nd

fam ine such a s the m o dern world h a s not

“ ”
k nown b ut of which the Ir ish p ota to fa m ine
,
-

“ ”
or the La nca shir e c ott on fa m in e
-
in the l as t
century a n d occ a s ion a l s h ort ages i n I ndia or
,

Russia give us even now s om e im p ressi on

, .

Even in such in sta n ces of p olitica l a usterity

or econom ic p a ni c it m us t be r em em bered
tha t the m ea s ur es p rop osed a n d even tak en
, ,

were delibera tely pr even tive not vin dictive ; ,

an d tha t this expla ins why such s everity wa s

sh ow n at tim es i n the dem ocr a c ies Extrem e
.

liberty of action discr etion opini on in the

, , ,

or din a r y a ffa ir s of l ife wa s a high pr ivilege

,

and a p ublic trus t for the a b us e of which n o

,

deterr ent penalty could be too s evere ; even if

the bl ow did n ot a lways fall on the right head ,

it k ept b a d hea ds un der ; a nd m oderately good

hea ds could look after them s elves The jests .

“ ”
over s ycoph a nc y in the com edia ns are in
, ,

3 75
 POLITICAL I DEAS OF T HE GREEKS
p art a t leas t the equi va lent of the p a ntomim e
p olicem en a n d the detec tive s tory a m ong our
s el ves Tha t they wer e a m a teur detectives
.

m a de it all the m or e n ec ess a ry th a t the court

should be s ever e if they m a de a good cas e ;
“ ”
a n d the s y coph a n t , we m ay rem em ber h ad ,

h is ni ck n a m e fr om a p opul a r form of contra

ba nd .

P O LI TICAL T YP ES IN M OR A L PH I L O S O PH IE S
The a ttem pt h as been m ad e in wha t p re
cedes to s upplem en t the r ep res ent a tion given

of G r eek p olitica l idea l s in the wr itin gs of gr ea t

fourth century phil osophers by ill ustra tions

-
,

of their p rac tic a l wor k in g from m or e ep h e

m er a l s ources a n d s ide lights on the c ircum
,

s t a n ces of their or igi n a n d es pec i a

, lly on their
s im ple des criptive ter m inol ogy .

B ut with the p r ac tica l work i n g of the m a tur e

c on stit utio n s which th os e phil osopher s k n ew

by experience or from c ontem p oraries we ,

r each a tu r ni n g p oi nt a t which tho se phil o

s ophi c a n a lys es bega n to h a ve a fr es h an d m or e

in dividua l interest It is s om etim es difficul t

.

to s ee whether the h ack n eyed a n a l ogy between

the in dividua l a n d the body-corp ora te is in
ten ded to illustra te prim a ril y the one or the
“ ”
other . Even of Herac litus the phys ic is t
“
som e G reek critics believed th a t his phys
37 6
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
”3 8 “
ica l hapters were incidenta l to hi s p olit
c

ical ar gum en t And ther e was a r eason

.

for this Wider scope wa s offer ed in econ om ic

.

a nd other non p o litica l dir ec tions to a m a n of

-

“
pus h a nd in telligence ; a nd a fter Alexa nder s ’

conques t a new wor ld wa s thr ow n open to

these sa m e ca pa ble people O n the other .

ha nd we have encountered a ga in a nd aga in

,

the failur e of a ll types of Gr eek c onstitutio ns

“
a nd m os t c ons picuous ly of the m os t gro wn
up am ong the m to r eta i n i n p oli tica l life the
,

best abilities a n d energi es of its corp ora tors ,

i n fa ce of the fr eed om a ll owed to so m a ny less ,

—
well bred less well tra ined and to be fra nk
, ,

”
less well m ea ning a nd less r easonable in
that hi gh equitable sen s e .

“ ”
B ut equi ty in th a t s ens e was by no m ea ns
lim ited to p olitica l m a tters It was in deed .

“
only a nother a spect of th a t beha viour in
a ccorda nc e wi th di which was r ecogni s ed
in Hes iod s day as the spec ific beha viour of
’

m a n in all his activities a nd aspira tion s In .

the Rep ubli c the t wo en quir ies a s to righteous

nes s in p oliti cs a nd i n m or a l s p roc eed s ide by

s ide ; in the L aws the p r ep a r a ti on of the s ta te

for the r eception of the goo d m a n begins by

eliciting am ong the sk ippings a nd ch irp ipg s of
,
“ ”
infa nt joie de-vi vre th os e rhythm s whi ch
-
,

will tra ns for m the good child into the good

3 77
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
c itizen ; in the P oli ti cs the ques tion for m ally ,

left un solved of the com p a tibility of the life

,

“ ” “
of the goo d m a n with th a t of the goo d
c itizen is r ea lly a n s wer ed by the p r es um ptio n
,
“ ” “ ”
of the s a m e equity in b oth ; a nd tha t equity
is in ess en tia l s n o m or e a n d n o less th a n this ;
“ ”
an unforgetful n es s of a ll r eleva n t c ir c um
“
s t a n ces a n a b ility to
, s ee life s te a dil y a n d s ee
”
it wh ole, a n d to s ee life al so a s a p ro cess of
gr o wth in whi ch things n ow im m atur e a n d
,
“
in a dequa te m ay be counted h appy on the
”
groun d of their h ope a n d in which above , ,
“ ”
a ll, we feel joy in doin g things well To
life a s to its m a teria l a nd exter n a l goo ds s uch
, ,

a di a gnos i s of h um a n n a tur e b rought the tr a ns

form i n g sa lutary touch O f the Gr eek spirit ;

out of the cra dle of the G r eek c ity s ta te s p r a ng -

th a t a m a zing n ever ag eing child the Gr eek

-
,

c on ception of hum a nity .

We h a ve s een th a t the p olitica l experience

a nd a b ove a ll
, the p olitical trag edies of the
, .

fifth c entur y left to the four th cen tur y a lter -

— “ ”
n a tive poli tic a l ideal s a r i s tocr a tic a nd
“ ”
dem ocra tic to a dopt the ca tchwor ds of the
,

tim e The one fra nk ly desp a ir ed of m ak i ng

.

the gr ea t m a ss of m ong rel s tup i d hum a nity

m uch better th a n go ds or n a tur e evidently
i nten ded it to be a n d co n c entra ted its a ttention
,

on the di sc over y or the cr ea ti on of a m i nority

378
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
of exper ts to wh os e wis d om when found or
, ,

prep ared the s ta te m ight be en tr us ted c on

,

fidently . The other i n the l a rges t s en s e far

,

“ ”
m or e r eason a ble in it s hum a n is m hoped for ,

the bes t as the foun der s of the fir s t p oli s m us t

,

ha ve hoped for the bes t when they l o ok ed

,

roun d o n the h um a n wr eck a ge which wa s a ll

the m a ter ial tha t they h a d for reb uil ding

soc iety. B ut in p rop ortion as their h opes
were g rea t a nd their p atienc e l ong they h ad ,

to lay a ll the grea ter s tr es s o n the n eed for

tra ining to supply the defec ts of br eed a nd ,

s ub or di na te unr uly des ir es a n d im pul s es to

the r easo n which they beli eved w as ther e if ,

it could o nly be given fr ee pla y These tw o .

tendenc ies— to l ook for the expert a n d lea ve

the s ta te to h is car e when foun d a n d t o ins ist
,

on m or e c ar eful p r ep a ra ti o n of the or di nary

c itizen for deliber a tive a n d j udi c i a l b us i n es s

b oth dis tingui sh the m or e ca utious a n d disil

lusion ed th ought a n d p ractice of the four th
centur y fr om the c lim a x of p oliti c a l in s ti n ct

a nd enth us i asm in the fifth a n d g o fa r t o ex

,

pla in the firs t signs of a tra n sfer ence of inter est

from politics to m ora ls which ga ther s s tr ength
,

as the fou r th c entur y p a ss es i n to the thir d .

F or with p oliti ca l life becom i n g so com pli

cated a n d s pec ia lized ,a n d or di n ary b us i n ess
—
becom ing m ore i ntr icate a l so in a n over
37 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
cro wded and restricted world betwee n the
Pers ia n Em pire the rude protec tor a te of the
,

k in g of Mac ed on a nd Thr ace n orthwar d a nd ,

th e r iva l im per ia lis m s of C a rthage Rom e Syr a , ,

cus e , I n the wes t— the s tip ul a tion which h ad

-

bee n ta citly r ecognized a s fun da m en ta l bec am e

“ ”
m or e explicit th a t
, equality to be w orthy ,
“ ”
of the n a m e , m us t be a m ong equal s It .

w a s by ob s er v i ng a s ta n da r d of in te llec tua l
hon es ty beyo n d the com prehens ion of m a ny
of hi s fell o w c i tizens th a t Socr a tes c a m e by

h is de a th in spite of scr up ul ous conf ormi ty to

,

p oliti ca l routin e a n d in deed beca us e of it ;

, , ,

for h a d he been willi ng he could h a ve es c aped

,

dea th by m erely lea ving Attica O n the other .

ha n d the tolera n ce of va ri ous form s of pers on al

,

ru l e whi ch dis tingui s hes the f our th c entury

,

fro m the fifth im plies wi despr ea d in di ffer ence

,
“ ”
to th a t p os itive equa lity of a pp or tionm en t
whi ch h a d form erly r eplac ed so m a ny s ixth
centur y tyr a nnies by m or e or les s c om pletely

p opul ar gover nm ents a n d ill us tra tes the gro w

,
“ ’
ing co n viction tha t to do on e s o wn b us in es s
”
a nd n ot m ed dle was p oli tica l prudence if not
p olitica l wi s dom .

S T OI C A ND E PI C U R E A N
In prop ortion , ther efor e as the difficulty
,

beca m e grea ter , of bei n g a t the s a m e tim e a

38 0
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
“ “
good m a n a nd a good c itizen thes e two ,

idea ls drifted a p a r t and m or eover each , , ,

becam e spec ialized in to corresp on ding p a ir s

of a lterna tives T o the citizen of the old
.

“
con q ues t s ta te
-
exclusive in h is birthright
, ,
“
indifferen t to this people tha t k no weth not
”
the law unconcern ed with the us e or even
, ,

the scientific com p r ehens ion of a n extern a l

world in which he is so to sp eak a s tra n ger , ,

a nd a soj our ner corr esp on ds the St oic ideal

,

of i ndivid ua l beha viour s elf s ufficient s elf ,

-
,

cont ro lled s elf sa nctioned a nd a pp o ved a

,
- r —
“
Sp a rta n chara cter in a world where the arr o ws
,
”
tha t will cover the s un are those of a Hellen
ist ic dy nast or a Rom a n em peror a nd concern ,

h im as little a s th os e of the Pers ia n s .

T o the fr ees p ok en tolera n t i ncl us ive type

, ,

of citizenship of whi ch Athens as r efor m ed

,

by Cleis thenes a nd Cyr ene recons tituted by

,

Dem ona x are m ature exa m ples with its in tent

, ,

utilitaria n outl ook on a w orld in whi ch it is

goo d to live beca us e ther e is s o m uch to do to
,

m ak e it all G r eek a n d a h om e for Gr eek s ,

co rr esp o n d s the k een inter es t in phy sica l

sc ienc e the c heerful r es ign a ti on of Oly m p us to
,

the old god s provided th a t m a n be free to

,

expl oit the pla ins a n d shores belo w the co n ,

cep tion of s elf devel op m e nt a s cons i s ten t with

-
,

a nd, indeed insep ara ble from wis e steward

, ,

38 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
“
s hip of extern al good s and r easo nable
,

i n ter ve ntio n i n the a fia irs of city a nd reg iona l

t
s a et — which a re fruits of the phil osophic
tea ching of Epicurus .

P H A RIS EE A ND S A D D U C EE
In la ter Hebr ew philosophy a nd behav iour
it is n ot difficult to r ecognis e the sa m e a lter

n a tive r eactio n s a s s oon as the little s a nctuary

,

s ta te which was r eco n s tituted a fter the C ap

tiv ity fo un d its elf dep rived of the p atronage

exten ded to a ll s m all peoples a nd cultures by
the wide tolera n ce of im peria l Per sia F or .

between conflicting o utl ook s a n d p olicies Jeru

‘‘ ’
s a le m ce a s ed to be a c ity a t unity with its e

between the Ph ar isee s ta n ding m the a ncient

,
“ ”
ways obdura tely ins i sten t o n the la w that
,
“ ”
he h a d r eceived a n d the tr a dition tha t
,

interp r eted it as infallible guides a nd the

, ,
”
S a dducee followin g the work s of the hea then
, ,

a lr ea dy m o re th a n h a lf Hellenized even while

-
,

he s hed thos e elem e n ts of hi s own culture

which ob structed hi s outl ook on a m odern
world or h is enj oym en t of its gifts or h is co
, ,

oper a tion with wh a tever s ec ular p ower s eem ed

to offer the bes t prospect of s uch en j oym ent .

S o c lo s ely do Gr eek a nd Hebr ew thought tak e

para ll el cours es in their la ter his tory when their
im m ediate p olitic al m iss ions am ong their own
3 83
 THE NOTI O N OF FREEDOM
t ym en pas s
c oun r o ver i nto their m iss i ons to
m a nk in d .

TH E M E D L E VA L ECLI P S E O F GR E E K
P OLI TI CAL I D EA S
It only rem ains n ow to a ccount for the long
eclipse of Gr eek politica l ideas in the l a ter
s tages of a ncien t culture a nd i n the e ar lier

his tory of the n ext cycle of p olitical experience .

A nd here wh a t is m os t noteworthy is the

,

s ep ara tion betwee n the phy s i ca l a n d the p olit

ica l outlo ok which h a d begun in deed when , ,

the study of p olitics bega n to l os e i nter est in

pr esence of new a nd deeply orienta lized k i ng
dom s ; a n d phy s ics as the Ionia n ob s er ver s h a d
,

unders too d them ga ve pl a ce in p op ul a r es teem

,
“ ” “ ”
to Cha ldea n Syria n a nd other oriental
, ,

expres sions of a m agica l a s distin ct from a

scientific outl ook on the w or ld a r oun d Greek .

“ ”
phys ica l ob s er va tion occupied itself with
“ ”
the proper subject of phys ics na m ely , ,

“ ”
things as they grow a n d actua lly beh a ve ;
only occa s ion a lly did it thi nk b a ck wa r d up the

tim e strea m of events to s om e ki n d of b e

-

ginni ng a nd only so m uch a s thi s beca use the

,

gen ea logica l s chem e im p os ed o n its a na lys is

.

’
of na tu re s p r oces s es n a rr owed upw a r d to som e
“ ”
fir s t p a ir of opp os ites or other them s elves ,

con ceived a s due to s om e un expla in ed fla w or

383
 POLITI CAL ID EAS OF THE GREEKS
“
p olarity in uni versa l chaos Greek p olitical
.

inqui ry s im ila rly busied its elf with the p hysis

of m a n ,h is actua l m ovem ent toward fuller
“ ”
hum a nity in the way things actua lly g row ;
if it l ook ed b ack war d at all it was either to a
,

per spec tive r en dering of its own sociol ogica l

“ ”
as in Ar i s totle s sk etch of the
’
a n a lys i s, firs t
fam ily , prior ra ther in conception th an in
“ ”
tim e to the fir s t s tate ; or els e trans cen ded
a ny s uch a pp arent begi nn i ng as i n the p re
,

his toric a nthropology of the L aws by the hyp o ,

thesis of des tr uctive sp asm s un doing by phy

,

s ical cataclys m wh a t e a rlier m en of lik e p hysi s

with ours elves h ad l ab oriously wo n an d con

”
s tructed . B ut the notio n of origi n s eem s
”
to be as r em ote as tha t of s ub s t an ce or

underlying foun da tion fr om the Gr eek con

,

cep tio n of p hysi s ; a nd the G r eek phys ici s t wa s

as fr ee as the G reek p olitica l phil os opher to

foll ow the cours e of events b ack wa r d in ob ser

va tion or forwar d in inferen ce from the one
, ,
“
s ur e p oin t , th a t which is a roun d us bei ng ,
”
r easonable and in telligible in the pres e nt .

TH E L A TIN N OT ION S OF NA T U RA A ND L EX
B ut with the n ec es sa ry tra nsl ation of Gr eek
philosophica l nom encl a tures into Latin g ra ve
dis a ster h appened O ne aspect of this we
.

ha ve alrea dy n oticed b riefly (p the con

.

3 84
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
fusion wrought by the s ub s titution of p ri n
ci p i um for arkhe a n d of fin i s for telos
, Another .

a nd far wors e p air of blun der s tra n sl ated

p hys i s i nto n a tura a nd n om os i nto lex a n d
, ,

fifteen hun dr ed yea rs of ob s cure a nd per vers e

think ing followed befor e the Gr eek con ceptions
,

of p roces s a n d it s for m ula ti on wer e r ecover ed

a n d the m oder n s c ie ntifi c m ovem ent could

begin .
39

The wor d n atur a lik e p hys i s is a verb al

, ,
“
s ub s t a ntive ; b ut it m ea ns n ot the p rocess of
“ ”
gr owi ng up , b ut the a ct of bei ng b orn .

I ts pr im a l m ea ning ther efor e s top s j us t a t the

, ,

p oint where th a t of p hys i s begins I ts use .

in evitably dis tr a cted a ttention fr om p r oces s es

a n d even ts whi ch a r e go in g on n ow aroun d

the ob ser ver a nd beck on ed a way to a p oint

,

n ec ess ar ily outs ide h is k en whe n thi ngs a s we

,

k n ow them either wer e n ot yet a t a ll b ut wer e ,

“ ”
c om i ng i n to bei n g s om eh ow ; or el s e if they ,

wer e then as we k now them n ow left the ,

m om en t of cr eation fa shion ed a n d im m utable

—
by G od or m a n ob v iously a very difficul t ,

s t atem ent to dem ons tra te in either event

, ,

a nd deali ng with a ques ti on which did n ot

belong to the provin ce of the physicis t a t a ll .

Lucretius a t the very outs et of thi s peri od

,

of confusion per ceived the difii culty a n d spe nt

,

m uch lab our in the a ttem pt to connect the

'

3 85
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
creati ve or origina tive act denoted by n atura
wi th the s ta rt less a nd end less p roces s des cr ibed
- -

a s p hysi s by Dem ocritus a nd other Greek

“
phys ic ists .

With nom os a nd lea: thin gs were even wors e .

The Rom a n s ta te h a d com e into being as the

r esult of a s eries of b a rga ins an d tr ea ties no

“
,
”
m er e S ocia l C o ntra ct inferr ed fr om a ctua l
ins titutio n s b ut a L ea: S acrata of which the
,

da te a n d drafters wer e believed to be histori

c a lly kn own A nd a lea: m ea nt to a Rom a n
.

“ ”
p r im arily not what we m ea n by a law or
, ,

the Gr eek s by a n om os form ula ting what ,

a ctua lly h appens b ut a creative initiative

,

b arga in p roviding th at wha tever m ay h a ve

,
“
been the pra ctis e in the p a st hencefor war d ,
”
there sh all be b ut on e U se san ctioned by ,

pen alties for failur e to conform b ut itself ,

li able to r epea l or am en dm ent on grounds as

arbitr ary as th os e which determ i n ed its or igi na l

term s Hence Rom a n leges were habitua lly

.

identified by the n am e of the m agis tra te wh o

pr op ounded the dra ft to the m ass m eeting of
c iti ze ns a nd ob ta ined their cons ent to a bide
,

by its term s .

Now we ha ve s een that it was a r ea sonable

,
’
a nd a ccur ate w ay of descr ib ing m a n s form u
“ ”
la tion of the way things gr ow or other wise
“ ”
h app en in any dep artm ent of the world
3 86
 THE NOTION OF FREEDOM
ar oun d us , to ca ll it
for m a l descrip
a nom os or

tion of the p hysi s of wh atever p rocess it de

scribed ; a n d it did not le a d s er i ous ly a s tr a y

if the nom oi of a Gr eek city were des cr ibed i n

term s appropr ia te to a L ea: C a lp urni a de p ecunii s
r ep etundi s or a L ea: C orneli a de vi B ut wh at .

was the m ea ni ng of a L ea: n aturce the contr ac t ,

”
of a birth p roc ess ? Between wha t p ar ties
-

was this contrac t m a de a nd when ? O n who s e ,

propos ition a nd with whos e accepta nce ?

U nder wha t sa nctions was it bin ding a nd for ,

h ow long ? Wha t lem for exam ple w a s in , ,

volved in the n atura of wa ter ? U nder wha t

penalties for non perform a nce did oxygen and
-

hydr ogen agree together to com bine in the

'

proportions of 1 6 to 2 ? W h o drafted this

b arga in a n d r a tified its com pletion ; a nd co uld
,

he being in s om e sen se the a uth or of this

,
” “ ”
na tur e of w a ter or of n a tur e
, in gener al ,

dispens e thi s or th a t p articula r s am ple of

,

“ ”
wa ter from its n a tura l Obliga tion a nd perm it ,

or com m a n d or forc e it to becom e win e or to ,

break out fr om a dry r ock or s ta n d up on a n ,

heap on either s ide of a n extem porized tr ack ?

All thes e wer e notions a nd hyp othes es i n which
we trace old Ita lian a nim ism B a byl oni a n ,

m agica l theocracy— win d a nd storm fulfiling

“
.

”
H is wor d ; Per s ian notions even of a n al m os t , ,

all em b r ac ing ki n gd om of G od
-
in which all ,

38 7
 PO LITICAL IDEAS OF TH E GREEKS
“ ” “
good things at all events lik e all good
, ,

m en work together to fulfil the divi n e p urp os e

, .

B ut they are a t all events n ot Gr eek idea s

, , ,

“ ”
a n d to s uperp os e the c onceptions of or igin
“ ” “
a nd contra ct o n the G r eek n oti ons of p ro
“ ”
c es s a nd form ula was to create confus ion .

