S O C I A L F A C T S AND THEORY C O N S T R U C T I O N I N S O C I O L O G Y

Yuwa Rong
B.A., T R E N T UNIVERSITY, 1975

A THESIS SUBHITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREHEHTS FOR T H E DEGREE OF

HASTER OF ARTS

in the D e p a r t m e n t
of
S o c i o l o g y and A n t h r o p o l o g y

@ Yuwa Uonq 1979

SIXON PBASER UNIVERSITY
July 1979

A l l r i g h t s reserved. T h i s t h e s i s m a y not be
r a p r o d u c e d i n whole or i n p a r t , by p h o t o c o p y
or o t h e r means, w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n of the author.
 PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE

I h e r e b y g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d
my t h e s i s , p r o j e c t o r e x t e n d e d e s s a y ( t h e t i t l e o f w h i c h i s shown b e l o w )
t o u s e r s o f t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r
s i n g l e c o p i e s o n l y f o r such u s e r s o r i n response t o a r e q u e s t f r o m t h e
l i b r a r y o f any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on
i t s own b e h a l f o r f o r one o f i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission
f o r m u l t i p l e c o p y i n g o f t h i s w o r k f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d
by me o r t h e Dean o f G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s . I t i s understood t h a t copying
o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s work f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .

T i t l e o f Thesis/Project/Extended Essay
- k -b- C w5.7 l l ~ + i T
\&-I4

Social Facts and Theory Construction in Sociology

(name)

August 15, 1979

(date)
 Name: Y w a Wong

~egree: Master of Arts

f i t l e of -is: Social Facts and Theory Canstruction in Sociology

Exffnining Cam\ittee:

Chairpem: W s h Mckie-Clark

T---
Keith Dim
Senior Supervisor

/
?

External E x h e r
Assistant P r o f e s s o r
Department of P h i l a y

Date Approved:
 ABSTRACT

T h i s p a p e r i s c o n c s r n e d w i t h t h e m e t h o d o l o q y of socioloqy:
w i t h the n a t u r e o f socialogical t h e o r y a n d socioloqicai
e x p l a n a t i o n . There is a l o n g s t a n d i n g t r a d i t i o n i n sociology, a s
r e p r e s e n t e d by E. D u r k h e i m a n d h i s f o l l o u e r s , w h i c h a r q u e s for
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p a r a d i q w s o f theory c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d
e x p l a n a t i o n d r a w n from n a t u r a l s c i e n c e . T h i s p a p e r e x a m i n e s a n d
e v a l u a t e s s u c h a r b i t i o n s , and a l s o a s k s w h e t h e r t h e r e are
a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e Durkhei mian method.
Re p r o c e e d i n t h r e e s t a g e s . First, we e l u c i d a t e a n d

a r t i c u l a t e D u r k h e i m * s c o n c e p t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t a s e m p i r i c a l
bedrock. Since t h e concept of s o c i a l f a c t i s c r u c i a l t o t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r i e s , we n e x t d i s c u s s w h e t h e r t h e o r y
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n the m a n n e r of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s - - a s o u t l i n e d by
C. Hempel-is possible given our previous result. F i n a l l y , we
e x p l o r e the p o s s i b i l i t 7 o f a n a l t e r n a t i v e mode o f t b e o r i z i n q a n d
e x p l a n a t i o n in s o c i o l o g y .
T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t s o c i o l o q i c a l t.hsory c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s
a d v o c a t e d by D u r k h e i m , i s a n i ~ p o s s i b l et a s k . The R e m p e l i a n
model o f t h e o r y a n d e x p l a n a t i o n , which i s e x p l a n a t i o n b y
r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g laws, i s n o t o n l y i a p o s s i b l e i n s o c i r > l o q y
b u t u n n e c e s s a r y . I t is a r q u e d t h a t t h e mode of e x p l a n a t i o n i n
s o c i o l o g l is "by d e s c r i p t i o n , # s i n c e the d i a e n s i o n of s o c i a l
r e a l i t y which c o n s f sts of bumen b e h a v i o r , a t t f t u d e s , b e l i e f s ,
e t c , , is d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the dimension of t h e r e a l i t y

of n a t u r a l f a c t s , I n t h o f i n a l c h a p t e r , e x p l a n a t i o n b y
d e s c r i p t i o n is a l s o shown to p r e s u p p o s e a n o b jecti ve b a c k q r ound
of r a t i o n a l i t y w h i c h a n c h o r s s o c i o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n t o t h e
b e d r o c k o f human knouledge.
 TABLB OF C O l T E l T S

A P P R O V A L . m m m m m m m m . m m m ~ m ~ ~ m m m m m e * m m m m m m e m m m m ~ m m m ~ mm m~ ~ m m m ~ m * ~ m w ~

ABSTRACT ................................................... miff

CRAPTBU I go ..............m..........m...mmmm...
S o c i a l Pacts 1

CRAPTI!B XI -- Durkheim9s .............................. 15

CHAPTER ISf =- .............

Theory c o n s t r o c t i o n i n Sociology.. 27

CfiAPTBP IV .- Two of nodes .......................

~xplanations 52

CHAPTBB f -- ...............
E x p l a n a t i o n and Rationality....... 72

B i b l i o g r a p h y . . . . . . . . m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m . . . . m . . . . . . . . . .95
......
CHAPTER I -- S o c i a l P a c t s
I n C h a p t e r One o f The --
Rules f S o c i o l o q i c a l Method Dur kheim
d e f i n e s s o c i a l f a c t s as:
ways o f a c t i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d f e e l i n q t h a t p r e s e n t t h e
n o t e w o r t h y p r o p e r t y of e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e t h e i n d i v i d u a l
consciousness. These t y p e s of c o n d u c t o r t h o u g h t a r e n o t
o n l y e x t e r n a l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l b u t a r e , endowed w i t h
c o e r c i v e power b y v i r t u e o f which t h e y i m p o s e t h e m s e l v e s
upon h i s , i n d e p e n d e n t of h i s i n d i v i d u a l w i l l . 1
H e f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d s o c i a l f a c t s e power of c o e r c i o n i n
terms o f - t h e e x i s t e n c e o f some s p e c i f i c s a n c t i o n . . . against
e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t t h a t t e n d s t o v i o l a t e it.**S o c i a l facts
c a n a l s o be r e c o g n i z e d i n terms o f t h e i r * d i f f u s i o n w i t h i n t h e
group," a n d a s h a v i n g t h e a b i l i t y -of e x e r c i s i n q o n t h e
individual an external constraint." H e n c e s o c i a l f a c t s are
r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f (1) e x t e r n a l i t y ,
(2) c o n s t r a i n t , (3) q e n e r a l i t y .
G i v e n s u c h a f o r m u l a t i o n , a n i n c r s d i b l y wide spectrum of
phenomena c a n b e s u b s u m e d u n d e r t h e n o t i o n o f s o c i a l f a c t ,
r a n q i n g from t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p a a e n t of t h e s o c i e t y t o i t s
l e g a l and economic system, its t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s , reliqions
a n d p a t t e r n s o f q r o u p b e h a v i o r as u e l l a s i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r .
S o c i a l f a c t s c a n b e a r r a n q e d i n t h e form of a c o n t i n u u m c o v s r i n g
t h e m o s t g e n e r a l a n d f l o b j e c t i v e n s o c i a l phenomena down t o t h e
more s p e c i f i c g r o u p a n d i n d i v i d u a l e s b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s . And
e a c h phenomenon c a n be r e c o q n i z e d , p r e s u m a b l y , i n terms of t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e x t e r n a l i t y , c o n s t r a i n t , a n d q e n e r a l i t y . Laws
c a n b e f o u n d e x i s t i n q o b j e c t i v e l y i n law b o o k s a n d i n the
p r a c t i c e s of c o u r t h o u s e s a n d o f p r i s o n s ; t h e e c o n o m y o f a n y
q i v e n s o c i e t y s h a p e s t h e l i v e s o f a l l t h e m e m b e r s of t h e s o c i e t y
and i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y i n d i v i d u a l ' s w i l l and d e s i r e ;
r e l i g i o u s a n d t r a d i t i o n a l beliefs are embodied i n i n d i v i d u a l ' s
attitudes, outlooks, and sentiments: and t h e everyday behavior
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s s h a p e d b y a l l t h e s e e x t e r n a l c o n s t r a i n t s
and i s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f them a f t e r t h e y have been i n t e r n a l i z e d
by t h e s u b j e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
I n t h i s s e c t i o n , I would l i k e to a r g u e t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o
D u r k h e i a ' s f o r m u l a t i o n , t h e r e are two d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s t o t h e
e x i s t e n c e of s o c i a l f a c t s . T h e y a r e t h e e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l
aspects. By e x t e r n a l a s p e c t , I mean a n y s t a t e o f a f f a i r s t h a t
e x i s t e n c e of which i s r e l a t i v e l y u n r e l a t e d t o t h e o b s e r v e r ' s
s u b j e c t i v e s t a t e . B y i n t e r n a l a s p e c t , I mean a n y s t a t e o f
a f f a i r s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of w h i c h is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a n d tg a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e o b s e r v e r ' s s u b j e c t i v e state.
T h e s e two a s p e c t s o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e D u r k h e i m i a n s o c i a l
fact r e n d e r s ambiquous t h e v e r y c o n c e p t o f social fact itself
a n d a t times, a s I h o p e t o show, t h e y a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e .
A s I h a v e n o t e d earlier, t h e n o t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t
e n c o m p a s s e s a wide s p e c t r u m of s o c i a l phenomena, which c a n b e
o r d e r e d i n t o a c o n t i n u u m . P r i m a facie, t h e r e i s n o o b v i o u s
d i f f i c u l t y i n u n d e r s t a n d i n q s u c h a n o t i o n a n d i t does n o t seem
t o imply any contradiction o r inconsistency. Trouble a r i s e s ,
h o w e v e r , when o n e t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t D u r k h e i m l s m e t h o d o l o g y f o r
t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t s .
H e f i r s t i n s i s t s t h a t " s o c i a l phenomena (facts) a r e thinqs
a n d o u q h t t o be t r e a t e d a s t h i n g s . * * T h e n h e o u t l i n e s t w o
p r i n c i p l e s for t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f social facts.
T h e f i r s t p r i n c i p l e : a l l p r e c o n c e p t i o n s m u s t be
e r a d i c a t e d . T h e s e c o n d p r i n c i p l e : t h e s u b j e c t matter o f
every s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d y s h o u l d c o m p r i s e a q r o u p o f
phenomena d e f i n e d i n a d v a n c e b y c e r t a i n common e x t e r n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; a n d a l l phenomena s o d e f i n e d s h o u l d be
i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h i s qroup. 2
W h i l e D u r k h e i m s u g q e s t s t h a t s o c i a l f a c t s a r e " t h i n q s , t * hs
h a s a l s o g i v e n a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of w h a t a " t h i n q W is:

What, p r e c i s e l y , i s a * ' t h i n q t * ? A t h i n g d i f f e r s from a n

i d e a i n t h e same way a s t h a t w h i c h we know f r o m w i t h o u t ,
d i f f e r s from w i t h i n . T h i n q s i n c l u d e a l l o b j e c t s of
k n o w l e d g e t h a t c a n n o t be c o n c e i v e d b y p u r s l y m e n t a l
a c t i v i t y , t h o s e t h a t r e q u i r e for t h i s c o n c e p t i o n data
from o u t s i d e t h e mind, from o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d
e x p e r i m e n t s , t h o s e w h i c h are b u i l t u p f o r m t h e more
e x t e r n a l a n d i m m e d i a t e l y accessible c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o
t h e l e s s v i s i b l e a n d more p r c f o u n d . 3
H e n c e a " t h i n g w i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a n " i d e a n a s the
e x t e r n a l i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l , the " w i t h o u t t 8 i s
c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e "within." And a s t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f
m t h i n q s MD u r k h e i m s u g g e s t s t h a t :
To t r e a t t h e f a c t s of a c e r t a i n o r d e r a s t h i n q s i s ...
t o a s s u m e a c e r t a i n m e n t a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m on t h e
p r i n c i p l e t h a t when a p p r o a c h i n q t h e i r study we a r e
a b s o l u t e l y i q n o r a n t of t h e i r n a t u r e . 4
 T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n h e r e comes d a n g e r o u s l y c l o s e t o t h e n a i v e
p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e q u a l i t y of w t h i n q h o o d l * is t h a t o f b e i n q
e x t e r n a l t o t h e o b s e r v i n q mind; a n d w h i l e t h i s o b s e r v i n q mind i s
preconceptionless, t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e n a t u r e of t h e o b s e r v e d
t h i n g s c a n b e d i r e c t l y i m p l a n t e d i n t o it. I f s o c i a l f a c t s i n d e e d
consist, a s f o r m u l a t e d b y D u r k h e i n , of b o t h t h e e x t e r n a l a n d
i n t e r n a l a s p e c t s , t h e n t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n c a n n o t be c a r r i e d out
i n t h e B a n n e r j u s t d e s c r i b e d , An i n t e n a l t e n s i o n c a n b e observed
i n D u r k h e i a ' s a p p r o a c h b e t w e e n t h e n o t i o n o f s o c i a l f a c t and t h e
a t t e m p t t o t r e a t them s i m p l y a s t8th5ngs,t9 To e l a b o r a t e on t h i s ,
l e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s cf s o c i a l f a c t
individually.
First, let u s look a t e x t e r n a l i t y . Ve c a n o b s e r v e t h a t
t h e r e are social phenomena t h a t a r e e x t e r n a l t o a n y s i n q l e
individual. But are t h e r e s o c i a l facts t h a t are e x t e r n a l to a l l
i n d i v i d u a l s ? T h a t i s , c a n t h e y be i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a l l i n d i v i d u a l s ? T h i s b r i n g s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e o n t o l o q i c a l
s t a t u s of s o c i a l f a c t s . I t c a n be a r g u e d t h a t s i n c e p h y s i c a l
t h i n g s l i k e mountains and r i v e r s c a n e x i s t without a n y
i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f them, t h e n social f a c t s a s t h i n g s
s h o u l d h a v e t h e same o n t a l o q i c a l s t a t u s . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
w o u l d r e d u c e s o c i a l f a c t s t o some s u p e r - e n t i t i e s e x i s t i a q
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of p e o p l e c o m p l e t e l y * I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h i s i s w h a t
D u r k h e i m i n t e n d s a n d , a s h e s a y s i n t h e p r e f a c e t o the s e c o n d
e d i t i o n of The &I
.=gg Socioloqj& Hethod: ", . .in order
t h a t t h e r e nay b e a s o c i a l f a c t , s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s , a t t h e
very l e a s t , must h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t h e i r a c t i o n ; a n d i n t h l s
j o i n t a c t i v i t y is t h e o r i g i n o f a new f a c t a n I t i s c l e a r t h a t
s o c i a l f a c t s e x i s t i n s o f a r a s t h e r e a r e social a c t i v i t i e s , and
s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s n a t u r a l l y imply p e o p l e and communities w i t h
s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
e x t e r n a l i t y c a n n o t be i n t s r e p r e t e d a s e x t e r n a l t o a l l
i n d i v i d u a l s * e x i s t e n c e . But t h e n how s h o u l d i t b e i n t e r p r e t e d ?
~t seems t o me t h a t i t s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as a n e x p l a n a t o r y
d e v i c e w i t h which s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r by
something o t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s ' p s y c h o l o g y o r c o n c e p t s of
i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n t e n t i o n a n d so on. T h i s i s a move t o e s t a b l i s h a n
i n d e p e n d e n t domain of e x p l a n a t i o n which i s l a b e l l e d a s " s o c i a l
f a c t o n T h e w o r k i n g s of t h i s e x p l a n a t o r y d e v i c e - - s o c i a l
facts--bring u s t o its second f e a t u r e , c o n s t r a i n t .
The e x t e r n a l a s p e c t of c o n s t r a i n t i s q u i t e c l e a r . The l a u
h a s t h e c o e r c i v e power t o c o n t r o l i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r . Ti13
e x p l i c i t e x e r c i s e of a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e c o n f o r m i t y of t h e
i n d i v i d u a l s t o t h e a u t h o r i t y i s a c l e a r case o f t h e n a t u r e o f
c o n s t r a i n t o f s o c i a l f a c t s . B u t Durkheim a l s o s p e a k s o f s o c i a l
f a c t s a s "ways o f a c t i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d f e e l i n g * a n d the
q u e s t i o n is how a r e t h e s e n w a y s of a c t i n g , t h i n k i n q , a n d
f e e l i n g " r e s u l t s o f t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g n a t u r e of social f a c t s .
The c o n s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s o f s o c i a l f a c t s c a n b e c l a s s i f i e 3
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ways. (1) L e q a l c o n s t r a i n t : i n s p i t e of thp
 f a c t t h a t we c a n c h o o s e e i t h e r t o b r e a k t h e Law o r n o t t o break
the law, b o t h d e c i s i o n s h a v e f a r r e a c h i n q c o n s e q u e n c e s i n o u r
.. .
behavior. (2) Psychological constraint: o u r behavior as
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n w h i c h we i n t e r a c t . To u s e
~ n r k h e i m *e x~a m p l e s : t h e r e are sudden and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e
emoticns of p a t r i o t i s m , mob mentality, brotherly l o v e , etc., in
a g r o u p or c r o w d s i t u a t i o n . (3) T h e c o n c e p t u a l frasaework

constraint: t h i s is a complex c o n c e p t i n v o l v i n q l a n q u a q e ,
t r a d i t i o n a l belief, knowledqe, c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a s
d e t e r m i n i s t i c f a c t o r s o n a n individual*^ b e h a v i o r . A c c o r d i n q t o
webster's
---_U-
World D i c t i o n a ~ y ( s e c o n d c o l l e g e e d i t i o n ) ,
w c o n s t r a i n t n means W o n f i n e m e n t o r r e s t r i c t i o n , c o m p u l s i o n o r
c o e r c i o n , a r e p r e s s i o n of n a t u r a l f e e l i n g s o r b e h a v i o r , f o r c e d ,
u n n a t u r a l manners, awkwardness." And i t seems t o me t h a t only
(1) l e g a l c o n s t r a i n t , c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e c l e a r c a s e of t h e
e x i s t e n c e of c e r t a i n s o c i a l f a c t s c o n s t r a i n i n q i n d i v i d u a l
behavior. H.L.A. Hart, P r o f e s s o r o f J u r i s p r u d e n c e a t O x f o r d , i n
h i s p a p e r prolegomenon t o P r i n c i p l e s of P ~ n i s h a e n t ,d~i s c u s s e s
i n s o m e d e t a i l t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t of law. H e asks a n d
answers t h e question:
Why a r e c e r t a i n k i n d s of a c t i o n s f o r b i d d e n b y law a n d s o
made crimes o r o f f e n c e s ? T h e a n s u e r is: T o a n n o u n c e t o
s o c i e t y t h a t t h e s e a c t i o n s a r e n o t t o b e done a n d t o
s e c u r e t h a t f e v e r of t h e m a r e done. 5

The b a s i c premises a s s u m e d h e r e a r e first t h a t t h e r e is a

c h o i c e b e t w e e n b r e a k i n g a n d n o t b r e a k i n g t h e law; a n d s e c o n d l y ,
t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s t h e a b i l i t y t o c h o o s e . G i v e n t h e s e two
p r e m i s e s p u n i s h m e n t i s j u s t i f i e d i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e law car,
h o l d t h e o f f e n d e r r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e o f f e n c e . He d o n o t h 3 v e t o
g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s of t h e argument o f t h e u t i l i t a r i a n
c o n c e p t i o n of p u n i s h m e n t a n d t h e " s t r i c t l i a b i l i t y l r a r g u m e n t ,
What is c l e a r i s t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a w a r e n e s s o f t h e c h o i c e
a n d t h a t h e i s free t o c h o o s e are p r e s u p p o s e d i n t h e l e g a l
s y s t e m of p u n i s h m e n t . To q u o t e Hart a t l e n g t h :
C r i m i n a l punishment, a s a n a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e d e s i r e d
b e h a v i o r , d i f f e r s by t a k i n q a r i s k f r o m t h e m a n i p u l a t i v e
t e c h n i q u e s of t h e B r a v e N e w Y o r l d a n d from t h e s i m p l a
i n c a p a c i t a t i o n of t h o s e w i t h a n t i - s o c i a l t e n d e n c i e s
T h i s i s a m e t h o d of s o c i a l c o n t r o l w h i c h m a n a g e s
...
i n d i v i d u a l freedom w i t h i n t h e c o e r c i v e f r 3 m e v o r k of law
i n a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t ways, o r p e r h a p s , different
obeying or paying ...
senses: F i r s t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s a n o p t i o n between
secondly, t h i s system n o t only
enables individuals to exercise t h i s choice but
i n c r e a s e s t h e p a v e r of i n d i v i d u a l s t o i d e n t i f y
b e f o r e h a n d p e r i o d s when t h e l a w r s p u n i s h m e n t w i l l n o t
i n t e r f e r e with t h e a and t o p l a n t h e i r l i v e s according1
T h e c o n s t r a i n i n g effect of law, t h e n , i s b a s e d o n t h e i d e a s
o f i n d i v i d u a l ' s freedom a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d h e n c e t h e b e l i e f
t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l would s h a p e h i s b e h a v i o r a c c o r d i n g l y . B a r t
h a s also d i s c u s s e d s i t u a t i o n s i n which t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n n o t be
held r e s p o n s i b l e for h i s behavior. An i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i o n c a n be
" e x c u s e d a i f it is e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e a c t i o n c o r e m i t t e d is
u n i n t e n t i o n a l , o r i n v o l u n t a r y , o r d u e t o t y p e s of m e n t a l
a b n o r m a l i t y a n d s o on. In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e l e g a l c o n s t r a i n t of
o n e ' s b e h a v i o r i s r e n d e r e d i n e f f e c t i v e i f it i s d i s c o v s r e d t h a t
I .
b r e a k i n g or n o t b r e a k i n g t h e law) o r i n c a p a b l e o f a c t i n g
1.

~ t h e r w i s e . A t t h i s p o i n t we c o n e t o a c u r i o u s j u x t a p o s i t i o n sf
the l e g a l a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s . R h a t i s c l e a r f r o m
our d i s c u s s i o n is t h a t t h e s e two c o n s t r a i n t s o p e r a t e w i t h
aif f e r e n t , if n o t d i r e c t l y o p p o s i n g , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . ~f l e q a l
c o n s t r a i n t i s a c l e a r case i n which t h e u s e of t h e term
r c o n s t r a i n t N i s u n a m b i g u o u s a n d c a n be shown a s t h e effect o f
t h e e x t e r n a l e x i s t e n c e of s o c i a l f a c t s , t h e n b o t h t h s
psycholocjical and c o n c e p t u a l framework c o n s t r a i n t s a r e n o t i o n s
t h a t are a m b i g u o u s a n d h e n c e t h e i r use i s f a r from j u s t i f i e d ,
Ve c a n o b s e r v e t h a t t h e r e a r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n
r e l a t i o n to an individualss behavior pattern, but the crucial
q u e s t i o n h e r e i s t o d e c i d e i n what s e n s e are t h e y d e t s r m i n i s t i c
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e i n d i v i d u a 1 8 s w i l l . Psychological factors
c a n b e s a i d t o be c o n s t i t u t i v e of a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r a l
p a t t e r n , b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e same a s t h e claim t h a t these
f a c t o r s a r e e x t s r n a l , a n d h e n c e , c o n s t r a i n i n g , t o the
i n d i v i d u a l . The s a m e i s t h e case w i t h t h e l i n g u i s t i c , c u l t u r l l
and e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l factors.
T h e r e is a d e f i n i t e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n f a c t o r s t h a t a r e
c o n s t r a i n i n g t o and f a c t o r s t h a t are c o n s t i t u t i v e o f
i n d i v i d u a l ' s behavior, F a c t o r s t h a t a r e c o n s t r a i n i n g t o people8s
b e h a v i o r c a n b e q u i t e l e g i t i m a t e l y termed a s e x t e r n a l t o t h e
behavior i n question, such as those discussed above i n t h e leqal
s y s t e m of p u n i s h m e n t . T h e same c a n n o t be s a i d o f t h e f a c t o r s
t h a t a r e c o n s t i t u t i ve o f p e o p l e ' s b e h a v i o r .
e c a n o u t l i n e a number of ways o f u s i n q t h e term
W
@ * c o n s t r a i n t , wfrom t h e m o s t o b v i o u s a n d u n e q u i v o c a l u s e t o t h e
sore a a b i g u o n s o n e s , t o i l l u s t r a t e the p o i n t made a b o v e . I t
seems t o me t h e most o b v i o u s use of t h e term i s i n t h e c a s e of
p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t . F o r e x a m p l e , o n e i s i n d e e d c o n s t r a i n e d when
o n e i s t i e d u p o n a c h a i r w i t h s t e e l cables. One i s a l s o
c o n s t r a i n e d when o n e i s t o l d t o d o c e r t a i n t h i n g s w i t h a loaded
q u n p o i n t i n q a t him, When o n e ' s l i f e i s t h r e a t e n e d i n s u c h a
way, i t i s clear t h a t o n e ' s b e h a v i o r i s c o n s t r a i n e d ( i f o n e
w a n t s t o p r e s e r v e h i s l i f e ) t o what i s b e i n q t o l d or p e r m i t t e d
by the gunman. And t h e n we c a n h a v e l e g a l c o n s t r a i n t a s
d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . L e g a l c o n s t r a i n t c a n be r e d u c e d f u r t h e r i n
terms of p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t . T h e v i o l a t i o n of t h s law c a n b r i n q
a b o u t l e g a l s a n c t i o n i n t h e form of i m p r i s o n m e n t , i.5. physical
c o n s t r a i n t ; or even c a p i t a l punishment. I n such a s i t u a t i o n t h e
e l e m e n t of c o n s t r a i n t i s r e a l a n d i n f a c t , p h y s i c a l . Rose
i m p o r t a n t l y , a s p o i n t e d o u t b y P r o f e s s o r Hart, t h e r e i s a l w a y s
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a c h o i c e that i s o p e n t o a l l c o n c e r n e d . One
c a n c h o o s e t o b r e a k o r n o t t o break t h e law a n d hence o n e c a n b e
h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o n e ' s a c t i o n s . Now, i n t h e case o f
Psychological c o n s t r a i n t , it is tempting t o understand it i n t h e
same way a s we u n d e r s t a n d p h y s i c a l a n d l e q a l c o n s t r a i n t s . f o r

