Role Dynamics ignoumbasupport.blogspot.

in
UNIT 7 ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS AND
BURNOUT
Objectives

After going through this unit you should be able to understand:

• the meaning of organisational stress

• the nature of and different types of role stress
• the meaning of burnout
• the different stages and sources of burnout
Structure
7.1 What is Stress?
7.2 Organizational Stress
7.3 The Concept: of Role Stress
7.4 What is Burnout?
7.5 Stages of Burnout
7.6 Sources of Burnout
7.7 Summary
7.8 Self Assessment Questions
7.9 Further Readings

7.1 WHAT IS STRESS?

The origin of the concept of stress predates antiquity. Derived from the Latin
word `Stringere", stress was popularly used in the seventeenth century to
mean hardship, .strain, adversity or affliction. It was used in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries to denote force, pressure, strain or strong effort with
reference to an object or person. In engineering and physics, the term implies
an external force or pressure exerted to distort and being resisted by the
person or object on which it is exerted. In psycho-physiology, stress refers to
some stimulus resulting in a detectable strain that cannot be accommodated by
the organism and which ultimately results in impaired health or behavior.

The term stress has been approached in at least four different ways. Firstly, as the
stimulus or external force acting on the organism secondly as the response or changes
in physiological functions; thirdly, as an interaction between an external force and the
resistance opposed to it, as in biology, and finally, as a comprehensive phenomenon
encompassing all the three.

Hans Selye's (1956) "General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)" has been widely held as
a comprehensive model to explain the stress phenomenon. This three-stage model
states that when an organism is confronted with a threat, the general physiological
response occurs in three stages:

1. Alarm Reaction: The first stage includes an initial "shock phase" in which
resistance is lowered and a "counter-shock phase" in which defensive
mechanisms become active.

Alarm reaction is characterised by autonomous excitability; adrenalin

discharge increased heart rate, muscle tgone, and blood content; and gastro-
intestinal ulceration. Depending on the nature and intensity of the threat and the
26 condition of the organism, the periods of resistance vary and severity of
symptoms may differ from `mild invigoration' to `disease adaptation'.
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2. Stage of Resistance: Maximum adaptation occurs during this stage. The Burnout
bodily signs characteristic of alarm reaction disappear. Resistance increases to
levels above normal. If the stressor persists, or the defensive reaction proves
ineffective, the organism deteriorates to the next stage.
3. Stage of Exhaustion: When the adaptation energy is exhausted, signs of alarm
reaction reappear and resistance level begins to decline irreversibly. The
organism collapses.
A diagrammatic view of these stages is shown in Figure I.
Figure I: General Adaptation Syndrome

Duration of Exposure to Stress

Source: Selye, H. (1956). The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill
The first major shortcoming of this theory, according to Pestonjee (1987), is that it is
based on researches carried out on infra-human subjects. In such experiments, the
stressors are usually physical or environmental, whereas the human organism is not
always confronted by such stressors. Second, Selye's work on stress depends on the
existence of a non-specific physiological response. But, it has been noted by
researchers that there are certain stimuli, for example, exercise, fasting and heat,
which do not produce non-specific response and hence, the General Adaptation
Syndrome (GAS) does not hold true.
Third, intrapsychic or social (interpersonal/interactional) factors emerge as major
stresors in human beings. These have not been given their due place in this approach.
Finally, the reactions of infra-human subjects are more direct, perceptible and (hence)
easily measurable. This is not true of human subjects as their responses are always
mediated through several layers of cultural and social filters.
Pestonjee (1992) has attempted to present the nature and consequences of the stress
phenomenon. He has identified three important sectors of life in which stress
originates. These are (a) job and organization, (b) the social sector, and (c)
intrapsychic sector. The first, namely, job and organization, refers to the totality of
the work environment (task, atmosphere, colleagues, compensations, policies etc.)
The social sector refers to the social/cultural context of one's life. It may include
religion, caste, language, dress, food' habits etc. The intrapsychic sector encompasses
those things which are intimate and personal like temperament, values, ability and
health. It is contended that stresses can originate in any of these three sectors or in
combinations thereof

