Aerodynamics

Contents
Chapter I Properties of the Atmosphere ll

l.l The Atmosphere ll
1.2 Gas Composition ll
1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere ll
1.4 Temperature l2
1.5 Pressure t4
1.6 Density L I
1.7 PerformanceCeilinss l9
1.8 The Gas Laws 20
1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere 2l
l.l0 Speeds 2l
Chapter l: Test Yourself 22
Chapter 2 Aerodynamics- Basic Principlesof Airflow 23
2.1 AtmosphericPressure ZJ
2.2 StreamlineFlow 24
AA
2.3 Flow Continuity
2.4 Venturi Effect 25
2.5 Stagnation 26
2.6 MeasuringAirspeed 27
Chapter 2: Test Yourself 27
Chapter 3 Aerodynamics- Aerofoils and Actions (Definitions) 29
3.1 Chord Line 29
3.2 Mean Camber Line 29
3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio ("FinenessRatio") 29
3.4 Angle of Attack 29
3.5 Angle of incidence 30
3 . 6 W a s hO u t 30
3.1 WashIn 30
3.8 Wing Area 30
3.9 Mean Chord (Geometric) 30
3.10 TaperRatio 3l
3 . 1 I A s p e c tR a t i o J I
3.12 Wing Loading 3l

3 . 1 3 S w e e pA n g l e 3l
3.14 Dihedral 3l
3.15Anhedral J I
3 . 1 6 A x e s a n d F l i g h t C o n t r o l s( P r i m a r yC o n t r o l s ) JZ
P R I N C I P L EOSF F L I C H T
3 . l 7 A l t e r n a t i v eF o r m s o f C o n t r o l JJ

Chapter4 Drag 35
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Profile Drag (ParasiteDrag) 35
Chapter 5 Lift 4l
5.1 Introduction 4l
A'
5.2 (a) PressureDistribution
(b) PressureGradients 43
(c) Lift Equation 44
( d t L i f t / D r a gR a t i o 45
(e) Movement of the Centre of Pressure 4l
(f) SpanwiseDistribution of Pressure 48
Chapter 6 InducedDrag 5l
6. I Introduction 5l
6.2 Drift Effect 5l
6.3 Downwash >.1
6.4 Span Effect 52
6.5 Summary of Effects 53
<A
Chapter 6: Test Yourself
Chapter 7 Total Drag 56
'l
.l Introduction 56
1.2 Wave Drag 58
7.3 Summary: Check List 59
Chapter 8 Stalling 62
8.1 Introduction 62
8.2 The Determining Factor 62
8.3 The Cause 62
8.4 Alleviation 63
8.5 The Effect of Engine Power 64
8.6 Constancy 64
8.1 Weight Effect 64
8.8 Loading in Turns 65
8.9 Effect of Shape 65
8.10 The Position of the Centre of Gravity 66
8 . 1I I c i n g 67
8.12 Stall Warning Device 67
8 .l 3 S p i n n i n g 67
8 . 1 4 T h e D e e pS t a l l 68
CONTENTS
8-l5 Detail Calculationsand Factors Affecrins

StallingSpeedand StallingAngle
8.16 Wing Tip Stalling 72
8.17 The Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Stalling Angle 14
8.l8 The Effect of Sweepbackon the StallingAngle 75
8.l9 The Effect of Flap on the StallingAngle 76
Chapter 9 Spinning 80
9.1 Introduction 80
9.2 Phasesof the Spin 80
9.3 Motion of the Aircraft 8l
9.4 Balanceof Forcesin the Spin 84
9.5 Effect of Attitude on Spin Radius 84
9.6 Angular Momentum 85
9.7 Inertia Moments in a Spin 81
9.8 AerodynamicMoments 88
9.9 Spin Recovery 93
9. l0 GyroscopicCross-couplingBetweenAxes 99
Chapter 10 Wing Planforms 105
10.I Introduction 105
10.2 Aspect Ratio 105
10.3 Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag 105
10.4 Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle 106
10.5 Use of High Aspect Ratio 101
10.6 The Effectsof Taoer t01
10.7 StallPatterns ll0
10.8 Sweepback lll
10.9 Alleviating the Tip Stall ll9
1 0 . 1 0P i t c h - U p 121
l0.ll ForwardSweep 124
1 0 . 1 2D e l t a W i n g s t26
1 0 . l 3 P o l y m o r p h i cA i r c r a f t 129
1 0 . l 4 C a n a r dD e s i g n l-1 I
1 0 . 1 5S u m m a r y l3l
Chapter l0: Test Yourself t34
Chapter ll Flight Controls 135
I l. I Introduction 135
11.2 Inset Hinge 136
I 1.3 Horn Balance 131
l l . 4 B a l a n c eT a b 137
I L5 ServoTab 138
I 1 . 6 A n t i - B a l a n c eT a b 138
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLIGHT
ll.7 InternalBalance 139

I 1.8 MassBalance 149
I 1.9 AdverseRoll TendencyDue to RudderDeflection 142
ChapterI l: TestYourself 145
Chapter12 Tabs 147
12.l Introduction t47
12.2 ControlLocks l5l
Chapterl2: TestYourself l5l
Chapter13 High Lift Devices 153
l3.l Introduction 153
13.2 Typesof Flap r53
13.3 LeadingEdgeSlots 156
13.4 Slats 157
13.5 SlatControl 159
13.6 TheBoundaryLayer 159
13.7 Slatand SlottedFlap Combination l6l
Chapterl3: TestYourself 163
Chapter14 Stability 165
14.I Introduction 165
14.2 Definitions 165
14.3 StaticStability r65
14.4 DirectionalStability t61
14.5 Trim Point(StickFixed) 173
14.6 DynamicStability 186
14.1 Summary 192
Chapterl4: TestYourself t94
Chapter15 Forcesin Flight 196
I 5.I Introduction 196
15.2 PitchingMoments 196
I 5.3 Effectsof Climbing, Glidingand Turning 198
(a)Climbing 198
(b) Forcesin a Glide 203
(c)Turning 205
(d) Turningand Manoeuvres: Points
Essential to Note 208
Chapter15: TestYourself 216
Chapter16 High SpeedFlight 218
I 6.I Introduction 218
16.3 Airflow 219
16.4 Speedof Sound 219
16.5 ShockWaves 221
16.6 WaveDras 223
CONTENTS
16.7 Reductionof WaveDrag 224

16.8 Effectsof Compressibilityon Lift 224
16.9 SupersonicFall in Cr 227
16.10Effectsof IncreasingMach No on Stability 221
Chapterl7 FundamentalManoeuvresandTheir 232
Effects,Trim and EngineFailure
17.l Introduction 232
17.2 Lift 232
17.3 Lift Relatedto Camber 233
17.4 Yaw to Port (ConventionalFin and Keel Surface) 233
17.5 Yaw to Port (LargeFin and Keel Surface) 234
l7 .6 Increaseof SpeedWhilst MaintainingLevel 234
Flight at a ConstantAltitude
11.7 StallingAngle 235
17.8 StallingSpeed 235
17.9 Multi-EnginedAircraft 235
17.10Minimum ControlSpeed ztt
Chapter18 DuplicateInspectionof Controls 244
l8.l Pilot Responsibility 2M
18.2 Control SystemDefrnition 244
18.3 DuplicateInspectionof Control Systems 245
18.4 PersonsAuthorisedto Certify DuplicateInspections 245
18.5 Flying Control Systems 248
18.6 ControlCables 251
18.7 CableTensioning 254
18.8 Mechanical Stops 258
Chapterl9 Aircraft Construction 260
l9.l Aircraft StructuralDesisn 260
19.3 Designinga New Aircraft 260
19.4 The Design 261
19.5 StructuralRigidity 263
19.6 Flutter 264
19.7 The Structure 268
19.8 WingConstruction 271
SomeMore Key Points 282
FrNar-TEsr 284
Properties
of theAtmosphere
1.1 TheAtmosphere
The gaseousenvelopesurroundingthe Earth is calledthe atmosphere.
Thereis no definedupperlimit to theatmosphere, but much of this study
is limited to the first 60,000ft wheremost aviationactivity is conducted.
1.2 Gas Composition

Gasesare found in the atmospherein the following proportions by
volume:
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 2l%
Othergases l% (egargon,carbondioxide,watervapour)
Oxygen is essentialfor the sustenanceof life and the combustion of

materials. In the context of aviation, oxygen is required for the combus-
tion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in incomplete burning and
reduced engine efficiency.
Water vapour is presentin the atmospherein varying proportions, and
is responsible for the weather around the earth, which in turn affects
aircraft operations and performance. Additionally the presenceof water
vapour may causeicing of the airframe or engine which may impair an
aircraft's performance.
1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere

Theatmosphereis dividedinto a numberof layers:
(a) The Troposphere - where temperaturedecreases with increaseof
height.In this regionnearlyall significantweatheroccurs.
(b) The Tropopause - the upper limit of the tropospherewheretemper-
aturestopsdecreasing with an increaseof height.The tropopauseis
therefore the upper limit of significant weather, thefirst point of
11
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
lowesttemperature,and additionally it is the region fot maximum wind

strengths.
The heightof thetropopausevarieswith latitude,seasonof theyear,
and prevailingweatherconditionswith the resultthat it is usually
higherin low latitudes,in summerand in fine weather.
Typicalheightsfor the tropopauseare:
Latitude TropopauseHeight
Equator lGlT km ft
53,000-57,000
45'N/S 10-12km ft
33,000-39,000
Poles 7Yz-9km ft
25,000-29,000
(c) TheStratosphereextendsfrom the tropopauseto approximately50
by the temperaturebeing steadyor
km amsl,and is characterised
increasingwith height.
(d) The Mesosphereextendsfrom 50 km to 80 km. The temperature
with height.
generallydecreases
(e) or lonosphere,wheretemperatureincreaseswith
The Thermosphere
height.
1.4 Temperature
(a) Units
The temperaturescalesmost commonlyusedare Celsiusor Centigrade,
Fahrenheitand Kelvin or Absolute.
The first two scalesarebasedon themeltingpoint of ice,being0"C and
32"F respectively,and the boiling point of water,being100'C or 212"F.
Being a form of energy,heat is relatedto the random movementof
moleculesin a substance. If heat is reduced,the moleculesbecomeless
active.The minimumtemperatureto whicha substance canbe reducedis
approximately -273'C, and this is known as Absolute zero,or OoK.
cbrrespondingly,the meltingpoint of iceis equivalentto273"K and the
boilingpoint of waterto 373"K.
To ionvert from one temperaturescaleto another,the following
formulaemav be used:
p =! +32
t = (F-32)
i
K =C + 273
12
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(b) TemperatureVariation in the Troposphere