9
 instance, A is a n e x t r e m e l y e m o t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a n d h e h a s
d e m o n s t r a t e d a g a i n and a q a i n t h a t he is " c o n s t r a i n e d w by h i s
uncontrollable emotions i n h i s behavior. B u t , upon c l o s e r
analysis, we c a n see t h a t t h e r e i s a v e r y s u b t l e b u t s i g n i f i c a n t
d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h a u s e o f t h e term n c o n s t r a i n t " a n d t h e
way i t i s u s e d i n a l l t h e p r e v i o u s s i t u a t i o n s . I f A h a s no
c o n t r o l o v e r h i s e m o t i o n s t h e n h i s e m o t i o n s are n o t o n l y
%onstraininqn t o h i s b e h a v i o r b u t are a l s o c o n s t i t u t i v e of h i s
b e h a v i o r , f u r t h e r m o r e , i f it i s clear t h a t he c a n n o t behave i n
a n y d i f f e r e n t way, i.e., t o g e t r i d of h i s v i o l e n t e a o t i o n s o r
s u p p r e s s t h e e when n e c e s s a r y , t h e n we c a n n o t r e a l l y h o l d h i m
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s b e h a v i o r i f h i s v i o l e n t e m o t i o n s l e a d him t o
a c t v i o l e n t l y . Ue c a n p u t him u n d e r p s y c h i a t r i c care a n d so o n
when h i s b e h a v i o r becomes d e s t r u c t i v e b u t i t seems o b v i o u s t o me
t h a t we c a n n o t p u n i s h h i a i n t h e same way t h a t we c a n p u n i s h a
p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s a s s i n for m u r d e r , T h e u s e of t h e tergi
n c o n s t r a i n t n h e r e becomes a v e r y f u z z y o n e a n d i t no l o n g e r
refers s i m p l y t o f a c t o r s t h a t a r e e x t e r n a l t o the i n d i v i d u a l .
A's v i o l e n t e m o t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s p a r t of his p e r s c n a l i t y
a n d h e n c e a s c o n s t i t u t i v e o f h i s b e h a v i o r . And i n o u r
d e s c r i p t i o n of people* s b e h a v i o r , i. e., whether t h e behavior i n
q u e s t i o n is a c o n s t r a i n e d f l o r n o t % o n s t r a i n t e d , * * we a r e n o t j u s t
o b s e r v i n g t h e b e h a v i o r b u t a l s o i n t e r p r e t i n g it. Re s p e a k o f A ' s
b e h a v i o r as Wconstrainedt* b e c a u s e s u c h e m o t i o n s a n d b e h a v i o r are
Considered a s anti-social, I n t h i s s e n s e , B is s e e n a s
-
 " p r e v e n t e d 1 * from b e i n g n o r m a l by h i s e m o t i o n s . Imagine a s o c i e t y
i n which v i o l e n t e m o t i o n s and b e h a v i o r a r e e v e r y d a y normal
affairs. I n t h a t case p e o p l e a r e j u s t b e h a v i n g n o r m a l l y i n t h e i r
v i o l e n t o u t b r e a k s o f e m o t i o n s and nobody's a c t i o n s would be
c o n s i d e r e d * * c o n s t r a i n e d . " T h u s , t h e term " c o n s t r a i n t " used i n
t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e n s e i s n o t o n l y a n a m b i g u o u s o n e b u t it is
also i n t e r p r e t i v e - l a r g e l y depend i n q o n t h e o b s e r v e r s
s u b j e c t i v e p o i n t of v i e w .
Ye c a n n o t r e c o g n i z e t h i s i n t e r n a l a s p e c t of s o c i a l f a c t s ,
such as t h o s e inwolvinq people's behavioral patterns, by direct
observation alone. O b s e r v a t i o n h e r e becomes a n i a t e r p r e t i v s
process. And i n s o f a r a s t h i s i n t e r n a l a s p e c t i s c o n c e r n e d , i t
w o u l d be m i s l e a d i n g t o s a y t h a t b o t h t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r
and c o n c e p t u a l framework are n c o n s t r a i n i n g . M
A f u r t h e r c o n f u s i o n arises, a s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ,
when we c o n s i d e r t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f p e o p l e ' s b e h a v i o r . T h e
o b s e r v e r ' s s u b j e c t i v e state, h i s c o n c e p t u a l framework, s o t o
s p e a k , d e t e r m i n e s w h a t h e sees i n terms o f how h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d
c l a s s i f i e s t h e o b s e r v e d phenomena. T h e o b s e r v e r 's l a n g u a g e ,
c u l t u r a l a n d t r a d i t i o n a l beliefs, knowledge, a n d c c n c e p t s
a v a i l a b l e t o him a r e a l l i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e way h e u n d e r s t a n d s
what h e sees. And h e n c e , w h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t r a i n i n q or n o t
C o n s t r a i n i n q i n b e h a v i o r i n g e n e r a l i s n o t a s objective a n d
e x t e r n a l a s t h e e x i s t e n c e of m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r s . W h i l e some
. .

o b s e r v e r s m i g h t t h i n k o f c e r t a i n ##ways o f a c t i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d
f e e l i n q " a s r e s u l t s o f t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g n a t u r e of soae s o c i a l
f a c t s , o t h e r o b s e r v e r s m i q h t d i s a g r e e a n d b o t h g r o u p s of
o b s e r v e r s c a n be j u s t a s r a t i o n a l . For example, a n utopian
a n a r c h i s t m i g h t a r g u e t h a t we are a l l n c o n s t r a i n e d f i by money i n
our everyday lives. Xoney w o u l d i n d e e d b e c o n s t r a i n i n q i f i t c a n
b e shown t h a t t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of t h e c o u r s e , t h i s is
p r e c i s e l y w h a t t h e a n a r c h i s t ' s p o s i t i o n is. However, from a
d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l perspective--a more r e a l i s t i c o n e - - t h e
m o n e t a r y s y s t e m might be s e e n a s a n e c e s s a r y d e v i c e f o r t h e
i n c r e d i b i l y complex t r a d i n g a n d exchange a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e world
today. I n t h i s s e n s e , it i s a b s u r d t o s p e a k of i t a s
n c o n s t r a i n i n q a n Thus, t h i s i n t e r n a l a s p e c t o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of
s o c i a l facts is n o t independent o f t h e o b s e r v e r ' s s u b j e c t i v e
state.
L a s t l y , t h e f e a t u r e of g e n e r a l i t y o f s o c i a l f a c t s i s o p e n
t o t h e same a m b i g u o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . By q e n e r a l i t y, Durkheim
B e a n s n n o r m s n o f b e h a v i o r a n d s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s a s i n d e p e n d e n t of
any s i n q l e i n d i v i d u a l b u t o b s e r v e d by a l l . But t h i s
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s h a r e s t h e same a m b i g u i t y b e t w e e n n o r m s a s
i m p o s e d e x t e r n a l l y , a s i n t h e case o f l s q a l c o n s t r a i n t s , o r
n o r m s a s i n t e r n a l i z e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e i r " w a y s of a c t i n q ,
thinking, and feeling. fi

I n summary, w e may c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s o c i a l
f a c t s i s n o t t h e same a s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h i n q s . I h a v e
a t t e m p t e d t o show t h a t t h e o b s e r v i n g o f s o c i a l f a c t s i s n o t a s

12
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l f a c t s , especially
i n t h e l a r q e s e g m e n t o f s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of
w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e b e h a v i o r o f i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n
t h a t t h e r e a r e s o c i a l phenomena a n d t h a t t h e y c a n ke o b s e r v z d .
B u t t h e p o i n t i s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t be o b s e r v e d s i m p l y a s t h i n q s ,

l e t a l o n e be treated a s t h i n g s . And t h i s c o n c l u s i o n has f a r

r e a c h i n q c o n s e q u e n c e s i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n
i n socioloqy .
 ------
Pootnofgs fph C h a e t e r One

1. E m Durkheim, The Rules of S g c i o l q g i c a l Method (London:

R o u t l e d q e and Kegan ~ a u 793v,
c p.

rug,, p, XLIII*

H . L . A . Hart, * @ P r o l e g m e n o nt o t h e p r i n c i p l e s of p u n i s h m e n t , "
i n P h l l o s o p h j , P o l i t i c s a n d S o c i e u , e d . b y P. Laslett and
W e ~ u n c i m a n , S e c o n d Series, (Oxford: B l a c k w e l l , l 9 6 7 ) , p m
173.

Ibid,, p. 178.
 CHAPTER 11 -- D u r k h e i m ' s Suicide

---
suicide, p u b l i s h e d t w o y e a r s a f t e r ah R u l s s of
--
~ o c i o l o u i c a ll i e t h g d , i s m e a n t t o be a n a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
m e t h o d o l o g y f o r m u l a t e d i n -2 ~ A Si n t h e s t u d y of t h e

phenomenon o f s u i c i d e . S u i c i d e i s a c l a s s i c i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of
s o c i o l o g y a n d v o l u m e s a f t e r v o l u m e s of s c h o l a r l y work h a v e b e e n
d e v o t e d t o t h e a n a l y s i s a n d criticism of i t . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , I
h a v e n o i n t e n t i o n of a n a l y s i n g it i n a n y q r e a t d e t a i l . fly
p u r p o s e h e r e i s t o e x a m i n e how s u c c e s s f u l D u r k h e i m i s i n
a p p l y i n g h i s m e t h o d o l o g y a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y i n w h a t way t h e n o t i o n
of s o c i a l f a c t i s i n s t r u w n t a l i n t h e s t u d y o f s u i c i d e .
(In S u i c i d e , D u r k h e i m aims t o d e r i v e a s o c i o l o g y c a l
e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f s u i c i d e rates and consequently,
t h e n a t u r e of s u i c i d e i t s e l f .
S u i c i d e h a s b e e n c h o s e n a s i t s s u b j e c t , among the
v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s t h a t we h a v e h a d o c c a s i o n t o s t u d y i n
be d e f i n e .. .
o u r t e a c h i n g career, b e c a u s e few a r e more a c c u r a t e l y t o
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , by s u c h
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , r e a l laws are d i s c o v e r a b l e w h i c h
d e m o n s t r a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s o c i o l o g y b e t t e r t h a n a n y
dialectical argument. I
D u r k h e i m ' s c h o i c e of t h e s u b j e c t i s , a s e v i d e n t i n t h e
a b o v e q u o t a t i o n , n o random d e c i s i o n . ( l e believes t h a t the
s u b j e c t o f s u i c i d e c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d from a s o c i o l o g i c a l
P e r s p e c t i v e a n d s h o u l d b e a p p r o a c h e d a s s u c h . I t i s p a r t of h i s
I

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t s u i c i d e r a t e s c a n be s e e n a s s o c i a l f a c t s a n d
 h e n c e t h a t a s o c i o l o q i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n i s n e e d e d . It w o u l d b e a
s p e c i a l t r i u m p h f o r s o c i o l o q y i f s u i c i d e , w h i c h i s commonly h e l d
t o b e a p r i v a t e , i n d i v i d u a l a c t , c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f r o m a s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v i s w . I n his
i n v e s t i q a t i o n of t h e s t a t i s t i c s o f s u i c i d e r a t e s h e comes t o t h e
conclusion that:
T h e s u i c i d e r a t e is t h e r e f o r e a f a c t u a l o r d e r , u n i f i e d
variability ...
a n d d e f i n i t e , a s i s shown b y b o t h i t s p e r m a n e n c e a n d i t s
these st@istical data express the
c o l l e c t i v e l y afflicted ...
s u i c i d a l t e n d e n c y with which e a c h society is
E a c h s o c i e t y i s redi is posed
to contribute a d e f i n i t e quota of voluntary death. This
p r e d i s p o s i t i o n may t h e r e f o r e be t h e s u b j e c t o f a s p e c i a l
study belonqing to socioloqy. 2
H i s c o n v i c t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of s u i c i d e r a t e s a s

s e l f - e v i d e n t s o c i a l f a c t s l e a d s him t o s p e a k o f t h e m a s " r e a l ,
l i v i n q , a c t i v e f o r c e s w a n d t o u s e of t h e term ~ s u i c i d o q e n i c
current." I t is h i s t a s k t o a p p r o a c h t h e phenomenon o f s u i c i d e

a s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s o c i a l f a c t s o f s u i c i d e r a t e s a s a s o c i a l
phenomenon t h a t h a s t o b e e x p l a i n e d i n terms of t h e c a u s a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s u i c i d e s a n d t h e social f a c t s t h a t c a u s e
them.
From s u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e , D u r k h s i m p r o c e e d s t o reject a
number o f t h e o r i e s of s u i c i d e a s f a l s e . These a r e t h e o r i e s b a s e d
-- .
on m e n t a l i l l n e s s , a l c o h o l i s m , q e n e t i c a n d r a c i a l c a u s e s ,
climates, s e a s o n s , a n d i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n s . T h e s e t h e o r i e s
.- .
B
are f a l s e b e c a u s e t h e y f a i l t o a c c o u n t f o r s u i c i d e a s a s o c i a l
@... .
f a c t . Once u n d e r s t o o d a s s u c h , a s ~ u r k h e i ni n s i s t s , s u i c i d e

16
rates t h e n d e p e n d o n c e r t a i n s t a t e s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h ?
s o c i a l environment. A • ’ ter the rejection of these theories,
~ u r k h e i mo f f e r s h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , I s h a l l be v e r y b r i e f a b o u t i t

s i n c e i t i s n o t t h e d e t a i l s b u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e e x p l a n a t i o n
t h a t is of i n t e r e s t t o u s h e r e .

< D u r k h e i a 8 s " t h e o r y m c o n s i s t s of a n e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h r a e
major s o c i a l c a u s e s of s u i c i d e . 3 Each o f t h e s e t h r e e c a u s e s
r e p r e s e n t s a set o f f a c t o r s c a u s a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e s u i c i d e rates
of t h e s o c i e t y . T h e y a r e : e g o i s m , a l t r u i s m , a n d a n o m i e . E q o i s t i c
s u i c i d e is u n d e r s t o o d a s a p r o d u c t of e x c e s s i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s m
and l a c k of social i n t s g r a t i o n . I n such a s i t u a t i o n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l f i n d s l i t t l e meaning f o r l i f e and e x i s t e n c e .
A l t r u i s t i c s u i c i d e is s e e n a s t h e a n t i t h e s i s of e g o i s t i c
s u i c i d e . I t i s t h a t of o v e r - i n t e g r a t i o n . Rhile t h e value of t h e
q r o u p or t h e c o m m u n i t y is s e e n a s a b o v e t h e v a l u e o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l , t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l Is s e e n a s
r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e g r o u p * s. Hence,
i n d i v i d u a l s would g i v e u p t h e i r l i v e s v e r y r e a d i l y f o r t h e
q r o u p . Anomic s u i c i d e i s c a u s e d b y t h e l a c k of r e q u l a t i o n i n a
s o c i e t y a n d h e n c e the v i c t i m i s s e e n a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e
"malady of i n f i n i t e a s p i r a t i o n . " Such unchecked i n d i v i d u a l
p a s s i o n s , c o u p l e d with t h e i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l d e sires, w o u l d
l e a d t o s e v e r e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t when t h o s e d e s i r e s a n d p a s s i o n s
a r e l e f t u n f u l f i l l e d , a n d i n t u r n may l e a d t o s u i c i d e .
> - /'
 f'.
T h e n a t u r e of D u r k h e i m g s e x p l a n a t i o n i s a n a t t e a p t t o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s u i c i d e r a t e s i n terms cf s o c i a l
facts such as "social causes," " r e a l , l i v i n q , a c t i v e forces,4*
and 'tsuicidoqenic currents." A c c o r d i n g t o S. L u k e s , D u r k h e i m r s
t h e o r y p u r p o r t s t o show:
... t h a t u n d e r a d v e r s e s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , when men's
social c o n t e x t f a i l s t o p r o v i d e them w i t h t h e r e q u i s i t e
s o u r c e s of a t t a c h m e n t a n d / o r r e g u l a t i o n , a t t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l of i n t e n s i t y , t h e n t h e i r p s y c h o l o q i c a l
o r m o r a l h e a l t h i s i m p a i r e d , a n d a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of
v u l n e r a b l e s u i c i d e - p r o n e i n d i v i d u a l s r e s p o n d by
comnitting suicide. +
It i s w i t h t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t Durkheim a t t e m p t s to

f o r m u l a t e nlawsggc o n n e c t i n g t h e p h e n o m e n o n of s u i c i d e w i t h
f a c t o r s s u c h a s H s o c i a l forcesw a n d @ % u i c i d o g e n i c c u r r e n t s . " Two
s t e p s w i l l b e t a k e n here i n a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f D u r k h e i a g s
\
'-
thesis/ I r i l l f i r s t a t t e m p t t o s h o w t h a t some of h i s p r e m i s e s

a r e u n w a r r a n t e d . And then I w i l l d i s c u s s t h e n a t u r e of h i s

~ - - f ) u r k h e i m * s d e f i n i t i o n of s u i c i d e - s s ,
% e & ~ - - B e g~5th.-

TeTlxr-trs-i-t- a s "any d e a t h w h i c h is t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t o f a
p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e a c t a c c o m p l i s h e d b y the v i c t i m h i m s e l f , q * s
-
This defiZit3m p r e s e n t s a f e u p r o b l e m s . On t h e o n e h a n d ,
u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s o f s u i c i d e are n o t , a n d c a n n o t be
accounted f o r ; and on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e p o s s i b l y c o u l d be
-
cases o f d e a t h w h i c h r a y a p p e a r t o be s u i c i d e s t h a t are i n fact
w i t h o u t s u i c i d a l i n t e n t . I n h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f s u i c i d e Durkheim
is a n x i o u s t o a v o i d u s i n g a n y s u b j e c t i v e e l e m e n t s s u c h a s
i n t e n t i o n s a n d m o t i v e s . Fie h o p e s t o e s t a b l i s h a d e f i n i t i o n t h a t
would p r o v i d e a n o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
suicides. B u t t h i s a v o i d a n c e of a n y s u b j e c t i v e e l e a e n t i n t h e
d e f i n i t i o n of s u i c i d e r e n d e r s t h e d e f i n i t i o n i t s e l f a m b i g u o u s
a n d r u n s c o u n t e r t o o u r i n t u i t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of s n i c i d e J
(uebster Dictionary defines a s t h e * * t h e a c t of k i l l i n g
oneself i n t e n tioaally. Ig)

T h e a m b i g u i t y i n d e f i n i t i o n b r i n g s f o r t h a n o t h e r , b u t moro
s i q n i f i c a n t problem: t h a t is, t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e d a t a of
s u i c i d e rates, D u r k h e i m a s s u m e s t h a t s u c h d a t a a r e c l e a r l y
d e f i n e d a n d c a n be c o l l e c t e d a n d c l a s s i f i e d w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y .
B u t i t c a n e a s i l y b e shown t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e case. S u i c i d e
d a t a are c o l l e c t e d by g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s who a r e also members
of t h e s o c i e t y . O f t e n a d e c i s i o n h a s t o b e r e a c h e d a s t o w h e t h e r
a d e a t h i s a case o f s u i c i d e o r n o t . How is s u c h a d e c i s i o n
r e a c h e d ? T h e o f f i c i a l h a s t o i n v e s t i q a t e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of
t h e death a n d c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e v i c t i m ' s f a m i l y ,
relatives, f r i e n d s , a n d so o n . T h e p e o p l e i n t e r v i e w e d b y t h e
o f f i c i a l c o u l d p r o d u c e i n f o r m a t i o n of w h a t t h e y know of t h e
v i c t i m ' s l i f e a n d , i n e v i t a b l y , t h e i r o p i n i o n s a b o u t the v i c t i m .
I n o t h e r words, s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n c a n v e r y r a r e l y b e
value-neutral.
1 F o r e x a m p l e , t h e v i c t i m ' s wife n i q h t w a n t t o show
t h a t h e r husband's d e a t h is a c c i d e n t a l e v e n i f s h e h a s t o h i d e
c e r t a i n r e l e v a n t information s i n c e s h e wants t o preserve h i s
r e p u t a t i o n , T h e s i t u a t i o n c a n b e made more c o s p l e x i f t h e victim
is C a t h o l i c . And s i n c e a l l i n f o r m a n t s a r e b a s i c a l l y of the s a m e
s o c i e t y , t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s are in,evitably t a i n t e d with the
s o c i a l v a l u e s of t h e time. I t i s s a f e t o a s s u m e t h a t i f t h e
s o c i e t y ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s s u i c i d e is a n e x t r e m e l y n e q a t i v e o n e ,
t h e n t h e r e i s a s t r o n g e r t e n d e n c y f o r r e l a t i v e s of t h e v i c t i m t o
h i d e t h e f a c t t h a t h e h a s committed s u i c i d e . Here, t h e d e c i s i o n
r e a c h e d b y t h e o f f i c i a l s i s i t s e l f a r e f l e c t i o n of t h o v a l u e of
t h e s o c i e t y a n d is d e p e n d e n t upon a n u m b e r o f c o n t i n g e n t
f a c t o r s . I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f s u i c i d e rates i s
i t s e l f a s o c i a l phenomenon. S u i c i d e r a t e s c a n n o t be t r e a t e d a s
simple and self-evident facts.
( If D u r k h e i m e s b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
s u i c i d e a n d t r e a t i n g s u i c i d e r a t e s a s s o c i a l f a c t s can be s h o w n
t o be unwarranted, t h e n t h e n a t u r e of h i s " t h e o r y t t i t s e l f i s
a l s o r i d d l e d w i t h a m b i g u i t i e s . H i s " t h e o r y 8 * of s u i c i d e i n c l u d e s
t h e f o l l o w i n q b a s i c c a u s a l c o n n e c t i o n s . The n a t u r e o f t h e social
i n t e r a c t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s a n d i t s i n t e n s i t y d e t e r m i n e t h e
s t r e n g t h of s o c i a l r e g u l a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n . T h e s t r e n q t h of
s o c i a l r e g u l a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n d e t e r m i n e s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s
a b i l i t y t o f i n d meaning i n l i f e a n d t o direct a n d r e s t r a i n h i s
d e s i r e s and p a s s i o n s i n proper p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s a b i l i t y or t h e
l a c k of i t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t u r n d e t e r m i n e s t h e

s o c i a l s u i c i d e rates. T h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s a r e s u p p o s e d l y c a u s a l i n
n a t u r e a n d e a c h of t h e s e s t a g e s p r e s u m a b l y d e n o t e s a c e r t a i n
s o c i a l r e a l i t y . B u t a s U h i t n e p P o p e p o i n t s o u t i n h i s book

20
-
~ u g k h e i m ' s ------
-----u
Suicide: -A --
C l a s s i c A n a u s e d , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
II_-

i n t e g r a t i o n and r e g u l a t i o n , i n s p i t e o f t h e c r u c i a l p o s i t i o n s
o c c u p i e d by b o t h c o n c e p t s i n Durkheim's " t h e o r y ," h a s n e v e r been
made clear b y D u r k h e i m h i m s e l f . 6 T h i s i s a n area c f c o n t r o v e r s y
a n d d e b a t e among D u r k h e i a s c h o l a r s a n d P o p e c i t e s a number of
e x a m p l e s of e m i n e n t s o c i o l o q i s t s h o l d i n g d i f f e r e n t a n d s o m e t i m e s
o p p o s i n g v i e w s i n t h e matter. 7 Durkheim's i n i t i a l a t t e m p t to
draw a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two is a well e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t i n

s u i c i d ~ . H e t a l k s a b o u t t h e c a u s e s producing anomie and eqoism

a s h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t effects.

s u i c i d e i n o u r modern s o c i e t i e s ..
Anomie, t h e r e f o r e , is a r e g u l a r a n d s p e c i f i c f a c t o r i n
, So we h a v e h e r e a
new t y p e t o d i s t i n q u i s h from t h e o t h e r s . I t d i f f e r s f r o a
t h e m i n i t s d e p e n d e n c e , n o t o n t h e way i n w h i c h
i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a t t a c h e d t o s o c i e t y , b u t o n how i t
r e g u l a t e s them. E g o i s t i c s u i c i d e r e s u l t s from m a n ' s n o
l o n g e r f i n d i n g a basis for e x i s t e n c e i n l i f e , a l t r u i s t i c
s u i c i d e , b e c a u s e t h e b a s i s f o r e x i s t e n c e a p p e a r s t o man
s i t u a t e d b e y o n d l i f e i t s e l f . T h e t h i r d s o r t of s u i c i d e ,
t h e e x i s t e n c e of w h i c h h a s j u s t b e e n shown, ( a n o m i c
s u i c i d e ) r e s u l t s from m a n ' s a c t i v i t y ' s l a c k i n q
requlatian and h i s consequent suffering.
Here, t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e f a i l u r e t o
f i n d m e a n i n g i n l i f e a s r e s u l t i n g from l a c k of i n t e q r a t i o n , and,
on the o t h e r hand, unchecked p a s s i o n s and d e s i r e s a s r e s u l t i n q
f r o n l a c k o f r e g u l a t i o n is clear. And t h e r e are a l s o a number o f
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two t h a t c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d . F o r exampls,
e g o i s t i c s u i c i d e i s of t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e h i q h l y d e v e l o p e d
i n d i v i d u a l i s m which h a s a l o t t o do w i t h e d u c a t i o n , i n t e l l e c u t a l
o u t l o o k a n d so on. l n o m i c s u i c i d e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , is
- .
p r o s p e c t s u c h a s those o c c u r r i n g i n a n e c o n o m i c crisis. But t h e
r e a l p r o b l e m i s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n them a s s o c i o l a q i c a l
c a u s e s ( s o c i a l f a c t s ) o f s u i c i d e h a s n o t b e e n made c l e a r .
~ u r k h e i ah i m s e l f h a s n e v e r i d e n t i f i e d t h e s o c i o l o q i c a l
d i s t i n c t i o n between i n t e g r a t i o n and r e g u l a t i o n . S i n c e these two
c o n c e p t s a r e t h e two b a s i c v a r i a b l e s i n h i s n t h e ~ r y , ' ~t h i s
a m b i q u i t y h a s a s e r i o u s e f f e c t on h i s f o r m u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e .
To make m a t t e r s w o r s e Durkheim h i m s e l f , a s p o i n t e d out b y
Pope, o f t e n c o n f u s e s t h e t w o i n h i s e x p l a n a t i o n . P o p e i d e n t i f i e s
t h r e e i n s t a n c e s i n which Durkheis f i r s t e x a m i n e s a s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n with domestic egoism only to decide
l a t e r t h a t it would b e more a p p r o p r i a t e t o a n a l y s e i t i n t e r n s
of requlation. 9 Durkhef D e x p l a i n s the s u i c i d e rates of widows
u s i n g the c o n c e p t of e g o i s m a n d t h e n h e r e f e r s t o i t l a t e r a s
due t o d o m e s t i c a n o m i e r e s u l t i n g from t h e d e a t h of h u s b a n d o r
wife, And i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e s u i c i d e r a t e s among very yonnq
h u s b a n d s a n d c h i l d l e s s m a r r i e d women h e c o n s i d e r s them f i r s t a
e g o i s t i c s u i c i d e s a n d t h e n i n o r d e r t o e l i a i n a t e the
i n c o n s i s t e n c y between h i s t h e o r e t i c a l p o s t u l a t i o n and t h e data,
h e i d e n t i f i e s them a s f a t a l i s t i c s u i c i d e s . And f i n a l l y ,

a c c o r d i n g t o Pope, D u r k f i e i m @ sd i s c u s s i o n o f e g o i s m a n d p o l i t i c a l
crisis p a r a l l e l s h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f a c u t e a n o a i e a n d econolaic
crisis. A s P o p e c o n c l u d e s :
T h e w i l l i n g n e s s t o e x p l a i n a c o n f i q u r a t i o n i n terms of
 egoism, o n l y t o c l a i m s u b s e q u e n t l y t h a t i t i s r e a l l y d u e
t o a n o m i e , f u r t h e r u n d e r m i n e s a n y sense o f a d i s t i n c t i o n
between egoism a n d anomie. 10