It wa s a proper theol ogy or m etaphysic for

, ,

a w orld the think ing p or ti on of which h ad in ,

fa ct b ecom e Stoic a n d resign ed itself in p olitics

,

to gl um a c quies cence i n the ben evolent des

”
p otism of a p ri ncep s a n d a n im per ia l b ur ea u
“ ” “ ”
cr a cy fulfilling h is word by r escr ipts a nd
“ ”
edicts ; for a n ag e i n which phys ica l science
wa s dying out un der the gr ip of a desp otis m
,

in exter n a l things no less a rbitrary becaus e

it wa s believed to be b en efiéent in the long
“
run ; of a p ower out s ide a nd beyon d the way
”
t hi ngs h appen whos e wa ys were so wholly
“ ”
p a st fin ding out tha t ther e was no good
r ea son left for believi ng th a t they woul d ever

happen again as they did la s t tim e .

We ha ve clearly tra velled a long way her e

“ ”
from the r eason able tha t surroun ds us in
Ionian a nd Ar istotelian thought ; a nd it wa s
a l ong wa y to tr a vel b ack a t the Re na is s a nce

befor e a ttention was r ec a lled once m ore from

or igi ns to p r oces s es, fr om specula tion about
ar bitr ar y or c on tra ctua l leges natura e to the

old G r eek notion of the i nherent rea sonableness

3 88
 THE NO T I O N OF FREEDOM
of the way things gro w a nd p a tient obs erva nt
deta iled des cription of the w a y th ey grow with ,

a view t o the for m ul a tio n of tho s e p r oces s es i n

term s s o gen era l a n d so coherent in their

“
im plica ti on s th at we r ely up on their unfor
”
g etfuln es s in the old Gr eek s en s e of th at
m em ora ble w or d for tr uth .

T H E R E TU RN TO TH E GREEK VI E w OF

NATU RE A ND S O C IETY
So , too, inp olitics the fir st ch a llenge to
,

tra ditiona l notion s of the origin of m a n ,

a n d h i s p r es en t dis tr essful di s qua lifica tion for

fulfilling his own need of hum a nity c am e fr om ,

“ ”
the discovery of a New World suspen ded
between West a nd E a s t a n d peopled with
,

inh ab ita nts of in disp utable h um a ni ty b ut no

dis coverable affinity i n descen t or cultur e with
“ ”
the s eed of Ad am whi ch h a d ac quir ed th a t
“ ” “
n a tur e a nd fa llen un der tha t la w of
dis inher ita n ce A nd the firs t a ttem pt a t a
.

sol utio n of th a t p r oblem c am e th r ough the

r ec og niti on th a t her e , a n d by a n a l ogy a l so i n

the m a nifold cultur e of the fa m iliar Old World ,

wha t wa s oper a tive i n a ll thes e r egional p ro

vi s ion a l a ttem pts to solve the s a m e specifi cally
“ ”
hum a n pr oblem of living well wa s the sam e
”
c omm on s ens e and com m on h um a nity ; the
“ ”
sam e com m on app r ecia tion of the rh thm
y
38 9
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
a nd or derlin ess of events as r eas on a na lyses
,

them a nd r ecogni s es the r ea sons for them ; the

s am e convic ti on th a t in m a n s d oi ngs too ther e
’

“ ”
is a real way of beh a viour a nd th at with

hones t pers istence it ca n be a nd will be foun d

out a nd m a de cle ar t o other s ; a nd further , ,
“ ”
tha t between the gr ea t l a ws of the earth and
“ ”
o a th fe nced w ay of the g od s
-
o n the one ha nd ,

a nd the per vers e perplexi ng tr ivi a lities of d a ily

intercours e on the o ther ther e sta n ds as there

, ,

s tood in the Greek city s ta te at all h appy

-

m om en ts in its va r ied car eer o n e s a vi ng s our ce

,
“ ” “ ”
of gr a c e , the r ea son able equitable indi
,

“
vidual r e es ta blishing custom where it fa lls
,
-

”
sh ort th r ough it s uni ver s a lity ill um inating
,
“ ”
by his own beha viour gently a nd quietly as
,
“
Hesiod s aw h im h is gospel we feel joy when
, ,
”
we think we are d oing things well F or s uch .

“
m en as he a l on e a re good with out com p ulsion ,

sp on ta n eous ly by divin e en d owm ent genui nely

, ,
” 40
a nd in no w ay a rtificia lly . A nd i n the city
of s uch s oul s the G ood M a n a nd the G ood

Citizen are one .

39 0
 NOT E S F O R L E C T UR E l
1 H D iels
. . Di e F rag mente der Vors okr ati ker . B erlin,
p . 69 h pza
, ég oidgm c ua ar a fl uizv Blo u . Acc or i ng to B iog d
enes L a ertius 9 1 2 t hi s s up er s cr ip tio n , d
. , wa s s ugg es te b y t h e
g ra m m ar ia n D io do t us b ut i ts a p p r op r i a tenes s is confi r m e d ,

b y H eraclitus, r a g m ent 4 1 D iels elvau av f

octp bv, .
,

éwlcr a cfla z yvé u -ce wavra

nv br é q é é
q p n
v wdvr mv
' '
.

Note th at th e n ort h er n end of th e Ni le Va lley h as t w o

p erils : As ia ti c i ntr uder s eas t of th e D elta Li bya n i ntr uders ,

west of it .

3 H erodotus l , . 1 5 3, a nd 7 . 1 04 .

D em osth enes, A ri stog ei ton, 7 7 4 1 6 . .

5
Aris totle Rhetori c , . 8 5. . 3 .

D em oc r it us, f r a g m ent 119 . D iels .

7
Ari s totle, Poli tics 7 1 3 13 3 1
. b 25 3 .

3
Ari stop h anes, Clouds , 10 78 , x96» v i) p lacer .

NO T E S FO R L E C T U R E I I

Aris totle Poli ti cs 1 2 125 2 3. 3 1 , , . . .

2
11 9 4 1 9 15 25 7 a lm wf) ; 0 d , 3 1 30 a id ) ; II 2 5 0 1
, . . . . . . .

5 05 e bxfl u. évn; I] 2 1 5 16 efibu fir og ; II 2 1 2 0 d 2 2 2 30 . . . , ., . .

e bp oa yoln; IL, 13 8 15 e bva zonévn; Il , 1 5 7 3 7 a t

-
opyou
; d pa p u
.ia ; . . . .

co m p ar e 0 d , 6 2 63 fly wept wbpyog 66131 6;

. . .

3
I L, 8 5 2 elao pbmv T pdm v wbl tv nod vijc q
’
A xa uiw
‘

. . re .

4
0d drug)! as fl ébelu
’
.
, 6 . 9 . Tetxog am e wbl ez, xa l ar o ol xoug,
ual mob; m ince Oefi v, m t ébacc a r é pob pa g
'
.

5
Il .
, 20 . év wean. ) acer bk cr o, 1 :6t p epbxmv M ahatma
6
ll , 1 366
. . 7 . 20 .

7
Il .
, 2 . 1 17 . 9 . 24 . C o m p a re 6 3 2 7 . .

3 Il . 9 . 24 .
,

II 2 1 5 40 . . (00; 1cb l m l r elxeog.

10
IL , 6 9 5 . .

11
IL 16 5 49 39 m wbl nog ; 1 7 14 4 m l (Ecr u aadwezq
'

, . . . . .

Co m p ar e 0 d 6 1 7 6- 7 : 1 4 4 7 2 - 3 . . . .

39 1
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
12 I L, 9 5 9 3 . .

13
II 18 5 12 . . mi s ty 804m» m ol leflpov ér fipm ov éw bq 33 91 310 .

1‘ II 1 4 230 . .

15
0d 1 1 70
. .

1°
1] 15 . 558 .

n
I] 2 2 4 29 . .

18
0d .
, 7 1 30- 1. . 1 7 20 5 —
. 7 .

1°
11 16 6 9 . .

2°
IL , 8 5 22 . .

91
Il 5 473
.
, . . (pf) ; t oo h ep 7xv 1: 6) .tv EEqsev fib é‘xmobpo v ’
.

2? II 18 . 5 09 — 2 4 .

23
II 1 8 49 7 . . 8
’
elv 627 0 p écav 50 90 0 1 .

2‘
II 1 8 5 03 xizp u 8 d pa l a bv épfit uov
’
. . xeg .

25
T h us w e h a v e m ok zr é peog, m pcéwoh g, but it c-
w adi n g,
dot udzva fi; com p a r e dcr uyetw v n ei g h b our to th e t o wn,
dow fiodm jg ,
“
ca lli ng th r oug h th e to wn , of a h er al d , I] 24 .

“
701 : dcr uvéuog, p oli c e-co m mi s si oner
, deali ng , lik e th e
R om a n a edili s, with b uildi n g s, s treet s, a nd o pen s p aces , as

w ell a s wi th
p u lic or der b .

2°
T hucydi es , 2 1 5 d . .

27
Il , 1 1 24 2 dcr oi c w d pnyd w; 0 d
. . . 13 192 . . Aris t otle , Poli
ti cs , 3 . 5 . 8, di sting uis h es bet wee n dowel, resi dents ,
”
a nd

m ur a l ,
“
c or p o r a t o r s ,
”
in a G r eek 11: 6 l .

28
Th e sa m e w or d is us ed of un c ul ti v a te d lan d Th ucydi des .

3 10 6
. . and for wild v a ri et ies of f r ui t trees , Plato L a ws 8 44 D , .

84 5 B .

29
Pin dar , OZ 7 1 6 5 H erodotus , 2 1 60 3 8 uses Eévog
. . .
, . . .

3°
An oth er t er m of m ere
“ ”
m ultit u e is ak in F or 8941 30 ; d .

con tra s ted with M bc , see I] 7 . 306 .

31
W i th Mi r ov c om p a re th e Ath eni a n l ecr o upyla whe re a

w ea lth y citiz en un dert ook as a

“
pu b ”
lic ser vi ce t e h p r o uc d
ti o n of a dr a m a, th e c o m m i s s io ni n g of a w a rs hip , a n d th e

Pr oba bly um
“ ’
lik e . l en » origi nall y m ea nt to let loos e one s

laos di s tr i ct ; i n la ter t i m es thi s w as only do ne by

up on a

ro bb
er a n ds , Mor a n b ,
n o t b y resp ec t a le c om m uni ties F or b .

thi s a n d o t h er p hil olog i cal m a t ter s ee S F eis t, ultur, A nab , . K

br ei tung un d H er kunft der A ri er B erlin. 19 18 Much of . .

392
 NOTES
th e v ery s ugg esti ve com m entary on G reek p olitica l ter m s i n
O . S ch r a der R eal-ler i kon der , I n doger m a ni schen A ltertum s
kunde, S tr ass bur g a nd i n his ear lier P r ehi stori c A nti

qui ti es of the A rya n P eop les ( E ng lis h Tr a ns la tio n, L ondo n ,

1 8 9 0 ) is out of d a te a n d m us t b e used i th c a ution V G , w . . .

C hilde, The A rya ns L ondon 1 9 2 6 is th e only recent general , , ,

book in E nglis h .

32
IL. 5 7 1 0 ; 1 6 437 A ustin; év 15 !t
. . . Si ng) .

33
IL 3 5 0 ; 24 70 6
, . . .

3‘
0 d 1 1 1 4 ; 1 4 43 . . .

a“
E 50 53 tij Be cki; xctl ‘ '
81am; dv 3 71) Béh tfl ov ’

1 6) Stamp F or ex a m p les s ee H ick s a nd H ill Gr eek H i stori cal

. , .

I ns cri p ti ons O x or d Nos 3 6 40 49 , etc

. f , .
, , .

3° H i ck s a nd H i ll I c N o 3 2 . . . .

7 I ns cri p ti on es Gr aecw ii 5 , . . No 1 8 b . .

’9 T h ucy i d des , 5 . 18 .

3° IL, 1 1 . 37 2 a lludes t o th e t om b of I leus , s on of D ar

danus , a dem os -e lder of long a g o,
”
t a l cum? Bw oyépow o;
com p a re IL, 3 1 49 . .

I1 1 23 1
. . bnuofibpoq Baozk ebg, i r e! obr cbdvom v dvdzccezg .

0d 19 . 197 .

0 d 1 5 8 0—8 5
‘2 Menela us p rop os es to T elem achus t o .

m ak e a tour a m ong his v assals a n d c ollect p resents for h is

guest .

‘3
S tesich or us , f ra g m ent 37 . B er g k quoted by Aris top h a nes
,

Peace 7 9 8 , xa pir mv
'
Ba uéu
at a .

‘4 Th ese na m es a r e, of cours e, la te e xa m p les , for the m ost

p art ; b ut D em o oc us is H om er ic d .

‘5 0 d 1 7 3 8 3 ; 19 1 35 xnp bw . . . v o? 6nu16epyot Eac w .

H om er ic H ym n to H er m es 9 8 , .

‘7
IL , 9 5 44 . .

“ ll 1 1 7 16 a l a b; is collec ted for a wa r ; 1 6 1 29 for

. , .

a ba ttle ; 2 438 for a m ass-m eeting dyopdz

. , .

0 d , 9 1 12 . . .

11 . 8 07 8 -
. Yva cc
p
’
dropi ; we Oéuzg re lfinv , v b bi; m l cot

035 W ér er ebxar o (Sc-

mot .

5‘
Il .
, 3 . 213 . dy6peue, of Menela us ; 1 . 248 , Nestor i s

39 3
 P O L I T I C AL I D EA S O F TH E GREEKS
[m m 47 0 pirmg : a noth er v er , b pé oua z, is us e d b oth of the

pea k er a n d of t h e a u ience, Il d .
, 4 l ; l 25 3
. . .

52
I1 9 . 3 2 —3 , D io m edes c la i m s th e ri g h t of f ee
r s p eech

Oémg écm dva E, dyo pfi 0 at t t xoM Ofig

'
'
v, . 0 .

53
0d . 24 41 3fi . .
, es p eci ally 42 1—2 . H ere t he use of 5090 0 :
a its p ri miti ve s ense of i th one v oic e ( com p a re bu nyépeeg,
“
w ”

n d t h e unus ual colour less p a s s iv e fi

.
yepflev) , m a r k th e p r o
ee di n g s as con use dly s p on t a neo us f
I t i s a n a i v e a ttem p t .

o e xp r ess th e w or kin g s of th e
“
co m m on s ens e
”
of a wh ole

om m unit y un a cc ust o m ed to c o r p or a t e i ni tia tiv e, and is a ll

h e m ore —n ota ble , wh a t ever th e r ela ti v e da te

th e p a s s a g e of .

54 Nom en i n L atin i s us ed for a s t a t us ( nom en L ati n um ) or

or a p oli t ical a g g reg a te ( nom en E tolor um ) .

“ IL, 2 8 67 K azpeg ea pfia pboowoz; 0 d 8 2 94 l m;

'

. . .
, . .

ypt6w v0 z
5°
0 d 1 9 17 3 6 . . W ith E60 9 , 1300 9 3 com p a re tcuoq, s w arm .
57 C o m p a re th e G r eek us e of m in a ,
“
a g e, for a m an
’
s

on t em p or a r i es . F or éOvog , of bi ds r , flies , a nd m i lita r y

'
on ti n gent s , see Il .
, 2 . 45 9 —69 .

53
Th e m ea ni n g of yévog i nclu des both th e la rg er di vi s ion s
)f t h e G reek p eop le, s uc h a s th e A mpmbv yévog , a n d th e c la ns
wi th kins hi p dem o nst r a b le a t la w, s uch a s th e Alc m seoni dse
tt Ath ens .

59
I n H om er t h e f or m gap q i s used, IL , 2 3 62 ; b ut p pa r pfa
i ng- .

n A tti c a is a r ch a i c .
5°
Phyle , 5 0 1 13 (i n H o m er no
an y) is p ro
, ba bly a ki n t o s ba) ,
‘

g ro w ”
; i t i s use d for oth e r c r ea t ures a s w ell as for m en .

L, 1 9
E . 30 ( flies) ; S op h ocles A nti gon e 343 , , ( b i r d s) ; I L , 9 . 1 3 0,
he w
h ole sex of w om en .
“ 0 d 1 4 68
1
Wh E kévqg ; 14 1 8 1 , (9 61 0 1! A pxec lou
' ’
. . y . .

“
2
I L 2 36 2 3
, . .
“3
IL, 2 2 1 2—2 7 8. .

54
0d 4 174—6 alav )
11:6 .1v é Ea l m rczfi I a?
’
. ag n epwa ter dzo uc w,

vdcoow a t 8
’
éuol We al m os t h ea r t h e v o i c e of R og
f S i cily p a ssi n g th e or to R o ert of N or m a n dy to lea v e
b w d b
h os e stor m -r idden c oa s ts of th e N a rr o
, S eas a n d co m e w
lo wn i nt o f a r i Sicily :
“
I ll
’
so on sa ck a to wn o r s o, of p a yni m
”
nen, v a s sals of m ine th o ug h th ey b e !

39 4
 NOTES
‘5 Th ucydi des 3 94 “
7
Th uc dd
, . .
y i es, 2 8 1 . .

Th uc ydi des 3 105 , . .

“
8
H er o otus, l 1 46d . .

5° “
W h eth er t h ese h ouses at Meg a r a we re th e fi rs t shan

ties
”
of th e i n v a ders , or th e deserted
“
p ala ce
”
of th e las t
Minoa n dynas ty th e e is no evi dence to decide , r .

cydi des 2 1 5
7 T hu
°
. .
,

n
H ero dotus 1 1 7 0 , , .

73
A g o o d i ns ta nce is t h e la w of D r a co a t Ath ens , to wh i ch

D em osth enes a p p eals in his s p ee c h a g ai n st M acar ta t us

it defi ned th e li m its of kins hi p withi whi n ch th e
rela tiv es we re a ut h or iz e d to :
‘
p urs ue
”
a nd p r os ecute th e
m ur derer ; ass oc i a te d wi th th e m all ot h er b
m em ers o f th e
p olitica l uni t (p hr atri a ) to whi ch th e dea d m a n h a d he
lo nge d; a nd p r o vi de d p r oce ure for d “
a p p e asem ent o th er

wi se th a n b y liter al
“
p ur s ui t a n d
”
destructi on of the offen der .

7’
Ari s totle P , oli ti cs , 1 l 1 25 2 . . a. 5 .

7‘
H er o dotus 5 5 7 6 1 , . . .

F or this C a ri a n s an ctuar y
75
of Zeus S tra t i os , G od of

Arm ies
”
s ee H er odot us 5
, 1 19 , . . S tr a b o 65 9 , . M y in f o r m a
ti on as to th e rui ns a t L a b ra n da i s f ro m my f r i en d a nd f ello w
tra vell er , t h e la te W illi a m R . P a t on ; but I can fin d n o r e er f
ence t o th e si t e
i n hi s p u li s h e d or k b w .

7“
Th e cer em ony was ca lled dw zapou ta , r unni ng a r oun d
th e h earth .

77
U . v on W ila m owi t z-Moellendorff . S ta at und Ges ells chaft
der Gri echen (i n B inne be r g, Di e Kultur der Geg enwa rt . B erlin ,
p 35 . .

7°
C om m on n a m es for s uch p oliti ca l uni ts a re p pm plan,
-

m m;
1 m ore p ec uli ar a re xth a or bg ,
“
t h ousa n d
”
at E p h es us ;
a t
-
op f og ,
“
to w er
”
or
“
block - h o use
”
at T eo s .

7°
S ee note 77 a b ov e .

3°
Th e w d
or ouvoza bg itsel f occur s first in Polybius (4 . 33 .

b ut th e ver b c u om itm v a nd it s v er b al b
s u st a nti v e cruvolm c u
;
we re i n use in thi s p olit i ca l sen s e i n t h e th ce n t ur y ( T h ucy fif
dd i os l 24 , 2 1 5 , 3 2 —3 6
. .a n d T h ucydides i s a ut h or i ty
. , .

als o for th e na m e E uvotmaz for th e f es t i v al whi ch co m m e m

orate d th e reor g a niz a ti on of Atti ca b y T h eseus . L ik e ot h er

3 95
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
p olit ical ter m s, ouvomllp
’
ha d also a
p op ula r m ea n i ng , p ro b
b
a ly i t s or ig i nal o ne: H ero d otus 2 1 2 1 h a s m l 0 1 d gv Gu
.
ya r épa
.

“ ”
rab mv o uvom lcau” to g i ve hi m i n m a rr i a g e t h i s da ug h t er
a nd

th e f —
un da m ental m ea ni ng ei ng h ere t oo t h e s a m e to m a k e
“
b
to li ve togeth er
”
p er s ons wh o w ere n ot blood relati v es- .

81 Aris totle
, Politi cs , 1 2 1 25 2
. . b . 29 .
h ous e: a é pa g

a br a pxela g .
32
C om p ar e th e H om er ic descrip tion of th e dest r uct on i
w r oug h t by a f res h et in s uch a valley a m ong th e
“
w or k s of

m an along th e s t rea m ba nk s .

O n this s ub ect of a g ricult ur al org ani sa tion

33
j s ee H eit
la n d, A gri cola , C a m bri dge 1 9 2 1 , .

“4
Aristotle Poli ti cs, 1 2 12 5 3 a 30, 0 as
, . . . cum fica g
p er for m é ya ed w a l n og
’
.

3“
T o such a n oi ki stes, olmcr fig , th e h on ours ere p ai d
sa m e w
as local h er o ; h e h a d his
to a ch a p el a lt ar, a nd p ri es th oo d,
,

a n d ann ual
“
o un d er s da y
”
f
cere m oni es
’
.

C om p are th e p a s s a g e H esi o d Th eogoni a, , 8 1—97. dis

cussed i n deta il i n Lec ture I I I , p 1 5 5 . .

NO TE S F O R L E C T U R E I I I
1
T he G reek ter m s ar e ér azi poz, com p a nions Oepdm om g,
a tt en dants ”
m ak e th e p eop le to go
; Bazaa
-“
r 5g
s , wh o
“ ”

p erh ap s a p op ular et ym ology of s o m e or d li k e t h e P hr y w

“ ” ” “ ”
gi an Ba l fiv, ki ng ; avam eg, m asters ; 9 5701 , cla ns , c om

p o se d oi nar ro we r (p pir
r pa t,
“
broth erh oods ”
of blood relatives
- .