At ground level,in general,the temperatureincreases
with decrease of
latitude.
With increasingaltitude,theconductiveandconvectiveeffectsfrom the
eartharereducedsothat temperaturewill usuallydecreasewith heightup
to the tropopause.SeeFig. l-1.
Typicalvaluesof temperaturefound at the tropopauseare:
Latitude Temperature
Equator -80'c
45"N/S -56'C
Poles -45'C
Thereis, therefore,a reversalof temperatures
with latitudein compari-
son to thosefound at groundlevel.This is partly because the tropopause
is higherat the equatorand the temperaturedecrease is effectiveover a
greaterheight.
27,00oft -45.6
F i g u r e1 - 1
(c) LapseRates
The temperaturedecrease with increaseof heightis referredto as lapse
rate.
A representativevalueof 2'Cl1000ft is a typical valuefor the tropos-
phere,and this figure is used as the referencefor the Jet Standard
Atmosphere(JSA).
13
P R I N C I P LOEFSF L I G H T
The InternationalStandardAtmosphere(ISA) usesthe comparable

valueof 1.98"C/1000 ft.
For meteorologicalpurposes,differentiationbetweendry (that is, not
saturated)and saiuratedaaiaUaticlapseratesis made,and the valuesof
3'C/1000ft and 1.5'C/1000ft respectively are used.The differenceof
lapserate for saturatedair is causedby the releaseof latent heat during
condensation, thus reducingthe temperaturechange.
(d) Temperature andAircraft Performance

Ai a given pressure, an increaseof temperatureresultsin a reductionof
density.
Firitly, consideringairframeperformance,a reductionof density(p)
reduces iift (L). This may be counteractedby increasingthe true airspeed
(v) to achievethe requiredamountof lift (L):
L = C, %pv'S
where: Cr_= coefficient of lift Thus: Ct lz pY2S
and S = surface area

The dynamicpressureis gainedat the expense of an increasedtake-off
run, cruisingTAS or landing run according to the stageof flight'
On the credit side,drag (D) reduceswith increase of temperature:
D = Co t/rpY2S
A pistonengine'sperformanceis relatedto the temperatureof the air
beingdrawninlo theiylinder head.The higherthetemperature, the lower
thed-ensityandweighiof fuel/airmixture that canbe burnt in the combus-
The po*.etoutput
tion cham-ber. of the engine falls
therefore with increase
of temperature.
For a propulsionsystem,pistonor jet,
Thrust = Massof air x Accelerationto which air is subjected
Thus an increaseof temperaturewill reducethe massflow and, there-
fore the thrust.
1.5 Pressure
(a) Definition
Pressureis the forceexertedon a unit area,ie:
- x Acceleration
- = Eorce Mass
pressure
Area Area
14
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
In the atmosphere,pressureis causedby the massof the gaseousmole-

culesactingunder the forceof gravity on a givenarea.As all molecules
actundergravitythenthepressure canalsobeconsideredto betheweight
of a columnof air on a unit area.
F i g u r e1 - 2
(b) Units
The metric units of pressureare dynes per square centimetre, where the
dyne is the force required to accelerateI gram by I centimetre per second.
The System International units of pressure are Newtons per square
metre, where the Newton is the force required to accelerateI kilogram by
I metre per second.The Newton is therefore, equal to l0s dynes.
Although largely obsolete, the Imperial system of units is still
encountered,and pressureis expressedin pounds per squareinch.
In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is
equivalent to 1000dynes per square centimetre.
Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressurewas
measuredin terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer
that the weight of the atmospherecould support. i
l5
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I G H T
-1*..,,
ofcorumn
I of Mlrcury
to
I Proportional
l'"*""
F i g u r e1 - 3
(c) Variation of Pressurein the Atmosphere

At sealevel,pressuregenerallyvariesbetween950 and 1050mb. In trop-
ical revolving storms and tornadoes,however,pressuresmay fall much
lower.
and so the
With increasingaltitude the massof overlying air decreases
pressurefalls. Pressurevaluesof the International StandardAtmosphere
are given below:
Altitude Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
(ft) (mb) (psi) (in HG) (mm HG)
40.000 t87.6 2.12
30,000 300.9 4.36
20,000 465.6 6.' 75
10,000 696.8 l0.lI
0 1013.25 14.7 29.92 760
From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000ft, the pressure
is half the sealevel value.
Also, it should now be apparentthat the rate of pressuredecreasewith
height is not constant.In the first 10,000ft, the pressurefalls at a rate of
approximatelyI mb per 30 ft but between30,000ft and 40,000ft the pres-
suredecreaseis closerto I mb per 88 ft.
16
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(d) PressureAltitude
The altitudeat which a given pressureoccursin the International
StandardAtmosphereis calledthe pressurealtitude.
If, for example,the pressureat the top of Mount Everestweredeter-
mined as 300.9mb, then the pressurealtitudewould be 30,000ft.
Assumingthe samemeansealevelconditions,and two columnsof air
of the sameheight,but differingtemperatures,then the cold air would
havea greatermassthan the warm air due to the densitydifference.The
pressureof the atmosphere, however,is causedby the massof overlying
moleculeson a unit area.The pressureabovethe columnof warm air is
thereforehigherthan that abovecold air. Becausea higher pressure
is found at a lowerlevel,thenthepressurealtitudeabovewann air is lower
than thepressure altitudeabovecold air. Alternativelyit canbeexpressed
that the true altitudeof an aircraftis more than that indicated(assuming
the correctmeansealevelpressurehas beenset on the subscale)above
waffn air, and lessthan that indicatedabovecold air. (Fig l- )
PressureCorrespondingTo 700mb
ano
A PressureAltitude Of 10.000ft
' ( l eWarm
ss
dense)
1013mb 1013mb
(valuesare approximate)
Figure1-4
1.6 Density
(a) Definition
Density is the massper unit volume of a substance,at a specifiedtemper-
ature and pressure.
- = Mass
DensitV
Volume
17
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
(b) Units
bensity is expressedin grams,ot kilogramsper cubicmetre_for metricor
SI uniti, The
respectively. Imperial units are poundsper cubic feet.
Factorsaffectingdensitywhen consideringa gasare:
DensitY = Pressure
Gasconstant x Absolutetemperature
For a given temperature,therefore,an increaseof pressureincreases
density,or, at a given pressure,a decreasein temperatureincreaSes
density.
(c) Variation of Densityin the Atmosphere

Ai sealevel,densitiesviry between1.20and 1.55kg per cu m, the higher
valuesbeing usuallyassociatedwith the colder temperaturesof higher
latitudes,and the lower valuestypical of Equatoriallatitudes.
Air at lower levelsin the atmosphereis compressed by the massof the
overlyingair. With increasingaltitude,the overlyingmass reducesand air
can now-expand,resultingin further reductionof pressure. -
With incieasingaltitudethe temperaturealso decreases, but at a rate
lower than the pressure.Density,therefore,decreases with height.
Density valuis of the InternationalStandardAtmosphereare shown
below:
Altitude Density Density
tftl [kg/cu m] [lb/cu ft]
40,000 0.302 0.019
30,000 0.458 0.029
20,000 0.653 0.041
10,000 0.905 0.056
0 1.225 0.077
At about 22,000ft, the densityis half the sealevelvalue'
We havealreadyseenthat densityat sealeveltendsto be higherat the
Polesthan at the Equator. However,at 26,000ft, the densityvalue is
similarat all latitudes.
(d) Variation of Densitywith Humidity

ihe total pressureof th-eatmosphereis equalto the sumof the individual
pressures bf tn. gases.The preisureof moist air is lessthan that for dry
iir, and so humiditydecreases the total pressure.From the gasequation,
it canbe seenthat tirereductionin pressureresultsin a lowerdensity'The
greaterthe humidity,the lower the density.
l8
PROPERTIES
OFTHEATMOSPHERE
(e) DensityAltitude
This is definedas the altitudein the InternationalStandardAtmosphere
at which a givendensityis found.
Aircraft performanceis largely dependenton density altitude as
opposedto true or pressurealtitude.
(f) DensityandPerformance
The effectsof densityon lift, drag,power and thrust havebeenconsid-
eredin the sectionconcerningtemperature.
Thereare,however,additionaleffectsof densityperformance.
Above about 300kt TAS, air becomessignificantlycompressed, and
locally increases the density.At much higher speedsthis may give a
markedincreasein drag,and whenincreasingaltitude,this canoffsetthe
otherwisereducingdragvalue.
A similar compressibilityeffectincreasesdrag on a propellerblade,
reducingits efficiency,particularlyat higheraltitudes.
A jet engine'sperformance,however,is enhancedby this compress-
,ibility effectas massflow is improved.
(g) Air Densityandthe HumanBody

The reduceddensityof air with increasingaltitudemeansthat in a given
volume of air breathedin, the oxygencontenthas decreased. Above
10,000ft this reductionleadsto hypoxia,its effectsrangingfrom lack of
judgementto sleepiness or collapse,accordingto height.
At night, the reducedintakeof oxygenimpairsnight visionat altitudes
of4.000 ft and above.
To counter theseproblems,aircraft operatingabove l0;000 ft must
havean enrichedoxygensupply,eitherin conjunctionwith a pressurised
cabin,or through facemasks.At night, ideally,oxygenshouldbe avail-
ablefrom groundlevelupwards.
1.7 PerformanceCeilings
(a) ServiceCeiling
This is definedasthe altitudeat whichthe rateof climb of an aircraftfalls
to a specifiedfigure,usually100ft per minute.
(b) AbsoluteCeiling
The absoluteceilingis the altitudeat whichthe rateof climb of an aircraft
falls to zero.
(c) Piston-EnginedAircraft
For such aircraft, operatingunder 26,000ft, then the improved
l9
P R I N C I P LOEFSF L I C H T
atmosphericdensityfound in winter in high latitudeswill givethe highest

ceiling.
(d) Jet-EnginedAircraft
As mostjet-enginedaircraftoperateabove26,000ft, thenthebestperfor-
manceceilingwill be found at the highesttropopauseand lowesttemperature,
ie in summer,and at low latitudes.
1.8 The Gas Laws