Above a n d beyond t h e a m b i q u i t i e s , D u r k h e i l s h a s a l s o f l a t l y
s t a t e d i n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s t h a t eqoism and anomie a r 3 r e a l l y
t h e s a n e t h i n g . I n C h a p t e r S i x of Book Two i n S u i c i d e , where h e
d i s c u s s e s i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s of t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of s u i c i d e , ha
says that: *Two f a c t o r s of s u i c i d e , e s p e c i a l l y , h a v e a p e c u l i a r

a f f i n i t y for one another: n a m e l y , egoism a n d anomie.** And a l s o

i n C h a p t e r T h r e e , B o o k T h r e e , h e t a l k s o f t h e m a s p r o d u c e d by
t h e same c a u s e . S t a t e m e n t s a s s u c h i m p l y t h a t i n t e q r a t i o n and
r e q u l a t i o n a r e t h e same t h i n q . P o p e ' s c o n c l u s i o n i s t o c h o o s a t o
i n t e r p r e t them as b e i n g i d e n t i c a l .
The u n s u c c e s s f u l n a t u r e o f e x i s t i n g a t t e m p t s t o
d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n e g o i s m a n d a n o m i e , D u r k h e i m ' s own
f a i l u r e i n t h i s regard (especially i n c o n t r a s t with t h e
many i n d i c a t i o n s i n S u i c i d e t h a t a n o m i e a n d e q o i s m a r e
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e ) , t h e s i m i l a r i t y of D u r k h e i m 9 s
e m p i r i c a l examples, h i s f a i l u r e t o c o n t r o l f o r either i n
a n a l y s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e o t h e r and
s u i c i d e , and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of coupling t h e l i n k s
b e t v e e n s u i c i d e a n d e i t h e r major i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s
with t h o s e of o t h e r s s t r o n g l y argue for t h e e s s e n t i a l
s i r i l a r i t y of i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e g u l a t i o n . a 1
a h a t i s of r e l e v a n c e t o o u r d i s c u s s i o n h e r e i s t h e question
of how d o e s t h i s p r o b l e m a f f e c t the v e r y f o r m u l a t i o n o f
D u r k h e i m l s " t h e o r y w a n d h i s i n t e n t i o n of " d i s c o v e r i n g r s a l
laws." A s e v i d e n t from t h e f i r s t q u o t a t i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r ,

Durkheim aims a t e s t a b l i s h i n q flreal l a w s t * i n o r d e r t o explain

s u i c i d e from a s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n S u i c i & . And

a c c o r d i n q t o h i s f o r m u l a t i o n s u i c i d e is caused b y i n d i v i d u a l s '

23
i n a b i l i t y t o f i n d meaninq i n l i f e a n d t h e i m b a l a n c e i n h i s
desires a n d a m b i t i o n s . S u c h i n a b i l i t y a n d i m b a l a n c e a r e c a u s e d
i n t u r n b y t h e s t r e n g t h of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e g u l a t i o n and
s u c h s t r e n q t h i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a t larqe.
rf laws a r e t o be d e d u c e d f r o m t h i s c h a i n o f c o n n e c t i o n ,

p r e s u m a b l y c a u s a l i n n a t u r e , t h e n D u r k h e i m h a s t o ~ p e c i f yu n d e r
what c o n d i t i o n s i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e g u l a t i o n a r e i d e n t i c a l i n
t h e i r c a u s a l e f f e c t s ; t h a t i s , h o v i t i s t h a t e i t h e r o f t h e two
c a n p r o d u c e e i t h e r e g o i s t i c s u i c i d e o r a n o m i c s u i c i d e . And i f
b o t h e g o i s t i c and a n o m i c s u i c i d e s are s o c i a l f a c t s a n d a s s u c h
c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d c l a s s i f i e d by t h e i r e x t e r n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e n D u r k h e i m a l s o h a s t o c l a r i f y why t h e y c a n
be p r o d u c e d by i d e n t i c a l c a u s e s . A l l t h e s e q u e s t i o n s would h a v e

t o b e a s w e r e d o r shown t o be a n s w e r a b l e b e f o r e a n y a t t e m p t c a n
b e made t o g e n e r a t e laws from D u r k h e i a a ' s d i s c u s s i o n i n S u i c i d e .
And g i v e n t h e a b o v e a n a l y s i s , we c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t n o " l a w s m
h a v e b e e n q e n e r a t e d from it. C o n c e p t of s o c i a l f a c t t u r n s o u t t o
be n o t s o o b j e c t i v e a n d s e l f - e v i d e n t a f t e r a l l . It is n o t simply
a m a t t e r of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t we c a n i d e n t i f y a f s o c i a l
f a c t N of i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e q u l a t i o n , n o r c a n we e s t a b l i s h , a s
s u q q e s t e d by Durkheim, a d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e t u o a s
s o c i o l o q i c a l c a u s e s of s u i c i d e i n v f r t u e of t h e i r e x t e r n a l
c h a r a c t e r i c s . T h e terms u s e d t o refer t o t h e s e c o n c e p t s l a c k
c l e a r d e n o t a t i o n s a n d it i s n o t j u s t a q u e s t i o n o f v a g u e n e s s o f
m e a n i n q . A s we h a v e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r One, t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of

24
social facts is n o t as s t r a i g h t forward as t h e observation of
n a t u r a l f a c t s and t h e problems i n S u i c i d e a s o u t l i n e d above
demonstrate p r e c i s e l y t h i s point.
A t t h i s p o i n t , s e v e r a l matters n e e d clarification. S i n c e I
h a v e a r q u e d t h a t Ivlawsn c a n n o t be d e r i v e d from D u r k h e i m 9 s
d i s c u s s i o n of s u i c i d e , I h a v e t o s a k e c l e a r v h a t I mean by
laws^ a n d aore i m p o r t a n t l y , the closely related concept

@ v t h e o r y . n I s h a l l p r o c e e d t o d o t h i s i n t h e next c h a p t e r .
 Footnotes for Chapter Two

1. E. Durkheim, S u i c i d e (London: R o u t l e d q e a n d Keqan P a u l ,

1952), p. 36.

3. A f o u r t h o n s , fatalism, i s mentioned o n l y i n a f o o t n o t e a s
n o l o n q e r r e l e v a n t t o modern s o c i e t y .

4. S. L u k e s , E m i l e Durkheim (New York: H a r p e r a n d Bow, lW2),

p. 254.

6. W. Pope, D n r k h e i a ' s Sufc-

U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o P r e s s ,
= 139 7classic analvsa
6 1 , p. 8 7 .
(Chicago:

7. Ibid,, pp. 88-95.

8, E. ~ u r k h e i a , op, g k , p. 256.
CHAPTER I11 -- T h e o r y C o n s t r u c t i o n i n Sociology
R o b e r t K. M e r t o n i n h i s p a p e r "The B e a r i n g o f S o c i o l o q i c a l
Theory on Empirical Researchm 1 o u t l i n e s s i x k i n d s of a c t i v i t i e s
w h i c h , a c c o r d i n q t o him, a r e s u b s u m e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y u n d e r t h e
t i t l e o f s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . They a r e (1) m e t h o d o l o g y , (2)

general socioloqical orientation, (3) a n a l y s i s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l

concepts, (4) p o s t f a c t u s s o c i o l o q i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , (5)

e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , a n d (6) c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r i e s . T h i s
a c c o u n t o f t h e s i x k i n d s o f a c t i v i t i e s a s g i v e n by B e r t o n i s
v e r y clear a n d u s e f u l . B u t I feel t h a t t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t
d i s t i n c t i o n w h i c h h a s n o t b e e n made. T h i s is t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n two q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s of a c t i v i t i ~ si n
t h e l a b o r of s o c i o l o g i s t s . 1 w o u l d l i k e t o c l a s s i f y a c t i v i t i e s
(2) t o ( 5 ) i n t o t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y a n d a c t i v i t y (6) a s t h e
s e c o n d c a t e g o r y w i t h a c t i v i t y (1) a s a n f a e t a - t h e o r e t i c a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n m of s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n . B e f o r e t h e d i s c u s s i o n of
t h i s i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n , I would l i k e t o g i v e a more d e t a i l e d
a c c o u n t o f t h e s e s i x k i n d s of a c t i v i t i e s .
n e t h o d o l o g y deals w i t h t h e s o called " l o g i c of s c i e n t i f i c
p r o c e d ~ r e . I~ c a l l it % e t a - t h e o r e t i c a l consideration" because
i t i s n o t the s o c i o l o g i s t s * l a b o r p e r se. M e t h o d o l o q y i s
u n d e r s t o o d h e r e a s t h e s o c l o l o g i s t s s s y s t e m a t i c r s f l e c t i o n on
h i s and o t h s r sociologistss a c t i v i t i e s , includinq t h e evaf uation
o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s a s well a s h i s c o l l e a g u e s ' a p p r o a c h e s .
T a k e f o r e x a m p l e D u r k h e i m ' s ghli of S o c i o 1 , o g i c a l H e t h o d , Ic
t h i s work D u r k h e i m o u t l i n e s w h a t h e t h i n k s of a s t h e s c i e n t i f i c
way o f d o i n q s o c i o l o g y . D u r k h e i m h a s n o d o u b t a b o u t t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n d u c t i n g t h e s t u d y o f s o c i o l o g y i n a manner
s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s . T h i s c a n b e termed
~Durkheim's methodological position.* B u t t h i s is n o t t h e same
a s h i s s t u d y of s o c i a l phenomena s u c h a s s u i c i d e , d i v i s i o n of
l a b o r , a n d so on. Hence, i n o u r p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n I d o n o t
i n c l u d e m e t h o d o l o g y i n my c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e two c a t e g o r i e s
of s o c i o l o q i c a l a c t i v i t i e s .
The s e c o n d k i n d o f a c t i v i t y , g e n e r a l s o c i o l o q i c a l
o r i e n t a t i o n , i s s u p p o s e d t o p r o v i d e a b r o a d f r a m e w o r k for
e m p i r i c a l e n q u i r y i n s o c i o l o g y . T h i s is, i n f a c t , t h e s t a r t i n q
p o i n t of s o c i o l o g y . I t e s t a b l i s h e s a p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m w h i c h t h e
social world c a n be s t u d i e d s o c i o l o g i c a l l y . T h i s p o i n t u i l l be
d i s c u s s e d i n some more d e t a i l l a t e r , T h e t h i r d k i n d of a c t i v i t y ,
a n a l y s i s of s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , p r e s u p p o s e s that s u c h
c o n c e p t s are b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the
g e n e r a l sociological o r i e n t a t i o n . The a n a l y s i s of s o c i o l o q l c a l
c o n c e p t s is t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t matter of t h e s t u d y
w i t h i n t h e b r o a d f r a a e v o r k of s o c i o l o g y . For e x a m p l e , when
Durkheim i n t r o d u c e s t h e c o n c e p t o f h e is i d e n t i f y i n q a

c e r t a i n g r o u p o f s o c i a l phenomena w i t h s u c h a c o n c e p t a n d i n
doinq so h e is a l s o makinq explicit t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i c f e a t u r e s
a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r r e l e v a n t s o c i a l pheonomena.
The f o u r t h k i n d of a c t i v i t y , p o s t factum socioloqical
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , c o n s i s t s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a f t e r o b s e r v a t i o n s
h a v e b e e n made. S u c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e
a n y s y s t e m a t i c e x p l i c a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l s u b j e c t , b u t a r e
s i m p l y i s o l a t e d cases of a t t e m p t s t o c l a s s i f y a n d g e n e r a l i z e t h e
o b s e r v e d phenomena. S u c h p o s t f a c t u m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t t o
b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l t e s t i n g o f some p r e - d e s i g n a t e d
h y p o t h e s e s , a l t h o u g h i n t h e p r o c e s s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i t i s
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t same h y p o t h e s e s are e m p l o y e d , E m p i r i c a l
q e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , t h e f i f t h k i n d of a c t i v i t y , a r e p r o p o s i t i o n s
s u m m a r i s i n g o b s e r v e d u n i f o r m i t i e s o f s o c i a l pheonomena. And of
c o u r s e , i n o r d e r f o r s u c h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s to b e p o s s i b l e , t h e r e
h a s t o b e , f i r s t , a g e n e r a l s o c i o l o g i c a l f r a m e w o r k f r o m which
t h e s t u d y c a n be i n i t i a t e d ; s e c o n d , t h e r e l e v a n t s e c i o l o q i c a l
c o n c e p t s w h i c h s e r v e t o s t r u c t u r e and h i q h l i q h t t h e f o c a l p o i n t s
o f the o b s e r v a t i o n , P o s t f a c t u m i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c a n a l s o b e
e l a b o r a t e d i n t o e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s when t h e
i n t ~ r p r e t a t i o n si n q u e s t i o n a r e f o u n d a p p l i c a b l e t o o t h e r
phenomena o f t h e s i m i l a r k i n d . I n o t h e r words, a c t i v i t i e s (21,
(3), (4). a n d (5) a r e v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d a n d ( S ) , empirical
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , i s a r e s u l t of t h e a c c u m u l a t e d e f f o r t of (21,
(3) , and (4) . Uhat a b o u t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r i e s ?
According t o 8. B r o d b e c k , a t h e o r y is:
a d e d u c t i v e l y c o n n e c t e d set of e m p i r i c a l
 q e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . T h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , a o matter how
well e s t a b l i s h e d t h e y may b e , a r e a l w a y s s u b j e c t t o
p o s s i b l e r e f u t a t i o n by f u t u r e e x p e r i e n c e a n d are,
therefore, hypothetical. 2
I f a t h e o r y c o n s i s t s of s u c h a c o n n e c t e d set o f e m p i r i c a l

q e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , t h e n what i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n empiricsl
qeneralizations within 3 t h e o r y and t h o s e d i s c u s s e d above and
c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e f i f t h k i n d of a c t i v i t y ? I n t h e same p a p e r ,
n e r t o n a r q u e s t h a t what d i s t i n g u i s h e s o r d i n a r y e m p i r i c a l
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a n d e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w i t h i n a theory is
t h e p r e s e n c e of n t h e o r e t i c a l p e r t i n e n c e n i n t h e l a t t e r . I n
v i r t u e of t h e i r h i g h e r a b s t r a c t order, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y
p e r t i n e n t e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e more w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e
a n d h e n c e more f r u i t f u l . H e a l s o s t a t e s t h a t i n c r d e r for s u c h
generalizations to a t t a i n t h e s t a t u s of theory, t h e y m u s t be
s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e c i s e s o t h a t t h e y are d e n o t a t i o n a l l y d e f i n i t e ,
a n d t h u s , t e s t a b l e . S u c h a demand, 1 b e l i e v e , i s i ~ p o s s i b l ef o r
s o c i o l o g y t o s a t i s f y . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t , l e t u s e x a m i n e
how t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i s done i n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
A u s e f u l p a r a d i g m of t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e n a t u r a l

s c i e n c e s is provided by C, Helppel. 3 A c c o r d i n g t o him, t h e r e a r e

two major c o m p o n e n t p a r t s t o a t h e o r y : the internal principlss
a n d t h e b r i d g e p r i n c i p l e s . The i n t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s e x p r e s s t h e
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s among t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s i n t h e form of laws a s
p o s i t e d b y t h e theory, a n d a t t h e s a m e time p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h
d e f i n i t i o n s , o r t h e bases f o r more d e v e l o p e d a n d e x p l i c i t
d e f i n i t i o n s . The b r i d g e p r i n c i p l e s c o n n e c t the i n t e r n a l
p r i n c i p l e s w i t h o b s e r v a b l e phenomena a n d h e n c e c o n s t i t u t e a
mechanism f o r u s e i n e x p l a i n i n g a n d p r e d i c t i n g t h e s e phenomena.
The f a c t s , t h e o b s e r v a b l e n a t u r a l phenomena, a r e c a u s a l l y
connected with t h e t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s and t h e i r
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s a s d e s c r i b e d b y ths i n t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s ,
I n s o f a r a s a s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y p o s t u l a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of
t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s , t h e t h e o r e t i c terms e m p l o y e d b y t h e t h e o r y
p u r p o r t t o h a v e d e f i n i t e d e n o t a t i o n s . And, p r e s u m a b l y , the
t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s a s d e n o t e d b y t h e t h e o r e t i c terms a r e
c a u s a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e o b s e r v a b l e phenomena. Hence, t h e
t h e o r y c a n b e t e s t e d , c o n f i r m e d o r d i s c o n f i r m e d by f u t u r e
e x p e r i e n c e s . The t e s t a b i l i t y o f a t h e o r y is c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d
w i t h , a n d i n p a r t b a s e d upon t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h s
t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s a n d o b s e r v a b l e phenomena, a n d t h u s t h e
assumed e x h t e n c e of t h e s e t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s a s p a r t of
objective reality. T a k e f o r e x a m p l e t h e phenomena of an i r o n b s r
e x p a n d i n g when h e a t e d . T h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s such a s molecules and
a t o m s a n d e l e c t r o n s a n d so on are p o s t u l a t e d by t h e t h e o r y
d e s c r i b i n g t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f matter. The i n c r e a s e i n
volume of t h e i r o n bar i s c a u s a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the m o l e c u l a r
a c t i v i t i e s of t h e i r o n b a r i n v o l v e d i n i t s i n c r s a s e i n
temperature. The o b s e r v a b l e phenomenon i n t h i s c a s e i s t h e i r o n
bar expanding. And t h i s is c a u s a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e a b o v e
m e n t i o n e d t h e o r e t i c e n t i t i e s which a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s
 c o n s t i t u e n t s of t h e i r o n bar.
G i v e n t h e d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t t h e a m b i q u o u s s t a t u s of the
e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l f a c t s i n C h a p t e r One, i t c a n e a s i l y b e shown
t h a t t h e t e s t a b i l i t y o f s o c i o l o g i c a l ntheory" is r a d i c a l l y
different, if it is a t a l l p o s s i b l e , f r o m t h a t of t h e o r i e s i n
natural sciences. It i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t , if n o t impossible, to
argue coqently t h a t the theoretic postulates (theoretic
e n t i t i e s ) i n s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s exist a s p a r t o f o b j e c t i v e
r e a l i t y i n d e p e n d e n t of human s u b j e c t i v i t y . And t h u s i t c a n b e
arqued t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e s e p o s t u l a t e s and t h e
o b s e r v a b l e s o c i a l phenomena i s n o t of t h e same c a u s a l n a t u r e a s
t h a t assumed by t h e o r i e s i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
It i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s p o i n t t o d i s c u s s t h e k i n d of

o b j e c t i o n , a s c h a m p i o n e d b y Kuhn a n d F e y e r a b e n d , t o H e m p e l ' s
f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e . I f Kuhn

a n d F e y e r a b e n d are correct i n t h e i r a r g u a e n t s a b o u t t h e
i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y of t h e o r i e s , t h e n my r a d i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l v a t h e o r i e s ' i would b e
rendered untenable. T h e r e a s o n s a r e s t r a i g h t forward. Kuhn
a r g u e s t h a t ( a s i n The s t r u c t u r e of S c i e n t i f i c p e v o l u t i o n ) t h e
s a a e s c i e n t i f i c term c a n n o t h a v e t h e s a a e r e f e r e n c e i n d i f f a r e n t
' p a r a d i q m s a n d h e n c e , a t l e a s t i n t h i s a s p e c t , terms used i n
s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s are d e n o t a t i o n a l l y i n d e f i n i t e . And y e t

t h e o r i e s are c o n s t r u c t u r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o q y s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e i n s p i t e of t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e terms u s e d a r e d e n o t a t i o n a l l y i n d e f i n i t e b e c a u s e
t h e s o c i a l f a c t s t h a t t h e y p u r p o r t t o refer t o c a n n o t b e

observed d i r e c t l y a s t h i n q s but a r e dependent, a t l e a s t i n part,

on t h e o b s e r v e r ' s s u b j e c t i v e s t a t e s of mind. I n o r d e r t o block
t h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g , I s h a l l a t t e m p t t o show t h a t e v e n if
K u h n g s a n d P e p e r a b e n d a s t h e s e s a r e c o r r e c t , t h e r e is s t i l l a n
u n b r i d q e a b l e q a p b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r i e s of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e a n d t h e
attempts at theory construction i n sociology.
Kuhn d i s c u s s e s i n l e n g t h i n The S t u r c t u r e of Scientific
------
Revolution t h e i d e a o f o u r c o n c e p t u a l scheme a s paradiqm-bound.
S c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s b e l o n g t o d i f f e r e n t p a r a d i g m s which
c o r r e s p o n d t o d i f f e r e n t " w o r l d s a N T h e s e d i f f e r e n t ttworlds" a s
r e p r e s e n t e d by d i f f e r e n t p a r a d i g m s d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n v e r g e .
T a k e f o r e x a m p l e t h e term " e l e c t r o n n a s u s e d i n t h e
B o h r - R u t h e r f o r d t h e o r y o f t h e e a r l y 1900s, T h i s term d o e s n o t
refer t o what we now c a l l " e l e c t r o n H b e c a u s e t h e t h e o r y a b o u t
n e l e c t r o n " h a s c h a n g e d , a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e o f a term i s t a k e n t o
b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s i n which i t o c c u r s .