2
Il .
, 2 73
. .

I1 1 1 8 0 73
. .
(see L ect ure II, n ot e 5 0, a b ove) .

0d, 9 1 12, 8 oU ofi Oéu

’ ’
. . r oi cw r re w reg .

5
0 d , 9 2 1 4- 5 , a re éwel ebc ecfla z p eyé l nv ém ezu
. . évov 021 mm]
dyptov, o li ve 061m; at elabr a , 0 67 5 Oéuwr a g .

R om th e s tem 63 we h a v e t h e v er now
‘
b p ut
, Oeuepé g,
“
s tea dfast ”
; 65 m g,
“
s ea t
”
; Oeont q, Oéctg, Oéue6l 0 v ; si m ilarly,
“ ”
vac t h e sh i p
s et on h er cours e. 0d .
, 9 4 86 5 42
. . .

7
Pla to , Gorgi as, 5 05 C .

3
I l , 1 1 7 79 ; h osp itality ; 2 7 3 , tri al
. . . of m orale .

39 6
 NOTES
9 9 1 32- 4,
. evi dence of ch astity; 2 3 5 8 1 a b sence of foul p lay .
, .

1°
IL, 9 3 2 . . 33 f reedo m of s p eech
, .

11
Il .
, 24 . 65 0—2 . Th er e i s n o s ug ges t ion h ere of a them i s
’
i n A c hi lles t ent lik e t h a t i n t h e
O dyss e us a gor a of
’
equip m en t

cam p ; th e sligh t t one of b or ed om i th t h e h ole p r oceeding w w

sh o w s th at it was t h e i ll-a nd-p lea s ure ( boulé) of A ch illes w
p ers ona lly, t h a t hi s v is i t or s w a n te d to k no w , in or der to
m a k e up their own m i n s d .

‘2
I L, 2 3 44 . .

13
IL 1 4 3 8 6—7
, . .

1‘
I L, 1 6 7 9 6 . .

15
0d 1 6 40 3 . .

1°
Il .
, 2 2 04 - 6
. . Th e w d or here use d , xotpazvog, is n ow f oun d

to h av e been an offi cial t itle of th e gr ea t Ach sea n chi ef Atary

s i a s (p r ob a bly A t e us ) wh o g a v e m uch t ro uble t o t h e Hi tt i te
r ,

g ov er n m ent b et ween 1 2 5 0 a nd 1 2 2 5 Proba bly th e

la ter G r eek w or d, '
t bpa w og,
“
tyr a nt, whi ch the G reek s
t h e m s elves th oug h t to b e L y ia n, i s d a n ot h er v er s i o n o f th e
sa m e p r e-H ellenic tit le ; a n d i t i s w ort h n ot in g t h at t h e
f oun der of t h e H elleni c dynasty i n Ma cedon , to wh i ch Philip
a nd Ale xa nder belonged wa s called C ar anos , .

17
IL , 1 233 . .

18
The va se f ro m H a g ia -T ri a da i s fig ured in A . M os so P al,

ac es o f Cr ete . L on d on , 1 9 07 , p p . 7 7 —8 , fig 33 3 4 : G Glotz,
. . .

The E g ea n Ci vili s ati on . L ondon, 19 25 , p 1 5 5 , fig 2 7

. . .

19
IL , 9 1 5 6 . .

2°
11 , 1 2 39
. .

31 H er o dotus , 2 . 8 30. .

a Pin dar , Nem ., 7 99

. .

0d ., 1 9 48 1 . .

2‘
II 2 2 35 1
. .

2‘
Cd 3 2 68
. .

2°
1 6 45 9 . .

27 IL , 2 1 2 30 . .

38
0d, .

2°
IL, 8 2 1 . .

3° 11 16 38 8
. .

39 7
 POLITI CAL IDE AS OF THE GREEKS
3‘
0d 9 . 2 1 4- 5 . The hi story of this w d
or di ke ( Man) is
discussed i n Le ct ur e I V .

32
H o m er ic H ym n to A p ollo, 3 9 46 .

33
H o m er ic H ym n to A p ollo 2 5 3 ; , com p a re 390 . H is
d welli ng -
p la c e.
”
vn6g, is th e classic al w d or for a
“
temp le,
”

or
“
go ds ’
h ouse .

IL, 9 1 5 6
34 . .

35 0 d 1 14
, 9 . . .

3°
0 d 1 1 5 68 —7 1 . .

37
0 d 14 5 6 11 .
, . .

’9
I] 15 1 19 D ei mos ( H or ror) a nd Phobos ( F ear) a re
. .

“ ”
p ers om fied ; a nd Os s a ( R um o ur) litera lly a voi ce in 0 d , , , .

“ ”
24 4 1 3 : a nd th e exp uls ion of di ké
. b y ba d ki ngs co m es
very nea r t h e sa m e s t a ndp oi nt .

3’
0 d 2 68 N ati ona l flu ev v tg
. O l umrlou i zBé O éu
. zor og l
’

isr é vbpc w dyo pdg imév Mae: izBé w etter

’
.

Bl is s E J
H ar ri s on, Th emi s C a m br i dg e,
. . . 1 9 12, p .

48 1 - 5 . C om p are a n early R om a n i n v oca t ion i n L i v y, 1 . 32 .

6, a udi Jup ite r , a udi te fin es a udi at fas an d Aus oni us exp ress
,
’

,
’

i dentifica tion, p ri ma deum fas qua: Themi s est Gr am T ech n . .

I dyll, D e D ei s , 1 - 2 .

‘1
IL , 20 4 . . I1 1 5 78 - 9 9
‘2
. .

‘3 Aristotle, Poli ti cs , 3 4 15 1 2 7 7 h 15
. . . . .

“l l 9 69 .

‘5
II 7 2 86 ;
. com p are 1 1 47 2 , 1 5
. . 5 5 9 , 1 6 6 32 . .

‘5
0d 22 43 7 ; . co m p a re IL 1 5 7 1 :
, . al s o with a p arti cip le,
fipxe M 60 36 x lo w, ll 3 44 7
. .

‘7
0 d 5 2 37 fipxev 8 30 20 , th ough 0 d , 8 107 h as fipxe as up
.
, . , . .
,
«

« (new080V M ap 0 1 fi l m IL , 1 7 5 9 7 , 7191 3 43 60 10 , com p a re . .

24 . 723 7 60 m : IL, 2 0 15 4 dpxéu

. eva z at 8 0 01 31 41 8 0 ; r ol éuozo . . .

T he
“
g eniti ve is als o use of a o y of p er sons p ut i n m o d b d
tion by th eir custom a r y lea der , such as the m ilita ry con

ti ngents in th e C atalog ue, a nd th e briga des in IL, 1 2 9 3- 9 8 .

,

16 . 1 736 ; 0d 10 . 20 5 , r aw uév éycbv i pxov: 18 . 2 66, fi l ms

is ov era lpwv .

‘3
0 d , 10 20 5 ; 1 4 2 30 ; 2 3 37 0, 24 5 0 1 ; IL, 2 805
. . . . . . .

‘9
ll 15 9 5 . dkl d 0 6 7 5 pxe Oeoi ct
.
'
i v! Ba rt h; item .

3 98
 NOTE S
5°
0 d , 8 1 07
. . .

51
0 d , 1 28 r otor at nbflmv fipxe ( very
. . , com m only ) .

as
1 . 1 44. d oxtg Mp B M oul poq; com p are dropal
'

60 0 1 119 690 1 , 0 d , 9 1 12. . .

53
0 d , 14 446, 5 9 7 m m W oe 03 0 m
. . .

11 2 837 , 691 m m; d fipdw ; 0 d , 3 400 7tadw

’ '

. . . . .

‘5
IL, 7 3 24 ; 9 9 3
. . .

Od . l 3 67
. . .

‘7
0 d 14 4 28 . .

“ t pu
3 0
d , 8 499 , a; sdO , 6 8 nflelg 030 6 fipxer o M ve 6
’ ’ ’
. .
,

40 1569 .

0 d , 1 188 ; 2 25 4 ; 1 1 438 ; 1 7 69
. . . . .

“ n, 1 1 604 a m os ; 0 d 8 8 1 fl
.
m . .
m og ; n 2 2 1 10
. . .

n ixeoc.
‘1
0d 21 4 ; 24 169
. . .

a
0d 1 9 13 . .

0 d , 2 1 3 1—
. 38 . .

I L, 3 98- 1 10 . .

‘5
E sch ylus Prometheus, 64 9 0 8 ; H er o dotus, 6 9 2 a ba fig
, . . . .

0“T lfiew is to m a k e to vi b r ate

“ ”
he nor m al sense of m k u
’

16 6 1 2 ; b ut it is also use d of m en r a ttled b y

“ ”
a sp ear, 11 .

vi olent blo s. IL, 4 5 35 w . .

Th e ver b is si gn» to link t ogeth er

‘7 “
0 791; is a p la ce of
assem bly
”
I] 1 8 5 3 1 ; a nd elpfim, the sta te of p eace
. . h en , w
f w
one t hing ollo s on anot h er in or der ly ashi on f .

‘3 9 . 15 6 ; com p are p 129 . .

D em osth enes, 1 4 5 5 . 15 . (101 i; dvbpa 63 6mm .

7°
0 d , 10 3 8
. . .

7‘
Q uintili a n, 8 7 6 . . .

7’
S uetoni us , Ti beri us 43 , .

7' Vir il Geor i c 1 9 9

g g , , . .

7‘ O vi d, Meta morp hos es , 2 1 18

. .

7‘T erence, E unuchus 2 2 2 1 , . . .

7"
Plautus, A mp hi truo 8 3 1 , . . .

7‘ Virgil, fl u id, 5 72 6 . .

C icero, dc Rep ubli ca, 2 13 . .

3 99
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
E nnius, A nn ales 3 4 , . .
“
1
Acts , 19 3 4 . .

32 R . H . C odr ington, The Melanesi ans , Ox f d or , 1 8 9 1, p .

1 183 .

33
E . T re g ea r , Maori - Polynesi an C omp ar ati ve Di cti onary ,

W ellington N Z , . .
, 1 8 9 1, s . c. M a na . R R Marett, The Thresh
. .

old o f Reli gi on L on don 1 9 09 p 1 2 1 . , , . .

34 Mi s
s A C Fletch er The Om aha Tri be W as hi ng ton
. .
, , ,

19 1 1 E S H ar tla nd Proceedi ngs of B ri ti s h A ssoci ati on for

. . .
,

the Adva ncem ent of S ci ence ( Y ork ) 1 9 0 6 p 6 7 5 6 , , . .

85
F or exa m p le F M C or nfor d F rom Reli gi on to Phi los , . .
,

op hy L on do n 1 9 1 2 p p
, 8 3—87 , , . .

9°
H esio d Theogoni a 8 1 — 97 , F or furt her illus tra tion a nd , .

com m ent ary, see A E . . Zi m m ern, The Greek Com monwea lth .

f
O x or d 1 9 1 1 , p 9 2
, . .

“
7
W e s h oul d n ote th a t for H esiod th e greates t , , of th ese
Muses wh o es p ecially cares for ki ng s a nd s ingers
, , is C a l
liO p e ,
“
o ur ai r voice.
la y d
L a ter s he con nes of th e f fi h er
O p era t ions t o ep i c p oet r y, th a t
“
a m e of or m er m en,
”
f f wi th
wh i ch s h e ch ar m s a w a y care i n this p assa ge . T hat th e w o d r

h as p ro ba bly quite
a different p hilological d ri v ti n f m
e a o , ro
“
f ac e
”
( Miss G H . . Mac ur dy , Troy a nd P aeoni a , New
York, 1 9 25 p does not affect the G reeks o wn belie
, .
’
f
a s t o i ts m eani ng .

3“P n d r
i a , Nem , 3 1 6, apxew fluvov ; S op h ocles , E lectr a 5 5 3 . .
, .

l ow- now ra g m ent 337. 669 110 f

T hi s constr uct ion i th a . w
d i rect a ccus a ti ve is i n H om er ( 0 d 8 but see m s not t o .

ff
a ect th e sense of th e v er W ith th e geni ti ve as i n H o m er, b .

T hucy i d des 5 1 9 , h as dpxezv

, . n ovbav; with the d a ti ve, Pin dar .

I sth m ., 6 5 5 , h as m ovba i c w
. .

8°
Pin dar Nem 5 45 , .
, . .

Th ucydi des 1 1 0 7 , . .

’1
X enop h on, C yrus , 8 7 26 ; H erodotus. 3, 80 . . .

“H er odotus , 1
9 .

H er odot us 5 7 1 , . .

u H ero dotus . 4 14 7 1 9 6—101

; . . .

“
5 E
nni us, A nnales , 8 4 . .

H erodotus, l 9 5 . .

400
 NOTE S
’7 T h ucydi des , 3 9 0 . .

E xa m p les of s uch lor ds

“
’3 are dpxtfldzl a coog d pxlcpmr og ; of
“
l ea ders ,
”
d pxtl nc n jg
'
'
d extflza ol mg, d pxw plxl wog
'
.
(S t . J o h n,
2 .

9° Pla to
P oli ti cu ,
s, 25 9 E . wh ere th e li p-
ra r it y dpxmv i s con

w
tr a s ted i th th e m ere é pya r mbg .

1”
Th uc ydi des, 4 1 28 . .

“1 H er odotus 3 9 7 , . .

1 c: H er o dotus , 1 . 1 74 . T er pa uuévn; é; r bw ov
d pyuév q; Ti ) ; xepcovficou B ufia cc lng .

H er o dotus , 4 . 6 0 or deal ;
. f in» as
’
fiv 1 0 6 ar p6oou.
1 04
IL , 3 2 9 1 ; 1 6 6 3 0
. . .

"5 II 3 30 9 Oavdrr ozo ;

. 9 . 41 1 , 13 . 60 2 , om rozo
'

1 61 0 0 5 3 .

0 d 20 74 . .

“7 IL 2 1 4 5 0 —2
, . .
ulcOoto rél og .
'
I n la ter G reek , éw oh ;
’

m eans a ny i njunction
”
inten ded t o be ul lle d f fi .

“8 IL 16 8 3 . .
,

1 “ IL 18 3 7 8 -9
, . .

11 °
IL 10 56 él flei v é; 4: 0 l leptv T él og ; 10 4 7 0 , i n!
‘

, . . .

9 91mm» l Eov ibw eg ; th e h ole w arm y biv ouacs év r ek éec cn;

11 . 73 0 ; 1 8 . 29 8 .

“1 H er o dotus 2 . 64 . 6pvt0mv c él ea : 1 . 10 3 , of terr itoria l

,

levi es ; 7 . 8 7, of c a v a lry ; E sch ylus, Pers a ’

, 47, of ch a ri ot s ;

T h ucydi des 1 4 8 , of ship s , . .

“3 ”
24 6 60 T el éc m r é . .
sov E ur o 9 :
“3 I] 14 1 9 5 . .

“ I] 1 8 4 2 6 el S bva a z m es a ; e R at ei r er el ec évov éor l

1
u .
y , .
a
‘
.

“5 IL 9 1 5 6 r el éoucn Oe lcr a z l 5 A l t 6 ér el eler o 30 0 1 1

u g 3
’
; ( '
. . . . .
,

1 “ IL 1 3 3 77
, th e or d tr a n sla ted fulfi l ( 37 5 ) i s Tal ent -beam,
. w
b ut i n th e a ns we i r n g c a use l ( 3 7 7 ) r el éca tuev is used .

11 1
H er odotus 1 3 2 , . . am t; xpfiu arrog Ti jv T el eur i jv .

“3 E uri i des S u li ces 1 1 3 7 5 m ? b d u el -

p pp , 0 1 : 1 an r, v r q . .

“9 C i cer o A d F a m 3 2 3 3 ; i n P i s onem 2 1
; , , . .
, .

13 °
Li vy 2 40 , . .

m C icero
, p ro S ulla , 1 8 ; p ro C azli o, 2 6 .

m E s ch lus E umeni des 7 4 3 com a r e A a m em non 9 08

y , , ; p g , .

40 1
 POLITIC AL IDEAS OF TH E GREE KS
“3 Ci cero de L e i bus , 2 14 3 6 i ni ti a ue ut a ellantur i ta
, g q pp . .
,

re vera p ri n ci p i a mtw cog n ovi m us

'

E ls e h ere A ca demi ca . 2 . w , .

of e x a c t sci ence
“ ”
36 1 16 h e s p ea k s of t h e
.
, p r in cip les as ,

illa i ni ti a m ath em ati cor um qui bus non conces si s di gi ta m p ro , ,

gr edi non p os s um a nd of t h e p h ysic al

“
elem ent s
,
”
i th a , w
f m eta p h or —dude
’
a r m er s es t i nda g atio n at a i n i ti or um si ta n
'

qua m s em i n um unde es seni om m a orta , g en er ata, con cr eta .

Tusc . D i sp ., 5 . 24 . 69 . T h es e i ni ti a w ere , in dee d , in a ll

p ro b ability o n ce wh at a G r eek ca lled dwa pxa t, a p a r kh a i ,

fi rs t f r uits,
”
or
“
p r eli m i nar y
”
ri tes , of th e f a r m er s
yea r
’

as Va rro _
sa ys (D e re r usti ca , 3 . l . i ni ti a voca ntur p oti s si

m um qua: C er eri fiunt s cam ; a nd i t w as th e sa m e

ea, with a

new r eig n : n oms i ni ti es et o m i m bus O p us est C ur tius , 5

' ' '

. . 9 .

“ C ic ero de F ato 1 5 3 4 C a us a qua: i d flici t cui us

1
, , . . ea es t. e ,

ut volnus mom s , mor bi i gni s ar dori s I taque

er udi tas
'

es t ca us a ; , .

n on s i c ca usa i ntellegi debet, ut qua d cui que a ntecedat, id ei

ca us a est, s ed quod ca i que e flici enter a ntecedat .

125 D e F i ni bus B onorum et M alor um li terally , ren dered i nto

G reek becom es wept él mv xa l cw m al a lc w T h e w or d
’

13 rxpé
'
, t .

r él og, as
'
we h a v e s ee n, ca n m ea n a
“
b
p u lic ofli ce, a
“
s qua d
”

of s ol diers , a
“
flock
”
of bir ds , a t a x, or a
“ ”
conclusi on ;

it m ig h t p erh a p s, o n H om eri c a nal ogy, m ea n

“
death ,
”
b ut
certai nly n ot h a tev er c om es a ter dea th w f .

NO T E S F O R L E C T U R E I V
1
Mis s J . E . H arr ison, Th emi s, C a m bri dge , 1 9 1 2, p . 5 1 7,
p a ra p h r as es t h e wa y
“
of th e w ld or , t h e wa y thing s h a p p en .
”

2
0 d , 2 4 2 5 4- 5
. . .

3 0d 4 69 1 .

4
0d 3 24 4, éqcel weptozbe 3lu g i181} 0 06m 57m m
. .

5 0d .
, 9 2 15
. .

0d 1 1 5 70 . .

7
IL, 1 6 5 4 2 . .

8
I] 1 8 5 08 .
.

9
II 3 1 09 - 1 0 .
1°
11 1 6 3 8 6 —8 .
.

11
ll 2 3 5 42
. .

40 2
 NOTES
1”
IL , 19 179 3 . .

13
IL 1 2 37—9 :
, . see p . 128 .

‘4
0d 1 1 184—6 . .

15
0d .
, 9 . 10 6 ; 8 5 75 ; 1 3 201 . . .

1°
0d 2 2 8 2 ; 3 1 3 3 ; 1 3 2 09 . . .

17
0d 20 2 9 4 ; 2 1 3 1 2
. . .

13
0d .
, 18 . 4 14 ; 2 0 . 3 22 , illustra ti ng l l . 19 . 1 8 1—8 . H ym n
to A p hrodi te 2 0 T h e g eneral qualities of th e di koi as
. a re

d
illus t r a t e als o by H om eric H ym n to E a rth ( ) 63 xxx . .

19
I L, 1 1 8 3 2 . .

2°
I L, 1 3 dBlo w d
'
. 6 .
yl awcmpdqmv, r e, t a tor d
'
m nv po mmv .

T o ta k e
“
Abior as a t ri b al n a m e i s t o di s r up t t h e p ortra itur e
a nd los e an ess enti al f ea ture . N0
“
m ea ns of li v elih oo
”
d ,

s uch as s eden t a ry f olk s p r a c tise, h a d t h ese c ur io us p eop le ;

th ey ju t d s ra n k m ilk ! A n d it m a y b e ques ti on ed h eth er w
Bzm zo'rd wv does n o t re e r a s f m uch t o th e m onoto nous si m i

lar it y of
“
th o r oug h b red ”
p eop le t o ea ch oth er, as t o t h ei r
uni f
or m i ty of beh avi our : i n thi s s e nse m ost C hina m en s eem
“
tr ue t o typ e
”
t o t h e ne w co m er .

H o m eric H ym n to A r es 5
21
ama zor dm ov dye cpmr d w C om
’

. . .

p are H ymn to A p hr odi te, a lr ea y quote d n ote 1 8 d , .

22
IL, 8 4 3 1 C om p a re 1 5 41- 2 ,
. h ere H era tells Zeus
. . w
“
th a t h e l -
o v es 1 9 0 7, 1 4 8m epovéow a t dzteuev, t o se ttle th i ng s
behind h er back .
”

23
I L, 2 3 5 74 .

24
0d 1 1 5 47 . .

25 IL, 18 5 0 6 . . r otow fi zoaov, du fiqal; Sé alm tov

oz
'
.

2°
0d 1 2 44 0 . . x p lvmv vefxea r ol le
r Bm oztouévwv a ltfimv .

’7
0d
’
1 1 5 70
S im ; efpow o dvaxr a
. . .

2°
Pi ndar , P yth, 2 15 5 barofie fioou a z 86cm 1 6x0 0 . . .

2°
E sch ylus, S ep tem , 8 5 .

3°
Pla to , P h wdr us , 23 5 D . Ela m dyyelo u .

31 X enop h on, C yr us , 8 . 3 38. Ari s totle,

. Poli ti cs , 2 . 3 . 9 .