Introduction
Whilst air is not an ideal gas,it doesconform,within closelimits, to the
resultsof Boyle'sand Charles'laws.
(a) Boyle'sLaw
is inversely
The volume(V) of a givenmassof gasat constanttemperature
proportionalto pressure(P):
VxlorPV=constant
P
in the form:
This canbe expressed
PrVr=PrV,
(b) Charles'Law
The volumeof a givenmassof gasat constantpressure, by 11273
increases
of its volumeat 0"C for everyl"C risein temperature:
VxKorV=constant
K
The alternativeexpressionbelowis alsouseful:
Vr - Vz
Kr Kz
(c) CombinedBoyle'sandCharles'LawEquation
The resultsof both lawsmay becombinedin oneequation,expressingthe
behaviourof a gas under varying conditionsof pressure,volume and
temperature:
PtV, = PzVe
Kr K2
20
OF THEATMOSPHERE
PROPERTIES
1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere
In order to providea datum for aircraft performancecomparison,and

instrument calibration, an assumedset of conditions has been deter-
mined.Whilst representative, reflect
theseconditionsdo not necessarily
actualconditionsin the atmosphere. The valuesusedarelistedbelow:
(i) Temperature at 1.98"Cper 1,000ft to
l5'C at msl,anddecreasing
36,090ft (ll km) where the temperatureremainsconstantat
-56.5'Cuntil65,6l7ft (20km).
(ii) mb at msl.
1013.25
Pressure
(iii) Densityl.225kglcu m at msl.
1 .10 Speeds
(a) IndicatedAirspeed(IAS) The dynamicpressureof air againsta

wherep = density,
vehicle,or indicatedairspeed,is equalto YzpY2,
=
and V true airspeed.An airspeedindicator, calibrated to ISA,
meansealevelconditionsrecordsthedynamic pressureas a speed.
If, for example,the indicatedreadingwere 200 kt, then it means
that the dynamicpressureis the sameas it would be at a true air
speedof 200kt at standardconditionsat meansealevel.
(b) RectifiedAirspeed(RAS) The indicatedairspeed,correctedfor
instrumentand positionerrors(IE and PE).
(c) EquivalentAirspeed(EAS) The rectifiedairspeedcorrectedfor
compressibility(C). It shouldbe noted that compressibilityis
alwaysa subtractedquantitY.
(d) True Airspeed('tAS) The equivalentairspeedcorrectedfor
density.
(e) CalibratedAirspeed(cAS)Someairspeedindicatorsarecorrected
for meansealevelcompressibility. Calibratedairspeedis thevalue
of this reading,correctedfor instrumentand positionerrors.
(0 Mach Number(Mn) Mach numberis the ratio of TAS to the local
speedof sound(LSS).
21
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
Chapter1: TestYourself.
I With increasingaltitudepressuredecreases
and:
at the samerate aspressurereduces.
a) temperaturedecreases
but at a higherratethan pressurereduces.
b) temperaturedecreases
but at a lower ratethan pressurereduces.
c) temperaturedecreases
d) temperatureremainsconstantto 8,000ft.
Ref para 1.4
2 Density= ;
a) Mass
Volume
b) Volume
Mass
c) Volume x Mass
d) Massx Temperature
Ref para 1.6
3 Total pressureof air will:

a) not be affectedby temperature.
b) increasewith increasedhumidity.
c) reducewith increasedhumidity.
d) not be affectedby moisture.
Ref para 1.5
4 A reductionin air pressureresultsin:

a) no significantchangein density.
b) a reductionin density.
c) an increasein density.
d) erraticvariationsin density.
Refpara1.6
5 The absoluteceilingof an aircraftis the altitudeat which the:

a) rateof climb falls to zero.
b) rate of climb falls to 50ft/min.
c) rateof climb falls to l00ft/min.
d) rateof climb hasa negativevalue.
Ref para 1.7
22
-rfi3il. Principles
Aerodynamics of
2.1 AtmosphericPressure
In the previouschapterit wasshownthat the atmosphere exertspressure
at all times.This type of pressure,which exertsa force on all bodies,is
calledstaticpressureand acts equally in all directions.When air is in
motion, however,it possesses an additionalenergy(kineticenergy)due
to thefactthat it is moving,andthefasterit movesthemorekineticenergy
it has.If movingair is now broughtto restagainstsomeobject,thekinetic
energyis turnedinto pressureenergy.This pressureon the surfaceof the
body whichcausesthe movingair to stop is calleddynamicpressare.The
valueof dynamicpressuredependson the densityof the air and its speed
and may be expressed as:
Dynamicpressure'=
%pV2
This is an important equationwhich affectsall aerodynamicstudies.
As shownin Fig 2-l anyobjectin still air will experiencestaticpressure
in all directionsbut an objectwhich is moving,or is placedin a moving
airstream,will experience an additionalpressuredue to the moving air
beingbroughtto rest.
S t i l lA i r MovingAir
Figure2-1
If the speedof the moving air is comparativelyslow,say 100kt, the

dynamic pressureexertedby it is quite small in relation to the static
23
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
pressureat sealevel.In fact the dynamicpressure will only amountto less

ihan2% of the staticpressure. If, however, the speed is increasedto, say
450kt, thedynamic piessure rises considerably, to about 30%oof the static
pressure. It is imporlant to note that at low speeds the density of the air
is not significantly affectedby these changes in pressure and the air can
be consideredasan incompressible fluid. At high speeds, however, sayin
excessof 300kt, this assumptioncan no longer be made and the changes
in densitydue to compressibility becomesignifrcant.
2.2 Streamline Flow

It is usefulto illustratethe path followedby air when it passesaround
fixedobjectsand the idiom usedis that of streamlines. A streamlineis the
path trated out by a singleparticleof airflow suchthat this particledoes
not crossthe path of any other.This can be illustratedby droppingdye
into a streamof water and watchingthe visiblepath of the dye when it
moveswith the water.Streamlines areillustratedinFig2-2-
Figure2-2 Streamlines
2.3 FlowContinuity
when waterflows down a tubethe principleof continuityof flow applies
and the massflow in the tube is the sameat anypoint along its length.
This rule appliesevenif the tube is not of constantdiameterand this is
clearlyshowhin the diagramat Fig 2-3.Themassflow at A, B and c is
the sameso if the densityof the wateris p the crosssectionalareaof the
tube'a'andthespeedof thewateris'v'then:
Massflow = pav
=
The continuitytheoremstatesthat the massflow at any point A the
massflow at point B = the massflow at point C.
24
- BASICPRINCIPLES
AERODYNAMICS OF AIRFLOW
f
A
t
B
+
c
Figure 2-3 Mass Flow
2.4 VenturiEffect
In a venturi tube,that is a tube that hasa constrictionin it, as shownin
Fig2-4,thepreviousrule still applies;massflow is alwaysa constanteven
if ihe tubels not of constantdiameter.If, therefore,the pressureis
measuredat points I and2 in the venturi,it can be said:
=
P,O,V, PrOrY,
Consideringthefluid asincompressible, thenasthecrosssectionalarea
biggerthan the crosssectionalareaa2thespeedv' must
a, is considerably
be lessthan the speedvr. In other words,as the flow passes
through
t
Point 1
+
P o i n t2
Figure24 Venturi
the venturi the speedof the fluid increases.This can often be seenwhen
watchingthe flow of a river through the arch of a bridgeobservinghow
the water\peedsup as it flows through the arch or constriction.The
streamlines associated with this flow are shownin Fig 2'4.|t can be seen
that thestreamlines draw closertogetherastheypassthroughtheventuri.
Moving awayfrom the conceptof the tube to that of an aircraftwing,
asillustratedin Fig 2-5it canbe seenthat dueto thecurvatureof the wing
on its uppersurfacea venturihasbeencreatedbetweenthe uppersurface
and the undisturbedair somedistanceaboveit. The streamlineswill be
similar to those in Fig 2-4 and, of course,the flow of the air will be
increasedin speedasit passesthroughthe venturi.
25
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I G H T
-t-f
Point1 P o i n t2
Figure2-5 Aerofoil
(a) Bernoulli'sTheorem.
During the lastcenturyBernoulliput forwardhis theoremstatingthat the
total pressure(iestatic+ dynamic)in a fluid is constantif no work is done
by it or on it.
TotalpressureH= S + YrpY'-constant.
Referringback to Fig 2-5 and looking at the point aheadof the wing
marked I we can find the total pressureat this point:
H , S ,* Y I P , Y , t .
Similarlythe total pressureat thepoint marked2 canalsobeexpressed
AS:
Hr = S, + VrPrY
r'
However,Bernoulli'stheoremstatesthat the total pressurein a fluid is
constant,thereforethesetwo expressions must equal each other.
Therefore:
S, + %p,V,'= S, * t/rprYrt
Consideringthe densityto be a constantfactor and knowingthe speed
at point I is lessthan the speedat point 2, it follows that the pressureat
point I must be higherthan the pressureat point 2. To put it differently
thereis a reductionin pressureover the upper surfaceof the wing as a
result of Bernoulli'sTheorem.It is this reductionin pressureover the
uppersurfaceof the wing of an aircraftthat createslift and is the reason
an aircraft can fly.
2.5 Stagnation
Referringto Fig 2-6notetheflow of air aroundan object.Noticehow the
air divides- someflows over the top of the wing and somebelowit and
right in the centre,at the leadingedgeof the wing, the air is brought
completelyto restat point A. This point is calledthe stagnationpoint and
26
_ BASIC
AERODYNAMICS PRINCIPLES
OFAIRFLOW
it is wherethefull dynamicpressurepluswhateverstaticpressureis effec-

tive at the time will be felt.
Point
Figure2-6 Stagnation
2.6 MeasuringAirspeed
The principle of the stagnation point is used in the measurementof
airspeed.Air is directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flex-
ible diaphragm in the airspeedindicator. This flexible diaphragm, in the
form of a capsule,in fact is a stagnation point and will feel the full effect
of dynamic pressure.Static pressureis fed to both sidesof the capsuleso
that it cancelsout. The resultant movement of the diaphragm can be
taken by a suitablelinkage to a dial, thus indicating airspeed.It should
be noted that the airspeedindicator is in fact a dynamic pressureindicator
but is calibrated suitably in knots. As it measuresdynamic pressure
directly it is extremelyusefulwhen flying the aircraft asmost aerodynamic
functions of the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For
instance,the stalling speedof an aircraft is always measuredin indicated
airspeedand remains, for the same weight, pretty well a constant figure
regardlessof altitude. No mention has been made yet of compressibility
and in fact this should be taken into account. The airspeedindicator
reading (correctedfor instrument and position errors), when correctedfor
compressibility at all speedsis called equivalent air speed(EAS).
I The airflow over the upper surface of a cambered wing:

a) increasesin velocity and pressure.
b) increasesin velocity and reducesin pressure.
c) reducesin velocity and pressure.
d) reducesin velocity and increasesin pressure.
Ref para2.4
27
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
As the camberof an aerofoilsectionis increased:

a) velocityof the airflow is decreased.
b) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceis decreased.
c) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceis increased.
d) pressureoverthe uppersurfaceremainsthe samefor any camber.
Ref para 2.4
The stagnation point on an aerofoil in flight is:

a) located at the point ofdeepest section.
b) air at rest at the section leading edge.
c) air at rest between the trailing edge streamlines.
d) air at rest on the upper surfaceof the wing.
Refpara2.5
The stagnation point is:

a) static pressureplus dynamic pressure.
b) static pressureminus dynamic pressure.
c) static pressureonly.
d) dynamic pressureonly.
Ref para2.5
'Lift' is a result of:
In generalterms
a) an increaseofpressure under the wing.
b) a reduction ofpressure over the wing upper surface.
c) a reduction ofpressure over the upper and lower surfaces'
d) an increaseofpressure above and below the wing'
Ref para 2.4
2B
- Aerofoilsand Actions
Aerodynamics
(Definitions)
3.1 ChordLine
The chord line of an aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge
to the trailing edge.It is normally used as a referencelini when meaiurine
the angular position of the wing related to the airflow. Fig 3-l
Radius
camber Line
Figure3-1
3.2 MeanCamberLine
A ling whichjoins the leadingedgeto the trailingedgesuchthat it is
equidistant
fromtheuppersurface andlowersurfaieofthe aerofoil.If it
is curved the aerofoil is describedas cambered. Fis 3-l
3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio (,,Fineness Ratio,,)