Hence, t h e t e r n H e l e c t r o n H a s u s e d i n B o h r - R u t h e r f c r d t h e o r y
d o e s n o t refer t o a n y t h i n g t h a t we c a n i d e n t i f y i n o u r p r e s s n t
t h e o r y a n d i n f a c t , it d o e s n o t refer t o a n y t h i n g a t a l l from
t h e p e r s e p e c t i v e of t h e p r e s e n t t h e o r y . So t h e reference of
s c i e n t i f i c terms i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , p a r a d i q m - bound.
 H i l a r y Putnam i n h i s l a t e s t work ~ e a n i n q~d t h e floral

-------
Sciences, d i s c u s s e s both Kuhn8s and Peyerabend's approaches i n
t h e philosophy of science. H e sums up F e y e r a b e n d g s p o s i t i o n (as
r e p r e s e n t e d i n h i s book & g i n s t U e t h o d ) , a s f o l l o w s :

reasoning, . .
Feyerabend a r r i v e s a t h i s p o s i t i o n by t h e f o l l o w i n q
, t h e e x p e r t s who u s e [ a s c i e n t i f i c term J
a c c e p t c e r t a i n laws as virtually necessary t r u t h s a b o u t
t h e p u t a t i v e r e f e r e n t . F e y e r a b e n d t r e a t s t h e s e laws, o r
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e f e r e n t b a s e d on

.
t h e s e l a w s , as, i n effect, a d e f i n i t i o n of t h e r e f e r e n t
( i n effect, a n a n a l y t i c d e f i n i t i o n ) So if we e v e r
must say t h a t t h e r e was n n s~u c h t h i n g . " ...
decide t h a t n o t h i n g fits t h e e x a c t d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e n w e
i f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f an e l e c t r o n i s
florsover,
d i f f e r e n t i n two t h e o r i e s , t h e n t h e term ' e l e c t r o n * h a s
a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e i n t h e two t h e o r i e s . I n g e n e r a l ,
F e y e r a b e n d c o n c l u d s s , s u c h a term can h a v e n e i t h e r a
shared r e f e r e n t nor a shared sense i n d i f f e r e n t
theories. (the incormensurability of theories)
A l t h o u q h Kuhn a n d F e y e r a b e n d arrive a t their r e s p e c t i v e
c o n c l n s i o n s v i a v e r y d i f f e r e n t r o u t e s , I would l i k e t o r e h r t o
t h e i r p o s i t i o n s j o i n t l y as t h e M i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s , "
G i v e n t h e f o r c e of t h e a r q u m e n t f o r t h e i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y
t h e s i s , how d o we a c c o u n t f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f s c i e n c e ? T h e
B o h r - R u t h e r f o r d t h e o r y h a d b e e n 8 8 s u c c e s s f u l n in i t s own riq ht
and it had p r o v i d e d r e l a t i v e l y s u c c e s s f u l e x p l a n a t i o n s and
p r e d i c t i o n s . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e i s B e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s which was a b l e

t o e x p l a i n a n d p r e d i c t phenomena f o r c e n t u r i e s . Are a l l these

s u c c e s s s t o r i e s mere i l l u s i o n s now that we h a v e r e p l a c e d t h e
B o h r - R u t h e r f o r d t h e o r y w i t h quantum m e c h a n i c s a n d Newtonian
p h y s i c s w i t h E i n s t a i n i a n p h y s i c s ? Can we j u d g e the p a s t theories
a s c o m p l e t l y e r r o n e o n s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e p r e s e n t
 e o r i es b e c a u s e t h e y a r e i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e ? T o d o t h i s would make
t h e s u c c e s s o f s c i e n c e a miracle. I t w o u l d b e m i r a c u l o u s indeed

f o r N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s t o be a b l e t o h a v e done w h a t i t d i d i f i t
t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e teras used i n Newtonian p h y s i c s s i m p l y d o n o t
refer t o a n y t h i n g a t a l l .
T h e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s dilemma, a c c o r d i n g t o P u t n a m , i s t o
u s e t h e p r i n c i p l e of " t h e b e n e f i t of t h e d o u b t . " To beqin w i t h ,
i t h a s t o be a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e o f s c i e n t i f i c teras is
n o t d e t e r m i n e d by t h e l a u s i n which t h e y a p p e a r . T h a t i s t o s a y
t h e r e f e r e n c e of s c i e n t i f i c t e r n s i s n o t t o b e t a k e n a s
d e t e r m i n e d b y d e s c r i p t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m , and h e n c e
c h a n g e s i n s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y B e a n a c h a n q e of
r e f e r e n t s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o t i o n of
r e f e r e n c e and d e s c r i p t i o n is a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t i n t h e
p h i l o s o p h y of l a n g u a g e a n d t h i s i s no p l a c e t o p u r s a e i t . I t i s
my b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e of a s c i e n t i f i c t a r s i s n o t
d e t e r m i n e d by d e s c r i p t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t , a l t h o u g h i t is
t r u e t h a t we u s e d s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s t o h e l p " p i c k out8* t h e
r e f e r e n t . T h e n o t i o n o f r e f e r e n c e t h u s seems t o i m p l y t h a t t h e r e
is s o m e t h i n q out there i n d e p e n d e n t of a l l d e s c r i p t i o n s . Bnd i t
i s often t h e case t h a t when a r e f e r e n t i s s p e c i f i e d b y a
d e s c r i p t i o n by a s p e a k e r , a n d when s u c h a d e s c r i p t i o n f a i l s t o
refer b e c a u s e of m i s t a k e n f a c t u a l b e l i e f o n t h s p a r t o f the
s p e a k e r ; t h e n i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r would
a c c e p t a reformulated d e s c r i p t i o n #hen i t i s demonstrated t h a t
h e h a s made a m i s t a k e , To r e - e v a l u a t e t h e B o h r - R u t h e r f o r d t h m r y
w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f b e n e f i t of t h e d o u b t we s h o u l d s a y t h a t

a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o t h i n q i n t h e w o r l d t h a t e x a c t l y fits t h e
B o h r - R u t h e r f o r d d e s c r i p t i o n of a n e l e c t r o n , t h e r e a r e p a r t i c l e s
t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i t s u c h a d e s c r i p t i o n , And h e n c e we s h o u l d
t r e a t B o h r g s d e s c r i p t i o n a s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s e particles. T h u s ,
we c a n a n s w e r Kuhn a n d F e y e r a b e n d b y s a y i n g t h a t i n t h e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e o r y c h a n g e a n d p a r a d i g a c h a n g e we s h o u l d s a y
t h a t we n o v h a v e a d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y a b o u t t h e "samen e n t i t i e s
r e f e r r e d t o by t h e p r e v i c u s t h e o r y ,
But t h e p r o b l e m raised b y t h e i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s
d o e s n o t s t o p h e r e a n d i t c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d f u l l y b y t h e use of
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f b e n e f i t of t h e d o u b t . A m e t a - i n d u c t i o n 5 can b e
d e r i v e d from t h i s t h e s i s a n d i f s u c h a n i n d u c t i o n c a n n o t b e
b l o c k e d , t h e n t h e v e r y n o t i o n of r e f e r e n c e would s i m p l y
c o l l a p s e , low l e t u s l o o k a t t h i s meta-induction closely.
The m e t a - i n d u c t i o n t a k e s t h e logic o f t h e
i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s o n e s t e p f u r t h e r . T o q u o t e Putnarn:
One r e a s o n t h i s i s a s e r i o u s w o r r y is t h a t e v e n t u a l l y
t h e f o l l o w i n g m e t a - i n d u c t i o n becomes o v e r w h e l a i n g l y
c o m p e l l i n q : j u s t as n o term u s e d i n the s c i e n c e of more
t h a n f i f t y ( o r whatever) y e a r s a g o r e f e r r e d , so i t w i l l
t u r n o u t t h a t n o term u s e d now ( e x c e p t maybe c b s e r v a t i o n
terms, if t h e r e a r e s u c h ) refers. 6
T h i s i s t o s a y t h a t t h e r e is t h e l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s s i m p l y do n o t c o n v e r g e and t h u s n r e f e r e n c e f a
collapses. T h e u s e of t h e p r i n c i p l e o f b e n e f i t of t h e d o u b t i s
 no h e l p h e r e . T h e r e i s a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s u c h a
p r i n c i p l e c a n b e u s e d u n r e a s o n a b l y . He d o n o t want t o q o so f a r
a s t o s a y t h a t t h e t e r n H p h l o q i s t o n e e r e f e r r e d t o a n y e n t i t y , And
i f t h e r e is s i m p l y n o c o n v e r g e n c e , t h e n i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o
h a v e a n y r e a s o n a b l e n o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e theoretics 1 d e s c r i p t i o n s
of v a r i o u s e n t i t i e s g i v e n by p a s t t h e o r i e s . And t h i s would mean
t h a t from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of p r e s e n t t h e o r i e s t h e t h e o r e t i c
e n t i t i e s d e s c r i b e d by p a s t t h e o r i e s d o n o t e x i s t . T o b l o c k t h i s
disastrous aeta-induction, Putnam i n t r o d u c e d what h e c a l l s t h e
"quasi-intuitionistm i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of logical c o n n e c t i v e s . I t
is t o t h i s q u e s t i o n t h a t we n o t t u r n .
T h i s n g u a i s - i n t n i t i o n i s t ~ i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is d e r i v e d from
m a t h e m a t i c a l i n t u i t i o n i s m which is a s c h o o l of m a t h e m a t i c a l
p h i l o s o p h y d e v e l o p e d b y Brouwer a n d I i e y t i n g . Putnam o u t l i n e s
mathematical i n t u i t i o n i s m a s follovs:
A k e y idea of t h e i n t u i t i o n i s t s i s t o u s e t h e l o q i c a l
connectives i n a 'non-classical' sense, (Of course,
i n t u i t i o n i s t s d o t h i s b e c a u s e t h e y regard t h e
' c l a s s i c a l c sense as i n a p p l i c a b l e t o reasoning about
i n f i n i t e o r p o t e n t i a l l y i n f i n i t e d o m a i n s . ) They e x p l a i n
t h i s s e n s e - - t h a t is, t h e y e x p l a i n t h e i r m e a n i n g s f o r t h e
l o q i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s - - i n t e r n s of c o n s t r u c t i v e
p r o v a b i l i t y r a t h e r than ( c l a s s i c a l ) t r u t h . 7
r:
8 Such a move means t h a t t h e t h e o r e m s o f c l a s s i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n a l
c a l c u l u s c a n be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s w i l l b e
C
-.!i%
u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of p r o v a b i l i t y a n d n o t t r u t h a n d f a l s i t y ,
When "PV P" i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e c l a s s i c a l way, i t s a y s that
g e i t h e r P i s t h e c a s e o r i t i s n o t the c a s e ; when i n t e r p r e t e d b y
the i n t u i t i o n i s t , i t s a y s t h a t we e i t h e r h a v e a p r o o f of P o r a
p r o o f of P's a b s u r d i t y . I n g e n e r a l , a s s e r t i n g P b e c o m e s
t a n t a m o u n t t o "P is p r o v a b l e f n HP.Qil t o V? i s p r o v a b l e a n d Q is
p r o ~ a b l e , "PVQn
~ t o " T h e r e is a p r o o f o f P o r a p r o o f of Q and
we know v h i c h o n e f n a n d V Q m t o " T h e r e is a m e t h o d w h i c h , when
a p p l i e d t o a n y p r o o f of P y i e l d s a p r o o f of Q.N

The i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e is t h a t b o t h t h e n o t i o n s of t r u t h
a n d f a l s i t y a r e a v o i d e d i n l o g i c a n d m a t h e m a t i c s i n a n y sense
t h a t goes b e y o n d w h a t we c a n p r o v e , o n some a p p r o p r i a t e
c o n s t r u a l of w p r o o f , m
Now, t h e q u e s t i o n i s what b e a r i n g d o e s m a t h e m a t i c a l
intuitionism have i n blocking t h e d i s a s t r o u s aeta-induction
m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ? P u t n a m l s i d e a i s t h a t we s h o u l d e x t e n d t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of logical a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l a s s e r t i o n s t o also
c o v e r t h e a s s e r t i o n s of e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e , b y r e p l a c i n g t h e
n o t i o n of n c o n s t r n c t i v e p r o v a b i l i t y n w i t h t h e n o t i o n of
" c o n s t r u c t i v e p r o v a b i l i t y or p e r h a p s w a r r a n t e d a s s e r t a b i l i t y
f r o m the p o s t u l a t e s of the e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e accepted a t t h e
time." T o q u o t e P u t n a m a t l e n g t h :
If B ( 1 ) is t h e e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e a c c e p t e d a t o n e time
and B ( 2 ) i s t h e e m p i r i c a l science a c c e p t e d a t a
d i f f e r e n t time, t h e n , a c c o r d i n q t o t h i s ' q u a s i -
i n t u i t i o n i s t * i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e very l o g i c a l
c o n n e c t i v e s 1i n t h e a s s e r t i o n of B (1) a n d B(2) 1 would
refer t o ' p r o v a b i l i t y i n B l 1 ) when u s e d i n B f l ) , a n d t o
@

' p r o v a b i l i t y i n B (2) ' when u s e d i n B ( 2 ) .

The l o q i c a l
c o n n e c t i v e s w o u l d c h a n g e m e a n i n g s i n a s y s t e m a t i c way a s
e m p i r i c a l knowledge changed, 9
 When t h e c l a s s i c a l n o t i o n of t r u t h is r e p l a c e d b y
p r o v a b i l i t y , reference can be r e t a i n e d i n s p i t o of t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e i n c o a m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s may b e correct.
T h e f o l l o w i n q s h o w s how i t is d o n e .

On t h e T a r s k i d e f i n i t i o n of t r u t h a n d r e f e r e n c e ,
(a) ' e l e c t r o n * r e f e r s , i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
(b) T h e r e a r e e l e c t r o n s .
B u t i f * t h e r e a r e * is i n t e r p r e t e d i n t u i t i o n i s t i c a l l y ( b )
asserts o n l y
(c) T h e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n D s u c h t h a t OD i s an
e l e c t r o n * i s p r o v a b l e i n B (1). 1 0
A l t h o u g h t h i s is c l e a r l y i n t h e s p i r i t of t h e
i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s , i t h a s t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e above
a e n t i o n e d n s e t a - i n d u c t i o n n c a n be b l o c k e d . But i n s o f ax a s
r e f e r e n c e c a n be r e t a i n e d , t h e p r i n c i p l e of b e n e f i t o f t h e d o u b t
c a n be a p p l i e d .
R e f e r e n c e is r e t a i n e d b e c a u s e the e f f e c t of r e i n t e r p r e t i n q
t h e l o q i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s i n t h e m a n n e r of m a t h e m a t i c a l
i n t u i t i o n i s n is t h a t 18eristencen because i n t r a - t h e o r e t i c . Given
s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s , we can
accommoda te K u h n 8 s a n d F e y e r a b e n d a s i n c o w i e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s
w i t h o u t b e i n q t r a p p e d i n a p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h we h a v e t o q i v e u p
t h e n o t i o n of r e f e r e n c e a n d t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d n o t i o n of t r u t h .
Even i f s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s c h a n g e i n t h e r a d i c a l m a n n e r a s
s u q q e s t e d b y Kuhn a n d P e y e r a b s n d , e v e n i f o l d t h e o r i e s a n d new
t h e o r i e s do n o t c o n v e r g e , e v e n i f the p r i n c i p l e o f b e n e f i t of
t h e d o u b t c a n n o t be a p p l i e d a s o f t e n a s we w i s h t o ; t h e f a c t
r e m a i n s t h a t s c i e n t i f i c terms p u r p o r t i n g t o r e f e r t o t h e o r e t i c a l
e n t i t i e s a s p o s t u l a t e d by t h e t h e o r y h a v e d e f i n i t e d e n o t a t i o n s .
s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s a r e s u c c e s s f u l i n l i g h t of w h a t makes a
t h e o r y s u c c e s s f u l , b e c a u s e o f i t s t e s t a b i l i t y , a n d t h e f a c t thst
t h e s c i e n t i f i c terms a s p o s t u l a t e d by t h e t h e o r y t y p i c a l l y
refer.
But I h a v e a r g u e d earlier t h a t s u c h d e f i n i t e d e n o t a t i o n ( i n
the u s e of s o c i o l o g i c a l terms p u r p o r t i n g t o refer t o s o c i a l
f a c t s ) c a n n o t b e d e m a n d e d from s o c i o l o q i c a l t h e o r i e s , a n d h e n c e
theory construction--as u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e H e m p e l i a n p a r a d i q m of
theory construction--is a n i m p o s s i b l e t a s k . What n e e d s t o b e
a r g u e d for h e r e i s why terms u s e d i n s o c i o l o g y c a n n o t h a v e s u c h
d e f i n i t e d e n o t a t i o n a n d t h i s q u e s t i o n t u r n s u p o n the a m b i g u i t y
i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t s .
What I a r g u e d i n C h a p t e r One was t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of
s o c i a l f a c t s i s n o t t h e same a s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l
f a c t s . Ye c a n now make t h e f u r t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e
ambiguity i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f social f a c t s is a n ambiquity
t h a t e x i s t s e v e n w i t h i n the same p a r a d i u m or conceptual

---
frame_uor]c. I n t h e d o a a i n of s o c i a l f a c t s we h a v e t o d e a l w i t h
human b e h a v i o r a n d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s "ways
of a c t i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d f e e l i n g e are s u b j e c t t o t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o b s e r v e r . When t h e r e i s a m o u n t a i n i n
f r o n t of a q r o u p of o b s e r v e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a r e a l d e b a t e
among t h e m a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e m o u n t a i n i s n e x t t o zero.
Of course one can always e n t e r t a i n philosophical skepticisin in
i t s e x t r e m e form, b u t I b e l i e v e s u c h s k e p t i c i s m h a s b e e n
r e n d e r e d b a n k r u p t b y U i t t g e n s t e i n among o t h e r s , a n d i n a n y c a s s
f o r p r a c t i c a l n o n - p h i l o s o p h i c a l p u r p o s e s it can b e i q n o r e d , Now,
i m a g i n e t h e same g r o u p o f o b s e r v e r s w a t c h i n g a crowd o f s o c c e r
f a n s t e r r o r i z i n g t h e s t a d i u m a f t e r t h e team l o s t t h e match,
D e p e n d i n g o n a number o f factors amonq which i s t h e observer's
s u b j e c t i v e s t a t e of mind, a number of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c a n b e
d e r i v e d a s t o what i s t h e n f a c t t * t h a t i s b e i n g o b s e r v e d :
f a i t h f u l a n d l o y a l soccer f a n s i n a c t i o n , e m o t i o n a l 1 y s u p p r e s s e d
people l e t t i n q o f f steam, c r o w d b e h a v i o r m a n i f e s t i n g t h e " s o c i a l

c u r r e n t n p l a D a r k h e i n , a n d so on. O f c o u r s e , i t would r e q u i r e
f u r t h e r d e b a t e a s t o which of t h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i s more
a c c u r a t e or more r e a s o n a b l e b u t t h e p o i n t I w a n t t o make h e r e is
t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f social f a c t s is i n t e r p r e t i v e i n n a t u r e ,
And i n s o f a r a s i t i s a n i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e s s , t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m s
p u r p o r t i n g t o refer t o s o c i a l f a c t s would n o t b e able t o h a v e
t h s same k i n d of d e f i n i t e d e n o t a t i o n a s t h o s e u s e d i n the
natural sciences.
T h i s c o n t r a s t between s o c i o l o g y a n d n a t u r a l sciences can b e
f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d i n t e r a s of t h e r e l a t i o n between r e f e r e n c e
a n d d e s c r i p t i o n , Uhen a d e s c r i p t i o n of a c e r t a i n t h e o r e t i c
e n t i t y i s g i v e n i n a s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y , t h e d e s c r i p t i o n refers
t o t h e e n t i t y . C o m p e t i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s c a n a r i s e o n l y when there
is a p a r a d i q m c h a n g e o r t h e o r y c h a n g e . W i t h i n t h e s a n e p a r a d i q m
s u c h a d e s c r i p t i o n refers w i t h o u t f u r t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n , T h e
s i t u a t i o n i n s o c i o l oqy i s d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f s r e n t , I t i s p o s s i b l e
t o h a v e c o m p e t i n q d e s c r i p t i o n s , a l l p u r p o r t i n g t o refer t o t h e
same t h e o r e t i c e n t i t y (e.g. 'lanomie.n), e v e n w i t h i n t h e saetle
paradiqm. I n o t h e r w o r d s , c o m p e t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c a n be
d e r i v e d f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e same s o c i a l phenoaenon.
One c a n o b j e c t t o t h i s a r q u m e n t , h o w e v e r , by t h e f o l l o w i n q
r e a s o n i n g . T h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o q y i s h a m p e r e d by t h e
p r i m i t i v e s t a g e of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h i s d i s c i p l i n e , He s i m p l y
d o n o t know e n o u g h a b o u t human b e h a v i o r , a n d t h u s t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e k i n d of s o c i a l f a c t t h a t d e a l s w i t h h u a a n
b e h a v i o r would h a v e t o b e i n t e r p r e t i v e . But t h e r e i s n o t h i n q "in
p r i n c i p l e m i m p o s s i b l e for t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o q y . It
i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t sometime i n t h e f u t u r e our k n o v l e d q e of
human b e i n g s i n g e n e r a l w i l l be s o a d v a n c e d t h a t human b e i n g a s
a s p e c i e s becomes m t r a n s p a r e n t , H so t o speak, t o a n o b s e r v e r .

(Such a s t a t e o f k n o w l e d g e mould h a v e t o i n c l u d e a l l the l a w s

q o v e r n i n q h e s p e c i e s "human b e i n q ' s n p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanism
with t h e assumption t h a t a l l h i s mental and p s y c h o l o q i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y , ) Hence,
t h e o r i e s w h i c h c a n e x p l a i n a n d p r e d i c t human b e h a v i o r a s
s u c c e s s f u l l y a s t h a t o f p h y s i c s c o u l d i n p r i n c i p l e bs
constructed.
To c o u n t e r t h i s argument, l e t u s f i r s t e x a m i n e what s u c h a

t h e o r y w o u l d r e q u i r e . The best way t o d o t h i s i s t o l o o k a t an

i d e a l e x p l a n a t o r y model of p h y s i c s a s s u g g e s t e d b y Putnam. In
t h e case n atomw ( u s i n q Hempel*s model o f s c i e n t i f i c
theory) t h e theory t h a t can explain and predict t h e behavior of
h y d r o g e n atom w o u l d c o n s i s t of a set of laws, t h e laws o f
quantum mechanics, a n d a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l k i n d
# h y d r o g e n a t o B n a s c o n s i s t i n g o f one e l e c t r o n a n d one p r o t o n i n
a b o u n d s t a t e ( t h e i n t e r n a l principles) p l u s b r i d q e p r i n c i p l e s
t h a t w o u l d l i n k t h e s e i n t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s , t h r o u q h t h e u s e of
v e r y elaborate l a b o r a t o r y equipment, w i t h t h e o b s e r v a b l e
phenomena, T o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e i n c o a a e n s u r a b i l i t y
t h e s i s , we c a n add t h a t t h e laws of q u a n t u m m e c h a n i c s are
u n d o u b t e d l y o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y t r u e a n d a s a r e s u l t of t h e
p r i n c i p l e of b e n e f i t of t h e d o u b t w o u l d have t o b e a p p l i e d i n
t h e case t h a t a n y s g s t e a c o n s i s t i n g o f a p r o t o n a s we d e f i n e
" p r o t o n n a n d a n e l e c t r o n as we d e f i n e " e l e c t r o n m may n o t t u r n
o u t t o b e a h p d r o q e n atom. And o n e a l s o h a s t o s p e c i f y t h a t t h s
" r e f e r e n c e a of t h e s e terms is t o be j u d g e d from w i t h i n t h e
c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m t o w h i c h t h e t h e o r y i n question b e l o n q s .
P o l l o v i n g t h i s example, let u s a t t e m p t t o c o n s t r u c t an
e x p l a a a t o r y model of t h e n a t u r a l k i n d #human b e i n q e n He Bay
i n d e e d be a b l e t o come u p w i t h a set of laws d s s c r i b i n q
a d e q u a t e l y a l l t h e p h y s i o l o q i c a l m e c h a n i s m of human beinq
(although t h i s is d o u b t f u l ) , it remains a formidable t a s k f o r u s
t o cosae u p w i t h a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n a t u r a l kind "human being."
A s Putnam p o i n t s o u t , h u a a n b e i n q is n o t s i m p l y a d e s c r i p t i o n of
a " p h y s i c a l s y s t e m c o n s i s t i n g of e l e m e n t a r y p a r t i c 1 e s . o Such an
e x p l a n a t o r y model w o u l d h a v e t o s p e c i f y n o t o n l y a " p h y s i c a l
s y s t e m " a s q o v e r n e d by l a w s o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanism b u t a l s o
t h e s p e c i e s #'human b e i n g a t t S u c h a s p e c i f i c a t i o n would h a v e t o
s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t an y t h i n q t h a t might s a t i s f y t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n i n q u e s t i o n would be a member o f t h e n a t u r a l k i n d
(human b e i n q ) i n q u e s t i o n . I n p h y s i c s we see t h a t s u c h d e t a i l e d
e x p l a n a t o r y m o d e l s of n a t u r a l k i n d "human b e i n g t * ?
The c o m p l e x i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e d e s c r i ~ t i o nf o r t h e
n a t u r a l k i n d 'lhuman b e i n q n a c c o u n t s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e na turf:
o f s o c i a l f a c t s . U i t h o u t a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t o r y inodel of **human
b e i n q " t h e r e f e r e n c e o f t h e o r e t i c a l terms u s e d t o r e f e r t o t h e
s o c i a l f a c t s i n v o l v i n g human b e h a v i o r c a n n o t b e d e n o t a t i o n a l l y
definite. B u t w h a t we h a v e d o n e s o f a r i s t o p o i n t o u t t h e
e x t r e m e d i f f i c u l t y of o b t a i n i n g s u c h a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t o r y
model f o r t h e n a t u r a l k i n d nhuman b s i n g e W
Uhat about t h e q u e s t i o n of w h a t i s " i n p r i n c i @ e t * p o s s i b l e
a n d i m p o s s i b l e ? P u t n a m o u t l i n e s t h r e e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s of
"possibilityw:
What i s p o s s i b l e i n t h e s e n s e of * l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e * ;
what is p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e i n t h e s e n s e of * n o t
c o n t r a r y t o a n y n a t u r a l laws'; a n d w h a t i s t e c h n i c a l l y
p o s s i b l e g i v e n o u r e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l o q y . 1'
I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f w h e t h e r i t is * * i n p r i n c i ~ l e " p o s s i b l ?
f o r a n i d e a l t h e o r y o f human b e h a v i o r t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d b a s e d o n
a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t o r y a o d e l of t h e n a t u r a l k i n d "human b e i n g , "
Putnam s u g q e s t s t h a t a new s e n s e of I s i n p r i n c i p l e " s h o u l d b e
introduced. It i s n o t a q u e s t i o n of l o q i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y n o r i s

it a q u e s t i o n whether i t is p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e f o r a computinq
s y s t e m t o d o it. H i s idea i s t h a t w e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r whether it
i s p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e f o r a n optima c o m p u t i n q s y s t e m t o d o s u c h
c a l c u l a t i o n s f a s t e n o u g h t h a t t h e y c a n b e u s e d t o make
p r e d i c t i o n s . T h e q u e s t i o n h e r e is w h e t h e r it i s p o s s i b l e t o make
s u c h a c o m p u t a t i o n i n "real time." *Real t i n e c o m p u t a b i l i t y " i s
a c o m p u t e r - t h e o r e t i c n o t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a f r i e n d i s t e l l i n q me
a joke. And Let u s a l s o a s s u m e t h a t i t i s a j o k e w i t h v e r y
s u b t l e h u m o r w h i c h takes i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c u l t u r a l b a c k q r o u n d of
t h e s p e a k e r , t h e immediate c i r c n m s t a n c e s , a n d p e r s o n a l h i s t o r i e s

of t h e s p e a k e r a s well a s t h a t of t h e l i s t e n e r . Upon h e a r i n q t h e
joke, I u n d e r s t a n d it a n d l a u g h . Given t h e i d e a l t h e o r y and a n
o p t i m a l c o m p u t i n q s y s t e m , i t m i g h t t a k e a t r e m e a d o u a l y l c n q time
(a few h u n d r e d g e a r s ? ) f o r i t t o come u p w i t h t h e s i m p l o
d e d u c t i o n a s t o t h e m e a n i n g of t h e j o k e t h a t I am a b l e t o d o
i m m e d i a t e l y . What i s t r u e f o r p r e d i c t i o n i s a l s o t r u e f o r
explanation. 12

P u t n a m h a s a f i n a l , I t h i n k h i q h l p s i g n i f i c a n t , comment
a b o u t i t s b e i n g " i n p r i n c i p l e i m p o s s i b l e n f o r u s t o r e n d e r human
n a t u r e t r a n s p a r e n t t o o u r o b s e r v a t i o n b y m e a n s of an i d e a l
theory. H e n c t e s t h a t a l t h o u g h h i s s e n s e of " i n p r i n c i p l e

i m p o s s i b l e M is e m p i r i c a l , i t i s e m p i r i c a l i n a w a y t h a t is