1 2 62 a. S op h ocles , A n ti gon e, 2 9 1 —2, 81m in) ; of

25 . w ell

b ”
eh a v ed h orses C om p ar e e nop h on C yr us , 2 2 2 6
. X . . .

a E m p edocles , f ra g m ent B . 2. 4 . D iels . Bla me a a m ofi.

H esi o d , Wor ks a nd D ays 2 6 3- 4 , .

4 03
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
3‘ H esi od, W or ks a nd D ays 2 20- 6 , .

35 T he very i ngeni ous e xp la na tion f

o f e re d by M i ss J . E .

H arri son, Th emi s C am bridge , 1 9 12, p . 5 16 , does n ot ap

p ea r t o co v er a ll th e ci r c um s t a nc es .
3 “E sch ylus , E um enides, 43 3—4 . F or th e m ea ni ng of r a m;
s ee p . 15 9 5 .

37
H esio d, W or ks a nd D a ys , 2 7 5 - 28 5 . F or th e full s i g ni fi

ca nc e of v6aa g , of whi ch thi s a p p ea r s t o b e th e e a rli es t ext a n t

m enti on, s ee p . 24 7 .

33
H es i o d , W or ks a nd D a ys , 2 75 —285 . T he
p as s a g e wh ole

is of th e fi r st i m p or tan ce fo r i ts p arallel trea t m en t of h um a n

a nd bi ologic a l or der .
3°
H esi o d, Theogoni a , 4 1 1 —4 1 5 , 4 28 —4 3 0, 4 3 4 . F or d un as

th e r ecog ni t i on th e p res en ce of d wt; i n

'
of a p er s o n, s ee pp .

1 46 . 149 . x
A g o od e a m p le i s 0 d 1 4 1 1 7 . . .

4° “
M ak es em i n ent s eem s to b e t h e o nly p os sible r en der
”

i ng of us w r péws z i n thi s p a ss a g e th oug h t h e us ua l m ea ni ng o f ,

th e w or d i s i n t r a n s i ti v e ,
“
is e m i nent .
‘1
de Medea 4 105
E urip i s, , .

‘2 H e i o d Th o oni a
s e g 901fi
, , .

‘3
T hi s p ri m ar y s en s e of (600; s een i n H er odotus, 1 . 4,
w h er e sensi le p eop le do b n ot
“
r eg a r d it s er i o usly
”
if w om e n

let th em s elves b e carr i e d off; com p a r e 9 . 8:

“
at th e t i m e
”
th ey t ook no n otic e of it . C o m p ar e th e co m p oun ds Oupmpé g
“
doork eep er ,
”
and p6; ,
“
i n a tten ti v e .
”
I o w e, ho we v er,

to M r R oder ick M c K enz ie

.
, of St .J oh n s
’
C olleg e, O xf or d,

th e w a r ni n g th a t t h e o ri g i n o f th e w or d (1390: is o b s cur e, a nd

it s c onn e xion wi th (690: di s p ut a le, p hilolog i c ally b

Th e p er .

s oni fied H or a i a re i n H om er g a t e- a r der s , I I 5 7 4 9 , 8 3 9 3 w . . .

os tler s, a tten di n g to ret ur ni n g c h a r iot s I1 8 433 ; m er e

. . rec k

o ner s of ti m e as betwee n em p loyer a n d e m p lo ye d 21 . 45 0 .

I n H o m eri c H ym n to A p hr odi te ( vi ) 5 a n d 1 2 t h ey a t te n d t o
A p h r o di te s t oilet ; i n H e si o d W or ks a n d D a ys 7 5 t o t h a t of
’
, ,

Pa n do ra . In Th eogon i a 9 0 13 ( a b ov e quot e d) th ey a re

da ug h ter s of T h e m i s , t h ei r na mes a re E un o m ia , D ik e, and

E i r ene, a nd th ey s till h ave nothi n g to do wi th “ ”

h ours or
oth er s p eci al occ as i ons , b ut a re c h a rg ed wi th th e n o r m al

40 4
 I JCYI TESi

course of events in general O n th es e H esio di c H or ai . see

. . f
F M C orn or d, F rom Reli gi on to P hilos op hy ( L on don ,

—170 a nd Mis s H a rr is on Them i s C a m bri d e

pp 168 . , ( g , ,

pp 5 15 —5 18
. .

H er ac litus f ra g m ent 94 . D iels .

H eracli tus f r a g m en t 1 00 . D iels .

‘5
H er aclitus f ra g m ent 133 . D iels ; re p ute d doubtful , b ht
ring i ng tr ue, lik e
’
so m a ny of tha t thi nk er s r em a i ns .
‘7
T h e G r eek w d or for
“
true, 021 130 9 6 is , literally, un
f org et ful ,
”
jus t as th e n ea r es t a p p roac h to a w d or for
“
s in
”

“
i n G reek is dya pr la , a ba d s h ot .

Si m ila rly, if a m o dern G reek p easa n t is ca ug h t trip p ing ,

hi s us ua l ex cus e i s M 00 ; fir ove, x Opze

“
I t wa s a s lip of m em .

ory, s ir ,
”
w
h o e ver m uc h to his o w n a dva nta ge if som eone ,

else had not h a p p ene d to

“
re m e m ber .
”

‘3
I a m b lich us
Vi t P ythag , 9 4 6 , . . . .

fi
Th e ra m i ca tions of this a lleg or ical m ys tic i s m , on the
w
bor derland bet een religion a nd p hilos op h y a re illus tra te d ,

i n such orks as Mi ss wE H a r r is on Them i s ( C a m br idge J . . , ,

a nd F . M . C or n f d or , F rom R eli gi on to Philo op hy s

( Lon don , a nd, wi th a n a lo gies collected f rom o th er

c ult ures , i n th e w r iti ng s of D ur kh ei m a nd L e v y B r uhl, i n

R H irt zel Them i s ( B erli n
.
, , a nd in G . G . A . Mur ray ,

F i ve S tag es of Gr eek Reli gi on . ( O xford ,

5° E v en th e H esi odi c acco un t of H ec a te s ee m s t o be o ut of

p lace as it s ta n s d in our te t x o f th e Th eogoni c , a nd it i s a ls o

out of a ccord with oth er v ers i ons of h er o ri g i n , wh i ch m ake

h er. for x e a m p le, a daugh ter of D em ete r.

5
H er o dotus
1
, 1 2 . .

e od otus
‘3 H 8 3 , Xm fi
r , 1 . 1 15 ; 6 . 12 9 . 8t86va z; 5 . dvew S ha w;
9 94 él ei v, yevéoOaz
. . .

‘3 H ero otu d
s, l 1 20 ; 8 . . 1 1 4, BexéoOa z .

5‘ H er od otus 9 94
, . .

‘5
H ero dotus , 9 64. .

H erodotus , 6 1 3 9 ; 1 9 7 ; 3 14 ; 3 3 1
. . . . .

‘7 H
erodo tu s , l 9 6, an d
. ow: 1 84 , T elm ess ia n w . oracle.
‘3 E sch ylus, C hoep hor ae, 1 20 Blad e-
ti ) ; .

405
 POLITI CAL IDEAS OF T HE GREEKS
H ero dot us, l . 1 00 .

dotus 3 2 9
H ero , . .

e od ot us 5 9 2 2
‘1 H r
, . . .

a H ero dotus 1 8 9 birth days

C roes us ; , . . 1 . 1 23 .

“3 H r od t us 9 4 2
e o , . .

Pindar fr ag ment 1 5 1 , .

‘5 E s ch ylus , A g a mem non, 3 9 3 .

S op h ocles, A nti gone, 45 0 - 1 .

‘7
ZEs ch ylus, S ep tem , 6 6 2 —671 .

‘9
E sch ylus , S up p li ces , 23 0—1 .

E C
s ch ylus ,
ho e p h or d , 6 1 —4 .

7° Pla o P rota oras 3 22 -C

t , g B , . .

7‘ Ari s totle P oliti cs 1 2 125 2 b

, 24 , . . . . .

s t otle P oli ti cs , 1 2 1 25 3 a l
72 Ari
, . . . . .

73
I h a v e m ysel f w
i tnessed s uch a recogni ti on-scene in a
S a n F r a ncisco ca é bet een sch oolm a tes rom a villa g e in f w f
Arca di a .

7‘ T here was a ncient dis p ute a bout th e p recise or d a t w

thi s p oi nt ; b ut wh eth er th e qua rrel was a out a m a n w h o b
“
h ad b een kille d ,
”
dom i n a t es or ha d die d ,
”
dwooficuévo to,
it is cle a r th a t t h e de f d en a n t n ot o nly w as h eld res p o n s i ble
b ut a dmi tted hi s res p ons i bili ty a nd was offer i ng a p p ea s e

m ent .

7“IL, 5 266 ; 1 4 48 3 ; 1 8 49 8
. . . .

7°
I] 13 65 9
. .

77
IL, 9 6 3 3 . .

79
0 d , 1 5 272- 8
. . .
7’
0d .
, 23 1 1 8 6
. .

8°
F or th e H o m eric use of s ee p . 73 .

31
T hi s se nse
“
h a d not ta k en , a n yth i ng , w ould h a ve re

qui re d obbév él écfia z, n ot T he correct tr a nsla ti on i s

due , I t hi nk , t o Pa s ow followed
s , by W . Lea f J , our n al f
o

H ell en i c S tudi es , VI I I d i n hi s edi ti on o f t h e I lia d , 1 22 , an ,

Lon do n 1 9 0 2 p p 6 1 0—6 1 4 ; b y S ir F Pollock i n his edi tio n

, , . .
,

of M a i n e s A nci ent L a w p p
’
x 38 5 8 405 th ; a n d b y A E
"
, .
, . .

Zi m m er n, Th e Gr eek C om mo n wealth . f
O x or d 1 9 2 3 p 8 3 , , . .

H ow h a r d it w as for t h e x
ne t-of-ki n , brough t up under th e
d
old co e of r etalia ti on, to f ore g o his ri g h t t o t a k e blood fo r

4 06
 NOTES
blood , is illustra ted b oth in C eltic s oc iet y by th e beha viour
of O rgetorix, wh o b r ok e up th e c our t hic h wa s to tr y hi m , w
C aes a r, de B ello Galli co, 4 ; and in T e uto nic, b y a n e a ctly x
p a ra llel i nci dent in I celan d quo te b y G W D as ent
early d . .
,
'
The S tory f
o B urnt Njal L o n o n 186 1 I ntr o uctio n, p
. d , . d .

lv
“
I ns tea d of f ollo wi ng up t h e f ude by re v en g e, t he r ela

ud
.

ti ons of th e m r ere d m a n ha d p urs ued it at la w ; b ut wh en

t h ey ca m e to p lea d a t t h e nea r es t thi n g

”
(
“
m a s s m ee ti ng,
”

lik e th e H o m eric agor d)

“
th ei r a d versar ies , w h o li ve d close

to th e court , m us tered i n grea t orce f a nd w o ul d not allo w

”
th e trial t o com e o n Th e res ult was. a syn wki s rrws , a s th e
ea rly G reeks ca lled it ; th e wh ole of I cela nd was di vi de d i n t o
f our
“
quar ters ,
”
ea ch with its ow n thi ng , c on s i der a bly la rg e r

th a n t he old local thi ngs whi ch it s up er s e de d ; a nd it wa s

fu th er p ro vi ed t h a t s u
r i ts eg un i n o ne of d b the f o ur
“
Q uarter
thi ng s
”
s h oul be ca rrie
“
if n ee ere
”
d d d w to t h e Althi ng, or

m as s m ee ting of all I cela nder s, wh ere a ny s i n g le c la n whi ch

d to defeat th e new concilia tory p ocedure ould be o ut

t r ie r c

num b ered a nd i nd uced t o conc ur i n t h e g e ne a l will E ve n r .

th e new p roce d ure did not a lwa ys b r in g p e ce

“
so , Thus a .

I llugi t h e bro th er of G retti

, t h e g ea t o utla w p eferre d r, r , r

dea th a t the h a nds of h is [G rettir s] m ur dere s ra th er th a n

’
r

fo ego the rev eng e which he wa s bound to ta k e D sent

r .
”
a ,

l c p xxix note 2
. .
, .
, .

82
I L, 2 3 48 6 . .

H om eric H ym n, 3 2 2
83 H es io , W or ks a nd D ays, 7 9 0 ; . . d
S op h ocles, E lectr a 8 5 0 ; E uri p i des , I p hi gen i a i n Ta uri s ,
,

1 43 1 la to, C r atylus , 40 6 B
. P .

“4
C aes a r, de B ello Galli co, 1 4 ( O r g eto ri x) : see note 8 1 . . .

35
G . W D ase nt The S tory of B ur n t Nja l
.
, . L o n don , 1 8 6 1 ,
pp . 1 9 7 , 202- 0 3, 2 1 3—2 14 .

9°
C o m p a re th e ges tures o f a c hi e f wi th hi s scep tre . IL 3 2 18 .
, .

37
I L, 23 5 79 ; l 5 42 a n d p 1 7 4 . . . .

83
0d 1 1 5 45 ; 1 2 440
. . .

3°
11 23 75 0 —75 1
. .

ll 1 . 23 1 , 3719 0 3690 4 1 H es io d , W or ks a nd D a ys 263—4 , .

Bmpoodyoz
,
.

407
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
0 d 9 33 5 369 ; 1 0 2 04 ; Il 1 25 2 ; 1 1 63
. . . . . .

u A E Zim m er n The Gr eek C om mon wealth

. . Ox , . f d or , 19 2 3
3
,

p . 83 . f
O ur i n or m a ti on a bo ut th ese wp um vei a m ostly con
c er ns th e wa y i n w
hi c h th ey ere le vie d ro m litig a nts , b ut w f
it s eem s nec es sar y, f ro m wh at is k n o wn of th e dep a rt m ental
or g a ni sa t i on of Ath enia n fi na nce , to i nfer t h a t th e fund thu s

ac c um ula te d was
us ed for th e p a ym en ts to th e di kastai ;
a nd p r o ba bly th e
A th eni a n p ractice jus ti es th e in erence fi f
t h a t th e
“ ”
tw o ta len ts i n t h e H o m eric s cene ere p rov i ded w
b y th e m a n wh o w as a p p e ali ng to the elders for a di ké .

93 Ar is totle, A theni a n C ons ti tution 3 5 , . .

T h is va se h a s been rep ea tedl y fi gur ed, e g , E ncyclo p e di a . .

B ri tann i ca , 19 1 0 a r ticle Alp ha bet p la te a t p 7 28

, O nly th e , . .

f
la s t s ylla bles ollo i ng th e h exa m ete r line 8; vfiv bpxnm aww ,
'

mi n -mv d1 a M 1 az1 a na m e: are blundered a nd ap

fi
p a rently un ni s h e , as tho ugh this unus ual c 3 ort h a d d been
to o m uch for th e s cri e
“
T h ey m a y be 1 0 6 1 68e, of him b .
[be]
” “
this , or 1 0 5 1 0 Bsxd v p ay, this h e is [] to receiv e.
95 Ar istotle, A th eni a n C ons ti tuti on, 5 9 .

”5
S i nc e this p ar a g ra p h was ri tten D r W A H ei del h as w . . .
,

s ugg es te d to m e th e p oss i bil ity t h a t th ere w as i n At ti ca ( as

in a nc ient I s r ael a nd i n th e I cela n di c althi ng) a n a nnua l re

,

h e ar s a l of all a cc ep ted rules of b eh a vi o ur ; b ut if th e p ub lica

ti on of t h e Attic thes moi b y D ra c o wa s a n inn o v a ti o n, as the
a ncien t a cc o u nt of it s ug ges ts , it is di fficult to see i n hat w
f o r m s uc h a
“
rea di ng of th e la w
”
could h a ve been perform ed
before D raco s ti m e
’
.

’7
0 d 23 2 9 6.
,13 . . 1 90 10 s a l a mi Geop ov b u
o y- 10 .

98
H o m er , H ym n to A r es , 1 6 .

d
Q uote b y Ari stotle, Atheni a n Constitutio n, 1 2 4 . .

W An
doci des 1 1 1 9 —2 6 , . .

1 01
E s ch ylus, E umenides , 38 9 3 484 . .

m S o h ocles A ntig one , 79 6 80 13 ms H ero dotus 3 31

p , . . , . .

1“
F or a n i ns ta nce of C a m byses r uthles s ness , B erodo
’
see
tus , 5 . 25 .

"5
S ir P . Vi nog ra dofl, H i stori c al Juri s p rudence, 11 . Ox ford ,

1 9 2 2, p . 129 .

40 8
 NOTES
"5S o too D arius tem p ora r ily i ns t alled a t S ardi s sa t t o
, , , ,

g i v e j us tice év a poa m el qi,i n th e b azaar -s ubur b us t outs i de j

the g a te of th e city or th e ci ta del H e ro dot us 5 1 2 On . , . .

t h e Bonkoli on s ee H a rris o n a n d Verr all Mythology a nd Monu ,

m ents of A ncig nt A thens L on don 1 8 9 0 p p 1 6 5 -6 , , , . .

“7 Ar is totle A then i a n C ons ta ta ti on 8 3 5 6 3

, In 57 1 , . . . . .

the B as ileus is ch a r g e d wi th a ll
“
a nc es t ra l
”
fes ti v a ls .

“3 Aris totle A theni a n Cons tituti o n 5 9

, , .

W “Aris totle A th eni a n C ons ti tuti on 5 5 Th ere is no 619m .

, ,

y pmu an efig t h a t i s as t h ere w as (i n s p ite of th e co nt ra di cti o n

,

im p lied) a n (59w Sc arl et»;

C ollitz -B ec h tel Gri echis che D i alekti ns ch riften I I I 2 49 9 1
, . . .

1“
C ollitz-B ech tel l c : A te ra i n Vol I I I Nos 49 4 1 —8
, . .
p ( .
, .

D elp hi (i n Vol Nos . . 1 68 43 .

“3 Aris to tle A theni a n C ons tituti on 4 4 . .

, ,

“3 Aristotle oli ti cs , 3 1 1 2 7 5 a 22 —3 2 P . . . . dbpzm o; dpxfi,

,

Book eun xfi (éxxc ta n ofi ) , n om ic?)

1“ Ar is t otle A then i a n C on sti tuti on 5 7 4 . .
, ,

“5 Ar is totle, A theni a n C o n s ti tuti on 45 l , . .

m Th e d a te of th is c h a lle ng e of E um elides is n ot certa i n,

b ut the us e of th e w ord di ka s teri on , or

“
p la ce h e re w a di kas tes
w or k s
”
li k e é pya fl np lov
-
or k s h op
“
w ,
”
Boul eur qp lov, c o unc il
“

h a ll .
”
o w w t np lov,
“
t h inki ng s h o p
‘ '
-
”
( fo r a
“
c olleg e
”
s ug ) —
ge s t s th a t i t i s n o t e a rlier t h a n S olo n s
’
es ta blis h m ent of a

s ys tem of a p p ea l-c our ts of t hi s p o p ula r ki n d .

“7 T le o le m us blo
p (l l 2
. . 6 6 1 - 6 6 7 ) k illed a o d-rela ti v e , a nd

wa s e xp elled b y th e son s a nd g r a n ds o n s
”
of H e r ac les , th e
na m es a k e of th e c la n . O n th e ot h er han d Ph oenix (l l . 9 .

447 th o ug h x
e c o m m unica te d b y hi s f at h er wa s p re
,

v e n te d b y hi s cla ns m e n f rom g oi n g i n t o e xile , till h e g a ve

th e m the slip .

“8 W h erea s th e A th e ni a n bas il eus t ook 0 3 hi s roya l in

s ign a i wh en h e wa s to be co ns i de re d o nl y as a p e er a m o ng

his p eers , so th e hig h p r ies t of E le us i s , wh en he ce le b ra ted

“
th e Mys teries ,
”
as a p r i es t-k i n
g of th e p re h is tor ic ki n d,
w royal
o re i nsig nia — s trop hion a nd s tolé —in token of h is
“ ” “
nitia ti ve
i a nd c om
p etenc e to ini tia te o th e r s i nto th e

409
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
lo ca l cult ; as a r em in der a ls o to th e m en of th e res t of Atti c a
( wh ich h a d joine d
“
th a t at E le us is th e uni ted s tates of

Attica ver y la te) t h e y w ere g ues ts a nd s t ra n gers i n the ter

ri tor y of an E leus inia n theocr a c y, ho we v er co m p letely a

p r ehistor ic
“
uni on of the cro wn s
”
had bliter ted the p oliti
o a

cal f ro nt ier alon g Mount E g a leus for a dm ini stra tiv e p u r

p oses ; th o ug h i ts df
e e ns i v e m as o nr y w as, a n d is s till, co n

s p ic uous w
h ere th e S a cre W a y t ra v er ses th e p a ss . d
Plato 4 B —E , 8 A, 1 5 D
no
, E uthyp hro: es p ecia lly . A sla ve
belonging t o E ut h yp h r o
’
s f a t h er h ad been killed i n qua r rel
a

by a m em ber of E ut h yp h r o
’
s cla n . The f
a th e r a r reste t h is d
l
r e a tiv e a n d s ent to a n
“
e xp oun der ”
of th e la w s for a d vi ce .

Be f ore the a ns w er c a m e t he xp os ure due to

rela ti v e died of e

neglect . E ut h yp h ro th ug h t i t S
o — i n accord wi th his czov

duty to th e od s — to g p o ec ut e hi s f a t h er for m urd er i n th e

r s ,

b
p u lic cour t o f t h e B as il eus : b ut th e kins m en t h o ug h t this
s up erfluo us a nd i m p ro p e r , f
the a m ily bei ng co m p etent to
deal wi th do m es tic o ff e n ces , ev en i n v olv in g th e dea th of a

k in s m a n , fo r it sel ; f a nd E uthyp h r o be ing in th eir v ie w n ot

c om p etent to a p p ea l a g a i ns t his f a t h er s
’
m a na ge m ent of th e
f
a f a ir.

NO T E S F O R L E C T UR E V

1
0 d , 9 233 ; co m p a re H o m eri c H ym n to H ermes, 188
. . .