This is the ratio of the maximumthicknessof the crosssectionto the
chord,andis usuallyexpressed asa percentage.
Fig 3-l
3.4 Angle of Attack

Theangleof attackis theanglebetween thechordlineof thewingand
thedirectionof therelativeairflow.Fig3-2
29
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Angle
I
I
o,iJ.*
/
_I RelativeAir Flow
Figure3-2
3.5 Angle of lncidence

This is the angleat which the aerofoilis attachedto an aircraft fuselage
whenthe aircraft is in riggingposition.
The term rigging position is essentiallyan aircraft engineer'sterm
whichmeansthe aircraftisjackedclearof the groundand is laterallyand
longitudinallyin the attitudeit would possess in levelflight.
3.6 Wash Out

in wing angleof incidencefrom root to tip.
A decrease
3.7 Wash In
An increasein angleof incidencefrom root to tip.
Root chord
rt
Chord
3.8 Wing Area

The area enclosedby the wing outline and extending through the fuselage
to the centreline.
3.9 MeanChord (Geometric)

Thewingareadividedby thespan.
30
- AEROFOILS
AERODYNAMICS AND ACTIONS(DEFINITIONS)
3.10 TaperRatio
Theratioof theroot chordto tip chord.Fig 3-3
3.11 AspectRatio
The ratio of thewingspanto themeanchord,or alternatively to
span2
wingarea.
3.12 Wing Loading

Theweightof theaircraftdividedby thewingarea.
3.13 SweepAngle
The angle between the lateral axis and the % chord line (may be referred
to as the leading edge).Fig 3r-3 ^ ;).I
3.14 Dihedral
Theupwardinclinationof thewingto theplanethroughthelateralaxis.
Fis 3-4
Figure3-4
3.15 Anhedral
The downwardinclinationof the wing to the planethroughthe lateral
axis.Fig 3-5
Figure3-5
31
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
3.16 Axesand FlightControls(PrimaryControls)
(a) Elevators
The elevatoris attachedto the trailing edgeof the tailplaneand controls
thepitchingmomentaboutthelateralaxis.A backwardmovementof the
controlcolumnmovestheelevatorup andcausestheaircraftnoseto pitch
up. Fig 3-6
P i t c h i n oR o t a t i o na b o u t t h e L a t e r a a
l xis.
C o n t r o lb y E l e v a t o r s( l o n g i t u d i n acl o n t r o l )
Figure
3-6 Pitching
Controlby Elevators
(b) Ailerons
The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edgesof the wings or
mainplanes and controls the rolling motion about the longitudinal axis.
If the control column is moved to the right the right aileron moves up and
the left aileron down, causing a roll to the right. Fig3-7
R o l l i n oR o t a t i o na b o u t t h e L o n g i t u d i n aal x i s .
C o n t r o lb v A i l e r o n s( L a t e r acl o n t r o l )
Figure3-7
(c) Rudder
The rudder is attachedto the rear edgeof the fin and causesthe aircraft
to yaw about the normal axis. Movement of the right rudder pedal
32
- AEROFOILS
AERODYNAMICS (DEFINITIONS)
ANDACTIONS
forward movesthe rudderto the right causingthe aircraft to yaw to the

right aboutthe normal axis.Fig 3-8
Y a w i n-q R o t a t i o na b o u t t h e N o r m a l a x i s
Control bv Rudder (Directionalcontrol)
Figure3-B
3.17 AlternativeFormsof Control

or All-MovingTail
(a) Stabilator
Sometimes elevatorcontrol.
usedin placeof separate
Figure3-9 Stabilator
(b) Spoilers
May be usedinsteadof or in addition to ailerons.when the spoileris
operatedit causesa lossof lift on the sideit is raised,thus causinga roll
to that side.Movementof thecontrol columnto the right causesthe right
spoilerto risebut the left spoilerto remainretracted.
F i g u r e3 - 10 S p o i l e r
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
I The thickness/chordratio of a wing is also known as the:

a) aspectratio.
b) mean chord ratio.
c) Finenessratio.
d) incidenceratio.
Ref para3.3
2 The angle of attack of an aerofoil section is the angle between the:

a) chord line and the mean chord line.
b) chord line and the relative airflow.
c) undersideof the surface and the relative airflow.
d) mean camberline and the relative airflow.
Ref para 3.4
3 The Mean Chord (Geometric) is the:

a) wing area divided bY the sPan.
b) ratio of root chord to tiP chord.
c) ratio of the wing span to the mean chord.
d) wing area multiplied by the span.
Ref para 3.9
4 A High Aspect Ratio wing is a wing with:

a) long span,long chord.
b) long span,short chord.
c) short span, short chord.
d) short span, long chord.
Ref Para3.1I
5 The angle betweenthe lateral axis and the % chordline is known as:
a) the dihedral angle.
b) the sweepangle.
c) the incidenceangle.
d) the chord angle.
Refpara3.13
. A
J+
4
Drag
4.1 lntroduction
It is convenientto studythe subjectof drag undertwo distinctheadings:
ProfileDrag or'ZeroLift Drag'

InducedDrag or'Lift DependentDrag'. (SeeChapter6)
4.2 Profile Drag (ParasiteDrag)

underthreesub-headings:
Profiledragis discussed
(i) SkinFrictionDrag
(ii) Form or PressureDrag
(iii) InterferenceDrag.
(a) Skin FrictionandBoundaryLayer

Considera flat smoothsurfaceoverwhich an airstreamis flowing.What
may seemto be a smoothsurfaceto an observer,will, to a moleculeof air,
seema veryroughone.Air is a viscousmedium,and anysurfacesubjected
to a movingairstreamwill inevitablyhave,through viscousadhesion,a
minutelythin layerof air at its surfacewhich haszerorelativevelocity.
Succeeding layersadjacentto the surfacewill, throughthesameviscous
action,be subjectto retardation,but to a lesserdegreewith increasing
distance(albeita very small one) from the surface.A point is therefore
reachedwherethe airflow will be unaffected,and its velocitywill be that
of the 'freestream'airflow.
This layer of air from the surfacewherethereis zero velocity,to the
point wherethereis no retardation,is referredto asthe'BoundaryLayer'
and is normallydefinedas the regionin which the velocityof flow is less
than99o/oof the free streamvalue.
The boundarylayer existsin two forms: (a) Laminar Flow, and (b)
TurbulentFlow.
Physicallawsdictatethat at somepoint alonga surfacewhichis subject
to a moving airstream,the flow will changefrom laminar to turbulent.
This point is of importancein the study of drag, the significantfeature
beingthat the drag is greaterin the turbulentlayerthan in the laminar.
The main variableswhich dictatethe chaneefrom the laminarstateto
35
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
the turbulentare:(a) Velocityof flow, (b) Viscosityof thefluid, or air, (c)

Sizeof the object.
Generallyspeaking,the transitionpoint for an aerofoilsectionwill be
at the point of maximum sectiondepth where the velocity of flow is
(referto Venturi effect).As can be clearlyseen,it paysto main-
greates-t
iain laminar boundary layer flow as long as possibleover an aerofoil
sectionin order to reducedrag, and to keep the surfaceas smooth as
possible.
One method of ensuringa greaterpercentageof laminar flow is to
maintainan increasingdepthof sectionasfar backfrom theleadingedge
as possible,therebylocatingthe point of maximumvelocityfarther aft.
This resultsin a wing sectionknown asa laminarflow wing;a description
whichis, of course,only partiallytrue; Fig 4-l indicatesnon-laminarand
laminarsections.
+ +
>t t
ConventionalSection Laminar Flow Section
and LaminarFlowSections
Figure4-1 Conventional
Figure4-2 showssomeimportantfeaturesof the transitionfrom laminar

to turbulentflow, thesebeing:
(i) The depthof the laminarlayertypicallygivenas 0.07in.
(il The depthof the turbulentlayertypicallygivena-s0.7in'
iiii) fn. veiocitygradientsof the two layersbeingdifferentleadsto the
greatershearingor friction effectoccuringin the turbulentlayer.
Distancefrom
Surface0.7in
Laminar Sub-Layer
Figure4-2 The BoundaryLayer
36
DRAC
I
(b) Form or PressureDrag

When an objectis placedin a viscousfluid, suchas air, which is moving
relativeto the object,it will experience a resistanceowing to the forma-
tion of vorticeswhich createturbulentas opposedto streamlinedflow.
If we regarda flat plateat right anglesto an airflow (Fig 4-3) as being
an extremecase,the kineticenergyof the airstreamis largelybrought to
rest and convertedto pressureenergy:the diagramalso showsthe point
'S'which is referredto as the stagnationpoint. The pressurebrought to
rest,is referredto asthe'Dynamic Pressure';it is of considerableimpor-
tance,and is the pressureexperiencedby any object when a moving
airstreamis brought to rest:it is quite distinctfrom staticpressure.The
formula for dynamicpressureis YzpY2wherep = air densityand V is
velocity.
It may be seenfrom Fig 4-3,that the flow behindthe plateis composed
of vortices,and sincethesehavelow pressurein the centre,we now have
high pressure in front andlow behindthe plate:this resultsin a dragforce
in thedirectionof themovinsairstream.
,t-3 Turbulent
Figure Wake
(c) Reduction of drag with streamlining