-
constitutive -
of -
our present n a t u r e Z b e h a v i o r institutions.
I s a q i n e w h a t would h a p p e n t o u s i f s u c h a n i d e a l t h e o r y became
 a i l a b l e a n d we c o u l d a p p l y i t i n *re a l time" i ant
nueiber o f cases. P u t n a m a s k s :
Would i t be p o s s i b l e t o l o v e s o m e o n e , i f ue c o u l d
a c t u a l l y c a r r y o u t c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e form: 'If 1 s a y
X, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y is 75 p e r c e n t s h e w i l l r e a c t i n the
m a n n e r Y 9 ? U o u l d it be p o s s i b l e e v e n t o h a v e f r i e n d s h i p s
o r h o s t i l i t i e s ? Would i t be p o s s i b l e e v e n t o t h i n k of
o n e s e l f a s a p e r s o n ? 13
W h a t e v e r t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s may b e , u h a t i s
clear is t h a t if we a r e t o become t r a n s p a r e n t t o o u r s e l v e s , t h e n
t h e r e w i l l h a v e t o be v e r y d r a s t i c c h a n g e s i n our n a t u r e a s well
a s o u r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s a r t , p o l i t i c s , r e l i q i o n s , and
e v e n s c i e n c e . They w i l l be a l t e r e d b e y o n d r e c o g n i t i o r . What
u n d e r l i e s o u r e n t i r e h i s t o r y and hence o u r social development is
t h e f a c t t h a t we a r e p a r t i a l l y o p a q u e t o o u r s e l v e s : i n P u t n a m l s
words d o n ' t h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r a s we
u n d e r s t a n d hpdrcgen atoms.
To s u n up b r i e f l y I t h i n k two p o i n t s have b e e n made v i t h
s u b s t a n t i a l force. F i r s t , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t s i s , Ln
a way d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l f a c t s , a n
i n t e r p r e t i v e process. T h i s is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e second
p o i n t t h a t t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n i n p r i n c i p l e i m p o s s i blew (no
p r e d i c t i o n i n real ti me) i n s o c i o l o q y . B u t , i f so, t h e n u h a t
s h o u l d s o c i o l o q i s t s d o i n t h e i r s t u d i e s a n d i n v e s t i q a t i o n s of
o u r s o c i a l w o r l d ? B e i n g b a r r e d f r o m a n y r e a l i s t i c h o p e of t h e o r y
c o n s t r u c t i o n on t h e o n e hand a n d h a v i n g t o c o p s with t h e
i n t e r p r e t i v e n a t u r e of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of s o c i a l f a c t s o n t h e
o t h e r , d o e s i t follow t h a t s o c i o l o q i s t s a r e h a n d i c a p p e d i n t h e
p u r s u i t o f knowledge i n t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e ?
I t i s my b e l i e f t h a t t h e a n s w e r t o t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n c a n

d e f i n i t e l y b e a n e q a t i v e o n e i f we c a n move a w a y f r o m t h e r i q i d
a s s o c i a t i o n of k n o w l e d g e w i t h t h e o r y (a p o i n t t h a t I s h a l l
e x p l o r e i n d e t a i l i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) . To r e t u r n t o H e r t o n ' s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , we c a n now see t h a t t h e r e i s a c r u c i a l
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n - - a c t i v i t y (6) o n H e r t o n ' s

list--and t h e other four activities: g e n e r a l socioloqical

o r i e n t a t i o n , a n a l y s i s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , post f a c t u m
s o c i o l o q i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , and e m p i r i c a l g e n s r a l i z a t i o n s .
( T h e f i r s t k i n d of a c t i v i t y , m e t h o d o l o g y , i s e x c l u d e d i n o u r
present discussion.) W i t h o u t g e t t i n g a h e a d of o u r s e l v e s , I u o u l d
l i k e t o d i s c u s s h e r e how t h e s e f o u r k i n d s of a c t i v i t i e s c a n
c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u l k of t h e s o c i o l o g i s t s ~l a b o r w i t h o u t
e n t e r t a i n i n q t h e u n r e a l i s t i c h o p e of c o n s t r u c t i n q t h e o r i e s i n
t h e m a n n e r of t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
I p r o p o s e t o g r o u p t h e s e f o u r k i n d s o f a c t i v i t i e s i n t o one

c a t e g o r y a n d c a l l i t " q e n u i n e s o c i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i q a t i o n e w There
a r e two s a l i e n t p o i n t s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y o f a c t i v i t i e s . I n t h e
g e n e r a l s o c i o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n the s o c i o l o g i s t h a s t o
i n t r o d u c e , d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , t h e s u b j e c t matter o f
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , r e l e v a n t c o n c e p t s , a n d t h e p r o p e r a p p l i c a t i o n of
t h e s e c o n c e p t s . T h i s i s t h e first s a l i e n t p o i n t . It i d e n t i f i e s

t h e p r o p e r a r e a a n d t h e s u b j e c t matter f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t
 p r o v i d e s a v a n t a g e p o i n t f o r a s o c i o l o q i c a l way o f l o o k i n q a t
t h e world. The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s c l a s s i f i e s
o u r w o r l d f r o m a s o c i a l p o i n t o f view a n d h e n c e i t g i v e s u s a
new a n d u n i q u e way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o u r b e h a v i o r . Take
D u r k h e i a l s S u i c i d 2 f o r example. W
e have discussed i n t h e
p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r how h e h a s f a i l e d i n h i s a a b i t i o u s a t t e m p t t o
c o n s t r u c t laws t h a t u o u l d e x p l a i n s u i c i d e , b u t i t d o e s n o t mean
t h a t Durkheim h a s n o t s u c c e e d e d i n a p p r o a c h i n q t h e p r o b l e m from
a new a n d u s e f u l way. H e h a s manaqsd t o e s t a b l i s h a p e r s p e c t i v e

from which s u i c i d e can b e v i e w e d a s a s o c i a l p h e n o e n o n , He

+ f u r t h e r i n t r o d u c e s p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n s , i n s p i t e of numerous
. a m b i q u i t i e s , between s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a t l a r q e and i n d i v i d u a l s
- i n qeneral and t h e i r psychological h e a l t h i n p a r t i c u l a r . This
b r i n g s us t o t h e second s a l i e n t point, concerninq e a p i r i c a l
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . Given t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n
o f s o c i a l f a c t s , e m p i r i c a l q e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e insofar
t h a t i t d o e s n o t a s p i r e u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y t o a c h i e v e t h e s t a t u s of
t h e o r y . And i n t h i s s e n s e , p o s t f a c t u m s o c i o l o g i c a l
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t so d i f f e r e n t f r o a e m p i r i c a 1
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , T h i s u s e of e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s wouf d
produce c o r r e l a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s s o c i a l phenoaena a n d t h e
specifications of t h e i r inter-relationships. F o r example, a p o s t
factum s o c i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n might c o r r e l a t e t h e f a c t o r s
o f q e n e r a l p o v e r t y , t h e c r e a t i o n of a s t a n d a r d of c o n d e m n a t i o n
on t h e p a r t o f t h e masses, t h e e m e r q e n c e o f a l e a d i n g g r o u p of
 r e b e l s with cohesive l e a d e r s h i p , t h e c o r r u p t and i n s e n s i t i v e
a u t h o r i t y w i t h t h e s o c i a l phenomenon of r e v o l u t i o n . T h e
c o r r e l a t i o n c a n be e l a b o r a t e d f u r t h e r q e a e r a l i z a t i o n a b o u t
r e v o l u t i o n , F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d f s c t o r s can b 3
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o distinguishable but related processes. Accordinq
t o B a r r i n q t o n Noore Jr., i n t h e p r o c e s s of g r o w t h a n d
e m a n c i p a t i o n of t h e masses [which m i g h t l e a d t o a r e v o l u t i o n )
t h e r e a r e roughly t h r e e subjective factors. a* I] A t t h e l e v e l

o f the i n d i v i d u a l human p e r s o n a l i t y it i s n e c e s s a r y t o overcome

c e r t a i n f o r m s of dependence on o t h e r s a n d a c q u i r e c o n t r o l s o v e r
i m p u l s e s so a s t o c h a n n e l them i n t o o r q a n i z e d a c t i o n s , 2) A t t h e
l e v e l of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n p e o p l e h a v e t o l e a r n t o c r e a t e new
f o r m s of s o l i d a r i t y a n d new n e t w o r k s o f c o - o p e r a t i o n s . 3) A t t h e

l e v e l of c u l t u r a l n o r m s and s h a r e d p e r c e p t i o n s i t will b e
n e c e s s a r y t o o v e r c o m e t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of
a f f a i r s is just, pemanent, a n d i n e v i t a b l e . I f these s u b j e c t i v e
f a c t o r s are c o n c u r r e n t with t h e o b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s of a r i s i n g
moral c o n v i c t i o n f o r t h e changing of s o c i a l o r d e r alonq with
a l t e r n a t i o n s i n t h e e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s a n d a marked i n c r e a s e i n
t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e l o w e r s t r a t a ; t h e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a

B r e v o l u t i o n i s q u i t e r e a l , O b v i o u s l y t h i s i s n o t a t h e o r y (as
- u n d e r s t o o d i n a H e m p e l i a n s e n s e ) of r e v o l u t i o n , B u t e m p i r i c a l
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s s u c h a s t h i s o n e a r e c l a a r l y u s e f u l a n d t h e y do
expf ain, as t h i s one e x p l a i n s revolution.
 How do these e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s p r o v i d e
e x p l a n a t i o n s ? I n order t o a n s w e r t h i s q u e s t i o n , we would h a v e t o
discuss i n d e t a i l t h e n o t i o n s of e x p l a n a t i o n and explanatory
power which a r e t h e subjects of t h e n e x t c h a p t a r .
 -
Footnotes foF C h a ~ t eT h~ r e e

R. H e r t o n , " T h e B e a r i n g o f S o c i o l o g i c a l T h e o r y on E m p i r i c a l
R e s e a r c h w , i n R e a d i n q s fg &he P h i l o s o p h ~_of S o c i a l S c i e n c e s ,
ed. b y ff. Brodbeck (London: n a c n i l l a n a n d Co. L t d . , 1 9 6 8 ) ,
pa 465.

8. B r o d b e c k , "Models, Meaning, a n d T h e o r i e s m , i n R e a d i n s &q

-
the -
P h i l o s o p b y of &_e S o c i a l
(London: H a c N i l l i a n a n d Co,,
Sciences, e d . b y PI. B r o d b e c k
Ltd,, 1 9 6 8 ) . p a 5 8 2 ,
c, Heapel, P h i l o s o ~ h q : N a t u r a l S c i e n c e (New York:
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1966) , p a 72.
H a Putnam, B e a n i n q gtJ
i &fal S c i e n c e s (London: R o u t l e d q ~
a n d Kegan P a u l , 19781, p a 22.
By n m e t a - i n d u c t i o n * * I mean t h e l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s that c a n
be d e r i v e d from the i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y t h e s i s .

H a Putnam, M, c i t , , p. 25.

By l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i v e s I mean s i m p l y n o t a t i o n s s u c h a s @law,
n ~ n , I* ",* *, a n d so on.

What is meant by n e x p l a n a t i o n n here i s e x p l a n a t i o n by

reduction t o covering laus-the e x p l i c a t i o n of w h i c h i s the
s u b j e c t of o u r d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .
H a Putnam, e ~ , aL,p a 63.

B a r r i n q t o n n o o r , Jr., I a i u s t i c e ' & S o c i a l B a s e s of

g
--- and -
Obedience - Revps (New York: S h a r p e I n c . , 1 9 7 8 ) , p a 496.
CHAPTER IV -- Two nodes of Explanations
I n a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d " n h a t is E x p l a n a t i o n ? " 1 John
Hospers a r g u e s t h a t a genuine e x p l a n a t i o n should s a t i s f y a t
l e a s t two c o n d i t i o n s . The f i r s t i s a d e d u c t i v e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e t h i n q t o be e x p l a i n e d a n d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d t h e s e c o n d i s
t o b r i n g t h r r t h i n g t o be e x p l a i n e d u n d e r a law. T a k e , f o r
e x a m p l e , t h e phenomenon o f e l e c t r i c i t y f l o w i n g t h r c u q h a c o p p e r
wire. I n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n t h i s phenomenon, t w o p r e m i s e s n e e d t o
be s t a t e d , P r e m i s e o n e states t h a t * ' a l l c o p p e r c o n d u c t s
e l e c t r i c i t y w a n d p r e m i s e t w o s t a t e s t h a t " t h i s wire is made o f
c o p p e r e n From these t w o p r e n i s e s o n e c a n d e d u c e t h e r e s u l t t h a t
t h e c o p p e r wire c o n d u c t s e l e c t r i c i t y . T h e f i r s t p r e m i s e can b e
t r a c e d t o t h e l a w g o v e r n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c e r t a i n m e t a l
beinq c o n d u c t o r s o f e l e c t r i c i t y , and t h e second premise g i v e s
t h e p a r t i c u l a r condition, i.e., t h e wire i s made o f c o p p e r .

A c c o r d i n q t o H o s p e r s , a g e n u i n e e x p l a n a t i o n r e q u i r e s more t h a n
j u s t t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e d e d u c t i b i l i t y r e l a t i o n b e c a u s e i t
s h o u l d be a b l e t o e x p l a i n phenomena o t h e r t h a n t h o s e i t i s
i n v o k e d t o e x p l a i n , T h i s is u h a t H o s p e r s means by t h e s e c o n d
c o n d i t i o n of b r i n g i n g t h e t h i n g t o be e x p l a i n e d u n d e r a law.
I s h a l l c a l l Hospersl account of e x p l a n a t i o n a s

H e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n q l a u s e m I t i s c l e a r t h a t
a c c o r d i n g t o t h i s a c c o u n t , a n e x p l a n a t i o n is g e n u i n e , i.e., has
e x p l a n a t o r y power, when it i s a n i n s t a n c e o f e x p l a n a t i o n by
r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g l a w s . I t is a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h i s mode o f
e x p l a n a t i o n is t y p i c a l o f e x p l a n a t i o n s i n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
Laws a r e p r o p o s i t i o n s s t a t i n g c e r t a i n u n i f o r m i t i e s o f n a t u r e
which a r e t e s t a b l e , hence t h e y c a n be c o n f i r m e d or d i s c o n f i r m e 3
by f u t u r e e x p e r i e n c e s , A s a r e s u l t , t h e explanations themselves

are t e s t a b l e .
A model of e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n q l a w s i s a s
f o l l o u s . I f a i s t h e o b s e r v a b l e phenomenon t o b e e x p l a i n e d , then
a i s f i r s t t o b e i d e n t i f i e d a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of s o n e
u n d e r l y i n q s t r n c t u r e s t h a t c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r i n terms of
laws. Hence a i s e x p l a i n e d i f a i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a n i n s t a n c e of
a c l a s s of phenomena A , B, C, .. . N, e a c h of which a r e
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of some u n d e r l y i n g s t r n c t u r e s t h a t a r e d e s c r i b e d
b y law X. X i s t e s t a b l e a n d c a n b e c o n f i r m e d o r d i s c o n f i r m e d by

e x p e r i e n c e o r a x p e r i a e n t a t i o n . F o r m u l a t e d i n t h i s way, i t
b e c o m e s o b v i o u s t h a t t h i s mode of e x p l a n a t i o n is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d
t o t h e o r i e s (Hempelian t h e o r y ) a n d t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n . To c a s t
t h i s model i n H e m p e l i a n p a r a d i g m of t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , we c a n
f u r t h e r a d d t h a t t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of X may i n v o l v e p o s t u l a t e s of
t h e o r e t i c a l e n t i t i e s t h a t may be u n o b s e r v a b l e a n d u n f a m i l i a r t o
us. I n w h i c h case X w o u l d b e p a r t of t h e i n t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f
t h e theory. The b r i d g e p r i n c i p l e s c o n n e c t the o b s e r v a b l e
p h e n o a e n o n n a n w i t h t h e e n t i t i e s a n d / o r t h e i r internal
r e l a t i o n s h i p s p o s t u l a t e d i n X.
 It i s i m p o r t a n t a t t h i s p o i n t t o r e s t a t e t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n t

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n laws a n d e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . T h i s i s
a much d e b a t e d a r e a i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e a n d a n y
d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n h e r e would g o beyond t h e s c o p e of t h i s
p a p e r . I t would s e r v e o u r p u r p o s e h e r e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t laws
a r e e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t are e i t h e r e n b e d d e d i n
t h e o r i e s or h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l of b e i n g g e n e r a l i z e d i n t o
theories. a c c o r d i n g t o Hempel, l a v a a r e t r u e f o r w h a t h a s
o c c u r r e d , i . e , , what h a s b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y v e r i f i e d , a n d are a l s o
t r u e f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s t h a t might o c c u r , o r m i g h t h a v e
occurred but did not, 2 Not s o w i t h o t h e r e m p i r i c a l
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s n A l l t h e c o i n s i n my p o c k e t a r e made of
copper.
But i f it i s c o r r e c t t h a t a g e n u i n e e x p l a n a t i o n h a s to b e
a n e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n t o t h e o r e t i c a l l y e ~ b e d d e dc o v e r i n q
l a w s , t h e n , g i v e n o u r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e o r y
c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o g y , we would f i n d o u r s e l v e s c a u g h t i n t h e
dilemma t h a t i f we do n o t h a v e H e m p e l i a n t h e o r i e s i n s o c i o l o q y ,
if f o l l o w s t h a t we d o n o t e x p l a i n a n y t h i n g i n s o c i o l o g y . He
would a r q u e t h a t s o c i a l o g i s t s d o e x p l a i n s o c i a l phenomena a n d we
would a l s o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i n s o c i o l o g y i n t h e
m a n n e r of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s is a n i m p o s s i b l e t a s k , I n o r d e r t o
m a i n t a i n t h e s e claims s i a u l t a n e o u s l y we h a v e t o show t h a t
Hospers' a c c o u n t d o e s n o t c o v e r a l l p o s s i b l e modes o f
explanations.
 I t seems t o me t h a t i t i s a m i s t a k e t o s u p p o s e t h a t

k n o w l e d q e h a s t o be a p r o d u c t of H e a e p l i a n t h e o r i e s . A riqid

c o n n e c t i o n between Hempelian t h e o r i e s , e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n
t o c o v e r i a q laws, a n d t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d q e t h a t p r e c l u d e d
a n y t h i n g not f i t t i n g i n t o t h e m o d e l o f H e m p e l i a n theories from
b e i n g k n o w l e d g e w o u l d b e a n example of what P i t t g e n s t e i n o n c e
c a l l e d a n o n e s i d e d d i e t m when h e t a l k e d a b o u t how n o n e
n o u r i s h e s o n e ' s t h i n k i n g w i t h o n l y o n e k i n d of e x a n p 1 e . n 3

What I would l i k e t o do h e r e i s t o show t h a t a l o n g w i t h

t h e o r e t i c a l knowledqe--knowledge d e r i v e d from e x p l a n a t i o n b y
r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g laws, t h e r e is s u c h a thinq a s p r a c t i c a l
k n o w l e d g e , B y n p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d q e * I mean a k i n d o f k n o w l e d q e
t h a t i s not d e r i v e d from H e n p e l i a n t h e o r i e s , neither presently
n o r i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , b u t g e n u i n e knowledqe
nonetheless. To d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , I w o u l d l i k e t o
u s e a n eratuple p r o v i d e d b y Putnam.
I t h i n k I know t h a t t h e Hebrew term "shemen" means o i l . How
c o u l d I f i n d o u t i f *shemen" r e a l y m e a n s o i l ? A qood way is t o
t r y o u t t h e term w s h e m e n n i n Israel. I c o u l d s i m p l y d r i v e u p t o
a gas s t a t i o n i n I s r a e l and say t o the a t t e n d a n t " b e d o k e t
hashenen"--which, presuaably, a e a n s "check t h e oilml*
If the

a t t e n d a n t p u n c h e s me i n t h e n o s e , t h e n I a a q u i t e sure t h a t
H b e d o k e t hashemenl* does n o t q u i t e mean %heck t h e oil.# But
t h i s , a s I s h a l l show, is n o t an i n s t a n c e of t h e t e s t i n g of
h y p o t h e s i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e model o f H e n p e l i a n t h e o r y .
T h e r e a r e a whole s e t o f a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t I u s e h e r e . I assume
t h a t 1) t h e a t t e n d a n t s w a n t s t o s e l l g a s , 2) i t i s n o t o f f e n s i v e
n o t t o s a y p l e a s e when o n a s k s t h e q a s s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t t o
c h e c k t h e o i l , 3) i t i s u s u a l l y t h e c a s e t h a t when o n e w a n t s t o
s e l l o i l a n d when a n o t h e r a s k s n c h e c k t h e o i l " i n t h e l a n g u a g e
o f t h e s e l l e r , t h e s e l l e r would c h e c k t h e oil, 4 ) someone
d r i v i n g u p t o a g a s s t a t i o n would b e t r e a t e d a s a c u s t o m e r .
T h e s e f o u r a r e j u s t some of t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t I make

a n d t h e r e a r e more s u b t l e o n e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i t makes a l o t o f
d i f f e r e n c e i f t h e a t t e n d a n t l o o k s d e s p o n d e n t , or a n g r y , o r
s l i g h t l y mad, Then I have t o j u d g e w h e t h e r i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t
i n I s r a e l m o s t q a s s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t s a r e a n g r y o r s l i g h t l y mad
( d u e t o p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e a n d s o o n ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e r y time
t h a t I g o t o a d i f f e r e n t g a s s t a t i o n , a whole new l i s t of
assumptions, both psychological and s o c i o l o g i c a l i n nature,
would h a v e t o b e made a n d more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h i s l i s t o f
a s s u m p t i o n s c a n n o t b e made i n a d v a n c e . T h e p o i n t o f t h i s example
is t h a t t h e p a r a d i g m o f s c i e n t i f i c t e s t i n g of h y p o t h e s i s d o e s
n o t e v e n f i t some of t h e s i m p l e s t f a c t s t h a t we known. Testinq
of h y p o t h e s e s i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s h a s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e
t h a t s c i e n t i s t s u s e measuring i n s t r u m e n t s and c o n t r o l l e d
l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d . Tha i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s a r e s e t up i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e
s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y i n q u e s t i o n . I n t h e domain o f p r a c t i c a l
k n o w l e d g e we a r e u s i n g o u r s e l v e s a s t h e m e a s u r i n q i n s t r u a e n t s ,
a n d a s we h a v e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r , we a r e n o t
t r a n s p a r e n t t o o u r s e l v e s . T h a t i s , we d o n o t h a v e an e x p l i c i t
t h e o r y a b o u t how t h e s e w m e a s u r i n q i n s t r u m e n t s " ( o u r s e l v e s ) work.
I f t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e d e r i v e s f r o m e x p l a n a t i o n by

r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g l a w s , t h e n from w h a t does p r a c t i c a l
k n o w l e d g e d e r i v e ? In w h a t f o l l o w s , I a r g u e t h a t p r a c t i c a l
k n o w l e d g e d e r i v e s from w e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n
D o u b t s c a n be r a i s e d as t o how a mere d e s c r i p t i c n c o u l d
e x p l a i n . I n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y what X mean b y e x p l a n a t i o n b y
d e s c r i p t i o n , I would l i k e t o draw a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n mere
r e p o r t a n d d e s c r i p t i o n . The O x f o r d D i c t i o n a r y g i v e s t h e
folltovinq s e n s e s o f description: "1) The a c t i o n of s e t t i n q forth
i n w o r d s by m e n t i o n i n g r e c o q n i z a b l e f e a t u r e s o r c h a r a c t e r i c
a a r k s , v e r b a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r p o r t r a i t u r s , 2) A s t a t e m e n t
which d e s c r i b e s , sets f o r t h o r p o r t r a y s : a graphic o r detailed
a c c o u n t of a p e r s o n , t h i n g , s c e n e , etc., 3) The c o m b i n a t i o n of

q u a l i t i e s o r features t h a t aarks out o r serves t o describe a

p a r t i c u l a r class, a sort, s p e c i e s , kind, or v a r i e t y , c a p a b l e o f
beinq s o d e s c r i b e d , " B y d e s c r i p t i o n I mean n o t o n l y t h e
m e n t i o n i n g o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s of t h e e v e n t s o r t h i n q s i n
q u e s t i o n , b u t a l s o g i v i n q a n a c c o u n t o f the r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e
f e a t u r e s t o o t h e r r e l e v a n t factors and i n f o r m a t i o n s , I n c o n t r a s t
t o s u c h a d e s c r i p t i o n , a r e p o r t would m e r e l y t e l l v h a t h a s
o c c u r r e d . O f c o u r s e , we c a n n o t g i v e a d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h o u t
r e p o r t i n g v h a t h a s o c c u r r e d . B u t a d e s c r i p t i o n may g i v e much
more t h a n a r e p o r t . T h e s i q n i f i c a n c e of e x p l a n a t i o n b y
d e s c r i p t i o n becomes more i m p o r t a n t when we c o n s i d e r t h e
i n v e s t i q a t i o n o f human b e h a v i o r . I n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n cf huaan
a c t i v i t i e s t h e r e is a c o n s t a n t a t t e m p t t o render i n t e l l i q i b l s
why p e o p l e b e h a v e i n s u c h a n d s u c h a vay. Such a d e s c r i p t i v e
p r o c e s s n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e s a r g u n e n t s, interprets t i o n s , a n d
evaluations, and hence, nexplanations. These argu aents,
interpretations, evaluations, typically concern t h e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r o n q r e l e v a n t s o c i a l phenomena. T h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of d e s c r i b i n g s u c h i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s Fresupposes
t h a t s u c h r e l e v a n t phenomena a r e n o t o n l y r e l a t e d b u t t h a t t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e m e a n i n q f u l from a s o c i o l a g i c a l perspective.
(The u s e of t h e terms " r e l e v a n t n a n d * m e a n i n g f u l m h e r e demands
c l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d X w i l l attempt t o d o s o i n t h e p a r a g r a p h s t h a t
follow.) F t is s u c h m e a n i n g f u l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of s o c i a l phenomena t h a t g i v e s tha
d e s c r i p t i o n i t s * e x p l a n a t o r y power. *
P r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e is a p r o d u c t of t h e many s k i l l s t h a t we
h a v e w h i c h we c a n p e r f o r m w i t h o u t b e i n g a b l e t o f o r m a l l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e m i n t h e o r i e s . I n t h e f i e l d of s o c i o l o q y , t h e
s o c i o l o g i s t h a s t o use himself and/or h i s fellow o b s e r v e r s a s
measurinq i n s t r u m e n t s t o d e s c r i b e what h e o b s e r v e s , and i n doing
s o a t t e m p t s t o make s e n s e o u t o f t h e o b s e r v e d p h e n o ~ e n a . I t i s
i n t h i s vay t h a t p r a c t i c a l knowledge d e r i v e s f r o m e x p l a n a t i o n by
description.
 e i n t e n d o u r n o t i o n o f e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n t o t a k e
W
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n t e r e s t - r e l a t i v i t y of o u r s o c i o l o q i c a l
e x p l a n a t i o n s . Putnam h a s q i v e n t h r e e e x a m p l e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
ninterest-relativityn of explanation i n general. The f i r s t
example is t h a t a p r o f e s s o r X is f o u n d n a k e d i n t h e q i r l s *
dormitory a t twelve midnight. An e x p l a n a t i o n i s q i v e n after t h e
model o f s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d - - e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g