”IL 9 2 17 24 6 2 6 ; 0 d , 7 1 7 9 ; 8 4 70 ; 1 3 5 0 14 436 ;
; , . ; . . . . . .

20 25 3 . .

a n 3 . 2 7 4 , th e h a ir of a s a cr i fi c i al vi c ti m ; 0 d , 20. . 2 10,
h ous es a nd s o f ort h in dis tri b uting an i nh erita nce ; 0 d .
, 6 .

188 . Zeus di s tributes p rosp erity a m ong m en .

‘
Il .
, 15 . 63 1 o xen ; 0 d
, 1 3 40 7 s wi ne ; 9 .
, .
, . 4 49 , th e C y
’
clop s ra m ; 11 5 . 777 , h or s es .

5
II 20 8, nym p h s in a grove .

5
0d 2 . 1 67 .

7
I L, 6 1 9 5 ; . co m p a r e 20 . 1 85 ; 2 . 75 1 (a nd r eg ularly in the
12 . 313 ; 0 d 11 . 1 8 5 ; 20 . 386 .
IL, 2 3 1 7 7 ; 2 78 0 ( p ass i v e)
. . .

410
 NOTES
H ero dotus , 8 . 1 37 ; 8 . 1 15 , a nd, m eta p h or ically, S op h o
c les , E lectra , 1 76 .
1°
H ero dbtus , 4 1 9 1 . .

Thucy i d des , 5 . 4 2, (mast olxei v 10 xmplov di l dm owf;

u
vé ew.
‘3
E sch ylus, Prometheus , 2 9 1—92 .

H ero dot us u6v1 wv; 32

'
13
, 6 . 11 . Oec w 1 6: l ca ve c o m p are 1 .

3 . 16, a nd 3 9 ; T h ucy i d des , 3 48 . .

H ero dotus , 1 59 . . P ers is t r a tus ,

'’
eveae 1 1W 11 9 m c o m p a re

5 . S op h oc les G di p us Tyra n nus, 2 3 7

29, 7 1, 9 2 . , .

15 E
sc h ylus, A g a mem non 8 0 2 e0 wpa n lamv 0 7a m véuwv , , .

S ep tem 5 9 0 ironclad ; A ga m em non 685 yl ai ccazv ; 7 4 l oxur

’
, , , , .

1“
0 d 10 1 5 9 xa v iev ér vo ofi Ki g
. , fi .
u n .

17 H esi od , W orks a nd D ays 4 03, dxpei o; 0 Ec ca z énéwv v0 p 6;

,
’ '
'
. .

‘3
H es iod , Thcogoni a , 5 26 0 000 0 1 139 10 ; Bela vo v0 u
, 6v 0 pm)
0mm .

19 6 5 11 Mace 7 0 6W: cepet u1 fiflea u6v l m wv

’
'
. . e1 d
1 z 1 ml vo

c om p are I1 2 . 4 7 4—5 , here two floc ks w of g oa ts h a ve been

mi xed being d “ ”
a nd are s orte at p as ture .

2°
H ero dotus , 4 6 2 , 66
. .

2‘ H er odotus, 1 . 78 , 01 111110 : ue1 zév1 e; 1 d; vo mit; vé ueofla z .

X en op h on, A nabas i s , 3 . 5 . 2 . Aris t otle, H i st A n i m ali um . .

,

3 5 2
. . .

2’
Plato Pha edr us , , 24 8 B . L a ws 67 9 A , . D em os th enes ,

“
3
H erodotus , 2 5 2 . . Pla to Protagor as 3 2 1 C , . .

3‘
H ero dotus , 3 38 . . C a m by es m ust h a ve been s m a d; o t h er

wi se 0 6 dv tpoi c l 1 e it a l u vo ézrexefpqce 7 9 16171 S o t oo,

a lozct ' '
. ,

in H er o dotus , 3 . 8 0 , th e
“
m o n a r ch
”
vé u dz 1 e x wéet
ou

a ll th e m o re s ig ni fi ca nt beca use in th e sa m e c on t e xt it i s
loovouln, whi ch Boul ebuaer dz 1 e min m e; i 1 0 now6y dzvocé pez,
“
f
r e er s

a ll its res olv es to a p u lic b ”

op i ni on for whi ch th e s t a n da r d is
s et b y th os e v6u<z ta 1141 9 101 .

25
W ith thi s as p ect of th e v er b a nd it s b
s u s t a n t i ves go a

few p oetica l c o m p oun ds ith t h e a cce nt t h r o n ack 0d , w w b .

6 10 6, dy p6v0 u
. 0; 9 6m m ; E m p edocles , r a g m ent 7 5 D i els f . .

0a l a ccov6mov, of sh ell sh , r a ng ing t h e sea - ott o m B ut th e fi b .

m o st of th e com p ounds p a ro yto n e, a n d h a v e th e er i v a a re x d

ti v e a d mi nis trati ve s ense ; olxov6u 0; ,
“ ”
h o useh ol er ; drypov6u 0;, d
41 1
 POLITICAL ID EAS OF T HE GREEKS
f m ar -over se er d mi nis trator a nd benefici al
sl
npov6aoq, a
”

o wn Publi c m agis t raci es of this typ e

”
er of a n i nh eri ta nce .

chief cons ta ble ; dy pavm q

“ ”
a re n um er ous s uc h as é m u buoq , v , o o ,
“
clerk of th e m ar k et —
th e G reek ni c k na m e of th e R o m a n
aedilis in th a t k i n hich itin er a nt G reek
as p ec t of his w or w
ling s chiefly encountered hi m Note h o ever, th a t 401 6100 51 0 ; . , w
occurs i n contex t s h er e it is do ubtful w
heth er it sh ould n o t w
be r endered a d ec ti vely a nd a cce nte d j p r op a ro xyto ne :
,

E s ch ylus A g a mem non, 8 8 do1 6vou

, oz 0s ol; Pi n da r Nem 9 74,, , .
, ,

f
dyl aztau ( ea sts ) ; b ut S op h ocles, A nti g one 3 5 5 69 7 01! (s enti , ,

m ents or —i m p ul ses i n r eg a r d to p ublic o r der) is clea r ly i n ,

th e a d m ini s tra ti ve sense Most i m p orta nt of all a 61 ov6uog, . ,

“ - f
sel a d mi ni st ere d
”
descri bes the classical G reek idea l of
,

g ov ernm ent, a n d lcové noq k eep s clos ely to th e p ri m ary n o

“ ”
ti on of e qua lity i n a p p or tion m ent .

3°
H es io d Theog oni a, 6 6— , 7 , (1 9 111 0 101 011 m y 1 s vou ou ; m l
950m s e i z I dOavdn mv a l elo ucc; c o m p a re IL 6 5 1 1 , an d: 1 fiflea
’
, .

m l vonov tm v T o lea ve i nterp re ta ti on ree, th e ord vap or;

'
. f w
i s p r inted h ere i th o ut a ccent w .

es i od, W or ks a nd D ays 2 7 6 3
27 H
, .

28
H es io d, Th eogoni c , 4 16- 7, 01 1: 1 1; l 59 01» lepd
M M m a: v6u0 v lM ox ma z .

2°
D iels 2
ii 2 15 u
v6 oc; m lflou ( C hilon) ; 2 1 7 , p er u
v6 oc;
‘'

, , , 1 0 z;

wa l a zoi ; 1 0 1; 00 0410 1; 11 00 0 041 0 1; ( Per ia nder) .

3°
H om eri c H ym n to A p ollo 2 0 , , v6u o; ( 5 0m; H erodo tus ,

1 . 24 ; 0 09010 ; v6u0 ; , E sch ylus , S ep tem , 9 5 4, 1 0v 0€ 0v v6p.0 v .

T h e L a tin equi v ale nt of v6 0 ; i n t hi s s ense is n umer i ,uh ile w

th a t of v0 u
“ ” “ ”
0q, p a st ure, is n em us, a c lear ing in th e ores t f .

S ee F . M C or nfor d F rom R eli gi on

.
, to Philos op hy . L ondo n ,

1 9 1 2 , p p 3 1 —3 3 . .

3‘
H e ro dot us 8 89 ; com p are 9 48 a nd E sch ylus A ga mem
, . . , ,

non , 8 0 2 ; S ep tem 5 9 0 , .

as
S o p h ocles A ntigone v6uou
, ; sca pelpow x00 v0; 1 0e6 v,

fiw pxov l a v l 00011 0 1 1;
’
1
3“
E urip ides , S upp li ces , 5 2 6- 67 , 044m Si m ian , 1 0v m fl fiw v
v6p ov l cé tmv
. H erodo tus 7 104 . . .

Plato , A p ology, 24 B .

4 12
 NOTE S
35
G . G . A Mur ra y, The Ri se
. o f the Greek E p ic . Ox f d or ,

1 9 0 7, p p . 8 0—8 .

35 F . M C or nfor d F r om R eli gi on
. , to Philosop hy . L o n d on ,

1 9 1 2, p p . 3 2—33 .

37
Ari stop h a nes , Kni ght s 660 ( S ch ol) : C om p a re T h ucydi des
5 . 5 4- 5 5 Bza fia rfipta ,
‘
a nd H e r o dot us 6 7 6 . .

“ Li v y, l 8 , lo cus , qui n un c s cep tus descen denti bus i nter duo

3
.

lucas es t, asylum a p erui t . D i onys i us of H a l i ca r n a ss us 2 . 15 .

ca ll s i t p e06pzov Boot 09 0 mm, y “

a b ounda r y-sp ac e between t wo
oa k - w d oo s.
3’
Pliny , Natur al H i s tory 1 2 1 H aze ( t r ee s ) fuere , . , n um i num

tem p la,p ri s coque ri tu si m p li ci a r ur a eti a m n unc deo p ra e

cellentem ar bor em di ca nt O n thi s h ole t op ic, co m p a re S i r . w
J a m es F r a z er, The Golden B oug h , ii, 8 . a nd C or nfor d
’
s

ess a y alrea dy quoted in no te 35

Pin dar Ol 8 8 6 , . . .
‘1
H esi o d, Theogoni a , 2 2 3 .

‘2
Pla to Politi ca s 2 7 1 D
, , . A s t h e di v i ne
“
h er ds m en
”
p ro
v ided for ea ch a ni m al its p r op er f oo d, th ere w as n o need for
r ap a ci ous f d
oo q es t s uch a s t h e
- u c a r ni v or a p r a cti s e n o w .

H ero dotus 2 5 2
43
, . . Geo! 31 6c Oéw e; mi ca ; vouiz;
elxov : s ee a ls o p 24 3 . .

44
P eudo Ti m am s n gl
s -
, e M ew» ,
1 04E .

‘5 Pl
a t o C ri ti as 1O9 B , , .

45
0d .
, 10 . ex f a in; é p fica g, s at p f mv «1
t 61 0 6 i Bet fiev .

pa gone, 7 41 mm 00 el xel T here is th e less

'
ov 63 00 ;
nee d t o di sc uss m o der n O p i ni ons a b out thi s p a s sa g e, as t h ey
h av e been recently collect ed by J . W B ear dslee Jr
.
, .
, The Us e
o f <I> fm; i n F ifth C entur y Gr eek L i ter atur e . C hic a g o, 19 1 8 ; to
whi ch I h a ve t o ack no wl dg m y blig ti
e e o a o ns t h roug h out thi s
s ec tio n, th o ug h with o ut wh lly d i g o en ors n D oc tor B ea rdslee
’
s

con clus io ns .
47
G alen, D e . veep! pdm ou ed
c czo; d . . Kuhn , xv . 3 .

Pin dar Ol 1
43
, . . 67 ; P yth 4 2 35 ; I sthm . . . 4 49 ; 7
. . 22 .

Pi ndar fra gm ent 1 69

4°
6u; 0 , v 0 Ba ocl eb;
quote d i n H er o dot us 3 38 ; Pla t o .
, Gor gi as , 48 4 B ; L a ws
6 QOB 8 90 A ; Pr otagor as 3 3 7 D
. .

5
Pindar fra g m ent 2 78 ed C hrist
°
, , . .

413
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
51 Pin da r , Nem .
, 6 . 5 .

52
E s ch ylus, S up p li ces , 4 9 6 ; Pers ae , 44 1 ; C hoep hor oe, 28 1
Prom etheus , 4 8 9 ; A g a m em non , 633, 0 011 ol Bev 0 009 ; 411017
yei l ou 1 117001: 1 0 6 1 9é9 0 v1 0 ; 071 10 0 x00 v0; 9 00 111 .

53 Pl a t o, L a ws , 7 7 0 D .

54 H er o dotus , 3 . 2 2, 1 6311 11 0 9 1131: 1 0 1; 9 60 111 .

55 H ero dot us, 2 . 71 .

9 60 11» 1 0 1 10 1 81 . I t is w ort h no t

ing th a t th e or d w w
as, idea , tr a n sla ted s p ecies h ere i s
”
,

us ed a s i n o th er p assa g es o f H ero do t us ( 1 2 0 3 ; 6 1 1 9 ; 6 1 00 )
,
. . .

for a ny di s ti ng uis h a ble ki n d of p la nt li qui d or p olic y I t

“ ”
.
, ,

h a s a s yet no a b s tra c t or i dea l i m p li c a ti ons a t a ll ; b ut

”

co rres p o n ds wi th th e 9 60 1; of thi s or th a t
“
kind as th e
a c h ie v e m ent of g ro wth t - o-c om p let e nes s s ta n ds to th e p r o
c ess of g rowi n g .

5° H er odot us , 2 38 , .
9 60 111
at 11011 11 1 Exe1 nep ux ula ; [1 1k 1 9 lxa g ] .

57
H er odotus , 2 . 5 , A lyflm ou 9 60 1; £0 1 1 1 01 fi0e
11 9675 0 0 111 1 71; Ti) ; é0 0 0 av .

5°
H er odotus 7 1 34 19 60 1 1 e 7 e7 0 v61 e; eh
, . , .

“
9
H er odotus 2 4 5 1 73; A lyum to w 9 60 10 ; . 11011 1161119 11 1 6111 110 9
, ,

dn elpm; gxew .

3°
H er o dotus 3 38 , .
'

th e w d or vo utt p um , tra nsla te d a re ac

c ust o m ed t o t h i nk , 1 8 s tr i ctly o bser v e a s a c ust o m .

“
1
H ero dotus 7 1 0 4 , . .

“
2 H r
e odot us 7 1 0 2
‘
E XM 01 nevlq a a le! x0 1 e 0 6v1 9 0 9 6;
p
'
, . ,

é0 1 1, 619 9 1 ) at 311m m; £ 0 1 1, 6111 6 1 e na1 e9 7 a 0 uévn m l

10750 9 0 6 .

“3
H era clit us ra m ent 1 1 4 D iels
, g f , , cf. 44 . C on v ersely H era c
li tus insis ts th at 1539 11; 1 9 9; c fiew fwa u 11611 710 1 1) 1 nu m ifiv , f ra g

m ent 4 3 D iels ;, wh ere 1599 1; ri gh tly tra nsla te d i ns olenti a i n

L a ti n i s th a t
,
“
un acc ust om ed breach of nor m al or de whi ch r,

m us t b e s ta m p e d out ,
”
lik e a b onfire a m ong th e close p a cked -

h ous es of a G reek p oli s E m p edocles .

, f r a g m ent 1 3 5 , D iels .

“
4 A
na xi m a nder r a m ent 9 D i els , f g , . I n th e sam e w a y, in
a n oth er s tr iki n g p a s sa g e, H er a clitus ( fr 9 4, D i els ) s a ys th a t .

“
th e s un w ”
ill n ot o v ers tep hi s m ea s ures , th e e act di m en x
“
si on s of hi s cours e th r ough th e s k y, but if oth er wi se, th e
Avenger s , auxi li aries of D i ke, will fin d him out .
”

4 14
 N OTE S
“
5 Euri p i des B a ccha ,
’
, 8 9 1—9 6, c oup les 1 0 00119 61 10 11, which h as
c om p uls i v e f orce i n h um a n
év x9 6vq> a ff ai r s , wi th 1 6 1 ’

na n 9 qi l
'

del 9 60 e1 1 e areq>0 71 6; , c oup li ng s u s ta nti ve ith b w

c og n a t e v er b
to m a k e hi s m ea ni n g em p h a tically clear .

“5
H er o dot us , 2 5 ; com p a re 4 1 9 5 . . .

‘7
S op h ocles , (E di p us C olon eus, 1 2 9 5 ; A nti gon e 3 4 6 , . E di
p us Tyr a nnus, 869 - 70 ; f r a g m ent 5 15 ; (E di p us Tyra nn us ,
334—35 .

“
8
Em pe docles fra g m ent 8, , D iels .

°9
E m p edocles , f ra g m en t 63, D iels .

7°
H ip p ocra t es , Peri D i a i tas , 1 . 11 .

econo m i c revoluti on
71
On all this a s p ec t of th e i n G ree k
la nds , s ee P . N
U r e, The Ori gi n of Tyr a n ny
. C a m r i dg e, . b
1 9 2 2 C h I ; a nd in his Greek R en a i ss a n ce C h V
, . L on do n, , . .

19 2 1 ; a nd a ls o A E Zi m m er n The Gr eek C ommon wealth

. . , .

O xford , 1 9 23 3
, p 295 3
. .

72 H eraclit us, f r a g m ent 1 , D iels, 810 1 9 4 0 11 311 010 1 0 1; 7112 1 0 0 60 11»

9961140 1: Exe1 .

73
D iog enes L a er tius, 9 5 ; . c o m p a re D iels s. v. H eraclitus .

7‘ H er a clitus , r a g m ent 4 1 f , D i els .

75
H era clitus , f r a g m ent s 1 1 2 , 1 13, 1 16 , D iels ; hi s w d or for
” “ ”
com m on sen se or th e p r oces s of s t r ai g h t thi nki ng is
9 9 6mm ;
7°
H er a clitus , D iels, A 1 6 ( S extus) , 1 0 neplexov 1 0 1 171 611
13 Sv 11011 op l; peg .
ev'
We ar e rem i n de d of th e tem p er a m enta l
C leom enes in H ero dotus , 5 . 42, wh o was 0 6 opevfipng,
“ ”
é x poua vfi; 1 e, on th e v er g e of m a dness a nd not coh erent,

hi s wi t s n otfi tti ng w ell together .

”

77
H er ac litu f s, r a g m ent 1 14 , D iels .

73 H er ac litu f s r a g m en t 2, D iels ; t h e w d
or M yog , tra n s
la ted p r ovi si onally r ea son h ere i s of cour se, a ver b al
“ ’

, ,

s ub s t a nti v e lik e v6uo; , i n di ca ti ng

“ ”
h a t is s a id ; as is w
“
w h a t i s custom a r ily ass ig ned ; a n d a s m os t p eop le s a y
”

thing s beca use th ey a t all ev ent s , s up p os e t h ey h av e s o m e

,

thi ng i ntelligi ble t o s ay, 1 67 0 ; co m es t o m ea n exp la na ti on

“ ”

or
“
r eas on g iv en
”
as ell a s m er ely
“
w
s o m ethi ng sa i d
”
It .

was p rob a bly onl y i n m uch la ter G reek th a t i t ca me to h a v e

4 15
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREE K S
a ny oth er th a n this p urely v er bal s ens e, a nd wa s con c ei v e d

as s om ethi ng hich e iste w x d a p a rt f rom th e f a cts to b e ex

p laine d .

7° H eraclitus, f ag ment
r 7 8—7 9 , D iels .

3°
D iodor us 9 2 6 , . . used i s 01010 6 9011
81
Th e w d or .

“Th e a b o ut A rch ela u

p ri ncip al p a s sa g e s i s i n D i og enes
9

L aertius, 2 1 6- 17 ; D iels a, p
. . 41 0 .

Archela us A I , , 2 , D iels ( D iogenes : S uidas) .

3‘ X enop h on, Mem ora bili a , 4 . 4 . 19 . T h e p h r a se a b out

th e g ods i s 0e0 0; 1 0 0; vé uoog 10 61 0 0 ; 1 0 1; 411090311 0 1; Oetva u
;
dotus
_

com p a re H ero , 2 . 52 . 0e0 0; 61 1 11 60 11 19 Oév1 e;

mi w az F or a la ter v ie w of this un w r itten la w
”
com
“ “
p ar e A ri stotle, Rhetori c, 1 9 1 368 B : a . .
gener a l or com
” “
m o n la w i nclu es all th o se un ritten d w ones whi ch a p p ea r

to be a d m itted by a ll .
”

“
5 Ar totl
is e E thi cs , 5 . 8 . 1 I S2B 32 . .

9°
Aris totle R hetori c, 2 2 3 1 39 8 B 18
, . . .

“
7 Ar
isto tle, Meta p hysi cs Z 1 1 1 0 37 A 16 , . . . .

‘8 Ar istotle, Physi cs , 2 . 7 . I 9 SA 23 . .

9’
Ari stotle de Gener ati one et C orrup ti one 1 2 3 1 6 A 1 0 3
, , . . . .

9°
Ari stotle, Physi cs 2 1 1 9 2 B 1 4 , . . . .

“
1
Ari stotle Meta p hysi cs , A 3 10 70 A 6
, . . . .

“
3
Aris totle, Poli ti cs, 1 5 1 2 5 4 A 27 . . . .

9° Ar istotle, Poli ti cs , 1 . 1 . 12 5 2 B 3 4 . .

“
4 Ari stotle de Gen er ati one et C or ru ti on e 1 2 316 A 1 03
, p , . . . .

“Aris totle Meta h si cs A 10 1 075 A 1 1

p y , , . . . .

9°A ris totle, de C azlo, 1 4 2 7 1 A 3 3 ; 2 5 2BS A 2 . . . . . . .

“
7
Ar istotle, de la nti s, 1 7 8 2 1 A 3 0P Th ough . . . . n ot d
i n is
p uta b ly Ar istotle
’
s o wn w or k , this essay is in close g eneral
accor dw
i th h i s doctrine .

“3 A ri s totle H i s tori a A ni m ali um 8

, , 1 5 S BB 1 0 . . . .

9°
Ar is totle, de P arti bus A ni m ali um 4 5 68 1 A 1 23 , . . . .