7.2 ORGANISATIONAL STRESS

The modem world, which is said to be a world of achievements, is also a world of
stress. One finds stress everywhere, whether it be a family, a business organisation/
enterprise or any other social or economic organization. The extent of stress is,
however, a matter of degree. Some organizations are more harmonious whereas
others have greater friction and tension.
Stress in organizations has been defined in terms of misfit between a person's skills
and abilities and the demands of his/her job and as a misfit in terms of a person's
needs not being fulfilled by his job environment. Cooper and Marshall (1976) are of
the view that by occupational stress is meant environmental factors or stressors such
as work overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, and poor working conditions 27
associated with a
Role Dynamics ignoumbasupport.blogspot.in
particular job. Caplan et al. (1975) define organizational stress in general and
role stress in particular. From the point of view of an individual, two role
systems are important: role space and role set.
Role Space: Each individual occupies and plays several roles. A person 'X' is a son, a
father, an executive, a member of a club and so on. Al these roles constitute role
space. In the centre of the role space is the self. Role space, thus, can be defined as
"the dynamic interrelationship both between the self and the various roles an
individual occupies, and amongst these roles."
Role Set: The individual's role in the organization is defined by the expectations of
other significant roles, and those of the individual himself/herself. The role set is "the
pattern of relationship between the role being considered and other roles.
Pareek (1983) pioneered work on the role stress by identifying as many as ten
different types of organisational role stresses. They are described here briefly.
1. Inter-Role Distance (IRD): It is experienced when there is a conflict between
organisational and non-organizational roles. For example, the role of an
executive versus the role of a husband / wife
2. Role Stagnation (RS): This kind of stress is the result of the gap between the
demand to outgrow a previous role and to occupy a new role effectively. It is
the feeling of being stuck in the same role. Such a type of stress results in
perception that there is no opportunity for one's career progression.
3. Role Expectation Conflict (REC): This type of stress is generated by different
expectations by different significant persons about the same' role; and the role
occupant's ambivalence as to whom to please.
4 Role Erosion (RE): This kind of role stress is the function of the role.
occupant's feeling that some functions which should properly belong to his /
her role are transferred to / or performed by some other role. This can also
happen when the functions are performed by the role occupant but the credit
for them goes to someone else. Another manifestation is in the form of
underutilisation in the role.
5. Role Overload (RO): When the role occupant feels that there are too many
expectations from the significant roles in his/her role set, he/she experiences
role overload. There are two aspects of this stress: quantitative and qualitative.
The former refers to having too much to do, while latter refers to things being
too difficult and the accountability in the role.
6. Role Isolation (RI): This type of role stress refers to the psychological
distance between the occupant's role and other roles in the same role set. It is
also defined as role distance which is different from inter-role distance (IRD),
in the sense that while IRD refers to the distance among various occupied by
the same individual, role isolation (RI) is characterized by the feelings that
others do not reach out easily, indicative of the absence of strong linkages of
one's role with other roles. This can be geographic or systematic.
7. Personal Inadequacy (PI): This type of stress arises when the role occupant
feels that he/she does not have the necessary skills and training for effectively
performing the functions expected from his/her role. This is bound to happen
when the organizations do not impart periodic training to enable the employees
to cope with the fast changes both within and outside the organization.
8. Self-Role Distance (SRD): When the role a person occupies goes against
his/her self-concept, then he/she feels self-role distance type of stress. This is
essentially a conflict arising out of mismatch between the person and his/her
job.
9. Role Ambiguity (RA): It refers to the lack of clarity about the expectations of
the role which may arise out of lack of information or understanding. It may
exist in relation to activities, responsibilities, personal styles, and norms and
may operate at three stages:
a) When the role sender holds his expectations about the role,
28 b) When he/she sends it, and
c) When the occupant receives those expectations
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10. Resource Inadequacy (Rin): This type of stress is evident when the role Burnout
occupant feels that he/she is not provided with adequate resources for
performing the functions expected from his/her role.
Pareek (1983) developed and standardised the Organisational Role Stress. Scale
(ORS Scale) to measure the above mentioned role stresses. He noted that until
recently researches were done on three role stresses, namely, role ambiguity, role
overload and role conflict. However, he found many other role stresses in
organizations. The ORS scale is certainly one of the best instruments available today
for measuring a wide variety of role stresses.
If is to be notedhere that role-based stresses not only affect the pleasantness on the
job and increase general fatigue but also reduce one's potentiality to perform
effectively as they tend to immobilise the person to use the available resource
effectively.
Cooper, Cooper and Eaker (1988) have identified the following six major sources of
stress at work.
1) Factors Intrinsic to the job:
• Working conditions: The physical surroundings, i.e. noise, lighting, smells and
all the stimuli that affect an individual's senses can affect mood and overall
mental state.
• Shift work: Many workers have jobs which require them to work in shifts;
some of which go round the clock. Research studies have found that shift work
is common occupational stress that affect blood chemistry, metabolic rates,
blood sugar levels, mental efficiency, and work motivation. Shift work also
affects sleep patterns, family, and social life.
• Work overload: Two types of workload have been described by researchers.
Quantitative overload refers to having a lot of work to do. Qualitative overload
refers to work that is too difficult for an individual.
2) Role in the Organization:
When a person's role in an organization is clearly defined and understood and when
expectations placed on the individual are also clear and non-conflicting, stress can be
kept to a ;minimum.
Ivanceivich and Matteson (1980) have identified three critical factors - Role
Ambiguity, Role Conflict, and the Degree of Responsibility for others - as major
sources of stress in the Western society. In India, three critical factors - RoleErosion,
Inter-Role Distance, and Role Stagnation - are seen as the major sources of stress
(Pestonjee, 1997).
3) Relationships at Work:
The working relationships which one haswith people working in the same
organization can also be a major source of stress. Hans Selye (1956) 'suggested that
learning to live with other people is one of the most stressful aspects of life. There are
three critical relationships at work - those with superiors, those with subordinates,
and those with colleagues/co-workers - which can produce stress.
4) Career Development:
A lot of issues such as job security, fear of job loss, obsolescence, or retirement and
numerous performance appraisals can create pressure and strain. The frustration of
having reached a career ceiling or having been over-promoted can also induce a lot of
stress.
5) Organizational Structure and Climate:
Just being part of an organization can present threats to a person's sense of freedom
and autonomy. People working in organizations have often complained 'that they
don't have a sense of belonging and that they lack adequate opportunities to
participate, they feel that their behavior is unduly restricted and that they are not
included office communications and consultations. All these have been found to be
related to overall poor health, escapist drinking, depression, low self-esteem, 29
absenteeism, and plans to heave work.
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6) Non-Work Factors:
There are other various factors apart from work that cause stress in an individual such
as family problems, economic problems, health problems etc. Even political
uncertainties can create stress.