l a w s . P r e m i s e one: X i s s t a r k n a k e d a t t w e l v e m i d n i q h t -E,
Premise two: X can n e i t h e r l e a v e t h e dormitory n o r p o t h i s
c l o t h e s o n b y m i d n i g h t w i t h o u t e x c e e d i n g t h e s p e e d o f l i q h t . The
c o v e r i n g law s t a t e s t h a t n o t h i n g c a n e x c e e d t h e s p e e d of l i q h t .
Therefore X is found naked i n t h e g i r l s * d o r m i t o r y a t t w e l v s
m i d n i q h t . B u t t h i s i s a t e r r i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n , i f i t c a n be
c o u n t e d a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n a t a l l , Our i n t a r e s t i s p r o f e s s o r X's
b e h a v i o r is "whyw h e i s f o u n d i n s u c h a s h o c k i n q c o n d i t i o n . He

would l i k e . t o know w h a t m o t i v e s , o r i n t e n t i o n s , h a s b r o u q h t
a b o u t t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s . S e e k i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f p r o f s s s o r
X's b e h a v i o r i n t h i s case p r e s u p p o s e s a c e r t a i n b a c k q r o u n d
i n t e r e s t . I n t h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e a o n e i n c h square peg g o e s
t h r o u q h a n o n e i n c h s q u a r e Role a n d n o t t h r o u g h a n o n e i n c h
r o u n d h o l e , An e x p l a n a t i o n by r e d u c t i o n t o c o v s r i n q lams c a n
a g a i n be q i v e n , P r e m i s e one: t h e p e g c o n s i s t s o f c e r t a i n
elementary particles i n a c e r t a i n l a t t i c e arranqement. Premise
two: q i v e n a l l t h e p o s s i b l e t r a j e c t o r i e s when f o r c e s a r e a p p l i e d
to t h e peg, some t r a j e c t o r i e s t a k e t h e p e q t h r o u g h t h o s q u a r e
h o l e a n d n o t r a j e c t o r i e s t a k e t h e p e g t h r o u g h the r o u n d h o l e .
T h e r e f o r e t h e p e g d o e s n c t qo t h r o u g h t h e r o u n d h o l e . T h e
c o v e r i n q laws i n t h i s c a s e would b e laws of p h y s i c s . B u t this i s
a l s o a t e r r i b l e explanation. W
e can simply state t h e geometrical

fact t h a t o n e i n c h s q u a r e d o e s n o t f i t i n t o o n e i n c h circle.
T h i s i s n o t o n l y s i n p l e r b u t i t c a n a l s o be generalized t o a p p l y
t o a much wider r a n g e of cases. T h i s s e c o n d e x a m p l e v i o l a t e s
v h a t Putnam c a l l s n m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ~ i n t e r e s t , i.e., we a r e n o t

i n t e r e s t e d i n a n e x p l a n a t i o n given i n terms o f t h e t h e o r y o f
molecular s t r u c t u r e s here. I n b o t h of t h e s e e x a m p l e s t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e " H e a p e l i a n m e t h o d n i s s a t i s f i e d b y the
e x p l a n a t i o n s b u t we, the readers, a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d . T h e third
e x a m p l e g i v e s an e n l i g h t e n i n g c o n t r a s t . Willie S u t t o n , t h e
f a m o u s b a n k r o b b e r , i s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e b e e n a s k e d "why d o you
r o b b a n k s ? n H i s a n s w e r was " T h a t ' s w h e r e t h e money is. Now,
P u t n a a s u q q e s t s , t h a t we i m a g i n e a ) a p r i e s t a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n ;
a n d b) a r o b b e r a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n . 5 T h e p r i e s t ' s q u e s t i o n is:

why does h e r o b b a n k s a s o p p o s e d t o n o t r o b b i n g a t a l l ? The

r o b b e r ' s q u e s t i o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d is: why does h e rob b a n k s
i n s t e a d o f gas s t a t i o n s ? The idea here i s t h a t s u c h
w h y - q u e s t i o n s a l w a y s p r e s u p p o s e a r a n g e of a l t e r n a t i v e s r e l a t i v a

-
to -
the interests a the i n q u i r e r s , What i s t r u e f o r e x p l a n a t i o n
i n q e n e r a l is t r u e f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l explanation i n p a r t i c u l a r .
E x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n when e m p l o y e d i n s o c i o l o g y
b e g i n s w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y , b y t h e
s o c i o l o q i s t , from a s o c i o l o q i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h i s d e r i v e d
f r o m h i s " q e n e r a l s o c i o l o q i c a l o r i e n t a t i ~ n .T~h i s s o c i o l o q i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e is e m b o d i e d i n t h e s o c i o l o q i s t ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h e
k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n he i s a f t e r . I t i s t h r o u g h this l a q e n e r a l
s o c i o l o q i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n M t h a t t h e s u b j e c t matter o f t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i f i c a l l y from a s o c i o l o g i c a 1
p o i n t o f view a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y , r e l e v a n t s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s
are i n t r o d u c e d . Once t h i s s t e p h a s been t a k e n , the s o c i o l o q i s t
c a n p r o c e e d t o e x p l a i n b y d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s the
phenomenon i n q u e s t i o n .
Hhen a s o c i o l o g i s t i s o b s e r v i n g a n d a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n
c e r t a i n s o c i a l phenomena, h e h a s i n mind a n u a b e r o f why-
questions, a n d a p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e of a l t e r n a t i v e a n s w e r s f o r
e a c h , T h i s i n t u r n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e are t u o f a c t o r s t h a t a n y
s t u d y o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d would h a v e t o c o n s i d s r , As we h a v e

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e f i r s t f a c t o r is t h a t t h e s o c i o l o q i s t would
h a v e t o u s e h i m s e l f a s a m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t . The s a c o n d factor
is t h a t h e i s n o t s i m p l y l o o k i n q f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s , but
s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t h e a n d h i s f e l l o w
c o l l e a q u e s (or p e o p l e who s h a r e h i s c o n c e r n ) a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n ,
E x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n i s a method t h a t c a n t a k e i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e s e t w o f a c t o r s , T h i s mode of e x p l a n a t i o n
e m p l o y s t h e method of c o r r e l a t i n g t h e o b s e r v e d s o c i a l phenomena
i n a s a systematic f a s h i o n a s p o s s i b l e . I t moves away from

t h e o r i e s a n d t h e s u b s u m p t i o n u n d e r c a u s a l laws a s i n e x p l a n a t i o n
by r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n q l a w s . I am n o t s a y i n g t h a t t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n s of s o c i a l phenomena i n t h e s o c i o l o g i s t 1 s
e x p l a n a t i o n a r e n o t c a u s a l i n n a t u r e . I t m i q h t well b e t h e c a s e
t h a t any a c c e p t a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n s would t u r n o u t t o b e c a u s a l ,
The p o i n t I want t o make h e r e is t h a t t h e p r o s p e c t s a r e p o o r for
subsuminq s u c h c o r r e l a t i o n s under c a u s a l AM. 1 h a v e two

r e a s o n s . F i r s t , t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s e x i s t i n q b e t w e e n any two
c o r r e l a t e d s o c i a l phenomena are p r a c t i c a l l y i n e x h a u s t i b l e . By
t h i s I d o n o t mean that t h e r e is a c t u a l l y a n i n f i n i t e number o f
c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s e x i s t i n q b e t w e e n them. Vhat 1: mean here is t h a t
when we t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e n a t u r e of s o c i a l

-
f a c t s , t h e o p a c i t y of human n a t u r e , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
s o c i o l o g i s t s h a v e to use t h e m s e l v e s a s m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , an
a t t e m p t t o e x h a u s t a l l t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n would

-
h a v e to e x h a u s t all p o s s i b l e i n t e r v r e & g g i o n s of social

--
f a c t s in x u e s t i o n , a n d t h a t is e q u i v a l e n t t o b e i n q a b l e t o
r e n d e r human n a t u r e t r a n s p a r e n t by a n i d e a l t h e o r y . B u t t h i s i s
h i g h l y u n l i k e l y now a n d i n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . S e c o n d l y , d u e
t o t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f s o c i a l phenomena, t h e r e i s no way of
t e s t i n q w h e t h e r any d e s c r i b e d c a u s a l network { t h a t i s , assuaiaq
t h a t such a network h a s been d e s c r i b e d ) is c_oavletely described.
A l t h o u g h i n soms s e n s e h i s t o r y s o m e t i a e s n r e p e a t s i t s e l f , " ( e v o n
this c l a i m i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l ) t h e r e a r e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e
e v e n t s o f h i s t o r y , h i d d e n a s well a s a p p a r e n t , t h a t a r e $22
r e p e a t e d , o r a t l e a s t not in t h e same c o n t e x t . Because o f t h i s
u n i q u e n e s s of h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i a l e v e n t s , a n y c o n j e c t u r e s a s
t o t h e c a u s a l n e t w o r k l i n k i n g t h e v a r i o u s r e l e v a n t social
phenomena c a n n o t b e tested. Hence, a l t h o u q h t h e s o c i o l o q i s t c a n
s a f e l y assume t h a t h i s d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s are c a u s a l i n
n a t u r e , h e i s n o t o b l i g e d t o e x p r e s s t h i s by r e d u c t i o n t o
coverinq laws, I n o t h e r words, h e c a n n o t e x p e c t t o e x p r e s s this
by m e a n s o f laws,
D u r k h e i a t s S n i c i d q c a n b e u s e d a s a n e x a m p l e of s u c h a
d e s c r i p t i o n , C o r r e l a t i o n s a r e made b e t w e e n s u i c i d e r a t e s a n d t h e
s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s o c i e t y . I n h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , Durkheim
shows t h a t t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s between s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s * patterns of b e h a v i o r , With t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s a new d i a e n s i o n t o o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s u i c i d e is i n t r o d u c e d , I t i s D u r k h e i n 8 s i n s i q h t
t h a t s u i c i d e is v i e w e d , amonq o t h e r t h i n q s , a s a s o c i a l
phenomenon. O f c o u r s e , a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , D u r k h e i m 8 s a t t e m p t t o
f o r a u l a t e @ @ l a u s cno n n e c t i n g s u i c i d e w i t h s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e
by n o m e a n s s u c c e s s f u l , And d i s c o v e r i n g more a b o u t the nature of
s u c h c o n n e c t i o n s i s a n o p e n area f o r r e s e a r c h a n d i n v e s t i q a t i o n .
The dynamic c o n n e c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r and s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s i s o b v i o u s l y a complex one. But t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t
for o u t d i s c u s s i o n here is t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e two t y p e s of phenomena o p e n s u p a new
d i m e n s i o n i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e b o t h of t h e m ,
 I n o r d e r t o f u r t h e r answer t h e s k e p t i c s ' d o u b t s whether
e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n r e a l l y h a s a x p l a n a t o r y power, I would
l i k e t o c i t e a n e x a m p l e g i v e n by P r o f e s s o r K . Dixon. Be p o i n t s
out that:

... it may s t i l l be a d m i t t e d t h a t h i s t o r i a n s vrite

. . .'
s e n t e n c e s of t h e form: 'The t i r e vas r i p e f o r r e v o l u t i o n
f i l l i n g i n t h e s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s
which p o i n t e d to i t s p o s s i b i l i t y - e v e n though a
r e v o l u t i o n d i d n o t i n fact occur. Special reasons are
then g i v e n f o r i t s ' f a i l u r e t o a p p e a r . ' T h e s e k i n d s o f
s t a t e m e n t s c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways. 6

P r o f e s s o r Dixon t h e n o u t l i n e s f o u r s u c h p o s s i b l e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . O n t h e first i n t e z p r e t a t i o n , t h e re w o l u t i o n was
i n e v i t a b l e b u t i t was d e l a y e d by t h e n e q a t i o n o f one or sore of
t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e r e v o l u t i o n t o o c c u r . The s e c o n d

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r a l t h o u g h i t
was the s t r o n g e s t p o s s i b i l i t y among a l l p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
The t h i r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n provides a s u p e r f i c i a l analysis of t h e

s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t r e v o l u t i o n was a p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e
f o u r t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a d e t a i l a n a l y s i s of t h e s i t u a t i o n ,
d e s c r i b i n g w h a t a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e c r u c i a l s e t s o f

The f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is o b v i o u s l y f a l s e . The o n l y
s e n s i b l e way t o u n d e r s t a n d the s t a t e m e n t " t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s
i n e v i t a b l e w is t h a t g i v e n a c h a i n o f e v e n t s h a d been started no
s i n q l e i n d i v i d u a l a c t i n q o n h i s own c o u l d s t o p i t . And t h i s i s
d i f f e r e n t frca a r g u i n g t h a t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s o c c u r i n
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h laws s o t h a t g i v e n a number of s t a t e d n e c e s s a r y
and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e v o l u t i o n is i n e v i t a b l e . S t at i n q
s i m p l y t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n was i n e v i t a b l e i s a n a t t e m p t t o
i n t e r p r e t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s by r e f e r e n c e t o q e n e r a l l a w s - - t h a t
is, t o u s e e x p l a n a t i o n b y r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g l a w s . The s e c o n d
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a p o s s i b l e o n e b u t a s P r o f e s s o r Dixon p o i n t s
o u t , it i n v o l v e s a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l j u d q e m e n t . liRevolutionN
i s u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e s t r o n q e s t p o s s i b i l i t y because t h e r e was a
p r e v i o u s r e v o l u t i o n which o c c u r r e d u n d e r similar c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
T h i s p r e v i o u s r e v o l u t i o n sets up t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t given t h e
same s i t u a t i o n s t h e same sets of c r u c i a l e v e n t s a i q h t r e - o c c u r .
And y e t i t i s p e r f e c t l y c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t q i v e n e x a c t l y t h e same
c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n would f a i l t o o c c u r . T h a t v e r y fact
t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n d i d not occur r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n
a n d i t i s n o t e n o u g h t o p o i n t out t h a t r e v o l u t i o n was t h e
s t r o n q e s t p o s s i b i l i t y . The t h i r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s u p e r f i c i a l
and s u p e r f i c i a l i t y is d e f i n e d as H t h e n e g l e c t o f i a p c r t a n t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which m i q h t h a v e u a t e r i a l l y a l t e r e d t h e outcome
of a n e v e n t . " The l a s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e most a c c e p t a b l e one
t o u n d e r s t a n d a n h i s t o r i a n ' s p h r a s e s l i k e * t h e time a s r i p e f o r
... yet . . ." T o u n d e r s t a n d complex s o c i a l a n d h i s t o r i c a l
e v e n t s a n d t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t ween d i f f e r e n t q r o u p s a n d
d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n d i f f e r e n t s e t s of s o c i a l phenomena
o f t e n p r e s u p p o s e s a number o f q e n e r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d i n t u i t i v e
a s s u m p t i o n s . A l l t h e s e e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d a s s u m p t i o n s need t o b e
q u a l i f i e d c a r e f u l l y . The d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of these e v e n t s
and t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n s provided g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and
s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n s which r e n d e r t h e s e c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s
i n t e l l i g i b l e , A s e v i d e n t i n t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e , e x p l a n a t i o n by
d e s c r i p t i o n is t h e most f r u i t f u l o n e i n the e x p l a n a t i o n of
c o m p l e x h i s t o r i c a l a n d s o c i a l e v e n t s , Such d e s c r i p t i v e
c o r r e l a t i o n s c a n p r o v i d e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s on o n e h a n d a n d
accommodate t h e c o n t i n q e n t n a t u r e of s o c i a l h i s t o r i c a l events on
t h e other. That is t o say d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s can provide a
k i n d of open-ended * l a w u - l i k e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w h i c h can s p e c i f y a
restricted r a n g e o f c o n t i n g e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d phenomena a s
p a r t i c u l a r 1 y s i g n i f i c a n t . S u c h o p e n - e n d e d "lauw- li k e s t a t e m e n t s
c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d a s laws s i n c e c o u n t e r - e v i d e n c e dces n o t
n e q a t e t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n e x p l a i n i n g o t h e r events. Professor K,
Dixon s t a t e s i n t h e same d i s c u s s i o n t h a t :

The r o l e o f e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n t h e s o c i a l
s c i e n c e s seems t o l i e l e s s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l i t y than i n
their claims t o h a v e u n c o v e r e d new s e t s of r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w h i c h are r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f
b e h a v i o r . The c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c i o -
e c o n o m i c s t a t u s a n d e d u c a t i o n a l opportunity and
a t t a i n m e n t may b e e x p r e s s e d i n a s e r i e s of s t o c h a s t i c
empirical p r o p o s i t i o n s but i t i s less t h e f o r m in which
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p is e x p r e s s e d t h a n t h e a c t u a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p i t s e l f which is i n p o r t a n t . 7
 Knowledge a n d i n s i q h t c a n be g a i n e d i n s o c i o l o q y by w h a t I
c a l l " e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n . @ *E x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n ,
as I have t r i e d t o shov, r e q u i r e s no t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n a s i n
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s ; i t s e x p l a n a t o r y power l i e s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h i n q
o f c o r r e l a t i o n s , o f t e n i n t h e form of e m p i r i c a l q e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
and open-ended m l a w H - l i k e s t a tamsnts, between r e l e v a n t s o c i 3 1
phenomena a n d e v e n t s .
But t h e r e r e m a i n s the q u e s t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t i v i t y of this
mode of e x p l a n a t i o n . 1 h a v e p o i n t e d o u t e a r l i e r t h a t e x p l a n a t i o n
is i n t e r e s t - r e l a t i v e , and t h e s o c i o l o g i s t h a s t o u s e himself a s
t h e measuring i n s t r u m e n t , and hence e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n
may appear t o be a s u b j e c t i v e p r o c e s s . What n e e d s t o be
c l a r i f i e d h e r e are t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e j u d g e a e n t of t h e
a d e q u a c y of t h i s mode o f e x p l a n a t i o n .
By w a d e q u a t e n e x p l a n a t i o n I mean t h e k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n

t h a t b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e w r e l e v a n t n phenomena a n d e v e n t s s u c h
t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n b e shown t o b e * a s a n i n q f u l * c o n e s .
Here we e n c o u n t e r the terms m r e l e v a n t n a n d w ~ e a n i n gufl @ @
aqain.
And n o v we c a n e x a m i n e the u s e o f t h e s e t w o terms i n some d e t a i l
i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a d e q u a c y o f e x p l a n a t i o n . I t i s c l e a r that
p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s f o r t h e s e two t e r n s a t e d i f f i c u l t t o a r r i v e
a t . P e r h a p s n o s u c h d e f i n i t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e . B u t I want t o
s u q q e s t t h a t t h e s e two terms c a n h a v e a c l e a r use i n o u r p r e s e n t
c o n t e x t i n s p i t e of t h e l a c k sf p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s .
 What s o c i a l phenomena a n d e v e n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t i n
a n e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e n d i s t a n c e N
b e t w e e n them. O b v i s o u s l y t h e term " d i s t a n c e " i s u s e d here i n a
m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , a l t h o u q h i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o v i s u a l i z e it
e i t h e r . I m a q i n e t h e " d i s t a n c e " b e t w e e n t h e a i r t h a t we b r e a t h e
a n d t h e s o r a l c o n c e p t s t h a t we h a v e . I would b e o u t r a q e o u s t o

c l a i m t h a t t h e r e is a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two. T h e s h e e r
d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e two r e n d e r s s u c h a claim i r r e l e v a n t , l e t
a l o n e i n s u b s t a n t i a l , i n an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p h e n c n e n o n of
e x i s t i n q moral concepts. But t h e d i s t a n c e betueen t h e e x i s t i n q
a o r a l c o n c e p t s a n d t h e p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s of l i b e r a l
democracy i s n o t so g r e a t t h a t a c o r r e l a t i o n c a n n o t b e
formulated. However, i f a major s c i e n t i f i c b r e a k t h r o u g h s h o w s
t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l d i s p o s i t i o n of man i s e f f e c t e d b y t h e p u r i t y

o f t h e a i r t h a t h e b r e a t h e s , a c a s e may p o s s i b l y b e made w h i c h
a r g u e s t h a t there i s some r e l e v a n c e b e t w e e n a i r and man's moral
concepts, What t h i s s h o w s i s t h a t " r e l e v a n c e w a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
terms o f " d i s t a n c e # is e n b e d d e d i n a more g e n e r a l framework of
t h e e x i s t i n q body of human k n o w l e d g e a t large. I m p o r t a n t c h a n a e s
i n t h i s body of k n o w l e d g e w o u l d e f f e c t o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f the
d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n phenomena. O b v i o u s l y we d o not h a v e a c l e a r
s t a n d a r d a s t o e x a c t l y what i s a n a c c e p t a b l e d i s t a n c e w i t h i n
which t h e c o r r e l a t e d phenomena a r e r e l e v a n t . B u t t h e r e are clear

cases of a c c e p t a b l e a n d u n a c c e p t a b l e d i s t a n c e s a n d t h e r e a r e
a l s o t h e a m b i g u o u s b o r d e r l i n e c a s e s w h i c h n e e d t o b e a r q u e d and
e x p l i c a t e d . Such a r g u m e n t s a n d e x p l i c a t i o n s a g a i n p r e s u p p o s e a n
e x i s t i n q b o d y o f human knowledqe. And a n y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t a
"body o f knowledgetq p r e s u p p o s e s a n i m p l i c i t r a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e
u s e o f the n o t i o n o f r e l e v a n c e i n c o r r e l a t i n q phenomena, It i s
a g a i n s t t h i s b a c k g r o u n d o f r a t i o n a l i t y that wa c a n j u d g e t h o
r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e x p l a n a t i o n a n d the e x p l a i n e d ,
The q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e "neaninqf u l n e s s n o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n

i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n c a n be u n d e r s t o o d i n terms of q e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
made i n r e f e r e n c e t o a n e x i s t i n g d i v i s i o n o f a c a d e m i c l a b o r .
G e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i n d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n a r e m e a n i n g f u l when
t h e y are e s t a b l i s h e d more o r l e s s o n t h e same l e v e l o f
d i s c o u r s e . P a r e x a m p l e , it i s n o t very c o n v i n c i n g t o arque t h a t
t h e s o c i a l p h e n o a e n o n o f f a s c i s m c a n be e n t i r e l y e x p l a i n e d i n
terms of i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g y . I n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l c q y may well
b e r e l a t e d t o fascism b u t i t i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e e x p l a n a t i o n .

D u r k h e i m l s s t u d y o f s u i c i d e a s a s o c i a l phenomenon attelapts t o
e x p l a i n i t f r o a a s o c i o l o q i c a l point o f view, a n d h e n c e it has
s u c c e e d e d i n o p e n i n g u p a new d i a e n s i o n of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n q .
T h i s p o i n t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d notion
o f explanation as interest-relative. What we c o n s i d e r a s
m e a n i n q f u l or m e a n i n g l e s s i s a n e x p l a n a t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t we h a v e a d o p t e d . T h e n m e a n i n g f u l n e s s n of the
e x p l a n a t i o n is u n d e r c h a l l e n g e i f a s o c i a l phencmenon i s r e d u c e d
t o a p s y c h o l o g i c a l one a s i t is e x p l a i n e d . Such w c r o s s - l e v e l N
r e d u c t i o n o f t e n r e n d e r s the a t t e a p t e d e x p l a n a t i o n m e a n i n q l o s s .
To e x p l a i n a n e v e n t i s n o t to e x p l a i n away t h e e v e n t . And o f

c o u r s e , t h e ideas of levels of d i s c o u r s e a n d d e q r e e s o f
m e a n i n q f u l n e s s a r e a g a i n c o n t i n q e nt u p o n t h e s t r u c t u r e and scops
o f t h e e x i s t i n g b o d y o f human k n o w l e d g e .
To sum up, t h e H p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e n of s o c i o l o q y derives
from e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n . E x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n i n
s o c i o l o q y i n v o l v e s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l world from a
socioloqical p e r s p e c t i v e which i s d e r i v e d froa what w e have
d i s c u s s e d earlier a s g e n e r a l sociological o r i e n t a t i o n . Given
t h i s p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e , t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of s o c i a l p h e n o a e n a
t a k e s t h e form of d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n . R e l e v a n t phenomena
a r e c o r r e l a t e d i n a systematic a n d m e a n i n g f u l way. Relevance a n d
m e a n i n q f u l n e s s are r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n t e r e s t i n h e r e n t i n the
s o c i o l o q i s t * s inquiry o n t h e o n e hand, a n d t h e e x i s t i n q b o d y of
human k n o w l e d g e o n t h e o t h e r , a b o d y of k n o w l e d q e v h i c h s e r v e s
a s t h e b a c k q r o u n d t o r a t i o n a l human i n q u i r y . And i t i s t o this

q u e s t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t wa n o t turn.
 Footnotes for ChaPter Fop&

1. J . Hospers, **What i s E x p l a n a t i o n l n , i n E s s q ~i n conce t u a l

-A1 9n6a3l)v, s qp e,
ed. by A . F l e w (London: l a c @ • ÷ ia ~n~~nC ~ d k ; - -
350

2. C. Hempel, P h i l o s o ~ h ygf g a t u r a l S c i e n c p g (New York:

P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1 9 6 6 ) . p. 5 4 .

3, L. ~ i t t q e a s t e i n , p h i l o s o v h i c g l , I n v e s t i u a t i o n s (London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y , l%i3), p, 155.