1”
Ar is t otle de Genera ti on s A ni m a li um 1 23 73 1 A 32
, , . . . .

m Ar istotle H i stori a A ni m a li um 9 1 60 8 B 4
, , . . . .

m Aris totle E thi cs 5 . 14 . 1 037 B . 26 . C om p a re

,

Rhetori c, 1 13 I S 74A
. . .

‘03 Ari
s totle, E thi cs 5 . 8 . 1 13 2 B 2 1 . .

416
 N OTES
W D iges t 1 3 2 . . . I n this section m y
D em osth enes 774 16 . .
,

debt to th at g reat teach er, th e la te S ir Paul Vinogra do3 , a nd

es p ec ially to th e sec on d v olum e of hi s H i stor i ca l J uri s p r u

dence O x or d 19 2 3
, f w
i ll b e o b v ious a n d i s g ra te ully s e
, , , f
w w
kno le dge d I ould r e er esp eci ally t o hi s com m entary ( C h
. f .

I I ) on th e recently r ecov er e d ra g m ent of A ntip h on th e f

S op hi s t beginni ng 011101 10 0 6111) n izw cz
, 11 671eo) ; vbu ma p ub ,

lis hed flrs t in O xyrrh ynch us Pa p yr i X1 130 and r ep rinted . ,

by Vin ogra do3 , p 4 2 . .

“5 N ote th at I socra tes, 1 5 8 2 , does not c all th em 11011 0110 .

1 41 0 0 ;
“
f
ur thes t b ack rom no w f
b ut 4 9750 10 1 611 0 0 ;
“
nea res t ,

”
to the or igi n of all la w, a nd m ost a ki n t o th a t hich is ori gi w
na ti ve i n i t .

Ari s totle Rhetori c I 9 I 3 6 6 R 9, , . . . .

1 07 A r
istotle Rhetori c 1 1 5 1 376 B 7, , . . . .

H esio d Wor ks a nd D ays, 2 7 63

, ércel 0 6 0011) 601 W 611 .

11 61 0 1;
“9 J . M ontm orency The Natur al H i story of L a w
E . G . de , .

I na ugural A ddress as Q uai n Pr ofes sor of J urisp rudence in th e

U nivers ity of L on don . Ox f d or , 19 2 3 .

NO TE S F O R L E C T UR E VI
1
7596 9 010 div-
69 , c ries Alcaeus (fra gm . 49 . Utilities
a re th e m a n,
”
n ot ch a r acter or up bri nging . T he tro uble was ,

w
h o ever, th a t ch a ra cter a nd up br i ngi ng ere i na dequa te t o w
m ak e use of the utilities now a t h an d S o, to o, t h ough th ere
’
.

w ere n o d oub t s om e b a d m as ters i n G r eece Ar i s tot le h as no ,

h esita t ion in de ni n g his

“
ree
”
fi “
m a n a s com p etent t o m a k e f
”
use of s la ves The r oot m ea ni ng of 75959 0 1 0: r ea p p ears i n
.

“
s uch p h r a ses as 0 1699 0 111 11011 1 0 1; 759611 010 111 0m 9 e1 ei v, to do
'

p ubli c s ervice i n th eir p ersons a nd ith t h eir h ole es ta te,

”
w w
Aris totle A theni a n C onsti tuti on, 2 9 5
, . .

I n thi s sens e Aris totle exp la ins a nd jus ti fi es war. as in

“

th e na t ure of thi ngs a way of a cquir ing ealth , hi ch one is w w

bound to use against ild beast s a nd a g ai ns t such m en as w ,

being of a build to con orm t o initiativ e, are reluctant to do f

s o ; on th e ground th at t his ki n d of war is in accor d w
'

i th
4 17
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
diké i n th e w a y thin g s a ct ually h a p p en ( Poli ti cs , 1 8 . .

1 2 5 GB 2 4 S i m ila rly a n d es p eci ally it wa s in th is , ,

sen se w
h a t h a p p ens
”
h en G reek s
“
exerci s e d i niti a ti ve
,
”
w
o ver o t h er p eop les . Poli ti cs , 1 . 2 . 1 25 2 B 9 .

3
Note th a t t h e p ro b a bly inh eri ts th e fun c t i on , as

w ell as t h e na m e, of
th e p reda t or y i nt r uders in th e m i gr a
tion-p erio d , wh o
“ ”
let loose t h eir c la ns up o n a di s t r ict a n d
“
m a de it desola te : a ls o t h at t h e p ir a te, i s th e m a n
wh o
“
dventur ous ra ids th e ris k s rath er th a n
a tte m p t s
”
a ,

t he m or ality of wh ich deterre d p eop le of m ore o r di nary

—

p luck a nd i ni t iati e I t is th e b oldness n ot th e b a dness of

v . , ,

th e p ir a tes in fi ction t h a t en dea r s t h em to t h e young

, .

S ee fo r e xa m p le T h ucydi des c o m m ents ( 2

’
4
, , on .

unexp ec tedness of t h e At h enia n Pla g u e d uring the

“ ”
th e
Pelop onnes ian W a r.

5
J us t as th e R om a n p ecuni a for m oney recalls th e tim e
wh en v alues were reck oned in cattle s o the G reek 1 6m g , ,

off s p r i ng g oes b a ck to a s ta ge wh en loa ns

“ “ ” ”
fo i n t e es t
, r r ,

were in livestock a nd the owner s rewar d was a sh are of th e

,
’

in cr eas e of the h er d while it was in th e b orro wer s p oss es sio n

’
.

I n th e P ers oz o f E s ch ylus , th e Q ueen rev eals to D arius;

in an i ns ta nt Xe xes r
’
irretriev a le b error —1 a 0 1 1x0; 01 90 1 0;
31013110 09 ; ne! 0v ( fleas 01 911 1 60 ,
and th e p h r a s e s ee m s t o

h a vebeen t he p op ular v er dict for , b

i t recurs s u s ta ntially in
T h ucydi des 1 7 3 , . .

7
Pericles g oes on t o use wor ds whi ch ca n only m ea n th a t
be rega rde d this Ath eni a n
“ ”
t r a ini ng as so s elf-e vidently

s up eri or as to jus tify Ath eni a n f

ef o rt to i m p ose i t on th ose

(p res um a bly few and m is g uide d) w h o did not th ems el ves

a s p ire t o it . Thucydi des , 2 4 1 . . F or t h e di verse “
a im s
”
of

G reek st a tes s ee Ar is t otle, E thi cs 5 . 6 . 1 13 1 A ; dem o

cr aci es a i m a t
“
f d r ee om ,
”
oli g a rchi es a t
“
w ealth , oth ers a t
“
g oo db
ree i ng d a nd a r is tocracies a t dpén ) ,
“
efi ciency,
”
wi th
out qua li ca ti on fi .

3
Aris totle, Poli ti cs , 3 . 6 . 1278 B
g over nm ent . cla ssi fies
into m ona rch y , m i n or ity r ule a nd m ajority r ule ; c ross
divi des bet een w g ov er nm ent
“
i n the i nterest of th e g ov
418
 NOTES
ernors
”
a nd
“
in th e int erest of the wh ole, an d
cross- iv i es d d
a g a i n, a cc or di ng as t h e g o ver nors are
“
r ich er
”
or
“
p oorer
”

th a n th e g over ne I t is confes s edly a research d i a g ra m ,

. d
a nd th e c om p art m en t i n hich a s i ng le r uler, hims el p oor, w f
rules in th e i nter es t of th e h ole m i g h t be as di fficult to w ,

f w
urnis h i th his tor ica l i ns ta nces as th a t dis cussed in th e text .

9 Th ucydi des , 1 2 7 . .

1°
H er odotus 2 167 1311 101 0 K0 9 1v01o1 0v0 v1 ¢v1 1 0 0; xe190 1 éxva g
, . , .

u Aris totle, Poli ti cs 2 6 1 2 G5 B 1 3 , . . , .

‘2
H ero dot us 5 66 C leis th enes m a de th e new trib al
, . .

h eroes ém xm ploug a d pe E A l arm-

0; 1 0 61 0 0 00, 1
1 1 3 do1 0 7 el1 0 v¢ 11 a!

0 611 11 01750 11, Eetvov e6v1 a , 11 9 0 0 é0e1 0 .

13
Ar is totle, A theni a n C ons tituti on , 5 5 . 3 .

14
Plutarch Peri cles , , 3 7 ; Aris totle, A th eni an C onstituti on,
26 4 . .

‘5
H er o dotus, 1 17 0 . .

1°
D em os th enes D i onys odorus 4 8 , ,

17 Ari st otle, E thi cs 5 . 4 1 1 3 1 B 2 73

. . .

13
F or x
e a m p le, i n th e p assa ge la s t quoted z—1 0 pé v
01aveun1 1x0v m a zow 1 6 W nowd w del a n d 1 011 dval oylav £01 1
elpn uéq .

1°
H er o dotus, 3 80 , .

2°
Pla to , C ri to, 5 1 D .

’1
Plato , P oli ti cus 2 9 4 A , .

21 Ar is totle, E thi cs 5 . 10 . 1 137 B . 12 .

Aris totle, Rhetori c, 1 . 13 . I S 74 A .

”
4
Ar is totle E thi cs , 5 . 10 . 1 1 37B . 2 6- 29 .

”
5 H ro do u
e t s, 3 8 0 . . 11 9750 11 . C om p a re 8 1 . F or a

s triki n g mo dern exa m p le , n ot in a dem ocracy, see the unt

a c co

of th e j udges
’
cri si s
”
in the T rans v aa l R ep u lic b in 1 8 9 7 i n
E . A . W alk er , L or d de Villi ers a nd H i s Ti mes . L on don,
1 9 25 , c h a p ter xvii .

"l
Ar is totle, 4-4 12 9 2 A Politics
S uch a demos i s a nal , . .

h a bi t
“ ”
og ous t o t yr a nny a m on g one m a n g o vern m e nt s ; its
-

is the sa m e, and c orres p onds t o th e ar bitra r iness of sla ve

“

o wne r
”
; m l 1 0 “91 1 0 1 011 01 c or ap h éxel « a 9 111 47 11 011 01 .

”
7
Pla to L a ws, 69 0 A, in a lis t of
“
a dm itted cla i ms to
,

4 19
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
ini tia ti v e , d fiubuma 1 00 1s d975e1v d pxeofla z, p laces the
it a l

clai m of th e t h o r o ug h b red to ini tia te for th e m on grel

”
.

yew a loug dyew d w dpxew, o nly

'

s ec on d t o th e n at ural ini ti a ti ve
of p ar ent o ver c hil , a nd e d b fore t he cl a i m s of a g e a nd exp e

rience ov er yo uth , of m as ter over sla ve, of s t r ong er ov er

w ea k er , a nd of c om m on s ens edity a nd ign ora nce ov er s t up i .

T h a t t h ese va r ious clai m s a e s o on foun d t o c o nfli c t i s no r

quali fic ation of t h e p eak er s a p p ea l to ex p er ienc e th a t each

’
s ,

i s in fa ct a n 6 50 9 6 900 75 6 a clai m es ta blis h ed ev ery

“
v 1 0 01 11 a a 1 01 0 ,

wh ere
”
i n h um a n a 3 a ir s .
23
W . B ates on , Proceedi ngs of B ri ti s h A ssoci ati on for the
Adva ncem ent f
o S ci ence ( Presi denti al A ddres s to th e m eeting
in Aus tra li a ) L ondon, 1 9 1 4 , p.
quo ti ng F ra n cis G al .

2
ton H er edi ta ry Geni us L ondon , 1 8 9 2 . .

2’
P —
la t o , M en o 9 3 C 9 4 E
’
F or K i m on s p h ysical a p p ear
. .

a n ce, see h C i mon 5 Pluta rc , , .

3°
A fifty-cent ury v ase a t Munich p ubli s h ed by F urt ,

wa ngiet and R eichh old Gri echi s che Mei s ter wer ke B erli n , . ,

19 1 2 .

31
dealt with this asp ect of G reek fa m i ly life i n an
I h a ve
The P lot of the A lcesti s i n th e Jour n al of H elleni c
“ ”
essay on

S tudi es xx vii 1 9 5
, S ee esp ecia lly A lces ti s 3 1 1 —3 1 9
. .
, .

”E fi ou “of a ood i ntelli ence is th e r egular w or d ;

”
g v g , g ,

“ ”
s om etim es also thi nk i n g th o ugh t s lik e our ow n .
33
S . F er ri ,
“
I n s cri zi oni di Cyren e
”
b d
i n A h a n lun g en der
B erl . Ak a d em i e , 1 9 26 . W h at is n ot a ble is th a t while th e
710 1 11 e or c o rp or a ti on, whi ch i s to c arr y o n th e g ov ern
m ent of th e p oli s i s r eco ns titute d in ela b orate d et ai l, i t i s

f
le t to a m or e or less e xp ert com m i ss i on to r ep ort up on th e
in accor da nce wi th whi c h all busines s p ri va te or p u lic b
is t o b e c o n d u ted h ce ft er a er as before , s o com p letely ere w
“
th e a nces tr al cust o m s
”
out si de th e s cop e of a m erely
“
po
liti ca f
r e or m . I owe th i s f
re erence to m y f d Professor
r ien ,

M R ostov ts eff
.
, ofY ale .

3‘
Plato , L a ws, 644D 6 45 A . . £ 111 00 11610 1 1 0 61 0 1; 1 0 7 10 9 09 8 1 !
01 61 6311 du fl xei pov yev6u evo; 067 m 1 61 m ; 110 11100
’
ewov 6;
’

11 0 1 , :

énmv6ua0 1a 1 .
 NOTES
‘5 Plato
L a ws 65 7 C xa tpou
, ev 01 1m ol6u, e0a 8 0 11 9611 1 e1v : a nd
,

als o 673 D
“
The i ni tia ti ve to t hi s i s t h e act th a t eve ry
. f
a ni m al as i t g ro s up is
, on t t o s ki p w
a nd m a n, as we s a i d
, w ,

f
be ore gets a p ercep tion of rh yth m a nd h as crea ted da n
, ,

c i ng
”
, f
b oth orm al da ncing i n a ch or us , and the rh yt h m ical
“ ”

g a m es of children I t h a s been tra gi c tes ti m ony to th e r e

.

s ults of a p p r op r i a t i on b y a noth er M edi terra nea n p eop le ,

th a t t h e G reek w
om en i n t h e D o deca nes e c ea s ed a t er t h e f
I tali a n occ up ation of thes e is la nds i n 1 9 1 2 to t ea ch th eir ,

children th e t r a di t i onal d a nci ng g a m es

-
“
beca use th ey ill w
”
h a v e n o use for th em ; w e a re all too s a d n ow N or h as th e .

G r eek ever lost this c h ildl ik e a lm os t a ni m a l deligh t i n s e ,

f
qui ri ng res h a ccom p lish m ent s rom hi s neigh b ours f
T o do wh a tev er you ca n do,
And do i t ra t h er better t oo .
”

as th ose m os t f a m i li a r wi th hi m in hi s own h a unts, or even

in th e cities of th e gen tiles c a n tes ti y , f . As hi s R o m a n m a s

ters k ne w
ad cwlum i uss eri s i bi t
, , .

3°
Pla to L a ws 666 , , . T he ol der m en a re to do their s h a re

in p ublic s ing i ng b ut , n ot till

“
a ft er li quor ta k en,
”
as th e
I rish m a n s aid t o r ene thei r youth a nd clear th eir tem p er
, w .

I n G reek la nds s till th e r a ce is t o th e s i t ; it i s a n o bstacle

, , wf
r ace for th e m os t p a r t ; a nd m a ny m en a r e
,
“
t oo old a t or ty
”
f
for m or e th a n a s ub or dinat e p ar t Nor do the young m en .

m a k e it a ny to o eas y for th em .

37
Plato L a ws 64 2 0 , 7 619 d eo dvdyxng
, 0ela
. y
p olpa, 011 0 013 ; 111
1 1 0 6 1 1 elclv dya 00 1 .

38
D iogenes L aertius, 9 1 5 . . 1 61 00 11 e91 9 60 m ) ; év n a pa 0elyua1 0 ;

D iels, p
et0e1 119 0 0011 : com p ar e
'
. 70 .

39
f w
I n t he ollo i ng p a r a g ra p h I h a v e a m p li fie d s o m e p h r a s es
B a ck gr oun d of G r eek S cienc e
“ ”
of m y e ssa y o n th e p r in te d ,

the U ni ver si ty of C alifor ni a C hroni cle X VI 4 , Be rk eley , , ,

1 9 14, d al so sum m ar ize d the relev a nt p or tio ns of a n a d

an

dress ou th e R elations of Anth rop ology to Political S cience,

“ ”

i n P roceedi ngs B ri ti s h A s soci atio n for the A dva ncement of

S cience ( W innip eg m eeting) , 1 9 09 : r ep r i nte d in Publ . His
42 1

A a r on’s rod, a s k e tr on, 12 9
p
b
A i c i, 40 8
A ca r na nia ns, 84
A ch aea i n P
elop onnes e, 9 0,
P h thi oti s, 8 6
fd
A ch aea n con e er a ci es, 68 ,
65 , 1 01 , 1 2 3, 19 6 ; eud a l
i sm , 65 , 8 1, 1 0 1 ; N o r se
a nd x
S a on p a r all els, 65 ;
N orma n, 3 9 4 ; s ocia l di s
ti ncti ons , 122
A ch aean D emeter, 1 14
A ch aea n L e a e, 9 1
A ch aem eni d ynas ty i n P er
s i a, 39
A chi evem ent cor rela tiv e to
i ni ti a ti ve, 15 9 3 . A lthi n g , i n I cela nd, 84, 40 7
A chi lles , 1 26
A cr op oli s, 98
A dik i a , 1 94 , 223, 3 13 ; i n
p hys i cs, 2 67
A d op tion-ce r em ony, 1 16
aci d dyna s ty, 128
JE g ea n r eg i on, 60
JE g ina, 87, 9 0
o li en mi gr a tion, 64 ; col
IND EX
A i d es , 1 46, 2 8 5 , 8 69 , a nd
D i k e, 1 92 - 1 97
x
A j a of S a lami s , 348
A k te ( A tti c a ) , 9 5
A lbum o f R oma n p r e tor ,
f A lcaeus , 1 9 7
A lce s t is, 47, 3 64
b
A lci i a des, 863
A l cm aeon a n d C r oes us, 83 0
A lcm ee oni d ae , 335 , 3 62
A lcoh ol, sta te r eg ul a ti on i n
G r eec e, 3 70 ; us e o f, 42 1
A l eth eia ( tr uth ) , 18 5
x
A le a n der , son o f P r i um ,
143 ; son o f Ph i li p , 88 , 3 9
b
A m er i ca n a o r i g i n es i n p o
litica l p h il os op h y, 3 8 9
A m eri can a n a log i es, 1 19,
1 7 8 , 1 9 4, 8 22 , 32 7
A m i cus cur iae in H om e ri c
a g e, 20 7 ; a t A th e ns , 2 3 1
A m os , com p a r ed w i th G r eek
o r a t or s , 4 7
A m p h id r omi a , 1 16, 395
'

oni es, 1 00 A m p hi ctyony of P ylos, se e

E schylus, 2 18 , 2 9 6 P yli an L ag ue
e
fE toli an s
.
, 88 , 1 08 ; L ea g ue,
91 A nacha r s is, 2 80, 828
A g a m em non, 1 2 9 , 2 02 A na k tes, 1 22 - 1 28
A g esila us, 1 1 8 A n ax ag ora s, 2 8 1
A g or a , 77, 8 0, 1 14, 1 8 9 , 200 x
A na i m a n d er, 1 8 5 , 266, 2 90
2 08 ; f
r ee sp ee ch, 8 94 ; fi
A ncestor s o f a rti ci a l tr i es,b
a g or é té s, a g or euei n, 78
A g ra p h oi n om oi ; 2 82 —
2 85 , A ndoci des, 47
41 6 A nima ls , p oliti cal an alog i es
A g r oi kos and as teios , 72 from , 5 8 , 280

A g r oter a, ti tle of A r tem i s, A ni mi stic b

ac k gr oun d of

25 0
423
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
J
A ntip h on, O n us ti c e, 4 1 7 228 ; ter r i tor ial s en se, li ke
A p oi k ia , 83, 1 02 p r ov i ncia , 15 8
A p ollo gi ves th em is tes, 13 2 , A r k h on tes a t A th en s, 2 19
16 8 A rte mi s A g rot er a, 2 50
A p ter a, 222 A s ty, as teio s , aetos , 70, 72 ;
b
A r a i a, sourc e o f S emi tes, i n com p oun ds, 8 92
23 A sylum sa nct ua ry a t R om e,
A r c a di a , 84 252
A rch ela us, 2 8 1-2 86, 28 9 A te i n E s chylus , 2 9 6
A r chi loch us , 1 9 7 A teles , 1 64
A r ch on a t A thens , 2 1 6, 2 52 , A th ena , 9 7-2 1 4, 2 9 6
349 A th ens , A th en i a ns : p oli ti ca l
A r ch yta s of T a rentum , 2 92 s tru c tur e, 90 - 9 4 ; ea r l
y in
A r eop a gus C our t at A th en s, v as i on s, 9 5 ;
p hys i s o f, 3 5 8 ,
2 0 7, 223 r ecep tion of a l i e ns, 3 5 0
A r g ha m , 1 46 3 52 ; cr oss br eed i n g , 8 62 ;
A r gi nus ze, 35 9 -3 78 r es tr i cti on o f citi zen sh i ,
p
A r g m a ta , 14 1 8 5 0, re l ati on s w i th a lli es,
A r gos , 8 7 28 8 , 2 93 ; as b
li er a tor s,
A r h amvi, a r h u s , 1 46 w
33 4 ; e ff ec ts of ea lth , 33 4 ;
A r i stocr a ci es , 33 9 , 8 78 of wa r, 28 9 —3 63, 8 65 ;
A r i s to ei ton s p eec h of D e S op hi s tic m ov em ent, 3 65 ;
mo s t nes, 3 09 op i nion b
a o ut S p a r tan
A r i stop h a nes, 58 , 8 65 w
l a s, 37 1 ; s ee a l so A r eo
A ri stotl e on a/r kh é, 1 8 9 , ci ti p a g us, Cleis th en es, S olon
p fi
z en shi , 1 3 9 ; clas s i ca ti on A uth a d es ( sel f-p lea sin g ) ,
o f s ta te s, 8 43 , 418 ; com 1 44
b
tr acts, 3 5 3 ; c ros s- r ee d A utho r i ty, G reek noti on of,
i n g , 8 62 ; d i s tinc ti on b e 5 7 ; s ee also A r k h e
w
t e en p oliti cs an d eco A utonom os , a utonom i a, 4 12
nom i cs, 1 13 ; d oct r i n e o f b
A v eng er of lood, 19 8
the sta te, 1 9 8 ; e d uca ti on, A r ia s, 1 46
36 4 ; j us tice , 2 9 1 ; or i i n A c c use, 222
g
o f th e
p o lis , 6 7, 1 19 ; p op
ul a r i dea ls, 5 2 ; uni t
y of b
B a yl oni a n cosm ology, 2 4,
th e s ta te, 1 1 2 1 85 , 8 8 7 ; m a g ical notion-
s
A r k h e, 13 9 ; i n H om er , 1 40
’

etym olo
g y, 1 42 ; S a n sk r i t B a si leus i n H om eric a ge,
q
e ui v al en ts , 1 46 ; cl as s i ca l 1 22 ; etym ology, 1 45 , 8 96 ;
m e a nin g , 1 5 6 ; com p a r ed at A th ens, 2 15 -2 1 6 ; j u
w i th m a m , or en da , wa f
d ici a l uncti on, 22 7, 2 88 ,
w
k ond a , 15 0, ith i m er i um ,
p 409
14 7 w i th i ni ti al/m a nd B as i likoi di kas tai in P
er s i a ,
p ri n ci p i a/m, 1 64 ; i n com 2 1 4, 28 6
p o und s, 1 5 8 ; r elati on to B a teson, D r W , on c r oss
. .