7.4 WHAT IS BURNOUT?

According to the publishers of Merriam-Webster's dictionaries, burnout was a
concern in the fields of professional athletics and the performing arts in the 1930s.
Present interest in the area grew out of the early work of Herbert Freudenberger and
Christina Maslach. Their efforts, and the work of others they simulated, led to the
First National Conference on Burnout held in Philadelphia in November, 1981.
There is no single definition of burnout that is accepted as standard. Some
approaches to define it are:
• A syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal
accomplishment that can occur among individuals who do "people work" of
some kind.
• A progressive loss of idealism, energy, and purpose experienced by people in
the helping professions as a result of the conditions of their work.
• A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion marked by physical
depletion and chronic fatigue, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, and
the development of a negative self-concept and negative attitudes towards
work, life and other people.
• A syndrome of inappropriate attitudes towards clients and self, often associated
with uncomfortable physical and emotional symptoms.
• A state of exhaustion and fatigue that markedly decreases the worker's
effectiveness and capability.
Not only the above definitions vary from each other to greater or lesser degrees but
different terms are used for similar concepts.
However, despite the differences, there are also similarities among definitions of
burnout. First of all, there is general agreement that burnout occurs at individual level
Second there is a general agreement that burnout is an internal psychological
experience involving feelings, attitudes, motives and expectations. Third there is
general agreement that burnout is a negative experience for the individual, in that it
contains problems, distress, discomfort, dysfunction, and/or negative consequences
(Maslach, 1982).
In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the phenomenon of burnout in
human service professions. Burnout appears to be a response to interpersonal
stressors on the job in which an overload of contact with people results in changes in
attitudes and behavior them. Paine (1982) has observed `Burnout Stress Syndrome
(BOSS), the consequence of high levels of job stress, personal frustration, and
inadequate coping skills have major personal, organisational and social costs - and
these 'costs are probably increasing.
BOSS is a debilitating psychological condition brought about by unrelieved work
stress. Four types of consequences can arise from it.
(a) depletion of energy reserves
(b) lowered resistance to illness
(c) increased dissatisfaction and pessimism
(d) increased absenteeism and inefficiency at work
Burnout can be defined as the end result of stress experienced, but not properly coped
30 with, resulting in symptoms of exhaustion, irritation, ineffectiveness, discounting of
self
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and others, and problems of health (hypertension, ulcers and heart problems). Pareek Burnout
(1982) has suggested the opposite phenomenon of glow-up which occurs when stress
is properly channelised, resulting in the feelings of challenge, high job satisfaction,
creativity, effectiveness, and a better adjustment to work and life.