It is clear from the extreme case of the flat plate at right angles to the
airflow, that it representsthe maximum generation of vortices and turbu-
lence; in other words, maximum resistanceor drag. The production of
vortices require the expenditure of energy in order to generatethem, and
this of course, is wasteful. By substituting a cylindrical section for the
plate, as in Fig 4-3, we produce a less abrupt change in the path which
the airflow is trying to follow. In this case,fewer vortices are generated;
there is lessdifferencein pressurefrom the front to the rear of the shape,
'streamlining'
and a degreeof has been achieved.
Taken a step further, referenceto Fig 4-4wlll show a more streamlined
shape as in a symmetrical aerofoil section. This shape allows the airflow
a much more gradual passagefrom the front of the sectionto the rear than
in the caseof the cylinder. The end result therefore, of streamlining, is to
produce much less vortex generation, reduced turbulence, and greatly
reduced drag.
37
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
Aerofoil
Figure4-4 TheStreamlined
Although by carefulstreamliningconsiderablereductionsin the 'fine- form

drag are Jchievedthere is a limit to extension of the method. The
ness'ratio'ofan aerofoilsectionis a measureof its streamlining, and is
definedasthe thickness to chord length ratio. Figure 4-5 shows a section
of conventionalratio, but if this ratio is too great,the resultingvery thin
sectionleadsto attendantconstructionaldifficulties'
Figure4-5 A Conventional FinenessRatio
(d) Interference drag

ilir u.o.pfete aircrlft, thetotal dragis greaterthan the sumof thevalues
for the individualparts of the aircrift. This additionaldrag is the result
junc-
of 'flow interference'in suchareasas wing/fuselage, wing/nacelle
tions,and in fact any areaswheresuchjunctionsexist'
The interferencelLadsto modificationsof boundarylayers(discussed
later)and createsgreaterpressuredifferencesbetweenfore and aft areas
on the surfacesconcerned,this in turn leadingto greatertotal drag.This
in
Oiug.un be reducedin valueby carefulfairing or the additionof fillets
the areasconcerned.
(e) The Drag Formula

iiir fo""a b-yexperience that, within certainlimitationsof flow velocity,
the resistanciofan objectin a moving airstreamis proportionalto:
(i) The shapeof the objectand frontal area
(ii) The squareof velocitY
(iii) The densityof the fluid
p*pV2S or R = KpV'S
As a basicformula this is written ns
DRAC
In Fig 4-3,clearly,not all the air is beingbroughtto restby the plate,

as someof it is seento be flowing round the edges.This meansthat the
full conversionof kinetic energyto pressureenergyis not realised.For
'K' in the secondformulawill vary accordingto
a
this reason,the valueof
the shapeofthe objectand its associated systemofvortices:the valueof
{ 'K'is foundby experiment.
':- The importanceof the unit of dynamicpressurehas alreadybeen
emphasised, andtheabovebasicformulais now modifiedby its inclusion.
The newformula therefore,becomes:
CoYtpY2SwhereCo is the'coeffrcientof drag',and S the wing area.
'q'
The unit of dynamicpressurelrpY', is very often written simply as
because ofits frequentuse.
As a point of interest,the valueof K in the basicformulais about0.6
for a flat plate,but sinceC = 2K, wenow havea valueof 1.2.Othervalues
ofthe dragcoefficientthat areofinterestare:
A cylindricalsection- 0.6
A streamlinedsection- 0.06
A pitot tubehasa valueof unity.
To conclude,the combineddrag due to skin friction, form drag and
'Profile drag', increasesin the
interferencedrag under the headingof
mannershownin Fig 4-6.
The subjectof InducedDrag or'lift dependentdrag' is discussed in the
chapteron Lift.
o
o
g
IAS(indicatedair speed)resultsin
Figure4-6 Increasing
increasing
profiledrag
39
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
I In levelflight a sectionof theflow aheadof a givenpoint overtheuppersurface

of the wing is laminar,that point is termedthe:
a) C ofP.
b) separationPoint.
c) laminarpoint.
d) transitionpoint.
Ref Paraa.2 @)
2 With increasingspeedin levelflight:

a) induceddrag increases-
b) profile drag increases.
c) profiledrag remainsconstant.
d) induceddrag remainsconstant.
Ref Para4.2(e)
3 Generallyspeaking,the transitionpoint for an aerofoilsectionis the:

a) point of maximumsectiondePth.
b) separationPoint.
c) point of greatestPressure.
d) leadingedge.
Ref Paraa.2 @)
of laminarflow is achievedoverthewing upper

4 To ensurea greaterpercentage
surface:
a)thesectionmaximumdepthshouldbeasneartotheleadingedgeas
possible.
as
b) the sectionmaximumdepthshouldbe as nearto the trailing edge
possible.
c) ihe sectionmaximum depth should be at the Y+chord'
d) the sectionshouldbe of a bi-convexshape'
Ref para4.2 (a)
5 As the angle of attack of a wing is increased:

a) the C of P moves aft.
bi the boundarY laYer thickens.
c) the boundary layer becomesthinner'
d) the boundary layer thicknesswill remain the same'
Ref para4.2
40
)
Lift
5.1 Introduction
It has been shown that if a streamlined body is placed in a moving
airstreamit producesdrag, a force in the direction of the airflow. It should
be noted that the streamlinedbody we were examining was symmetrical
in shape.This drag force was the total force produced by the streamlined
body. If we now incline the streamlined body at a small angle to the
airflow the total force is now no longer in the direction of the airflow and
this is illustrated in Fig 5-1. The total force can now be resolvedinto two
forces,drag and the one at right anglesto it, lift.
Lift
Resultant
II
F i g u r e5 - 1
41
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
5.2
The diagrammay give the impressionthat the lift and drag forcesare
approxiiratelyequil, but it haaonly beendrawn this way for the sakeof
"iu.lty. An aeiofoil sectionin fact,produceslift many timesgreaterthan
the valueof dragit alsoproduces.In Chapter2 Bernoulli'stheoremindi-
catedthat therewill be i reductionin pressureover the uppersurfaceof
the wing; this reductionprovidesapproximatelytwo thirds.of the lift
produce-d by a wing. The generalpressuredistributionover the surfaces
bf a wing ai a smallangleof attackis illustratedin Fig 5-2'
S t a-q n a t i o n
Point
+++ + C E
A B
Figure5-2
(a) Pressuredistribution
itt. upp.r surfaceof the wing producesa considerablereduction in
pr.rru.. but the lower surfaCeiproduce a mixture of increaseand
b""r.ur" in pressureas well. The detail of the diagram.th9rytthat at the
i.uOing edgeof the wing, point A, the full pressureis^felt,this being
tttestugnatlonpoint. As the air movesoverthe uppersurfaceof the wing,
toward"sstation B, it is approaching an areaof lower pressureand at
stationB thepressureisjuifatmosphericor static.PaststationB thepres-
suresteadilyieducesuttiil it reachesits minimum valueat C as indicated
by the longist vector,and after C as the air movestowardsthe trailing
edgeof th;wing thepressure, althoughbelowstaticpre_ssure, is now grad-
uuily in"."usin!. fne fact that the air travellingfrom C towardsD at the
traiiing edgeis-now moving againstan adversepressuregradientis of
importancewhin we cometo discussstalling.On the under-
consid"erab'ie
surfaceof the wing at point A the pressurewas abovestatic,in fact the
full dynamicp.essu.e wasfelt thereandto someextentan increasein pres-
A1
AL
l
LIFT
1
I
i
It
il
I
I
.,|
I{
1
t
,t
t
I
{
II Figure5-3
;
I
a of thewing up to aboutpoint E. Thereafter
sureis felt on theundersurface
i the wing undersurface producesa smallventuri of its own which givesa
I reductionin pressure,andin orderto limit this reductiontheundersurface
\ of the wing is givenconsiderablylesscurvaturethan the upper.
i
'l The preisuredistributionas shownin Fig 5-2, is for a c_omparatively
I smallangleof attack,sayabout4'. Changesin the angleof attackof the
1
aerofoilf,roducevery considerablechangesin the pressuredistribution
It and Fig 5-3illustratesthe pressurepatternat a high angleof attack,say
about 12o.
l (b) Pressuregradients
1
I
ihe most obviousdifferencebetweenthis diagram and Fig 5-2 is the
changeof shapeof the belowstaticpressureon top of thewing.The main
I featuie of thii new shapeis that the point of minimum pressureis very
muchnearerthe leadingedgeof the wing than it wasbefore.This means
that the air travellingfiom C to the trailing edgeof the wing hasto deal
with a very much longerand largeradversepressuregradient.The only
meansayailableto the air to travelagainstthis adversepressuregradient
is its own kinetic energy- its energyof motion - and if that adverse
pressuregradientprovei to be too greatfor the kinetic energyof the air,
ih. flo* *itt in fact break awayfrom the wing. This situationis calleda
stall and is dealtwith in a later section.On the undersurface of the wing
the effectof the increasein pressureis enhanced, thus providing morelift
43
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
C. l
-"t
I
I
*t.ol
II Criticalor
Stalling
*'i Angle
(About 16')
Figure5-4
and the smallamount of negativepressuretowardsthe trailing edgehas

beenreduced.The overalleffectof the increase in the angleof attackis to
increaselift but this process can only be carried out to a certainpoint and
when thii point is reached, the wing stalls.The relationshipbetweenthe
angleof atlack and lift is illustratedin Fig 5-4.It canbe seenthat thereis
a sGadyincrease in lift as the angle of attack increases and then a sudden
decrease at the stalling angle which occurs at about 16o.
(c) Lift Equation

ifie basicfactor controlling the value of lift is dynamicpressure.The
equationfor this, as alreadynoted,is:
Lift = YrpY'
The sizeof a wing will obviouslyaffectthe amountof lift producedand
this mustthereforebe addedto the equation:
Lift = YtpY'l, whereS is the wing area.
The shapeof a wing will alsoinfluencethe amountof lift that can be
generated and this producesa factor,dependentupon the cross-sectional
irea of the wing, citled the coefficientof lift, cL. As demonstratedwith
angleof attackihis will havean influenceupon the amountof lift gener-
44
LIFT
cL
Anoleof
Att;ck
Figure5-5
ated.The coefficientof lift is in fact a derivativeof the wing shapeand its

angleof attack.The full lift equationcan thereforebe written:
Lift = t/2pvzSCL
The shapeof the lift curvefor any wing will be more or lessthe same
but it shouldbe notedthat the higherthe camberof the wing the greater
the lift it will develop.This is illustratedin Fig 5-5 wherea cambered
sectionis comparedto a symmetricalsection.A point of interestis that
althoughthe camberedsectionstill generates lift at a zeroangleof attack
the symmetricalsectiondoesnot.
(d) Lift/Drag Ratio

The total resultantforcederivedfrom airflow overa wing canbe resolved
into two forces,lift and drag.The wholeobjectof the exerciseis of course
to producelift and in an idealsituationwould be donewithout incurring
drag.Unfortunately,this is neverpossiblebut it is of greatimportanceto
know the ratio betweenlift and drag so that the aircraftcan be designed
to providethemaximumamountof lift for theminimumamountof drag.
Lift and dragvary with the angleof attackand thevariationsof thesetwo
are shownin Fig 5-6(a) and (b).
45
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
i{Hi?" - +
Figure5-6 (a)
0.32
'I usual
A n g l e so f F l i g h t '
0.28'
0.24
I
0.20 o
I
.go
= a
dE/
0.16
0.12
0.08
0.04
I
0 10'
5'
Angle of Attack
Figure5-6 (b)
46
LIFT
If thesetwo ftguresare combinedmathematicallythey producea curve

as shown in Fig 5-7.It can be seenthat there is a steadyincreasein the
lift/drag ratio, which is what is desirable,until an angleof attack of about
4". Thereafterthe situationdeterioratesas the lift/drag ratio lessensuntil,
at an angleof attack of around 15",it tails right off, this being the stalling
angle. The highestpoint on this curve where we are getting the largest
amount of lift for the smallestamount of drag, occursat about 4'and this
is thereforethe optimum angleof attack. Obviously, the combination of
most lift for leastdrag is the most efficient and why aircraft are usually
flown at the optimum angleof attack.
5" 10. 15' ZO. 25"
Angle of Attack
F i g u r e5 - 7
(e) Movement of the Centre of Pressure