p h ys i s , 3 00 ; to nom os , b r ee d i n , 361
g
 I ND EX
B e adle i n E n glis h villa g es , C i rcle of s tones as l aw
32 1 co ur t, 2 04, 22 1
B enevolences a nd li tur gi es, C i ty s ta tes o utsid e G r eece,

B h eu, 8 0 C i vi s , ci vi tas , etym ol ogy, 3 1 9

B i os a nd zoé , 5 3 C lan a nd ci ty, 1 1 3
B lock house a s p oliti cal uni t, C las s-c ons ci ousnes s, 112
1 17 C lei sth e nes o f A th en s, 1 1 0,
B loodp r ic e, 2 01 2 1 9 , 847 ; of S i cyon, 1 1 0
B oeo tia : p oli ti cal s truc ture, C l eom en es, 48 , 1 18 , 4 15
87 C leon ae, 8 5
B on k oli on, 2 1 5 C nos sus , p oliti cal str ucture,
B oulé, 1 2 5 89
B ow o f O dysseus, 142 C odes o f la w, 242 -2 43
B r a ts tv o, 8 0
'
C olle gi ate m a g i stracy, 2 1 8
B r eed, p ol i ti ca l v a lue of, C olon iz a tion , 3 8 , 83
1 78 , 341 , 86 1 C omi ti a curia ta , 2 0 0
b “
B r i ti sh Colum i a p otl atch ,
”
C omm on s en s e, G r eek noti on
88 0 of, 2 78 , 3 8 9 , 394
B r oth erh ood as p oli tical C omp a ct, la w as a , 3 16
uni t, 1 17 C ontr ac ts, sup er s ed i ng sta
tus , 1 09 ; r e lat i on to law,
b
C a dm ei a ns at The es , 8 7, 9 3 8 16 ; A r i stotle on, 3 1 6
C a lla ti a n I n dia ns, 2 63 , 2 65 , Co r i n th , p oli ti cal str uctur e,
286 8 7- 90, 34 5 ; a ca p i ta li st
b
C a m yses, 2 14, 2 59 , 2 63 s tat e, 3 43 -345 ; i n d u s tr i a l
b
C a p i t al a nd l a our, 345 i nter e sts, 3 23 , 345 ; col
C a r i an Z eus a t A th ens , 1 1 5 , o nie s , 8 4, 344 ; j ea l ous of
8 52 , 395 A th ens, 4 1
b
C ar i s o f R ous seau, 3 0 7 C o r n -d ea l er s p r ofiteer i ng ,
C a r th a g i nia n b
i ncu us on 3 75
W est er n G r eek s, 3 67 , 8 8 0 f
C or n or d, F M 2 5 0
.

C a usa a nd wr khe, 1 65 C os mos , 1 8 6

’

C a ym i s , 74 C r ete, Mi noa n, 62 ; H elleni c,

C enta urs, 1 73 7 9 ; D ori a n colo ni es, 8 0 ;
C h a lci di ce, 83 C r eta n v i e w
of A th eni
C h a lc i s, 83 , 9 2 , 93 an s , 371
C hal dean obsc ur a nti sm , 88 3 C r im i nal law, 238
w
C h a r ond as, la s o f, 242 C r is is a nd th e cri ti ca l uncf
n w
C h en cal la s, 8 87 ; e ua li ty, q ti on o f the c i tiz en, 133
26q C r oesus a nd A n ach a r s i s, 2 80
Chi lon, 247 a n d S olon, 1 63 , 2 7 6, 280 ,
w d
C h ild- a r en, 82 1 333 ; hi s i nv estm e nt s , 830
C hiva l ry i n H er oi c A ge, 196 C r ook ed ( Mica/i, 1 9 7, 22 1 , 2 79 ;
C i cero, 165 - 1 66, 28 1, 4 02 th em i s tes , 13 1
C oun cil ( b oulé ) , 75
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
fi
C ultur e de ne d , 1 6
C ur ie , 2 00
C ur r en cy, i ntr od uction
’
’
e fl ects , 2 78 ; S olon s
f or m s, 32 5
C ust om , 3 15 ; sa nction
3 16
C yclop s -f olk , 77, 1 24, 13 1 ,
1 33 , 1 7 0 , 244
C yr ene : ki n gs hip , 82 ; re con
s ti tuti on, 1 1 0, 38 1 ; later
r e for ms , 42 0
C yr us, 2 5 , 336
P
D a irm ones i n la to, 3 1 0 ; da i
m oni on a nd nom i m on i n
E uri p i d es, 41 5
D am , 73
D a r k A g e, 65 , 1 05
D eioc es, 1 5 7
D elp hi, w i sdom o f, 42 , 824
s a n cti on i ng cod es, 2 42
D em a r a t us, 245 , 2 64
D em eter, cults o f, 1 12
D em i our g os, 7 6
D em oc r a cy as r ul e of th e
c ount rys i d e, 28 7 ; of th e
p oor , for th e p oor , 346 ; a s
m a jo ri ty g overn m ent, 34 7 ;
q
as e ua li ty of a p p or ti o n
m en t, 3 5 5 -3 7 8 ; Pe r s ia n
dii ficulti e s w
i th dem oc
r a ci e s, 33 7 ; s ee a ls o I s s
g or i a , I s on om ia
D emoc r i tus, 3 8 5
D emo d oc us, 76, 1 5 6
D em os , i n H om e r , 73 ; in
c om p ounds, 76 ; i n A tti ca ,
1 00 , 34 7 ; rela tio n
p oli s, 73 ; dem o tes , 74 ;
d em os -eld er s, 7 5
D em osthe nes, on A ristog ei
t on, 3 0 9 ; o n D ionys od o r us ,
353 ; on M a ca r ta tus , 3 9 5
D i ana N em oren si s, 2 5 0
D i oa , dicts ca us a, 169
'
D i gest, de fi nition of la w,
3 09
an d D i g i tus , 169
te D i g mw , 1 46
D i k wios , 1 72 -1 78 , 1 75 , 1 88,
of 3 07
D i kwiosyn e, 3 1 3
D i k a ioun, 1 88
D i k as p o loi , 12 8 , 2 04
D i k a s teri on , 22 9 , 232 , 409 ;
m a k i ng la w, 3 5 3 ; as l i h an,
D ikas tes, 18 8, 2 21, 22 6, 2 8 6,
D i k e i n H om er , 169 ; ety
mo lo g y 1 6 9 ; in H esi od ,
1 75 , 1 8 1 ; i n H er aclei tus ,
2 79 ; i n H er od otus, 1 8 6 ; i n
p h ysi cs, 2 66 ; p er soni e d, fi
183 , 190 ; cr ook e d d i k a i ,
1 7 1 ; a nd th em i s , 1 2 4, 131 ,
1 83 , 18 0, 1 9 6 ; a n d th es
m os , 222 ; a nd no m os , 1 8 2
190 ; a nd n em es i s , 1 9 0,
1 96, 2 5 2 ; a n d for m ula ,
1 8 1 , 2 54
D i o nys us, cult a t A th en s,
2 17
D is cer nm e nt ( k n ei s ) , 1 33,
22
b
D i s t ri uti ve j usti ce, 354
b
D i vi ne- or n ki n g s , 123, 1 46,
1 54, 19 1 , 19 5 , 1 99
D oria n m i g ra tion, 68 ; col
oui es i n C r ete, 88 ; i n As i a
Minor , 1 0 1
D r aco, 2 13, 2 1 9 ,
w i th D ualism in E m hylu , 29 6
D ur a tion o f city sta tes, 322
D yna sts i n M a ce do n, 32 8 ;
i n Th es s aly, 328 ; i n S yra
cuse , 32 8
E conomi c units in anci ent
soci eti e s, 1 13
426
 IN D EX
E conom i cs di sti ng ui shed E uboea , c iti e s of, 90-9 2
f ro m p o liti cs, 1 13 E um eli de s , 22 9
E di oowm , 2 2 2 ; p erp etuu m, E un oia , 3 66
28 1 ; im p er i al, 388 E unom ia , si ster of D ik e, 1 8 3
E d uca tion i n G r eek ci ties , E uri p i d es , C yclop s , 4 7 ; A l
2 92 ; for ci tiz ensh i p , 2 93 , c es ti s , 4 7, 364 ; on p h ys i s ,

3 64, 3 7 9 , 4 1 8 ; i n a ri stoc 2 67 ; on O lym p ian gods ,

ra ci es , 340 297
E gyp t, 2 2 ; p hys i s o f, 260 E urop ea n typ e of culture ,
E id os i n A r i stotle, 8 03 18
E i r ene , a s n ormal order, 1 45 , E urytus, bow of, 1 42
fi
89 9 ; p er so n i ed as sister E uthyp h ro, 2 1 0, 4 1 0
o f D i k é, 188 E v a g or a s o f S a lami s, 82 8
E leuth eras , E leuth eria , 3 1 9 , E v en i us, 1 8 7
32 0, 326 x
E o r cis m a nd tab u, 2 0 9
E li s , 67, 9 1 , 1 08 E xp e r ts i n p o li ti c s, 2 9 8 , 3 76
E m p edocles, 1 75 , 2 66, 2 68 ; E xp loi ta tion o f G r eek la nds,
o n p hys i s , 2 82 ; a s eng i 32 6
n eer , 333 E xp ur g a ti on of H om er i c
E nd o f Ma n, 5 6 p oem s , 67
f
E ng la nd, a nal ogi es rom, 3 0, x
E t er mi na ti on, li teral, 234,
46, 5 0 , 7 7, 1 3 0 , 1 7 7, 2 1 8 , 238
8 12 , 3 1 4, 322 , 327 , 332 , 375 x
E tern al good s, 235
E ngli sh or i gi n s, com p a r ed
w b
ith H e r ew and G r eek , F am ily li fe, 341 ; and land
30 ed es ta te, 1 09 , 2 33 , 32 0
E p h es is , 2 3 0 ; ep h ete , 22 7 F as a n d th em is , 135 , 139
E p i cur ea n id ea l s, 38 1 F a th e r hood a s p oli tica l unit,
E p i ei k ei a , ep i ei k es , 3 5 7 1 17
E p im eni des o f C r ete, 277 d fi
F eli city, p op ul a r e ni ti ons,
E p i tel leiu, 1 60 5 32 4
q
E ual ity an d di k e, 3 5 7 o f F ew -e a nd for tuna , 2 5 1
a p p or ti onm ent, 8 55 , 380 ; F i d es es t s erv a nda , 3 1 8
of i ntelli g ence, 366 ; o f w
F i eld- a r d en, 322
b reedi n g , 3 6 1 ; i n ch em i s F i n i s a n d telos , 1 65
t ry, 2 6 7 ; un der tim oc r a F la vi us , Gm , 2 2 0
c i es , b
1 8 0 ; i n r ea sona le F orm ula and di k e, 189 , 1 8 1 ,
ne ss, 3 5 6
’

2 0 7, 2 23, 22 7, 236, 2 5 4,
E qui ty, 368 , 377 26 6, 2 75 ; G r eek r es p ect
E retr ia , 92 -93 fo r , 8 12 -3 16 ; in ch em i st r y
E th os , 3 04, 3 16 ; eth ea of a nd p hys i cs , 2 67, 3 00 , 3 0 6,
ani m a l s an d m en, 246 , 316 3 07
E thnos , 79 F or tuna , etymo logy, 2 5 1
E tr uscan ci ties , 38 F reedom ( eleuther ia ) , 5 8 ,
E tym ology o f p o li ti ca l 2 32 - 23 9 , 29 4, 3 19 ; m a te ri a l
term s, 49 , 2 45 , 25 2 r es tr i cti ons on, 325 ; P e r

42 7
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
si a n r es tr a i n t o f,
33 5 ; i n H ad es, jus tice in , 1 84, 1 70
dem ocr a ci es, 3 5 2 ; am ong 1 74
a nim a l s , 2 8 0 , 32 3 H M S , 74
F r ee w
i ll, 183 H a r r i so n, Mi ss J E
. 18 5
F rie n d s h i p , i n A r is totle, 3 05 w
H a y a r d s’-p i ece, in E ng li sh
F r onti er le s s i n i ti ati v e, 225 , villa g es , 77

23 1 , 23 7, 2 5 9 b w f
H e r ew vie o f li e , 1 9 , 2 9 6
fi
F ul lm en t a nd i ni ti a ti ve, tr a di tio na l h i stor y, 2 8 ; l i t
1 62 er atur e, 4 7 ; a nd P er s i a n s ,
F ur i es i n E schylus, 2 18 33 6 H ellen i zed, 382
P h a r is ee a nd S a d ducee,
G a len, 2 5 6
b
G eo g ra p h i cal di stri uti on o f H ec at e, 182
G r eek ci ty sta tes, 8 2 fl ’
. H ei m r , 74
G en oa, 7 9 , 1 15 , 3 9 4 H ell en, s on o f D euc a lio n, 34
G en s , 7 9 , i n R om e, 1 0 7 H ellene s and b
ba r a r i an s,
G eron tes , 8 1
G od s a s or da iner s, 2 45 , 2 8 5 ; H e lleni sm, 45 ; among He
as ad vi s ers of men, 132 ; i n b w
r e s , 382
r elatio n to the i r or ship w H elleni s ti c A g e, 3 9
er s , 332 .
H elo ts, 8 8
d
G oo i ntelli g enc e, 8 66 H elve ti a n tr i a l, 2 03
Good Ma n a nd G oo d C i ti
H er a, 1 36
z en, 37 1 , 3 9 9
H eraclei tus, 2 0, 1 84, 2 66 ,
G or tyn a : cod e o f la w, 2 09 ,
2 69 , 2 83 , 2 86, 289 ,
2 10 11 , 2 25 , 2 30, 2 9 1
3 1 1 , 326, 368 , 3 7 6, 41 4
G r a m m a teus a t A th ens, 2 1 9
H er a ldy i n H ome r, 2 03
G r e ater G reece ( Ma g n a B er k a s , 2 0 9
G r a ci a ) , 9 1
H erod otus , p t e - S oc r a ti c
G r e ek a r t, 37 cli m at e, 61 ; ,

folk m e m or y, 34 ; uri s j b
1 44, 1 5 7 ; ou a s olute r ul
er s, 5 8 ; A the ni a n f am i li es ,
_

p r ud ence, 20 ; la nds , 43, 3 5 2 ; C l ei s th en es , 84 8 ; cus

la n a e,
g 3 7, 4 9 ;
tom s, 32 3 ; democ ra cy,
l aw, 2 6 ; ter a tur e com
'

35 5 , 3 5 9 ; di k e, 1 8 7 ; g od s ,
p a r ed w b w
ith H e r e , 4 8 ;
24 5 -246 ; nom os , 245 , 2 48,
m ode of li fe, 43 ; n ati on
26 7 ; p hys is , 2 5 9
al i ty, 3 7 ; p a i nt in g , 3 7
H ero ic A g e, 64
p op ula r i d eal s, 5 1 ; s culp H esi od , 1 67, 1 9 1, 368
tur e, 3 7 tem p le s, 37 ; tr a
H esm o s , 7 9
di ti ona l h is tory, 34 ; typ es
of b
eauty, 1 78 ; vi ew o f
H eta i r oi, 1 22
w
.

f
li e, comp a r ed w
i th H e H ip p i a s on un ri tten law,
b w
r e , 26 28 4
w
G ro n-up -ne ss, 320, 326 H i p p oc rat es on p hys i s , 269
f
G ue st r i endshi p , 1 43 H i pp op otam us , p hysis of,
G uild-hall, p rytan eion, 2 0 7 2 60
428
 INDEX
H i tti te a r chiv es, 66, 101 ; I s on om ia , 2 8 7, 3 38 , 35 5
em p i r e, 63 I s oteleia , 3 9 8
H om a d os, 73,
392 I s th m us r eg i on a nd i ts
H onour a s wor th or val ue, s ta te s, 89 , 1 03
146 I s tor , 20 2 , 2 04
H or wi, 147, 180, 404
H or k as ( oath ) , 2 09 J a na , 79
q
H uro ns o f Mo ntes ui eu, 30 7 J ezeku, 78
J oie d e o i vr e, 3 77
I a lysus i n R hod es , 10 1 J us te, 1 72
I a m bli ch us, 1 85 J us a g r i p os s i d en di , 72 ; i us
f
I cela nd, a na l og i es rom, 84, g en tium , 3 0 7 ; i us s wwm
2 03, 2 0 8 , 40 7 cui que, 3 18

I di otes , 1 0 7, 3 0 6, 34 1 J us ti ce, G r ee k no ti on o f, 5 7,
I de a o f th e G ood, 2 9 7 8 39 ; c or r ec ti ve a n d d i s
I m p er a r e, im p er at or , 1 4 7 t r i b uti v e, 2 9 1 , 354 ; r e di s
I m p er im/m , 1 48 ; i nfini twm , tr i b uti v e, 3 13 , 3 80 ; in
163 A the n i an dem ocr ac y, 35 1
I n d i vi d ual an d sta te, 1 0 9 , J fi x
us ti ca tion ( e ecutio n ) ,
3 60 18 8
I n d us try in G r eek ci ti es, J us ti ni a n on l a w, 3 09
3 23, 345
I n fa n ti ci d e, i n. G r eece, 1 16 K eri/ma s , K em es , 74
1 17 K er yk es in H ome r , 2 08
I n i tia , 1 64-16 5 , 402 b
K ler os as soc i al ond, 2 3 9
I ni ti a tion in G r e ec e, 1 64 R om e, K om os , 74
I ni ti a ti ve, i n g en er a l, 1 2 0 ; w ei s, 222
p e rso na l , 14 5 ; cl ai ms to,
“ ”
419 ; fr onti er les s, 22 5 , L ab r a nd a, 1 1 5 , 3 9 5
2 3 1 , 238 , 85 9 ; s ee A r k he L a ch es is , lach os , 2 5 1
I ns olen tia , 4 1 4 L ac on i a ( L a c e d mm on ) , 75
I n ter h om i n es fid es s er va 87 ; co l on i es i n i s la n d s,
tur , 3 1 8 1 02 ; h e lo ts , 8 8 ; L a k ed a i
I nrterb r eedi n g , 1 8 0 m on i oi , 75
I n tere s t a n d p r i n ci p a l, 32 9 , L an d, as s oci a l b
ond, 1 0 9 ,
38 1 23 9 , 32 0
I ntr oductio ns in mo d er n L aos , la c i, 70, 8 0, 2 00
G r ee ce, 1 1 9 b
L a r i s a, a n un sta l e p olis , 8 6
I on i a n s i n C ent r a l G r eece , L a ti n t r a n s l a tion s o f G r eek
9 3 ; in A s ia M i nor , 9 9 ; t e rm s , 5 0 , 384
p h ysi ca l q
i n ui r i es , 2 66 ; L a w, G r eek no ti on o f, 5 7,
b
I oni c t ri e s, 1 1 0 i n juri sp ruden ce,
q
I r o uois of q
Montes ui eu, w
3 1 7 ; i n p h ys i cs, 3 8 7 ; l a s
3 0 7 ; noti on o f or en da , 1 1 1 o f th e G r eek s , 2 9 7 ; o f th e

I s a g or a s , 1 1 5 Mede s a n d P er s i a ns , 2 64 ;
I s eg or ia , 338 un w r itten, 2 82 28 5 , 3 1 5
-

42 9
 POLITI CAL IDE AS OF THE GREEKS
La wm an in I c l nd 22 0 M sse ni
, e a , p litical
, st u
e a, o r e
40 8 t ur e, 88 , 1 03
L eg ei n a n d l og os, 1 5 9 Me ti c, m etoi k os, 35 3
L ei s tes, 4 18 Mi g r ations , a g e of, 37, 8 6 1i .