7.5 STAGES OF BURNOUT

Veningle and Spradley (1981) have identified five distinct stages of burnout.

1) Honeymoon Stage: In the honeymoon stage, there is an euphoric feeling of

encounter with the new job. There is excitement, enthusiasm, pride and
challenge. Dysfunctional features emerge in two ways. Firstly, the energy
reserves are gradually depleted in coping with the demands of a challenging
environment. Secondly, habits and strategies for coping with stress are formed
in this stage which are often not useful in coping with later challenges,

2) Fuel Shortage Stage: In this stage, there is a vague feeling of loss, fatigue and
confusion. The symptoms are job dissatisfaction, inefficiency, fatigue and sleep
disturbance leading to escape activities, such as increased eating, drinking and
smoking. Future difficulties are signalled at this stage.

3) Chronic Symptom Stage: The physiological symptoms become more

pronounced and demand attention and help at this stage. Common symptoms
are chronic exhaustion, physical illness, anger and depression. A sense of
fatigue and exhaustion overtakes the individual.

4) Crisis Stage: When these feelings and physiological symptoms persist over a
period of time, the individual enters the stage of crisis. He/she feels oppressed,
there is a heightened pessimism and self-doubting tendency is ascendant. One
develops an "escape mentality". Peptic ulcers, tension headaches, high blood
pressure, and difficulty in sleeping are some of the better-known symptoms of
the crisis period. They may become acute.

5) Hitting the Wall Stage: The phrase "hitting the wall" is taken from athletics. It
is said that a marathon actually begins at the "twenty-mile mark with six miles
yet to go". It is at this point that a marathon runner feels that he/she has hit the
wall. It is an experience so devastating that it can completely knock a person
out. This leads to muscle paralysis, dizziness, fainting, and even complete
collapse. Similar experiences have been observed in the executive world at
times. With all the adaptation energy depleted like the glycogen of a marathon
runner, one may lose control over one's life; it may be the end of a professional
career. While recovery from this stage may elude some, others may be
resourceful enough to tide over the crisis.

Caldwell and lhrke (1994) have observed that when an individual burns out, there are
five stages to his/her symptoms.
• The individual who burns out is likely to be very enthusiastic when first
entering the organization. One cannot become emotionally exhausted uness
there is first an emotional commitment.
• The initial enthusiasm soon gives way to stagnation as the individual realises
that he or she will not be able to solve all the problems the organization faces.
• This leads to frustration on the part of the individual because important
problems are not being resolved.
• This frustration may eventually lead to apathy towards the organization.
• Eventually, the only way an individual may be able to do something about his
or her individual burnout is through outside intervention. This intervention may
take the form of counselling or, more likely, leaving the situation that caused
the burnout. 31
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7.6 SOURCES OF BURNOUT
In essence, what contributes to burnout? Pareek (1982) has pointed out the following
nine factors which lead to burnout.
(1) Level of Stress: When stress is either too little or too much - it leads to
hyperstress or hypostress.
(2) Type of Stress: It can be either functional or dysfunctional - the first is called
"eustress" and the second "dystress:.
(3) Personality: There are certain personality dimensions which lead to burnout. A
personality orientation called Type-A has been found to be associated with
cynicism (low interpersonal trust), and a sense of loneliness. Other personality
factors contributing to burnout are externality (a feeling that the person does
not have control over what happens and that external forces or chances or fate
determine things), low self-esteem, rigidity, alienation, and machiavellianism
(manipulative orientation).
(4) Nature of Job or the Role: If the job is highly routinised, does not allow any
diversity or freedom and does not provide opportunities for creativity and
growth, it can lead to burnout.
(5) Nonwork Life: The executive's social or economic conditions, family life and
relationships, family and other obligations, health conditions etc. also
contribute to his or her burnout.
(6) Life Style: The pattern of structuring one's time may be called the life style.
Stress-dissipating life style, contributing to executive glow-up is characterized
by a relaxed life, taking up creative pursuits, spending meaningful time with
family and friends, involvement in meaningful activities like religion, ideology,
social cause, working for underprivileed etc. On the other hand, stress-
absorbing lifestyle is characterized by narrow interests, limiting oneself to
work and leading a tense and structured living. Such people are called
workaholics.
(7) Role Style: Role styles can be broadly classified into approach and avoidance.
Approach style is indicated by hope or success, influence, orderliness,
relevance, acceptance and growth. On the other hand, avoidance style is
indicated by an executive acting out of failure, helplessness, chaos, irrelevance,
exclusion or inadeuacy.
(8) Coping Styles: Dysfunctional coping styles are characterized by fatalism,
blaming, showing agression towards others and defensive mode-denying the
stress or justifying or rationalising it. Functional stylesare persistent in nature,
characterized by the hope for the. solution of a problem or attempts to solve the
problem alone or seeking others' help or jintly working with others for the
solution.
(9) Organizational Climate: A supportive organizational climate can much
contribute to executive glow-up as a hostile climate to executive burnout. One
research study has shown that organizational climate perceived as developing
excellence in people was significantly associated with low role stress and one
perceived as characterized by strong control over people with high role stress.
Researchers have also observed a phenomenon which is the opposite of BOSS. The
Rustout Stress Syndrome (ROSS) is indicative of stress underload. It occurs when
there is a gap between what the executive is capable of doing and what he/she is
required to do. The concept of role erosion is close to the concept of ROSS. Stress
underload can arise due to both qualitative and quantitative aspects of work.