In Chapter4 the centreof pressurewas definedas that point on the chord
line through which the lift can be consideredto act. The vector repre-
senting lift through the centre of pressurepassesthrough the point of
minimum pressureon the upper surfaceof the aerofoil. This is illustrated
in Fis 5-8.
47
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Figure5-B
(f) SpanwiseDistributionof Pressure

i'tr. u*ount of lift producedby the uppersurfaceof the wing will gradu-
ally decrease from root to tip. This meansthat althoughthe pressureon
toi of the wing is all belowslaticpressure, it is much lower nearthe root
than it is neart-hetip. On theundeiside of the wing the revelseappliesand
the pressurenear the root is much higher than it is nearthe tip. Looked
ui iti ptun view, this will causethe aii flowing over the upper surfaceof
Figure5-9
4B
1
i
LIFT
I
the wing to be deflectedinwards and the air flowing over the underside
of the wing to be deflectedoutwards.This is illustratedin Fig 5-9.
When the two airflows meet at the trailing edgeof the wing they are
moving in different directionsand the resultis to form a sheetof vortices.
If onewereto be ableto seethe air and standbehindthe trailing edgeof
the wing, the vorticeson the right-handwing would be rotating anti-
clockwiseand on the left-handwing rotating clockwise.The result of
thesevorticesis to impart a downwardvelocityto the airflow. This down-
ward movementof the air asit passes overthe trailing edgeof the wing is
calleddownwash.
I For a camberedwing sectionthe zero lift angleof attack will be:

a) positive.
b) 4".
c) zero.
d) negative.
Ref para 5.2(c)
2 lf the angle of attack of a wing is increasedin flight the:

a) C of P will move forward.
b) C of G will move aft.
c) C of P will remain in the sameplace.
d) C of P will move aft.
Ref para 5.2(a)
3 When maintaining level flight an increase of speed will:

a) have no effect on the C ofP position.
b) causethe C of P to move forward.
c) causethe C of P to move aft.
d) causethe C of G to move forward.
Ref para 5.2(c)
4 For the same angle of attack a cambered wing will produce:

a) lesslift than one with no camber.
b) more lift than one with no camber.
c) the same lift regardlessof camber.
d) lesslift and drag than one with no camber.
Ref para 5.2 (c)
49
q-:
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
5 The Lift/Drag ratio of a wing sectionat its stalling angleis:

a) moderate.
b) of a negativevalue.
c) low.
d) high.
Ref Para5.2(d)
50
6
1
I
\ lnducedDrag
t
II
i
t 6.1 Introduction
Pressuredistributionover the upperand lower surfacesof the wing was
examinedin Chapter5. As high pressureexistsunderneaththe wing and
low pressureon top of the wing, the oneplacewherethesepressures will
attemptto equalizeis aroundthewing tip. The high pressureunderneath
the wing movesupwardstowardsthe low pressureon the upper surface
and in doing soassumes a rotary motion.This rotary motion spiralsback
from the wing tip, moving in an anticlockwisedirectionfrom the right-
hand wing tip as viewedfrom behindand in a clockwisedirectionfrom
the left-hand wing tip. Energy is required to produce this rotational
vortexfrom eachwing tip and thisenergycancomeonly from thrust.The
vorticesthereforecreatedrag and this drag is calledinduceddrag.
6.2 Drift effect

The larger the lift beingproducedby the wing, the biggerthe pressure
differencebetweenthe lower and uppersurfaces.The largerthe pressure
differencethe strongerthe vortex producedand it can thereforebe said
that induceddrag is proportional to lift. In straightand levelflight lift
mustequalweight,soif weightis increased thenlift mustbeincreased and
thereforeinduceddrag will be larger.The sameis also true for a turn
Figure6-.1 Tip Vortices
51
producingmore induceddrag althoughthe

wherelift must be increased,
gravitationalweight has not beenchanged.Vorticesare showndiagra-
maticallyin Fig 6-1.
6.3 Downwash
The effectof the vortex is to deflectthe air downwardsas it passesover
the trailingedgeof thewing,in otherwordsproducingdownwash.As the
maximumstrengthof this movementis closeto the vortex,asonemoves
from the wing tip towardsthe fuselagethe downwashsteadilydecreases.
Thus for a givenstrengthof vortex,the largerthe wing spanthe lesswill
be the effectof this downwashvelocity.
The angulardeflectionof the airflow will dependon the speed.For a
givendownwashvelocitythedeflectionanglewill begreaterat low speeds
than at high speeds,as shownin Fig 6-2.
o1 k Downwash
----_ Downwash
Angle Angle
-------\
--\
Angle
Figure6-2 Downwash
The total reaction force of a wing is at right angles,not to the initial direc-
tion of the airflow, but to the resultant betweenthe original direction and
the final direction. It will be readily seenthat the more the final flow is
deflected downwards - in other words the bigger the downwash - the
more the total reaction is tilted rearwards, and this is clearly illustrated in
Fig 6-3. The actual usable lift in level flight has to be perpendicular. This
leavesa small rearward component of the total reaction force and this is
induced drag.
From Fig 6-3 it will be seenthat the larger the lift component the bigger
will be the rearward component Di, induced drag. Induced drag is in fact
proportional to lift'.
6.4 Spaneffect
The wing span of the aircraft has a marked effect on the amount of
induceddrag. The strengthof the vortex diminishesfrom the wing tip
towardsthefuselageandthereforethedownwashcreatedby it alsodimin-
ishes.For a given strengthof tip vortex, therefore,the longerthe wing
spanthe lower will be the averagedownwashand the lower the induced
drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer span and short tip chord
52
INDUCEDDRAC
FinalFlow
(Downwash)
Angle
6-3 Downwash
Figure
producesa weaker vortex than a wing with a short span and long tip chord
and will therefore give lessinduced drag. In other words, the higher the
aspectratio, the lower the induced drag.
6.5 Summaryof €ffects

The amountof induceddragcreatedby a wing dependsupon the amount
of downwashandwe sawfrom Fig6-2 that theslowerthespeedthebigger
the angulardeflectiondownwardsof the air. This thereforemeansthat
the induced drag is largest at low speedsand decreasesas the speed
We can sayfrom this that induceddrag variesinverselyas the
increases.
squareof the speedor, induceddrag is proportionalto -1
speed'
To summarisethe effectsof induceddrag,then:
(a) Induced drag increaseswith an increasein weight.
(b) Induced drag decreaseswith wing span, that is, high aspectratio
reducesinduceddrag.
(c) induceddrag decreases.
Speedincreases,
Severaldeductionscan be made from this summary.It becomes
apparentthat glidersand sailplaneshaving very long, narrow wings-
wings with a high aspectratio - and normally flying at very low speeds
when induceddrag is at its highest,thereforebenefit from high aspect
ratio wingsto reducethis dragto a minimum.Conversely,largejet trans-
port aircraftdo not usuallyhavehigh aspectratio wingsand,in addition,
ire usuallyof veryhigh weight.From this it is apparentthat at low speed
they will havevery high induceddrag.
53
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
Further referenceto Induced Drag is made in Chapter l0 Wing

Planforms.
Key Points To Noie
I InducedDrag is proportionalto Lift.
2 InducedDrag is inverselyproportionalto Speed.
3 InducedDrag is greatesttoward the wing tip.
4 InducedDrag is lesswith greaterwing aspectratio.
5 A High AspectRatio Wing hasa long spanand a shortchord.
6 The amount of lift generatedby the wing upper surfaceis greatest
towardsthe wing root.
7 The airflow over the upper surfaceof the wing in flight tendsto flow
towardsthe root.
8 In flight, the angleof attack at which the largestamount of lift is
generatedfor the smallestamount of drag is at approximately4o.
This is known asthe optimum angleof attack.
9 lt can be said that from an angle of attack of zero up to 4o the
LiftlDrag ratio increases.Above 4oit decreases.
10 Atzero angleof attack a camberedaerofoilproducessomelift and
somedrag.
l1 At zeroangleof attacka symmetricalwing producesno lift but some
drag.
l2 On a wing in flight, 2ltof thelift is producedby the uppersurfaceand
the remainderbv the lower surface.
I Induceddrag is:
a) greatesttowardsthe wing root and downwashis greatestat the tip.
b) greatesttowardsthe wing tip and downwashis greatesttoward the root.
c) balancedfrom root to tip.
d) greatesttoward the tip and downwashdecreasesfrom tip to root.
Ref para 6.5
2 Airflow over the uppersurfaceof the wing generally:

a) flows towardsthe root.
b) flowstowardsthetip.
c) flows straightfrom leadingto trailing edge.
d) produceshigherpressurethan that flowingoverthe undersurface.
Ref para 6.5
54
INDUCEDDRAC
3 Induceddrag:
a) increasesasthe squareofthe speed.
b) variesinverselyasthe squareofthe speed.
c) reduceswith increasedangleof attack.
d) remainsconstantfor a given speedregardlessof angleof attack.
Ref para 6.5
4 For a givenangleofattack induceddrag is:

a) greateron a high aspectratio wing.
b) greatertowardsthe wing root.
c) greateron a low aspectratio wing.
d) balancedacrossthe spanof the wing.
Ref para6.5
5 Induceddrag:
a) increases
with increasein speed.
b) increaseswith increasein aircraft weight
cjreduceswith an increasein angleof at"tact.
d) reduceswith altitudeat constantLA.S.
Ref para 6.5
55
7
TotalDrag
7.1 lntroduction
In precedingsectionsit has beenshownthat the aircraft is subjectedto
two typesof drag,profile drag and induceddrag. Profile drag increases
with speedand is proportional to the squareof the speed,and induced
drag dlcreaseswith speedand is inverselyproportionalto the squareof
thespeed.Thesetwo curvesof profile andinduceddragareshownagainst
speedin Fig 7-1. The two curvescan be amalgamatedto give the total
dragcurveof the aircraft.The lowestpoint on this total dragcurvegives
the speedat which the total drag is a minimum.This speedis calledthe
minimumdragspeed,V-a. For a constantweightandin straightandlevel
flight the V-a will be a constantindicatedairspeedfor all altitudes.It
would be reasonableto assumethat one would be better off flying the
aircraftat V-a because thedragis leastat this speed.In practicehowever,
aircraft are not normally operated at this speedbecausethe overall
efficiency,especiallythat of the engine,may be betterat a higherspeed.
6 E
o
I
3l
c
ir
a
<kE ="_.--_
Speed
Figure7-1
56
TOTALDRAU
It is of someimportancewhenhandlingan aircraft to know if the speed

is stable.By this it is meantthat if for somereasonthe speedincreases,
perhapsdue to temporaryturbulence,doesthe speedtend to decayback
to its original value or not? The answerto this questioncan be found by
examiningthe total dragcurvewhich is shownagainin FigT-2.
SPEED
Figure7--2
consideran aircraftflying at speedX. In straightand levelflight thrust