L ei ton, 73, 8 9 2 M i letus und er P er sia n r ule,

L eute, 73 33 6
L ea: a n d n om os , 3 85 ; c ur i
M i no s i n H a d es, 134, 1 70
a ta , 1 48 , 1 5 4 ; na tur e , 3 8 7
3 8 8 ; s a cr a ta , 38 6 Mi n oa n ci vi li s a ti on, 3 6, 6 1 ,

8 6, 1 2 2 ; ch ie fs , 12 9 ; Mi n o
L i b er, lib er i , lib era r e, 3 1 9
a n i z ed d i s tr i cts, 8 7, 8 9 , 9 1 ,
L ib er ti, 3 19
9 4, 1 0 1
L i tur gie s a t A th ens , 33 1
L i n da/n, li nt , 73 Mi no r i ty g over nm ents, 339
L in d a, 73 Mi n ya ns , 8 7 9 3
‘
,

L ag os , 1 5 9 , 8 1 2 , 4 1 5 ; log oi , M oir ai 1 8 3 ,

29 9 M o ly p la nt, p hysis of, 2 54

-

L ov e-tok en, 1 48 Mon a r ch os a n d D i cta tor ,

L ucr et ius, 385 145

L yc i a n c i ti es, 3 8 ; customs , Money usa le thin gs,
as b ”

2 86 32 6 ; “
r eed i n b
g m oney,
”

L ys i a s, 47 82 9, 332
L ys im a chus, 22 9 Mon tes ui eu, 307 q
Montm or ency, ro essor . P f J
Mace an d s k ep tr on, 1 3 0 ;R G d e, 3 1 7
. .

M a cedo ni a n i ncubus on M ot jus te, 1 68 , 2 02

G r ee k fr eedom , 3 67 , 38 0 M uses, 155 , 1 67, 400
Ma g na G r zec i a, 9 1 P f
Mur r ay, ro ess or G G A ,
j
Ma or i ty g over nm ent , 34 7 249
. . .

M a n, p hys is o f, 3 05 , 384
Ma n a 1 5 0 23 8
, , 12 7
M a nn er s p h ilosop h y
, o f, 2 86 Mycen m: p olitical str uc tur e,
M a n ti n ea, 84 89
M a ww-m is s i 3 19
,
Mytilenean decree, 359, 3 72
Mass -m eetin g ( a g or d ) , 7 7,
8 0, 1 1 4, 1 3 9 , 2 0 0, 2 03 N a r od u, 79
M a th em atical trea tm en t o f N a tic, 7 9
p oliti cs a nd mo r al s, 2 9 1 , N a tu/ra a nd p hysis, 385
30 7 N em e a, 8 5
M a us sollus, 8 2 8 N em ei n a n d nomo s, 344
Me diterra ne an l ak e-r egi on, N em es i s , 146 ; and A i d os,
1 9, 5 9 2 49 ,
2 8 5 -8 1 0, 32 1, 8 69 ;
Medi aeval ecli p se o f G reek fi
p er soni ed , 25 0 ; r ep l a ced
i deas, 3 83 b y D ik e, 1 9 2, 1 96, 2 52
M eg a r a, 8 7, 3 9 5 N emus , 252
Melea g er, 77 N em or ens us , ti tle o f D i ana,
M enelaus , 8 1, 39 4 250
 IN DE X
“ ”
N i n e A r chons at A th en s, O p i ni on an d law, 311
2 1 9 , 233 O r ato r s as evi dence for
N om a o, 2 4 5 G r eek l a w , 3 74
N om a i a , 2 47 ; nom a s , 2 45 ; O r ch a m os , or ok os , 14 1
n om é , 2 4 6 ; n om i z ei n , 2 4 9 O r ch om e nos i n Pelop onnese ,
N om en, 78 85 ; i n B ceo ti a, 8 7
N am o s , etym o lo gy, 2 44 ; i n O r d i n a n ce, G re ek notio n o f,
com p o un d s, 4 1 1 ; i n H om er , 5 7 1 2 4, 2 1 3
244 ; in H e s io d , 1 85 , 2 47 ; q
O ren da , I r o uoi s noti on, 1 5 1,
r ep la ci n g E unom ia , 1 85 238
“
a n ces tra l, 3 1 2 - 3 14 , 338 O r g etor ix , 2 02 , 407
“
8 5 8 , 36 7 ; ove rm a st erin g , O r th os , 1 8 7
2 65 ;
“
di vi ne, ”
278 ; un f
O utdoor li e o f th e G reeks ,
wri tten, i n rel a tion 341
to D i k e, 1 8 2 , 2 43 , 24 7— 2 48,
3 1 7 ; to H ek a te, 2 4 7 ; to P al las A th ena, 9 7
p hys is , i n m usi c, P a m p h yli a n c iti es, 88
’
248 ; as ma n s t r a n sc r ip t P a r ar e, 14 7
o f na ture , 263 ; as con v en P a r ed r oi , 2 18
t ion, 2 74 ; a s com p a ct or P a sto r a l soc i eti es, 2 3, 2 8
c on vention, 3 14— 8 16 ; as P a ter fa m i lia s i n R om e, 3 1 9
b
o serva nc e, 5 5 ; a s op i n P a tr a , 8 0
b
i on o i s en si le m en , 3 1 1 ; P an R om a na , 4 1
as r es tit ution , 8 1 3 ; A re o P ecun i a a n d tok os , 4 1 8
p a g us as g uar d i an of F ei r a r , 2 02
’
n om oi , 223 ; S ol on s n om oi , P elem i z ein , 1 4 5 , 3 9 9
243 P elo p i d dyna s ty, 1 23
N om o th e taz, 275 -2 76 Pelop o nne si a n a rt, 2 9 8
N um a , 1 48 , 2 5 1 Per i a nd er , 247
“ ”
b
N ut ea ti ng a ori gin es , 35
- P er i cles, 2 9 3 , 8 63, 3 69 , 4 1 8
P e r s i a , 2 5 ; A ch z e m en i d dy
O ath , testim ony on, 1 26 n as t , 3 9 ; r o al
y y j usti ces,
b
O ed i ence a n d
’

p ers ua sio n, 2 1 4 ; l a w, 2 64 ; r el at io n s
w b w
i th H e r e s, 336, 382
O bli g a tio a nd r eli g io, 2 2 1, m i s un d e r s ta n d i ng w i th
225 G reek s, 336 , 33 9 ; eff ect s
b
O s erva nce a nd n om o s , 55 of P e r s ia n W a rs on

O dysseus, 8 0, 1 29 , 1 42 , 2 12 , G r eece, 4 1 , 28 8 , 38 5 , 3 5 0,
2 55 3 65 , 3 67 i nfl uence of
O i ki s tes , 1 2 0, 3 9 6 Zo ro as tr i a n doctri ne, 2 9 6,
O li g a rc hi es, 33 9 8 08 , 3 8 7
O lym p i c deiti es, 3 7, 38 1 P er s uas ion and ob edi ence,
festi v al s, 3 7 340
O m a h a chi efta n cy, 1 5 2 , 1 55 ; P h a ris ee s, i dea ls o f, 382
noti on of W a k onda , 1 5 1, P h a r m a k on, 2 5 5
1 62 P he idon of C or inth , 345

43 1
 POL ITIC AL IDE AS OF TH E GREE KS
P h ilosop her -ki ng s i n G r eek Pl ea ders as evi d ence fo r
ci ti es, 2 9 2 G r eek l aw, 3 74
“ ”
Ph il o sop h y, p h ys ica l
in P leb s, p leb es , 73
“
I on i a, 2 80 fi ; of . m an P lem e, 73, 80 ; p leth os , 73
”
n ers , 2 86 ; of ab str a cti on s, P oi né , 2 00
2 90, 2 98 ; i n th e W est, P o l em ar ch os , 2 1 6, 2 32 , 35 2
2 89 ; r econciled i n A r i sto F a lem os , etym o lo gy, 1 45
“

tl e, 2 98
P olis , i n H o m er , 68 11 ; i n
P h li us, p oli ti cal st r uc tur e, com p oun d s, 3 92 ; c om
85
p a r ed W i th d em os, 75 ;
P h oci s, p oli ti ca l s tr uct ur e, as ty, 7 0-72 ; la os , 70 ;
m e ani ng a cr op olis , 72 ;
Ph oeni ci a n c i ti es , 38 or i gi n, 1 06 ; g eog r a p h i ca l
P h oki k on, 84 i ns titut ion, 82 ; encroa ch
P hr a tria ,
79 ; p h r é tr é , 1 22
clan s , 1 08 , 2 72 ; i t i s d e
p h r a tr y, 7 9, 1 08
fens i ve, 2 3 7 s up p lem en t
Ph thi a , P h thiotis , 86
2 33 , 2 40 ; r em e di al ,
P bg c, i n Pi nda r and H erod
a ry,
2 40 ; i ts s up r emo lem, 1 0 8 ;
otu s, 256
r ela t i on to th e ind i vid ua l
P hyle, p h ylon, 80, 12 2
c i tiz en, 1 09
P hys i c a l p hilos op h y i n I o ni a,
P o li ta i i n H om e r , 70 , 1 1 0
28 0 ; i n A th en s, 383 ; o f
in mo r al
A r i s totle, 2 9 8 3
876
.

P hys iolog oi , 2 75 -2 76
P h ys que of G r eek la nd s,
59 g 15 1
P op uI/us , p op ular i, 73
P hys is , etym ol ogy, in 256 P b w
o r t a le e al th , 330
H o m er , 2 5 5 ; P i nd ar , 2 5 7, Po tl a tch custom , 33 0
2 64 ; i E sch ylus, 2 5 7 H er P r e tor , 1 45 , 1 8 1 , 222
od otus , 2 5 9 E ; P la to, 25 8 ,
.
P reca r i ous n ess of G reek
369 ; A r i sto tle, in li fe, 32 9
r el a tio n to nom os , 2 6 1 , P r eti m n , 146
27 3 ; to a r k h e, 8 00 ; p h ys i s P reventi ve f unction of th e
o f m a n, 3 0 5 , 38 4 ; p oli tica l
p oli s, 3 07
usa g e, 2 70, 2 73 P riamus a nd N em es is , 25 1
P i ctor in a p r aator s court,
’
b
P ri ce o f loo d , 2 0 1
2 22 P r i m/tum m o bi le, 1 43
P l ato, 4 6, 12 5 ; on g eolo gy of P r incep s , 1 65 , 3 8 8
G r eece, 352 ; on o ri g i n o f P r i n cip al a n d inte r est, 32 9 ,
s oci ety, 1 9 2 ; i dea l sta te, 83 1
1 1 0 ; p sych olo gy a nd p oli P r i/Iw ip i m n, 1 64, 3 1 7, 3 8 8
t i cs , 2 9 7 ed uca ti on , 366 ; P ri vi leg im n, 138
j usti ce, 2 9 1 , 32 4 ; e ui ty, q P r oa na k fi s i s , 22 7
230 , 869 ; the G old en A g e, P r of ess io n a li sm in G r eek
2 52 citi es, 2 9 5

43 2
 IND EX
P rofiteer i ng, 885 R es tri ction o f fam ili es in
P b
rohi iti o n of a lco hol at G re ece, 1 16 -1 1 7
S p a rta, 3 70 R eta li a ti on a nd rec ip roci ty,
P r ovi ncia, 1 48 ; a nd telos, 3 07
1 63 R li amn us : cult of Nemes is,
P r owen os , 2 2 1, 23 2 z5 0
P ryta neion a t A t hen s, 216 ; R h od es, 88 , 1 0 1
a s cour t o f law , 235 ; p ry R h yth m i n educati on, 8 77,
tan eia , cour t ees, f 2 0 7, 3 89 , 42 1
40 8 R ip a r i a n cul tures, 2 1
Ps ep hi sm a , 35 8 R i te d e p as s a g e, 2 5 0
P toli eth r on, 69 R i ver v al l eys as c entres of
P ur sui t of a mur er er , d 1 08, cultur e, 2 0
395 Ro m e a s a p olis , 1 07
“
P us h ”
as es sen ce of Ro m an L a w, Co d e o f T welve
a r k h é, 145 -1 46 b
T a les , 2 43 ; G re ek ele
P yli an L ea g ue, 9 3 , 1 14 m ents i n, 2 0, 808
Pyth a g or a s, 1 85 , 2 90 R om a n ho usehold, 8 1 9 ; p ol
P ytho ( D elp h i ) , 132 i cy i n G reek la nds, 40, 38 0
q
e u i v a lents for G re ek po
li ti ca l term s, 5 0, 1 64, 3 8 4
at A thens , 348 3 . R ouss eau, 3 0 7
P
R oj al j ud ges i n ersi a, 2 14,
b
R easona lenes s, G reek no z 6é
t i on o f, 30 5 , 35 6, 368, 3 73
R eci p rocity, 30 7 d
S ad ducees, i ea ls of, 8 82
R ec on str uction of tri a l b S a g a -p eri od in I cela nd , 84
g r oup s, 1 1 0, 2 1 9 , 847, 35 1 S a l uta tio, 1 49 , 1 5 4
R eco r de rs a t A th ens, 2 1 8 ; S wooi r fa i r s of th e p u lic b
a t Go r tyn a, 242 ; i n E ng s er va nt, 168
b
lis h or ough s, 2 18 S c ep tr e, 127
b
R edi s tr i uti ve j ustic e, 3 13 S choolm as ters in G re ece,
f
Re er ees i n A th enia n cour ts , 364
22 7 S ci p i o a nd s k ep tr on , 1 2 8
”
R ege nt at A th ens, 2 1 6 S e a -R ai ders , 63 -65
Re gi onal con trols over G reek S econd -c ros ses i n A th eni an
f
li e, 5 9 -6 1 s oci ety, 3 61
R el g io and ob lig a tio, 22 1, S elf g ov ern ed, 4 1 2 ; s el f
z 5é p lea s i n g c onduct, 144
f
Re me dial un ction o f justice, sel f-r esp ect, 1 95 ; s e l f
suffici ency in e a r l y
R ena i ss ance of G reek id eas , G r eec e, 52 , 1 1 8 , 17 6
S em i tes i n O r ienta l h i s tory,
R es p ri vate , r es p ub lica , 23
1 07 S h i eld of A chill es, sc enes on,
R esti tution, 209 71, 1 98 fl . "
 POLITICAL IDEAS OF THE GREEKS
S kep tr on , 12 7, 1 34 -1 3 8
“
S tr ai gh ten ing
”
f
unc tion of
G reek s oc i eti es, ( li k e, 1 75
S la ves i n
8 2 1 , 32 6 S uitors o f Pen elop e, 7 8 , 1 72

S mi th field i n E ngli sh v i l S up p l em ent a ry f

unc
l a g es, 77 th e p o li s , 24 0
S oci a l contr act, 3 86 S ycop h a n cy, 3 75
S o c r a t e s a n d hi s t e a c h er s , S yn fr k ism os, 1 1 8 , 1 77, 3 9 5
,

2 8 1 ; ac cus a tio ns a g a i n st, S yr a cuse , 2 9 2 , 8 28, 3 80

2 49 , 8 73 , 8 8 0 ; a r gum en t ”
w i th E uth yp h ro, 2 40 ; w i th
“
b
T a les o f the L aw, G r eek
H ip p i a s, 2 84 ; vi e s on w a n d R om an , 242 -2 43

b r ee di n g, 3 63
T a b u, 2 4, 1 14, 1 2 6-12 7, 2 08 ,
4 6 2 1 3 2 1 9 2 22 a d 235
So l o n , , , , ;
vi ce to C roesus , 1 63 , 2 76 ;
T a l en t, val ue of, i n H om er ,
economi c f
r e o r m s, 2 75 , 2 06
3 2 5 -33 1 , 333 ; judici a l r e T a r e ntum, i ts p hilosop h er
fo rm s , 35 3 ; ent o ur
'
k in g, 2 9 2
Beg ea , 85
a g em ent o f a li en s, 35 0
T elei n, 160 ; tellei n, 160
S op h ist s, 2 9 4 , 8 65
te letes , teles ter io n, 1 64
S op h ocles , on p hysis, 2 68,
Telos i n H om er , 1 60 ; i n cl as
2 7 0, 2 9 7
si cal G r eek , 1 62 ; in
S p a rta, etym ology, 75 ; co n E schylus, 18 1 ; i n A r i sto
s ti tutio n, 87 i n fa nti cid e,
t le, 3 00 ; as m il itary ter m ,
1 17 j ea lous of A th e ns a n d
1 6 1 ; r ela ti ons wi th wr kh é,
b
o f T h e es, 4 1 ; S p a r ta n es
1 5 9 ; t r an sl a edl b y p r o
tim a te o f A th eni a n ch a r
a cte r, 8 71
c i n cia , 1 63 ; fi y fini s , 1 65
T er a s in A r i s to tle , 3 03
c r tiat a i , 75 , p hys is o f,
sz l
T e s tim ony on oa th , 1 26
f
Th a les, a s p oli ti cal r e orme r,
S p ea k er i n I celan dic A l 1 00
thi ng , 2 2 0, 4 08 b
Th e es, p oli ti cal s tructur e,
S rec a li sts in p ol iti cs, 29 5 , f
ég euds ,
87 4 1, 87 re
z s tr i cted in fa n ti ci de, 1 1 7
S p o ng es, p hys is o f, 3 03 hil h -k in
p os o p er g s, 2 92
“
q ”
S uar e justi ce, 2 9 1 T h em i s , etym o lo gy, 125 , 39 6,
b
e a n d uns ta le soci eti es,
bl
St as vo i c e of th e g o ds, 1 3 1 ;
a h ow a sc er tai ne d, 12 4, 1 2 7 ;
S t a te a nd I n di vi dua l, 2 83 , x
e a m p les, 1 2 6, 2 1 0, 39 6 ;
8 60 fi
p erso ni ed, 135 , 1 9 6 ; r ela
S ta tus and contr ac t, 1 09 ti on to d i k e, 1 38 , 1 7 1 , 1 80
S te si cho r us , 76 in H e s i od, 1 5 5 , 1 68 ; com
S toi c i d eal in p oliti cs a n d p a r ed w i th fas , 135 , 139
m or al s, 38 0 T he o g n- i s, 19 7
S tone ci r cle as court o f la w, T h eog on ia , 1 69
2 04, $ 1 Th eocra tic soci eti es , 24

434
 w
Th eory o f k no led g e ( H er a T r uth , G r eek notion of, 1 8 5,
cl eitus ) , 2 77-2 79 2 1 1 , 22 4, 2 80
T h eos , G r eek etym ology, Tyr a n ni es i n G r eek city
245 , 2 46 s ta t es , 82 7 tyra/tm os, ety
Th er a p ont es, 122 mo lo gy, 3 9 7
T he r site s, 8 1 w b
T elve T a les, co e o f, 243 d
Th es eus , 96 , 2 16, 248
T h em 1 2 5 , 2 1 0, 2 12 11 ,
,
U n der worl d, p la ce o f D i ké
28 7, 24 1 -2 43 , 34 7 i n, 1 34, 170, 1 74
Th esm op h / 1a k es, 2 3 7
g t ruth, 1 8 5 ,
’
U n fo r ge tti n g
T h em oth ta i , 22 9 ,
22 4 ; dik a i , 2 1 1 ; p hys is ,
2 3 7, 2 75 , 8 14, 8 5 8 ; th es
2 80
mo th eteion, 2 1 5
U ni ted S tates of A t tica, 96,
Th e s sa ly, p oli ti cal s truct ure,
35 1
03
Th i ng
9

as s em blyi n I cela nd, b

U n sta le societi es, 2 7 1

sw
i tt en l a s, 282—
w285 , 3 1 5 ,
'

2 04 ; th i ng - h ei mr , 74
Th o ro ug h r ed b and w
ell
g
b r ed , 1 76, 1 8 0, 840 b
U sa l e thi ngs, G reek notio n
Tho usa nd, ”
as p olitical
of w
eal th, 826-327, 4 17

un it, 1 1 7 U l y, G r eek vi ew of, 329,

Thucydi des, 66, 8 1, 9 8, 9 9 a sgi
Ti m e an d a r k h é, 1 46, 149
tirm i os, 1 47 V alens , va lor , 146
T im ocr acy, 342 6
Tl ep ol em os, 2 34, 410
.
b b
V er a l s u stanti ves i n G reek
ter m i nology, 1 5 9 , 25 6
T ok os, 32 9 ; a nd p ecuni a , 4 18
T op sy, p hys is o f, 3 0 1
V i ctor i a n E ng lan , 46 d
T r a ini n g for citiz enshi p , 2 98 ,
3 64, 3 79 ; i n a r i stocra ci es,
P 2 15

0
T r a ns lati on o f G r eek term s w
to n s, 77
i n to L at in , 5 0, 384 W a k ond a , O m aha, n oti on o f,
b
T a ns va al R ep u li c, a na logy
r 15 0— 1 53
f
rom , 4 1 9 b
W a l es, loca l reeds of p eo
T r i al sub s titute for d
loo b d p le, 1 77
f
eud, 1 9 8 fl
’
. b
W a r, as d istur ance of nor
T ri al -scene on S h i eld of m a l or der , 1 45 a s me a ns
A ch illes , 1 70, 1 74, 19 8 11 , of a c u q
i r in g w
ea lth , 4 1 7 ;

22 8, 3 0 7 e ff ect s on G r eek soci ety,

T r ip o lis , 85 345 , 363 , 865

b f
T ri a l r e or m s at A thens,
“
W ay ”
as e u q
i val ent of
1 1 0, 2 19 , 347 ; a t Cyr ene, di ! , 1 70, 1 74
1 10, 8 8 1 ; at S i cyon, 1 10
b
T ri al soc i ety i n H eroi c c ur r ency, 2 73, 82 5 ; p u lic,b
A g e, 70, 8 0, 2 00 333 , 343 ; p ri vate,

435
 POLITI C AL ID EAS
in t imocr a cies, 841 ; re
s tr i ction s on, 38 0 i ng , 22 0

X enop h on, 4 7, 82 0
W erg eld, 2 0 1 X erws a nd as tos , 72
W i fe -war den i n G reek ci ties,
32 1 Z al eucus, 46,
W i n d fall s, 835 Z eus, O lym p i an or C a ri a n,
W ome n i n G reek soci ety, 1 15 , 35 2 , 3 95
Z eus -nur tur ed ki ngs, 1 5 5
W o r th, as h onour , 1 46 Zim me rn, A E , on H om e r ic
. .

W r a th of G od a s j us ti ce, 2 07
for law, 2 85 ; in

W ri ting G reece, 2 5 6-2 9 7, 303, 38 7

43 6