7.7 SUMMARY
This unit provides all the input for understanding what is stress, what are the factors
32 contributing to create stress, what is organizational stress and the role stress.
 ignoumbasupport.blogspot.in Organisational Stress and
Organizational Role Stress is an outcome of the conflict in role expectations of the Burnout
role sender and the person who occupies the role. The difference in the perception of
both puts the role occupant under stress. There are ten potential role stresors which
have been identified by Prof. Udai Pareek, are the role stressors in organizational
situation. This unit also explains the concept of Burnout, stages of Burnout and the
sources of Burnout, from personality to organizational climate.

7.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define stress, discuss what are the stages of development of stress.
2. What is role stress? Explain role and how does it create stress, what are the
potential role stressors in an organizational situation, explain with example.
3. What is Burnout? Explain the stages of Burnout.
4. What are the main sources of Burnout, explain with example?

7.9 FURTHER READINGS

Caldwell, D.S. and Ihrke. D.M. (1994). Differentiating Between Burnout and Copout
in Organisations. Public Personnel Management, 23 (1), 77-84.
Caplan, R.S., Cobb, S., French, J.R.P., Harrison, R.V. and Pinneau, S.R. (1975). Job
Demands and Worker Health. NIOSH Research Report.
Cooper, C.L., Cooper, R.D. and Eaker, L.D. (1988). Living with Stress. London:
Penguin.
Cooper, C.L. and Marshal, J. (1976). Occupational Sources of Stress: A Review of
the Literature Relating to Coronary Heart Disease and Mental Ill Health. Journal of
Occupational Psychology, 49, 11-28.
Ivancevich, J.M. and Matteson, M.T. (1980). Stress at Work. Glenview, IL: Scott,
Foresman.
Maslach, C. (1982). Understanding Burnout: Definitional Issues in Analysing a
Complex Phenomenon. In W.S. Paine (Ed.), Job Stress and Burnout: Research,
Theory and Intervention Perspectives. London:. Sage Publications.
Paine, LW.S. (1982). Job Stress and Burnout: Research, Theory and Intervention
Perspectives. London: Sage Publications.
Pareek, U. (1982). Executive Glow Up and Burnout. Summary of Larsen and Toubro
Lecture. Ahmedabad: IIM.
Pareek, U. (1983).. Organisational Role Stress Scale. ORS Scale Booklet, Answer
Sheet and Manual. Ahmedabad: Navin Publications,
Pareek, U. (1993). Making Organisational Roles Effective. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw-Hill.
Pestonjee, D.M. (1987). Executive Stress: Should it Always be Avoided? Vikalpa, 12
(1), 23-30.
Pestonjee, D.M. (1992). Stress and Coping: The Indian Experience. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Pestonjee, D.M. (1997). Executives Under Stress: Some Findings and Reflections. In
D.M. Pestonjee and Udai Pareek (Eds.), Studies in Organisational Role Stress and
Coping. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Selye, H. (1956), The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Veningle, R.L. and Spradley, J.P. (1981). The Work Stress Connection: How to Cope
with the Burnout. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 33