= dralso the thrust requiredis indicatedby the horizontalline Tr. If for
somereasonthe speedincreases from X to Y, the thrust remaining
unchanged,the drag now exceeds the thrust so the speedwill drop back
to its originalvalueat X. If, on the other hand,the speeddecaysto point
Z, thrustis now greaterthan dragand the speedwill automaticallyreturn
to its originalvalueat X. It shouldbe notedthat the two speedsquoted
hereareaboveV-0. On the othersideof the curvewith the aircraftflying
at speedA the thrust levelis now Tz. If the speednow reducesto B the
dragbecomes higherthan thethrustand the speedwill continueto decay.
If, conversely,the speedincreases to point C, the thrust becomeshigher
than the dragandthespeedwill continueto increase. Thesesecondexam-
ples are speedsbelow V-0. This simpleillustration makesclear why at
ipeedshigherthan V-o the speedtendsto be stableand at speedsbelow
V-a the speedis not stable.
This speedinstability below V-a is most marked on jet transport
aircraft.the greatweightof someof thelargertypesof suchaircrafttoday
producesveiy high induced drag values and makes handling on the
ipproach somewhatdifficult. Considerableanticipationis requiredto
click either increaseor decreasein speed,the whole thing being
57
aggravated to the slowresponse ofjet engines.It would be fair to saythat

this typeof aircraftrequiresmoreprecisehandlingon the approachthan
the piston-engined aircraftand is lessforgivingof imprecisehandling.
In the sectionon induceddrag it was shownthat if weightis increased
theninduceddrag alsoincreases. The minimumdrag speedoccursat the
point wherethe curvefor profile dragcrosses the curvefor induceddrag.
-l
As will be seenfrom Fig 7 , at this speed the value of the induceddragis
the sameas that of profile drag. In other words profile drag equals
induceddrag and total drag is doublethe valueof eitherone.
Figure 7-3 illustratesthe fact that an increasein aircraft weight will
raisethe speedat which Vmaoccurs.
SPEED
Figure 7-3
It was shownin the previousChapterthat the effectof an increasetn

induceddrag.From this it followsthat aircraft
aspectratio is to decrease
with high aspectratioswill havea lowerV-o than aircraftwith low aspect
ratios.
7.2 Wave Drag

It hasbeenshownthat drag is the sameat any altitudefor a givenIAS
but an aircraft climbing at this constantIAS has a steadilyincreasing
Mach number.When this Mach numberreachesa certainvaluethe drag
startsto increasebecauseof compressibilityeffects.This drag is known
aswavedragand its effecton thetotal dragcurveis illustratedin Fig 7-4.
5B
TOTALDRAG
tI
---------*
sPEED
Figure74
7.3 SUMMARY:CheckList.
From the previous paragraphs'thefollowing has been established:
an increase in angle of attack will produce an increase in lift brought
about by the velocity of the airflow over the upper surface of the wing
being increased.
An increasein the angle of attack will cause:
(a) The Centre of Pressureto move forward.
(b) The Transition Point to move forward.
(c) The Separation Point to move forward.
(d) The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the under-
surface of the wing.
The Centre of Pressurewill reach its farthest forward point at just

below the stalling angle.
Induced Drag is directly related to lift becauseas the angle of attack is
increased the induced drag will increase. Due to the greater pressure
difference between the upper and lower surfacesof the wing, the tip vortex
(the basic origin of induced drag) will become intensified. For a given
speedthe greater the angle of attack the greater the induced drag.
It is important to realise that although induced drag increaseswith
increased lift when increasing angle of attack, the increase in lift will
always be much greater than drag up to and including the stalling angle.
59
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Rememberthe stalling angleis the angleabovewhich a given aerofoil

will stall.
Induced Drag is influet'rcedby the aspectratio of the wing, the higher
the aspectratio for a givenwing areathe lessthe induceddrag produced.
Induced drag is always greatesttowards the wing tip where the tip
vortex is generatedby air flowing from the undersideof the wing to the
uppersurface,whereit thenflows aft and down behindthe wing and tends
to convergebehind the aircraft. It can alsobe said the flow on the upper
surfaceof the wing tendsto flow aft and towards the wing root, and on
the undersurfaceof the wing, aft and towards the wing tip, as a direct
result of the influenceof the vortex at the wing tip. The flow towards the
root and tip on the upperand lower surfacescausenumerousvorticesto
form at the trailing edgeof the wing.
The greater the chord length at the wing tip the more intensethe tip
vortex becomesand so the greaterthe induceddrag. Hencea high aspect
ratio wing with a long spanand a short chordwill producelessinduced
drag than a low aspectratio wing with a short spanand a long chord.
The Lift/Orag ratio of an aerofoil increasesrapidly up to approxi-
mately3" to 4" at whichanglesthe lift is some24 timesthe drag,the ratio
then falh progressively until at the stallingangle,approximately15",the
lift may only be 10 or 12 times as greatas the drag. Above the stalling
angle the ratio falls still further until an angleof attack of 90ois reached
when lift will be zero.
The bestall round angleof attackis 3" to 4" wherethe Lift/Drag ratio
is greatest,and this angleof attackis alsoknown as the optimum angle
of attack.
It is alsoimportant to note that a camberedaerofoil, evenat zero angle
of attack will producesomelift and somedrag. Even at somenegative
anglesof attacka camberedaerofoilwill producesomelift and drag.But
remember,asymmetricalaerofoil atzeroangleof attack will produceno
lift but somedrag.
To obtain a goodunderstanding of the Principlesof Flight it is impor-
tant to interrelatethe variouspoints that are madeat eachstageand to
avoidconsideringthemas separateentities.
I With an increasein aspectratio for a givenIAS induceddrag will:
a) remainconstant.
b) increase.
c) reduce.
d) noneofthe above.
Ref Para7.1
60
TOTAL DRAG
2 Induceddrag:
a) is only equalto profile drag when the aircraft is at rest.
b) is equalto profile drag at the stalling angle.
c) is equalto profile drag at V.a.
d) is neverequalto profrledrag.
Refpara7.1
3 With an increase in aircraft weight:

a) V-a will be at the same value.
b) V-o will be at a lower speed.
c) V-a will be at a higher speed.
d) total drag will be unchanged.
Ref para7.1
4 With an increasein aspectratio the value of V-a will:

a) remainthe same.
b) be reduced.
c) be increased.
d) noneofthe above.
Refpara7.1
5 For a given IAS an increasein altitude will result in:

a) no changein the valueofinduceddrag.
b) an increasein induceddrag.
c) a reductionin profile drag.
d) a reductionin induceddrag.
Ref para 7.1
61
I
Stalling
8.1 Introduction
It has already been shown that the lift produced by a wing steadily
increasesas the angle of attack is increased,but only up to a certain point.
Past this angle of attack the lift decreasesrapidly and the angle at which
this occurs is known as the stalling angle.
8.2 The DeterminingFactor

A stall is produced when the airflow has broken away from most of the
upper surface of the wing. The determining factor in this is the angle of
attack: the wing always stalls at a fxed angle, usually in the region of l5'.
8.3 The Cause

Thecauseof thestallis theinabilityof theair to traveloverthe surface
of the wing againstthe adversepressuregradientbehind the point of
minimumpressure. Figure8-1(a)illustratesthepressuredistributionover
theuppersurfaceof the wing at a smallangleof attack,sayabout4'. The
minimum pressurepoint is at B, and the air travelsfrom A to B without
difficulty as it is moving from high to low pressure.However,from B to
C it is beingforcedte travelfrom low to high pressure, that is, againstan
adversepressuregradient.This posesno problemsat low anglesof attack
becausethe kineticenergyof the air is adequateto take it to the trailing
Figure8-1 (a)
62
STALLING
Figure8-1 (b)
edge.As angle of attack is increasedhowever,the minimum pressure

point movesforwardand thedistanceB to C increases until at the stalling
angleit coversmost of the wing. This is illustratedin Fig 8-1(b).When
the angleof attack reachesa certain value the air runs out of kinetic
energyandbreaksawayfrom thesurfaceof thewing in a randommanner'
sharplyand drag increases
Lift decreases considerably.
8.4 Alleviation
Variousdesignfeaturescanbe incorporatedin the wing whichwill assist
in ensuringthat the root of the wing stallsbeforethe tip' Theseare:
(a) The wing may be twistedso that the tip is at a smallerangleof inci-
dencethan the root, which will ensurethat the root reachesits
stallinganglebeforethe tip.
(b) The cross-sectionof the wing tip may be givena highercamberthan
the root, which will giveit a highercoefhcientof lift.
(c) A stall-inducermay be fitted to the wing root as illustratedin Fig
8-2. Thesestrips reducethe effectivecamberof the root. This
reducesits coefficientof lift and will causeit to stallbeforethe tip.
63
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
FigureB-2
8.5 The Effectof EnginePower

of stallingspeed
poweris on therewill bea reduction
If engine compared
with thepower-offstallingspeed. With propeller-drivenaircraftthis is
due to:
(a) Vertical component thrust
(b) The propeller slipstream over the wings.
8.6 Constancy
In straight and level flight at the stall, for a given wing area, cross-section
and weight, the lift is of fixed value. This is a most fortunate occurrence
when one considersthe lift equation:
Lift = VzpY2Sc,
* angleof attack
As lift at the stall is a fixed value and angleof attack,wing areaand
coefficientof lift are alsoconstant,the total valueof lzpY2must alsobe
constant.YzpY2 is dynamicpressureshownon the airspeedindicatorand
it is for this reasonthat for a givenweightan aircraftwill alwaysstall at
the sameindicatedairspeedregardless of height.
8.7 Weight Effect