4. H . Putnam, M g n i n q and &@I l l q a S c i e n c e s ( t o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e

a n d Regan Paul, 1 9 7 8 ) , p . 4 1 .
5. A c c o r d i n g t o Putnam, a p h i l o s o p h e r , Alan Garf i n k e l , i n v e n t l d
the c a s e .
6. K e i t h D i x o n , S o c i o l o q i c a l T h e o r j (London: Rout l e d q e and
Keqan P a u l , l 9 7 3 ) , p . 1 1 5 .
CHAPTER V -- E x p l a n a t i o n a n d R a t i o n a l i t y
S t e v e n L u k e s , i n h i s a r t i c l e nSome P r o b l e m s a b o u t
R a t i o n a l i t y , " d i s c u s s e s t h e need and t h e i m p o r t a n c e to
d i f f e r e n t i a t e two t y p e s o f r a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
s o c i a l phenomena i n v o l v i n g t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n q a n d e x p l a n a t i o n of
human b e h a v i o r , b e l i e f s , a n d a t t i t u d e s , H e s u g g e s t t h a t :
.. . some c r i t e r i a of r a t i o n a l i t y a r e u n i v e r s a l , i.e.,
r e l e v a n t l y a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l beliefs, i n a n y c o n t e x t ,
w h i l e o t h e r s are context-dependent, i.e., are t o be
d i s c o v e r e d by i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c o n t e x t a n d a r e o n l y
r e l e v a n t l y a p p l i c a b l e to b e l i e f s i n t h a t context. i
By " c r i t e r i o n n of r a t i o n a l i t y L u k e s means a r u l e t h a t

s p e c i f i e s what would c o u n t a s a r e a s o n f o r b e l i e v i n g somethinq

o r a c t i n g i n a c e r t a i n way. H e calls nuniversal rationalityw
r a t i o n a l i t y I and mrationality-in-context" r a t i o n a l i t y 11.
The p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a n y s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n i n a n y c u l t u r e
a r e , under normal circumstances, r a t i o n a l and t h e i r a c t i o n s can
b e made i n t e l l i g i b l e . T o e x p l a i n p e o p l e s a c t i o n s a n d b e l i e f s i n
@

t e r a s o f u n i v e r s a l r a t i o n a l i t y would r e q u i r e t h a t an i d e a l
t h e o r y a b o u t human n a t u r e h a s b e e n made a v a i l a b l e and h e n c e
e v e r y t h i n g c a n be c a u s a l l y a c c o u n t e d f o r . W
e have already
d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m of t h i s i d e a l t h e o r y a n d of t h e
i m p o s s i b i l i t y i n r e n d e r i n g human n a t u r e t r a n s p a r e n t . Tbus, the
r e c o q n i t i o n of a n e c e s s a r y d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r a t i o n a l i t y I a n d
FI p e r m i t s a t t r i b u t i o n s of r a t i o n a l i t y e v e n when causal a c c o u n t s
a r e unavailable. A s Lukes p o i n t s o u t , t h e criteria used i n
r a t i o n a l i t y I1 may o r may n o t v i o l a t e t h e c a n o n s o f l o q i c a n d
when t h e y d o , t h e s e b e l i e f s a r e c a l l e d w m y s t e r i o u s , ~w m a q i c a l , l l

a n d s o on. But t h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t r a t i o n a l i t y 1 1 i s
e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f r a t i o n a l i t y I, n o r t h a t a n e v a l u a t i o n of
r a t i o n a l i t y I1 by I is i m p o s s i b l e , I n fact, it i s i m p o r t a n t to
point o u t t h a t i n o r d e r to avoid t h e t r a p of c u l t u r a l
r e l a t i v i s m , i t m u s t be r e c o q n i z e d t h a t i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s
r a t i o n a l i t y I1 i s s u b j e c t t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n a n d criticism i n
terms of r a t i o n a l i t y I , How, l e t u s l o o k a t t h i s q u e s t i o n

P r o f e s s o r K. Dixon, i n a r g u i n g a g a i n s t c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m ,
d i s t i n g u i s h e s f o u r b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s of t h a c o n c e p t of
rationality, +

( a ) the s e t of a s s u m p t i o n s p r e s u p p o s e d a s n e c e s s a r y t o
.
g i v i n g a n y i n t e l l i g i b l e a c c o u n t w h a t s o e v e r of human
a c t i o n ( p r o c e d u r a l , d ia e n s i o n )

(b) t h e set of a s s u m p t i o n s deemed n e c e s s a r y t o g i v e

l e g i t i m a t e e x p l a n a t i o n s of b e h a v i o r ( s u b s t a n t i v e
d i m e n s i o n ) where: ( b l ) t h e o v e r r i d i n g l e t i t i r e a t e mode o f
e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t i n h e r e n t i n t h e l o g i c a n d c o n t e n t of
s c i e n t i f i c inquiry.

( c ) t h e set of a s s u m p t i o n s deemed n e c e s s a r y t o
d i s t i n q u i s h between a n i n d e p e n d e n t e l y o p e r at i n 9 logic of
e n q u i r y and t h e s o c i o l o g y or psychology o f e n q u i r y ; o r
b e t w e e n a c c o u n t s v h i c h allow f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of
u n i v e r s a l reasons f o r a c t i o n s as a g a i n s t purely c a u s a l
analysis.

(d) t h e s e t of a s s u ~ p t i o n sdeemed n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e
 b e h a v i o r a s e i t h e r ( d l ) m o r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e o r (d2)
e x p l i c a b l e by a s u p e r i o r e x p l a n a t o r y mode. 3
(a) is e v i d e n t i n o u r e v e r y d a y i n t e r a c t i o n s v i t h other
p e o p l e . I f a s p e a k e r i s s a y i n q s o m e t h i n g that seems t o be
t o t a l l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , h i s l i s t e n e r s would a t t i ; m p t t o make
s e n s e o f w h a t h e s a y s by s w i t c h i n g f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e , o r e v e n
by t r y i n g t o f i n d o u t whether h e is t e l l i n g a j o k e , I f a l l these

e f f o r t s f a i l , t h e n his l i s t e n e r s would h a v e t o t e r a i n a t a ths

c o n v e r s a t i o n , Even so they v o u l d p r o b a b l y make some s o r t of
e v a l u a t i o n of t h e s p e a k e r c o n i n q t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
t h a t h e i s s u f f e r i n g from m e n t a l d i s o r d e r a n d s o f o r t h . I n o t h e r
w o r d s , i n every s i t u a t i o n of n o r m a l human i n t e r a c t i o n , there i s

a l w a y s a m u t u a l commitment by a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s a l i k e t o make
t h e i r b e h a v i o r s , a c t i o n s , and u t t e r a n c a s i n t e l l i g i b l e t o t h e
o t h e r s . According t o P r o f e s s o r Dixon, this c o m a i t m e n t c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s c o n s i s t i n g of two c o n p o n e n t p a r t s . First, t h e r e is
t h e commitment t o some s h a r e d c o n c e p t , h o w e v e r u n d e f i n e d , o f
what is t o count a s a n i n t e l l i g i b l e a c t , u t t e r a n c e , o r mode o f
discourse. S e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s t h e c o m m i t m e n t t o some s h a r e d
a e a n i n q s w h i c h e a b o d y t h e s u b s t a n t i v e norm a s p r e s u p p o s e d b y
b o t h m e a n i n q f u l d i s c o u r s e a n d the e x p l a n a t i o n of b e h a v i o r . Thess
two c o m p o n e n t s are c a l l e d b p P r o f e s s o r Dixcn t h e procedural norm
a n d the s u b s t a n t i v e no r a e s p e c i a l l y .
(b) p o s i t s a u n i v e r s a l mode of r a t i o n a l i t y which h a s a n

e x p l a n a t o r y o v e r a l l o t h e r modes, s u c h a s t h o s a t h a t a r e c u l t u r e
o r context-bound. The c o r e o f t h i s sods o f r a t i o n a l i t y c o n s i s t s
of t h e c a n o n s o f l o g i c a n d a l s o , a s d e n o t e d by ( b l ) , t h e l o q i c a l

form of s c i e n t i f i c e n q u i r y . G i v e n t h i s c h a r a c t e r o f u n i v e r s a l i t y
of ( b ) , e v a l u a t i o n of e x p l a n a t i o n , b o t h i r o n w i t h i n o n e ' s own
c u l t u r e a n d from o u t s i d e c u l t u r e s a r e r e n d e r e d p o s s i b l e . T h i s
p o i n t l e a d s d i r e c t l y t o (c) .
I n ( c ) a very s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n between r a t i o n a l i t y T
a n d I1 i s p o i n t e d o u t , namely, t h a t t h e n o t i o n of u n i v e r s a l
r a t i o n a l i t y f%ecessarily i n v o l v e s t h e claim t o s u p e r i o r i t y o f
j u d q e m e n t i n e x p l a n a t o r y t e r a s o v e r some p a r t i c i p a n t account^.^ *
T h i s i s t o s a y t h a t t h e k i n d o f e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t employs t h e
u n i v e r s a l c r i t e r i a of r a t i o n a l i t y i s n e c e s s a r i l y s u p e r i o r t o t h e
e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t e a p l o y s o n l y r a t i o n a l i t y 11. The l a t t e r c a n
a l w a y s b e e v a l u a t e d a n d c r i t i c i z e d i n terms of t h e f i r s t .
I n (d) , the p o i n t j u s t made a b o u t t h e e x p l a n a t o r y
s u p e r i o r i t y of r a t i o n a l i t y I o v e r 11 is made e x p l i c i t . I n f a c t ,
a n y commitment t o t h e i d e a of a p r i n c i p l e o f r a t i o n a l i t y i m p l i e s
a non-relativist a s s u n p t i o n t h a t human knowledge has i t s own
l o g i c a n d it i s n o t m e r e l y a c o n t i n q e n t p r o d u c t o f t h e s o c i a l
circumstances.
It is r y b e l i e f t h a t ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ) , a n d (d) a r e i n d e e d
c o n t a i n e d i n o u r c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y . What I am n o t c e r t a i n
a b o u t is ( d l ) , which b r i n g s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e m o r a l e l e m e n t . It

is d e b a t a b l e w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e b u i l t - i n moral c r i t e r i a i n t h ~ l
c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y , a n d i n a n y case, for the p u r p o s e of o u r
p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n we c a n s a f e l y a v o i d ( d l ) a s u n n e c e s s a r y .
Hence, P r o f e s s o r D i x o n ' s a c c o u n t o f r a t i o n a l i t y c a n be
d e s c r i b e d a s c o n s i s t i n g o f f o u r m a j o r claims. T h e f i r s t i s that
t h e r e is a commitment t o i n t e l l i q i b i l i t y by p a r t i c i p a n t s i n
t h e i r social a c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s , and a l s o i n t h e i r
a c c o u n t s of t h e s e a c t i o n s . T h e s e c o n d c l a i a i s t h a t t h e r e i s a
d i s t i n c t i o n between u n i v e r s a l r a t i o n a l i t y - - c o n s i s t i n q of t h e
c a n o n s of l o q i c a n d t h e m e t h o d s a s well a s some of t h e c o n t e n t
o f s c i e n t i f i c enquiry--and rationality-in-context which a t t a e p t s
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e r a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n of
human b e h a v i o r . The t h i r d c l a i a i s t h a t t h i s r a t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n
of human b e h a v i o r - - t h e r e a s o n s for a c t i o n s a s g i v e n by t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s * accounts--cannot be e x p l a i n e d (away) c a u s a l l y . The

f o u r t h c l a i a i s t h a t i n s p i t e of s u c h a d i s t i n c t i o n a n d t h e
a u t o n o m o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e of r a t i o n a l i t y - i n - c o n t e x t , universal
r a t i o n a l i t y h a s t h e e x p l a n a t o r y s u p e r i o r i t y w h i c h can p r o v i d e
criteria w i t h which a n y g i v e n r a t i o n a l i t y - i n - c o n t e x t c a n be
evaluated,
Hy o b j e c t i v e i n t h i s c h a p t e r is t o show t h a t e x p l a n a t i o n by

d e s c r i p t i o n presupposes the concept o f r a t i o n a l i t y . If the

c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y is a s j u s t o u t l i n e , t h e n my t a s k i s t o
e l a b o r a t e how e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n is q r o u n d e d i n
r a t i o n a l i t y on t h i s construal.
S i n c e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n a n d r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e two t y p e s
of r a t i o n a l i t y i s of c r u c i a l i n p o r t a n c e , t h e r e f o r s , b e f o r e 1
p r o c e e d t o d e s c r i b e i n d e t a i l how e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n i s
g r o u n d e d i n r a t i o n a l i t y , I would l i k e t o draw a s c l e a r a p i c t u r e
as I c a n o f t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e a p p e a l s t o r a t i o n a l i t y I
a n d 11. As we h a v e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , r a t i o n a l i t y I1 c o n c e r n s t h e
r e a s o n s a n d b e l i e f s g i v e n by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' a c c o u n t s i n a n y
s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . T h a t i s t o say t h a t r a t i o n a l i t y I1 p r o v i d e s
criteria--contextually bound c r i t e r i a - - o f aeaninqs shared b y t h e
p a r t i c i p a n t s and o f t h e i r r e a s o n s for h o l d i n g c e r t a i n b e l i e f s ,
What c o u n t s a s qood a r e a s o n t o h o l d a c e r t a i n b e l i e f c a n v a r y

c o n t e x t u a l l y . The same r e a s o n t h a t is c o u n t e d a s a qood one i n

context X c a n become a bad o r i r r e l e v a n t one i n c o n t e x t Y. Por
e x a m p l e , f o r t h e n a t i v e s who are i n v o l v e d i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c
m i l l e n a r i a n r e l i g i o u s movements of H e l a n e s i a known a s the "carqc
c u l t m (a case s t u d y t h a t w e s h a l l r e t u r n t o i n d e t a i l ) t h e r s a r e
good r e a s o n s t o b e l i e v e t h a t i f they b u i l d a s t r e t c h of road
t h a t resembles t h e r u n u a y o f a n a i r f i e l d o n t h e i r beaches a n d
s p e a k i n t o a box t h a t resembles a r a d i o , t h e n t h e r e w i l l b e
a i r p l a n e s d e s c e n d i n g from t h e s k y b r i n g i n g t h e m a l l s o r t s of
q o o d s . I s a y t h e r e a r e good r e a s o n s f o r them t o b e l i e v e s o
b e c a u s e , g i v e n t h e i r background k n o w l e d g e o f s a g i c and r e l i q i o n ,
a n d g i v e n what t h e y u n d e r s t a n d a s t h e * m a g i c a l w c o n n e c t i o n s
b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g a n a i r s t r i p , t a l k i n q i n t o a r a d i o , a n d an
a i r p l a i n a r r i v i n g ; t h e n t h e i r b e l i e f i s n o t i r r a t i o n a l . This i s
a n a p p l i c a t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y 11. And i f my n e x t d o o r n e i q h b o u r
nrs. 3 o n e s i s d o i n g e x a c t l y t h e s a m e t h i n q a s t h e F l e l a n e s i a n
n a t i v e s i n h e r backyard, t h e n t h e same a p p l i c a t i o n of
r a t i o n a l i t y I1 would y i e l d d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s . we m i q h t s u s p e c t
Hrs. J o n e s o f s o m e t h i n g l i k e p l a y i n g a p r a c t i c a l joke, or
s u f f e r i n q from mental d i s o r d e r . But, of c o u r s e , t h e n e l a n e s i a n
natives1 beliefs, a n d a s well a s H r s . J o n e s 1 , can b e e x a m i n e d i n
terms o f r a t i o n a l i t y I . I n t h e case o f t h e n e l a n e s i a n n a t i v e s ,
t h i s would i n v o l v e a s t u d y of the entire H e l a n e s i a n culture i n
terms o f t h e b e l i e f s y s t e m , t h e a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e man
made c o n v e n t i o n s a n d n a t u r a l laws, a n d many o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . T h a t is, we c a n j u d g e i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s
t h a t t h e Belanesian n a t i v e s ' b e h a v i o r a n d b e l i a f s a r e m i s q u i d e 3
b e c a u s e some of t h e i r b a s i c a s s u n p t i o n s a r e f a l s e . The p o i n t i s
t h a t any s i q n i f i c a n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Ilelanesian c u l t u r e
would h a v e t o i n v o l v e b o t h r a t i o n a l i t y f a n d 11. While
r a t i o n a l i t y I i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e a n d s e r v e s as t h e r e g u l a t o r y c o r e
of t h e c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r a t i o n a l i t y I1
c a n g r a s p t h e a e a n i n g and s i q n i f i c a n c e o f b e l i e f s a n d b e h a v i o r
i n c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s . What, t h e n , i s t h e p o s i t i o n o c c u p i e d b y
t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s i n t h i s p i c t u r e ? 1 h a v e m e n t i o n e d above
t h a t t h e form of s c i e n t i f i c e n q u i r y b e l o n q s t o r a t i o n a l i t y I.

~ u what
t a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d q e ? I would l i k e
t o a r q u e t h a t t h e d e g r e e s of c e r t a i n t y o f t h e v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s
o f s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e v a r y f r o a case t o case. I n f a c t , c e r t a i n
knowledge i s s o well e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s o c e n t r a l t h a t t h e i r
deqree o f c e r t a i n t y c o u l d be r a n k e d among t h e c a n o n s o f l o g i c .
F o r s x a m p l e , we know t h a t u n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s p e o p l e d o
n o t a n d c a n n o t w a l k t h r o u q h walls. T h i s i n t u r n p o i n t s t o t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s i n p h y s i c s h a v e a d e q r e e of
c e r t a i n t y t h a t come close t o t h a t of t h e c a n o n s of l o g i c . Based
o n t h i s k n o w l e d g e we h a v e t o a p p l y r a t i o n a l i t y I1 t o u n d e r s t a n d
a r e p o r t , s a y , of c e r t a i n t r i b e s s e n who believe t h a t t h e p can
walk t h r o u g h walls i f t h e y p e r f o r m c e r t a i n r i t u a l s , I n o t h e r
w o r d s , b e c a u s e we know t h a t p e o p l e c a n n o t w a l k t h r o u q h w a l l s we
c a n n o t a c c e p t t h e r e p o r t a t face v a l u e . Be have to examine t h e

many o t h e r a s s u a p t i o n s a n d premises h e l d by t h e t r i b e s m e n ,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r beliefs a b o u t m a t e r i a l i t y , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n m i n d a n d b o d y , a n d i n f a c t , a b o u t walls. A s t a t e m e n t
l i k e " p e o p l e c a n n o t w a l k t h r o u g h wallsn is s o well e s t a b l i s h e d
t h a t i t c a l l s f o r t h e u s e of r a t i o n a l i t y 11. B u t t h e r e is a l s o
s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e t h a t we w o u l d n o t h e s i t a t e t o c o n s i d e r a s
culture-bound. What I h a v e i n mind a r e e x a m p l e s d r a w n f r o m t h e
aedical s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i e l d o f p s y c h i a t r y .
p s y c h i a t r y and p s y c h o a n a l y s i s would u n d o u b t e d l y a p p e a r s t r a n q e
t o p e o p l e of o t h e r c u l t u r e s - - c u l t u r e s o t h e r t h a n t h a t of t h e
M e s t e r n world--and i t is b y n o m e a n s clear t h a t t h e p c a n be
applied cross-culturally. One f i n a l comment a b o u t the r o l e o f

n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e c o n t e x t of r a t i o n a l i t y is t h a t t h e
r e l a t i o n between t h e procedure o f s c i e n t i f i c e n q u i r y and t h e
empirical c o n t e n t of s c i e n c e is n o t a l w a y s a s t r a i q h t f o r w a r d
o n e . I n t h e case of q u a n t u m m e c h a n i c s , t h e b o d y o f k n o w l e d q s
t h a t we h a v e g a i n e d h a s p o s e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e h i t h e r t o
u n c h a l l e n g e d a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t we h a v e a b o u t t h e rela t i o n between
e v i d e n c e a n d o b s e r v a t i o n . T h u s , we h a v e a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e
d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s of t h e b o d y of s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d q e p o s s e s s
d i f f e r e n t deqrees of c e r t a i n t y , some a r e t o be r a n k e d amonq t h e
c a n o n s of l o g i c a n d some o t h e r s a r e m o r e c o n t r o v s r s i a l .
Explanation by d e s c r i p t i o n presupposes t h i s background
p i c t u r e of r a t i o n a l i t y a s d e s c r i b e a b o v e . E v e r y v a l i d
c o r r e l a t i o n t h a t i s q i v e n b y t h i s mode of e x p l a n a t i o n i s
q r o u n d e d i n e i t h e r r a t i o n a l i t y I o r r a t i o n a l i t y XI, s o a e t i a e s
both. A c o r r e l a t i o n of phenomena i s deemed r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e i t
is m e a n i n g f u l and e n l i g h t e n i n g a g a i n s t t h i s backqraund o f
r a t i o n a l i t y . Every c o r r e l a t i o n t h a t i s made h a s a n i m p l i c i t
a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t p a r t o f o u r s h a r e d k n o w l e d q e . T h e l e v e l of
a b s t r a c t i o n and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e b a c k g r o u n d k n o w l e d g e c a n
v a r y from case t o case. O f t e n a nev c o r r e l a t i o n i s made b a s s d on
some p r e v i o u s l y a c c e p t e d c o r r e l a t i o n ' s of phenomena. S o m e t i m e s
a n a c c e p t e d c o r r e l a t i o n c a n be s h o v n t o be t o o f a r - f e t c h e d a n d
i r r e l e v a n t when some p r e v i o u s l p i g n o r e d b a c k q r o u n d k n o w l e d q e i s
brought to light. And t h e r e v e r s e s i t u a t i o n c a n a l s o happen.
Some c o r r e l a t i o n s t h a t were c o n s i d e r e d a s i r r e l e v a n t b e f o r e can
demand t o b e r e - e v a l a a t e d d u e t o t h e e m e r g e n c e of a new p i e c e of
knowledge. The i n t e r r e l a t i o n between e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n
a n d t h e b a c k q r o n n d of r a t i o n a l i t y is a c o m p l e x one. And i t i s
t h e complex b u t i n d i s p e n s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t a n c h o r s
e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n - - i n s p i t e o f i t s many s u b j e c t i v e
appearances ( s o c i o l o g i s t s using themselves a s measuring
instruments, explanation a s interest-relative, e t c .) - - i n a
b a c k q r o u n d of o b j e c t i v i t y .
A s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e x p l a n a t i o n b y

d e s c r i p t i o n and its b a c k g r o u n d of rationality, I would like t o

c i t e t h e case s t u d y of t h e c a r g o c u l t s a s a n a l y s e d by I a n
Jarvie. 3 H e c a l l s h i s method, a f t e r K. Popper " l o g i c o f t h e
situation." By t h a t h e m r e l y a e a n s t h a t why p e o p l e a c t e d i n
s u c h a n d s u c h a way c a n b e r a t i o n a l l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d . And i n
a d v o c a t i n g t h i s s i t u a t i o n a l l o g i c , he a r q u e s t h a t o n e s h o u l d
r e f r a i n f r o a g r a n d t h e o r i e s , such a s f u n c t i o n a l i s m , a n d i t i s
the d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n t h a t i s
i m p o r t a n t a n d f r u i t f u l . It seems o b v i o u s t o we t h a t t h e mode o f
e x p l a n a t i o n i m p l i c i t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n a l l o g i c is e x p l a n a t i o n by
d e s c r i p t i o n . I would l i k e t o a c h i e v e t w o t h i n q s i n t h e f o l l o u i n q
s t u d y of I a n J a r v i s e s a c c o u n t of t h e c a r g o c u l t . F i r s t l y , I
would l i k e t o show t h a t h i s laethod of e x p l a n a t i o n i s what I c a l l
e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e e x p l a n a t o r y power
o f t h i s mode of e x p l a n a t i o n i s i n t i a a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
concept o f r a t i o n a l i t y a s discussed above,
The p h e n o a e n o n of c a r q o c u l t s is a H i l l e n a r i a n r e l i g i o u s
movement t h a t h a s b e e n p r a c t i s e d o n t h a i s l a n d s o f M e l a n e s i a
o n l y s i n c e t h e f i r s t w o r l d war. T h e s e c u l t s a r e c o l o r f u l a n d
widespraad. They a r e r e c o q n i z a b l e a s some form o f o f f s h o o t o f
one o r a n o t h e r brand o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . Usually a n a t i v e prophet
would a r i s e a n d p r o c l a i m t h a t t h e M i l l e n n i u m would come i f t h e
p e o p l e c o u l d f u l f i l l c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s . The c u l t s a r e known as
carqo c u l t s b e c a u s e a c e n t r a l t h e m e i s t h a t when t h e m i l l e n n i u m

a r r i v e s it w i l l c o n s i s t of t h e a r r i v a l s o f ships a n d a i r p l a n e s
l o a d e d up w i t h c a r g o which a r e m a t e r i a l g o o d s t h a t t h e n a t i v e s
desire. S o m e t i m e s t h e c a r q o w i l l c o n s i s t of m a t e r i a l g o o d s a s
well as t h e n a t i v e s 1 a n c e s t o r s . A n o t h e r theme o f t h e c u l t i s
t h a t v i t h t h e c o m i n g of t h e m i l l e n n i u m the order o f s o c i e t y will
be r e t u r n e d t o i t s o r i q i n a l s t a t e , which i s d e s c r i b e d i n t h s
"First p a q e o f the B i b l e n which i s b e l i e v e d by t h e n a t i v e s t o
h a v e been t c r n o u t by the w h i t e n i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e n a t i v e s
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w a n t e d t o suppress t h e fact t h a t
i n t h e o r i q i n a l s t a t e o f s o c i e t y ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e * * ~ i r spta q e
of t h e B i b l e A ) b l a c k p e o p l e v e r e God's c h o s e n a n d Re s e n t the
r e w a r d s i n the f o r a o f c a r g o , But whites cams a n d t h e y
i n t e r c e p t e d a n d m i s a p p r o p r i a t e d the s h i p m e n t s of c a r q o . When the
m i l l e n n i u m comes, t h e b l a c k s w i l l r u l e t h e w h i t e s , t h e c a r g o
w i l l g o t o the n a t i v e s who a r e t h e r i g h t f u l o w n e r s . T h e
c o n d i t i o n s t o b e f u l f i l l e d v a r y from case t o case. S o ~ ep r o p h e t s

u s e s e m i - r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s t o i n d u c e ecstasy a n d r e v i v a l i s t
h y s t e r i a . Same o t h e r p r o p h e t s would p r o c l a i m a c o m p l e t e b r e a k
v i t h t h e p a s t b y o v e r t h r o u i n g t h e t a b o o s . And still some others
would condemn p o s s e s s i o n o f s t o c k s of f o o d a s s i n f u l a n d o f t e n
the c u l t is a c c o m p a n i e d b y s q u a n d e r i n g a n d d e l i b e r a t e w a s t i n q of
food a n d q o o d s , w h i c h i s a l s o i n t e r p r e t e d a s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of

f a i t h i n t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e millennium, P a r t o f t h e p r e p a r a t i o n
for t h e a r r i v a l o f m i l l e n n i u m c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
some p a t h e t i c i m i t a t i o n s of a i r s t r i p s a n d p i e r s t o r e c e i v e t h e
p l a n e s and s h i p s b e a r i n g t h e c a r g o and t h e n a t i v e s * ancestors.
O f t e n t h e p r o p h e t s would u t t e r s o u n d s i n t o a b o x ( t h e i m i t a t i o n
r a d i o ) t o i n v o k e t h e a r r i v a l of t h e c a r g o ,
The c u l t i s t s h a v e been b r u t a l l y s u p p r e s s e d b y t h e E u f o p s a n
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of t h e area b e c a u s e of t h e i r a n t i - whi te a t t i t u d a .
D o r i n q t h e s e c o n d w o r l d war, t h e J a p a n e s e i n v a d e r s a c t e d i n t h e
same way. F i n a l l y , t h e A m e r i c a n l i b e r a t i n g f o r c e s *ere s e e n a s a
new hope, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e of b l a c k A m e r i c a n
s o l d i e r s . B u t t h e y l e f t a n d t h s c o l o n i a l r u l e r e t u r n e d , and t h e
c u l t s continued,
The questions r a i s e d b y t h e carqo c u l t s a r e , accordinq t o
Jarvie, (a) why d o c a r g o c u l t s o c c u r ? ( b f Why d o t h e y h a v e t h e
d o c t r i n e s t h a t t h e y d o ? (c) Why a r e t h e y s i m i l a r ? (d) W h y a r e
t h e y a p o c a l y p t i c a n d m i l l e n a r i a n ? Before h e p r o c e e d s t o a n s w e r
these q u e s t i o n s , J a r v i s a r g u e s t h a t 6 s o c i a l change cannot be
a c c o u n t e d f o r s i m p 1 y b y s t a t i n g c h a n q e s i n terms of the
o b j e c t i v e and e x t e r n a l factors a f f e c t i n g t h e s o c i e t y i n
q u e s t i o n , e.g., t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e w h i t e men, t h e u h i t e men

l e a v i n q , etc., because t h e s e f a c t o r s have s o c i a l consequences

o n l y when t h e y a f f e c t t h e s i t u a t i o n i n which i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e t o
c o n s i d e r s u c h changes i n t h e i r b e l i e f s and behavior. A s i n p l s
c a s u a l e x p l a n a t i o n would n o t do. W
e have t o look c a r e f u l l y i n t o
c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s , t o d i s c o v e r how t h e i n d i v i d u a l s 1 a i m s ,
a c t i o n s , a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e i r circumstances, and fnrthermora,
what a r e t h e o n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e i r a c t i o n s which
would a f f e c t them i n t h e l o n g r u n , I n o t h e r w o r d s , J a r v i e i s
s u q q e s t i n g t h a t b o t h r a t i o n a l i t y I a n d 11 a r e n e e d e d i n
u n d e r s t a n d i n q human b e h a v i o r i n c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s . Hence, o n e
i s d e a l i n g w i t h o n e s i t u a t i o n a t a time. T h i s a p p r c a c h is
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t of d e s c r i b i n g i n d e t a i l s the c i r c u m s t a n c e s
a n d the r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l phenoaenon i n
q u e s t i o n . And t h i s i s what I c a l l e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n s .
I n J a r v i e ' s own words: ". . , t o r e a l i z e we w a n t t o explain this

o r t h a t s o c i a l chanqe and need n o t b o t h e r with explanation

o f s o c i a l c h a n g e a l l o w s u s t o b r e a t h e more f r e e l y . * 7

The f o l l o u i n q i s a b r i e f summary o f Jarvie's ansver to t h e

f o u r q u e s t i o n s a s p o s e d above. I n answering fa), J a r v i e
i n t r o d u c e s t h e P o p p e r i a n c o n c e p t of " c l o s e d s o c i e t y . 8 It i s 3

s i t u a t i o n i n which a small, e c o n o m i c a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y a n d
c u l t u r a l l y homogenous s o c i e t y is s u d d e n l y t h r u s t i n t o a c o l o n i a l
c o n f r o n t a t i o n . The a p p e a r a n c e of t h e w h i t e men i s a s u r p r i s e .
They are w e a l t h y , s n c c e s s f a l a n d p o w e r f u l ; a n d , more i m p o r t a t l y ,
t h e y d o n ' t a c t t o w a r d s t h e n a t i v e s a s men a r e e x p e c t e d t o a c t .
U h i t e men's b e h a v i o r , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r o o s s e s s i o n s , h a s
t h e power w h i c h i s e n v i e d bg t h e n a t i v e s . The n a t i v e s ' q u e s t i o n
is how t o get t h e p o w e r a n d b e a s s u c c e s s f u l a s the w h i t e man.
Given t h i s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , when a man endowed w i t h soBe

c h a r i s m a t i c power c o n e s a l o n g a n d claims t h a t h e h a s t h e
s o l u t i o n , t h e n i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see t h a t h i s n a r d s would
r i n q t r u e i n many r e c e p t i v e e a r s . T h i s i s t o s u p p o s e , a s J a r v i e
p o i n t s out, t h a t i d e a s , e s p e c i a l l y l i b e r a t i n g ideas, have
t r e m e n d o u s power a n d i n f l u e n c e . And t h i s i s a l s o t o a r q u e t h a t
a s t h e c l o s e d societies of M e l a n e s i a a r e r e a c t i n q t o e x t e r n a l l y
i m p o s e d new c h a n g e s , new s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s { c a r g o c u l t s ) a r e
b e i n q set u p t o o b t a i n c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c ends ( c a r q o ) . Such a
change, a r g u e s J a r v i e , is t h e first s t e p towards t h e open
society i n t h e sense t h a t the aerginq o f nature and convention
i s b r o k e n , a l t h o u g h t h e new i n s t i t u t i o n c r e a t e d is s t i l l c l o t h e d
i n t h e l a n q u a g e of a a q i c a n d r e l i q i o n .
The a n s w e r t o (b) i s g i v e n i n t h e form o f a d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n between t h e n a t i v e s and t h e
white colonialists. T h e c a r g o c u l t i s created t o s o l v e a
problem: why d o e s t h e w h i t e s o c i e t y q e t t h e w o n d e r f u l m a t e r i a l
t h i n g s i t h a s ? Hence, t h e c a r g o c u l t is meant t o p r o v i d e t h e
n a t i v e s w i t h t h e f n o u l s d g e t h a t c e r t a i n a c t i o n s would brinq t h e
same m a t e r i a l q o o d s f o r t h e b l a c k sacisties a s well. T h e
s i t u a t i o n i s q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e n a t i v e sees the w h i t e
man i n h i s l u x u r i o u s h o u s e ( t h e n a t i v e c o u l d well b e the kitchen
h e l p i n t h a t h o u s e ) t a l k i n g t o a box a n d l a t e r a s h i p a r r i v e s
l o a d e d w i t h a l l k i n d s o f w o n d e r f u l goods. The n a t i v e a s s o c i a t e s
t h e too events: t h e w h i t e man t a l k i n g i n t o a box a n d e x p e c t i n g a
s h i p t o a p p e a r , and l a t e r o n a s h i p appearing. To t h . ~n a t i v e ,
t h i s is v e r y p o w e r f u l maqic i n d e e d . Then t h e v e r y same n a t i v e
would go o f f i n t o t h e jungle t o i n f o r m t h e p e o p l e a b o u t the
secret of t h e w h i t e m e n ' s magic. h e would make a c r u d e model of
t h e box a n d t a l k i n t o i t a n d t e l l e v e r y b o d y t o b u i l d a jetty o n
t h e s e a s h o r e t o wait for t h e s h i p . This is t h e explanation a t
its s i m p l e s t . However, we c a n b r i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n some more
c o m p l i c a t e d f a c t o r s . I t is p e r f e c t l y p o s s i b l e for t h e n a t i v e s t o
a s s o c i a t e E u r o p e a n pover w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y . They c o n v e r t t o t h e
European r e l i q i o n i n t h e hope t h a t t h e y w i l l be r e w a r d e d w i t h
t h e s a a e b e n e f i t . When t h e e x p e c t e d b e n e f i t f a i l s t o
materialize, i t i s n o t u n n a t u r a l f o r t h e n a t i v e s t o s u s p e c t t h a t
t h e E u r o p e a n s h a v e d e n i e d t h e m some i m p o r t a n t secrets i n t h e

r e l i q i o n . T h i s c l a i n i s t h a t much more c o n v i n c i n q when o n e

c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e n a t i v e s a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o a t t e n d t h e saae
c h u r c h a s t h e white men. T h e i d e a t h a t t h e f i r s t p a g e of t h e
B i b l e has been d i l i b e r a t e l y t o r n o u t o f a l l n a t i v e s 8 B i b l e s is a
w i d e - s p r e a d b e l i e f among t h e n a t i v e s . T h i s c a n a l s o b e e x p l a i n e d
i n terms o f t h e f a c t t h a t w h i l e t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s q r e a t l y stress
t h e t r u t h o f t h e B i b l e , t h e n a t i v e s a r e p u z z l s d b e c a u s e they are

not mentioned a t a l l i n t h e Bible. T h i s l e a d s t h e n a t i v e s t o

s u s p e c t t h a t t h e w h i t e men h a v e s u p p r e s s e d some of God's w o r d s ,
which means t h a t some of t h e i n p o r t a n t i n j u n c t i o n s o r s p e l l s a r e
n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e n a t i v e s which c o n s e q u e n t l y p r e v e n t them
from a c q u i r i n g c a r q o . ls a r e s u l t o f s u c h r e a s o n i n g , c a r q o
c u l t i s t s would s e t up t h e i r movement, c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e y h a v e
d i s c o v e r e d t h e c o n t e n t of t h e m i s s i n g p a s s a q e s a n d t h e y h a v e
f a t h o m e d t h s w h i t e men's secret maqic.
To a n s w e r fc), J a r v i e i n t r o d u c e s b o t h t h e c o n c e p t s o f
e v o l u t i o n a n d of d i f f u s i o n . H e a r g u e s t h a t b o t h o f t h e s e
c o n c e p t s c a n b e a p p l i e d w i t h i n t h e framework of s i t u a t i o n a l
l o g i c t o e x p l a i n t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s of t h e c u l t s . T h e c o n c e p t o f
e v o l u t i o n c a n be a p p l i e d i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e t o
a s s a a e t h a t t h e c u l t u r a l a n d l i n q u i s t i c h o m e g e n e i t y of M e l a n e s i a
a i q h t have a l o t t o do with t h e f a c t t h a t o r i q i n a l l y similar
p e o p l e s p o p u l a t e d t h e area. T h e y h a v e t o face s i m i l a r sorts o f
s i t u a t i o n s a n d e v o l v e i n very s i a i l a r ways. T h e c o n c e p t of
d i f f u s i o n c a n be a p p l i e d i n the s e n s e t h a t t h e H e l a n e s i a n
p e o p l e s a r e a l l e x p o s e d t o t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e w h i t e men, t h e
t r a d e r s , t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , And t h e s e w h i t e
men a l o n g w i t h t h e i r r a d i o s , p l a n e s , and b o a t s are t h s v e h i c l e s
o f d i f f u s i o n . But J a r v i e c a u t i o n s t h a t b o t h t h e c o n c e p t s of
e v o l u t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n a r e t o be u s e d i n a l i m i t e d way. They
are n o t t o b e i m p o r t e d a s t h e g r a n d t h e o r i e s w h i c h c a n e x p l a i n
a l l . It i s more of a s i t u a t i o n i n which c e r t a i n i n s i q h t s d r a w n
from b o t h c o n c e p t s a r e f o u n d u s e f u l a n d t h e y a r e u s e d
s e l e c t i v e l y t o e x p l a i n (c) .
The a n s w e r t o (d) i s f o r m u l a t e d i n terms o f t h e r e l a t i o n
between c h a n q e and t h e l o n g s t a n d i n q s t a b i l i t y t h a t is
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the c l o s e d s o c i e t i e s . I n o t h e r words, i f any
k i n d of c h a n q e is t o h a p p e n t o a c l o s e d s o c i e t y i n q e n e r a l , b e
i t e x t e r n a l l y o r i n t e r n a l l y c a u s e d , e i t h e r t h e c h a n q e i s so
s t r o n q t h a t it would a s s u m e t h e form o f v i o l e n t i n t r u s i o n into
t h e s o c i e t y o r i t c a n n o t o c c u r a t a l l . C a r g o c u l t is s u c h a n
i n t r u s i o n , G i v e n t h e b a c k q r o u n d o f t h e s y s t e m of m a q i c and
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , a s well a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y
a n d t h e B i b l e , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t t h e c a r q o c u l t movement
would t a k e t h e form of a s u d d e n , a p o c a l y p t i c u p h e a v a l . And t h e
r e l i q i o u s h y s t e r i a c u l t i v a t e d by some p a r t i c u l a r p r o p h e t s a n d
t h e v i o l e n t b r e a k i n g o f o l d t a b o o s a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new
o n e s o f t e n c a u s e d s u d d e n release of e m o t i o n a l e n e r g y . J a r v i e
quotes We Sargent 9 i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s between rhythmic
s t i m u l a t i o n , a b n o r m a l i t i e s of b r a i n f u n c t i o n , s t a t e s o f t e n s i o n ,
and c o n v u l s i v e fits to s u p p o r t t h i s view.
T o sum up, J a r v i e ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e f o u r problems a b o u t
t h e cargo c u l t s c e n t r e a r o u n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a i m s a n d m e a n s
of t h e a c t o r s - - t h e Helanesian natives--in r e l a t i o n to t h e i r
b e h a v i o r . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e n a t i v e s ' s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e i r
s u b j e c t i v e v i e w p o i n t s a r e a n a l y s e d i n g r e a t d e t a i l . J a r v i e does
n o t p r o d u c e a t h e o r y a l a Hempel a b o u t t h e c u l t movement i n
q e n e r a l a n d h e ref r a i n s from d i s c u s s i n g s o c i a l c h a n g e i n t h e
a b s t r a c t , A s h e s t a t e s i t i n t h e b e g i n i n g of h i s d i s c u s s i o n , h e
is d e a l i n g w i t h a g r o u p of c o n c r e t e phenomena known a s t h e c a r q o
c u l t s , And i t i s c l e a r from h i s a n s w e r s t h a t h e d o e s n o t explain
t h e n a t i v e s g b e h a v i o r by r e d u c t i o n to c e r t a i n c o v e r i n q l a w s . H i s
method, t h e s i t u a t i o n a l l o q i c , i s e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n i n
a c t i o n . H o w a r e h i s e x p l a n a t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h the c o n c e p t o f
r a t i o n a l i t y ? I n o r d e r t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n and to s u s t a i n my

claim t h a t a n y v a l i d e x p l a n a t i o n b y d e s c r i p t i o n i s n e c e s s a r i l y
q r o u n d e d i n a b a c k q r o u n d o f r a t i o n a l i t y , I would l i k e t o e x a m i n e
i n some d e t a i l J a r v i e ' s e x p l a n a t i o n s .
I n a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n of why c a r q o c u l t s o c c u r , h e
i n t r o d u c e s t h e concept o f a c l o s e d society. The concept is n o t
d e f i n e d i n t h e way t h a t t h e terms of n a t u r a l s c i e n c e a r 9
defined. I t c a n best b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a h e u r i s t i c d e v i c e w i t h

w h i c h t o h i g h l i g h t c e r t a i n p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e s of t h e o b s e r v a b l e
s o c i a l r e a l i t y . T h e r e are n o societies t h a t e x a c t l y f i t P o p p e r ' s
c o n c e p t . T h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n , a t l e a s t t o our k n o w l e d q e , a n
a b s o l u t e l y closed s o c i e t y ; a n d i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e h a s n a v e r
b e e n a n a b o s l n t e l y o p e n s o c i e t y . B u t t h e r e a r e s o c i e t i e s more
closed than others, In a c e r t a i n sense, a s h e u r i s t i c devices,
b o t h c o n c e p t s are p r o d u c t s of e x p l a n a t i o n by d e s c r i p t i o n s . T h e
c o n c e p t of a c l o s e d s o c i e t y c o r r e l a t e s a certain q r o u p o f s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e s w h i l e t h e c o n c e p t of a n o p e n s o c i e t y c o r r e l a t e s q u i t e
a d i f f e r e n t qroup. 4s a r e s u l t o f s u c h d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s ,

t h e coslplex s o c i a l - h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y ( t h e c a r g o c u l t s and t h e
R e l a n e s i a n s o c i e t i e s b e i n g a case i n p o i n t ) i s r e n d e r e d more
i n t e l l i q i b l e . I n s o f a r t h a t t h e s e two P o p p e r i a n c o n c e p t s a r s
a c c e p t e d a s p a r t of o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y ,
J a r v i e ' s c o r r e l a t i o n s of t h e phenomena of t h e c l o s e d s o c i e t i e s
of t h e H e l a n e s i a w i t h t h e c o l o n i a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n i s a

w e l l - f o u n d e d o n e . H i s c o r r e l a t i o n of s o c i a l c h a n q e a n d the
charismatic leaders--the prophets of t h e cults--can be supported

by l i t e r a t u r e s i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , n o t a b l y Ueber's s t u d y of
charisma a n d l e a d e r s h i p . J a r v i e ' s claims h e r e a r e n o t i m n u n e
f r o m a t t a c k s f r o m t h e camp of h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , b u t
i n s o f a r a s h i s t o r i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m depends on e x p l a n a t i o n by
r e d u c t i o n t o c o v e r i n g laws, we c a n s a f e l y i g n o r e s u c h a t t a c k s i n
t h e l i q h t of o u r own p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s u b j e c t .
J a r i v e ' s s e c o n d a n s w e r i s a v i v i d d e n o n s t r a t i o n of t h e
a p p e a l t o r a t i o n a l i t y 11, The H e l a n e s i a n natives1 s u b j e c t i v e
understanding of t h e i r situations--the a r r i v a l o f t h e w h i t e men,
t h e i r t r e a t m e n t by t h e w h i t e men a n d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o comprehend
t h e w h i t e men's ways a s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d by t h e i r cultural
backqround--is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e n a t i v e s ' aim w h i c h i s t o
a c q u i r e t h e sase power a n d material w e a l t h a s t h e w h i t e men's,
a n d f u r t h e r c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e means (a s y s t e m of m a q i c ) t h a t
is a t t h e n a t i v e s ' d i s p o s a l t o a c h i e v e t h e i r a i m , And h s n c e , the
natives' b e h a v i o r is ~ a d ei n t e l l i g i b l e t o us. T h i s p r o c e s s of

d e s c r i p t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n which e x p l a i n s uhy t h e c u l t s a p p e a r i n
t h e way t h e y d o is c o n n e c t e d w i t h a n d s u p p o r t e d b y o u r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how u n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s man's a c t i o n s
a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s aim a n d w i t h t h e means a v a i l a b l e t o him.
I n h i s t h i r d a n s w e r J a r v i e b r i n g s i n c e r t a i n insiqhts t h a t
h e f i n d s u s e f u l and a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t p r o b l e m from
e v o l u t i o n i s m and diffusionism. A s I h a v e a r q u e d e a r l i e r , he i s

n o t a t t e m p t i n g t o s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e s e two t h e o r i e s . In
f a c t , he c r i t i c i z e s b o t h t h e o r i e s a s t o o r i g i d a n d h e h a s made

i t clear t h a t h e i s d r a w i n g from t h e a o n l y w h a t h e c o n s i d e r s a s
u s e f u l , T h e r e s u l t i s two s e t s of c o r r e l a t i o n s q r o u n d e d i n t h e
t h e o r i e s of e v o l u t i o n i s m a n d d i f f u s i o n i s m r e s p e c t i v e l y , With
i n s i g h t s d r a w n from e v o l u t i o n i s m , t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e c u l t s is
c o r r e l a t e d with t h e similarities e x i s t i n g between t h e Melanesian
societies i n terms of t h e i r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , l a n q u a q e , a n d
beliefs. And w i t h i n s i g h t s d r a w n from d i f f u s i o n i s m , t h e
s i m i l a r i t y of t h e c u l t s is correlated w i t h t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e
s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e F l e l a n e s i a n s o c i e t i e s . The
a r r i v a l of w h i t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a s o v e r l o r d s , t h e i n t r u s t i o n o f
Christianity through t h e missionaries, and t h e t r a v e l l i n q o f the
w h i t e t r a d e r s a n d m i s s i o n a r i e s from i s l a n d t o i s l a n d a r e s u c h
conditions. Hence, t h e s e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e i n t i a a t e l y
connected with t h e r e l e v a n t background o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f
evolutionism and diffusionism.
I n h i s a n s w e r t o the f o u r t h q u e s t i o n , J a r v i e * s descriptive
c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e based o n two a s s u a p t i o n s . T h e f i r s t i s aqain a n
a p p l i c a t i o n of r a t i o n a l i t y 11. T h e a p o c a l y p t i c f o r m o f t h e c u l t s
i s d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e means a v a i l a b l e t o t h e n a t i v e s a r e
o n o n e h a n d t h e i r d e e p l y - r o o t e d b e l i e f s y s t e m of m a q i c , a n d o n
t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f w h i t e men's power w i t h
C h r i s t i a n i t y . The C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n i s t a k e n a s a s u p e r i o r
maqic and t h e millennium i s i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e n a t i v e s a s t h e
a r r i v a l o f t h e carqo and t h e i r ancestors.
T h e s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n is b a s e d o n what we know i n
p s y c h o l o g y a b o u t t h e phenomenon o f the release o f l o n q
s u p p r e s s e d e m o t i o n a l e n e r g y . I n the c l o s e d s o c i e t i e s of
flelanesia, t h e v i o l a t i o n of o l d t a b o o s a n d t h e c r e a t i o n of n e v
o n e s would s u r e l y g r e a t l y u p s e t p e o p l e r s b e h a v i o r a l patterns and
t h e e m e r q e n c e of r e l i g i o u s h y s t e r i a i s p e r f e c t l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .

Of c o u r s e , t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J a r v i e c s e x p l a n a t i o n s of
cargo cults d o e s n o t mean t h a t these e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e e n t i r s l y
correct a n d t h a t n o f u t u r e i a p r o v e m e n t s can b e aade. Since I
u n d e r s t a n d h i s s i t u a t i o n a l l o g i c as c o n s i s t i n q of e x p l a n a t i o n b y
d e s c r i p t i o n , i t i s m y t a s k t o show t h a t t h e d e t a i l e d descriptive
c o r r e l a t i o n s p r o v i d e d b y J a r v i e are q o u n d e d i n o u r commonly
s h a r e d b a c k q r o u n d of r a t i o n a l i t y . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e same a s t o
say t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n these d e s c r i p t i v e c c r r e l a t i o n s
a n d t h e c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y are of a f i x e d n a t u r e . In f a c t ,
a n y f a t u r e f i n d i n q s a b o u t t h e H e l a n e s i a n societies o n t h e one
hand, a n d f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n y o f t h e related k n o v l e d q s on
t h e o t h e r w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y affect t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s of c a r q o
cults.
As a f i n a l c o n s e n t , I would l i k e t o r e t u r n t o tha question
of s o c i a l f a c t s . I n t h e l i g h t of o u r d i s c u s s i o n , I t h i n k w e a r e
i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e f o r m u l a t e the c o n c e p t o f s o c i a l fact. I have
a r g u e d i n t h i s p a p e r a q a i n s t D n r k h e i m c s i d e a of social f a c t s a s
e x t e r n a l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d a s e x e r t i n g s o c i a l forces o n
them i n a d e t e r m i n i s t i c manner. I n my r e j o i n d e r t o Durkheim I
have a l s o a r g u e d t h a t social facts are b y n a t u r e i n t e r p r e t i v e .
I t seems t o me t h a t we can now a d d t w o f a r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s o n

the matter. The f i r s t i s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a l t h o u q h s o c i a l facts

a r e i n t e r p r e t i v e , t h e r a n g e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r some i s w i d e r
t h a n o t h e r s . T h i s i s r e l a t e d t o the c o n c e p t of r a t i o n a l i t y a s a
r e q u l a t i v e a n c h o r a g e i n o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s o c i a l r e a l i t y .
Some s o c i a l f a c t s * i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e s o s t a n d a r d i z e d and a r e
s o c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e u n i v e r s a l aspects o f r a t i o n a l i t y
t h a t they are r a r e l y disputed. And t h e n there are t h o s e t h e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of w h i c h v a r y d r a s t i c a l l y f r o m o n e i n s t a n c e tc
another. The s e c o n d o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e c a u s a l

r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i a l f a c t s and peoples' b e h a v i o r a s a r q u e d b y
D u r k h e i n h a s been shown t o b e u n t e n a b l e , it c a n n e v e r t h e l e s s b e
r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n terms of c o r r e l a t i o n s . S u c h a move would f r e e
u s t o e x p l o r e w i t h less n t h e o r s t i c a l f l c o n s t r a i n t the c o n c r e t e
d e t a i l s o f e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a n d c a p t u r e t h e s h a d e s and
n u a n c e s o f t h e s p e c i f i c phenomenon i n q u e s t i o n . This i s n o t t o
c o n c e d e d e f e a t i n t h e s t u d y o f s o c i a l phenomena b u t t o advocate
a more l i v e l y a n d i m a q i n a t i v e and h e n c e more f r u i t f u l a p p r o a c h .
T o q u o t e P r o f e s s o r R. Dixon: n I n s o c i o l o q y i t seeas best t o trim
t h e s a i l s of o n e ' s t h e o r e t i c a l p r e t e n s i o n s t o t h e winds of
continqent possibility ."
 F o o t n o t e s for ChqEtsr F i v e

1. S. Lukes, wSone P r o b l e m s About R a t i o n a l i t y , i n Rat iona.&&y,

ed. b y B. Wilson (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y ~ r e s c 1 ' 3 1 7 ) , p,
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2, K, Dixon, V s C u l t u r a l R e l a t i v i s m S e l f - r e f ~ t i n q ? , ~ 'i n
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a n d Keqan P a u l , l 9 6 4 ) , c h a p t e r s 2, 3, a n d 4.

8. A c l o s e d s o c i e t y , a c c o r d i n g t o K. Popper, i s a s o c i e t y i n
which t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between what is n a t u r a l and what i s
c o n v e n t i o n a l is n o t c l e a r l y made. The d i s t i n c t i o n between
n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s , l i k e t h e a n n u a l c y c l e of s e a s o n s , o r
t h e s u c c e s s i o a o f n i g h t a n d day, a r e n o t marked o f f from
human c o n v e n t i o n s , l i k e t h e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e
s o c i e t y , the t a b o o s , a n d so on. E v e r y t h i n g i s a s s i m i l a t e d
i n t o t h e n a t u r a l category. Tha i d e a of humanly invented
c o n v e n t i o n is nnknovn, a n d it i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e
c l o s e d s o c i e t y that what we know of as human c o n v e n t i o n s a r p
o f t e n s u r r o u n d e d by an a u r a o f magic and t a b o o which
i n s u l a t e them from criticism a n d change.
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