Any changeof weightwill requirea differentvalueof lift for straightand
64
STALLINC
level flight, an increasein weight requiring an increasein lift. At the

stalling angle in level flight, the greater the weight the more the lift
required and, therefore,the higher the stalling speed.A useful rule of
thumb in this contextis.that the percentage increasein stallingspeedis
half the percentage increase in weight. Thus:
Weight 2000lb, normal stallingspeed100kt.
Weight 2200 lb, percentageincrease10%, stalling speed
5oh,ieto 105kt.
increases
8.8 Loading ln Turns
The sameeffect is produced during manoeuvreswhich produce a G

loading,for instance,turns.During a turn thelift not only hasto balance
the weight but also the centrifugal force resulting from the aircraft
movingin a curvedpath. Because of this the lift hasto be greaterthan in
levelflight and,providedthespeedis kept constant,theonly way that this
extralift can be derivedis by an increasein angleof attack.This increase
in angleof attackputs the aircraft wing nearerto the stallingangle.The
result of having to produce effectivelymore lift from the wings is that
the aircraft's weight appearsto be increased,hencethe expressionG
loading.The increasein stallingspeedis calculatedby taking the normal
stallingspeedin levelflight for the aircraft'sweightand multiplyingit by
the squareroot of the G loading.For example:
Normal stallingspeed100kt,
Stallingspeedin a 2 G turn = 100x squareroot?
= 1 0 0x 1 . 4
= 140kt.
Further details of calculatingstalling speedsare given later in this
chapter.
8.9 Effect of Shape

A wing doesnot normallystall over its entirelengthsimultaneously; the
stall beginsat one part of the wing and then spreads.The main factor
governingwherethe stallbeginsis the shapeof the wing,and will bedealt
with in a later section.It is plainly undesirablethat a wing stallsfrom its
tip first as this can lead to control difficulties.Any tendencyto drop a
wing at the stallmay well leadto spinning.Further advantages of having
a wing stallfrom its root ratherthan tip first are that aileroncontrol can
bemaintainedup to the point of full stall and the separatedairflow from
the wing root will causebuffet over the tail which servesto act as a stall
warnins.
65
When the angleof attackincreases to high valuesthe upward inclina-

tion of the thrustline providesa verticalcomponentwhich actsin concert
with the lift to support the aircraft'sweight. The slipstreamfrom the
propellerincreasesthe speedof the air flowing over the wing, thus
delayingthe stall.Cautionshouldbe exercised in power-onstallsas their
effeit rnay resultin a tip stall on a wing which normally stallsfrom the
root.
8.10 The Position of the Centre of Gravity

The stallingspeedwill be affectedby the positionof the centreof gravity.
If the centri of gravityis forwardof the centreof pressurea down-loadis
requiredfrom the horizontalstabilizer.The effectof this is that the lift
is iupporting not only the weightthrough the centreof gravity but also
the down-loid on the tail, thereforethe lift will haveto be higherand in
turn the stallingspeedwill behigher.The nearerthat thecentreof gravity
approachesto ihe centreof pressure,the lesswill be the down-loadand
the stallingspeedwill consequently be reduced.
l : _ l o o o o o o o . o o a o oc E o c t o o c c ! c D g i c !
L J -
FwdCG limit
lJ , , o , a o . . . , r o o ! 6 c c o o ! D c a o gD r r
t r -
Figure8-3 The locationof the centreof gravityaffectsthe tail loadingand hence

the stallingspeed.
66
STALLING
8.11 lcing
Theeffectof iceformationon a wing is to corruptthe camberof the wing
and so considerablyto reducethe coefficientof lift. This can be brought
about by extremelythin layersof ice - evenhoar frost - and the utmost
caremust be taken to de-icethe wings of an aircraft prior to takeoff if
thereis any suggestion that ice may be presenton the wings.The drastic
effectof ice in reducingthe coefficientof lift and, as a result,causingthe
stallingspeedto be much higherthan normal,is illustratedin Fig 8-4.
H \
<t^
oril
ztt)
fr-
il
bl
ANGLE OF ATTACK
FigureB-4
8.12 StallWarning Devices

It is not normalto haveanangleof attackindicatoron theflightdeck;it
is usualinsteadto havesomeform of stallwarningalarmoperated by a
switchwhich is sensitiveto angleof attack.The warning may take the
followingforms:
(a) A visualwarning,examplea flashinglight.
(b) Audiblewarnings,examplea horn or stickknocker.
(c) A stickshaker.
8.13 Spinning
Followinga stallinvolvinga wing drop, a spinmay develop.Referringto
the diagramin Fig 8-5,the wing which dropsincreases its effectiveangle
of attackdue to having acquireda downwardvelocity.This increasein
angleof attack causesa further decrease in lift and an increasein drag.
Theupgoingwing, however,experiences a decrease in angleof attackand
67
an increasein lift. As the lift hasbeenreducedon the downgoingwing it

will continueto drop and any attempt to raiseit by the useof ailerons
merelyaggravates the situationbecauseit will increase the angleof attack
still further.At the sametime theincreasein dragon thedowngoingwing,
coupledwith a decreasein drag on the upgoingwing, will producea
yawingmomenttowardsthe droppedwing. From this it canbe seenthat
the aircraftwill roll and yaw towardsthe droppedwing, and this motion
may be self-sustaining. the motion is describedasa
If it is self-sustaining,
spin.Spinningis discussed in detail in Chapter9.
0
-1 8'
RISING
WING
BECOMESLESS
"@e*tteo
FigureB-5
8.14 The Deep Stall

Conventionalrecoveryfrom a stallis by easingthe stickforward to lower
the noseand then applying power. However,someaircraft of current
designwill enterinto what is known as a deepstall,or a super-stall,from
which normal recoveryis not possible.Broadly speaking,theseaircraft
havesweptbackwings,high speedwing sectionsand a high T-tail.
The aiiflow following a stall in a conventionalaircraft is illustratedin
Fig 8-6.It canbe seenthat althoughthe air hasbrokenawayin a random
mannerfrom the uppersurfaceof the wing, the horizontalstabilizerand
theelevatorsarestill in undisturbedair. The resultof this is that the hori-
zontal stabilizerwill produce a sharp nosedown pitch which may be
assistedby applicationof elevator.
6B
STALLINC
Figure8-6
This can be contrastedwith the state of affairs when an aircraft with a

highT-tail is stalled.This time the separated air from thewings,following
the stall,entirelycoversthe horizontalstabilizerand elevators,virtually
reducingtheir effectiveness to nil. In the caseof aircraftwith sweepback
on thewings,thewingitselfmay developa noseup pitchingmomentafter
the stall.This is dueto the tendencyof a sweptwing to stall at the tip and
so causethe centreof pressureto move forwards.The situationis often
aggravatedbecausethe aircraft has now acquireda verticaldownward
velocitywhich will progressively increasethe angleof attackway beyond
thestallingangle.Finally,this typeof aircraftis oftenequippedwith rear-
mountedenginesandtheeffectof turbulentair enteringtheengineintakes
may be to causethemto flameout, causinga completelossof power.
Obviouslyan aircraftwith thesecharacteristics cannotbe permittedto
stall.Whensuchan aircraft is frrst built, it is equippedwith a tail-mounted
parachutefor usein testflying to bring the nosedown in the eventof it
enteringa super-stall.For generalairlineoperation,aircraft of this type
are fitted with equipmentcalleda stick pusher.This is actuatedby an
angleof attacksensoron the fuselage(usuallyde-iced)which senses that
the angleof attack is approachingthe stall. Signalsare then sentto an
electro-hydraulic system,the rams of which physicallypush the control
stickforward, thus preventingthe aircraft from enteringthe stall.
69
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
8.15 Detail Calculationsand FactorsAffectingStallingSpeed

and StallingAngle
Calculationof thestallingsPeed:
During levelflight, lift is exactlyequaland oppositeto the weight'
Therefore: (i) Lift = Weight

The lift formula is: (ii) Lift = C'YrpY2S
It standsto reasonthat whenthe C, is maximum,V must be a minimum

value(low speed,high angleof attack).
This minimumvalueof velocityis, therefore,the stallingspeed(V.),when

the C' is at maximumvalue.
Therefore: (iiD Lift = Weight = Ct(max) YzpY,2 S
So,rearrangingthe formula,it becomes:
(iv) Weight= Cr(max)%pV,'S
Thus,to obtain the v, (stallingspeed),the formula is so rearranged:
Therefore (v) Weight = Vr'
Cr(max) % pS
(Cr%pstransPosed)
il::f"t""u (vi) vs r@-

V Cr(max)% pS
Factorsaffectingthestallingspeedof an aircraft.
1. Weight
2. Load Factor
3. Wing Area
4. Changein C1(max)
5. Powerand Slipstream
1. Weight
Any ch"angein the weight of an aircraft will affect the stalling speed.It
will be notedfrom the formula:
STALLINC
Weight
Cr(max) % p S
that if the weightincreases,the
divisionthereofby C,-(max)S resultsin
an increased stallingspeed(V.).
2. Load,Factor
Any manoeuvrethat requiresan increasein total lift without a corre-
spondingincreasein wing area,must increasethe effectivetotal weight
actingon the aerofoils.
This apparentweight increaseis known as a load factor, which is
definedas the ratio of the load acting on the aircraft during the
manoeuvreto theloadingactingon theaircraftin straightandlevelflight.
Load Factor = Total Lift = Total Weight
Aircraft Weisht Actual Weight
As demonstrated in thepreviousparagraph,anyincrease
in weightresults
in a higherstallingspeed.This newstallingspeedmay becalculatedfrom
the followingformula:
New V, = Old V, x
3. Wing Area (S)

Whereincreased wing areais obtainedby theuseof Fowlerflaps,thedivi-
sionof a givenweightby an increasedvalueof (S)resultsin a lower value
of V.
4. Changein C"(max)
The useof flapsincreases the C, of that wing.Onceagain,the divisionof
a givenweightby a larger value of C, resultsin a lower stallingspeed.
This is the advantageof the useof flap during the landingmanoeuvre
because it permitstheoriginalvalueof lift to be retainedat a lower speed.
It is particularlyusefulin the loweringof the approachspeed.
5. PowerandSlipstream
When power is applied at the stall, the already nose-highattitude
producesa verticalcomponentoflift. This consequently reducesthework
load (ieweight)of thewingsand allowsa muchlower stallingspeedto be
attained.The slipstreamat high power settingsprovidesan extra boost
to thestagnatingairflow overthe aerofoiland thuscontrolstheboundary
layer.SeeFig 8-7.
71
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
vertical component of lift

(300 lb)
Figure8-7
8.15 WingTip Stalling

An aircraft wing is designedto stall progressivelyfrom the root section
to the tips. The reasonsfor this are asfollows:
l. An earlybuffetingis inducedoverthe tail sections'
2. is maintainedup to the stallingangleof attack'
Aileron effectiveness
3. Large rolling momentsof the aircraft are preventedin the eventof
onewing tip stallingbeforethe other-
Methodsusedin thepreventionof tip stalling:

l. Washout:
reductionof wing incidencefrom the root to thetip.
fnlr ir a progressive
This resultsIn the wing root reachingthe critical angleof attack before
the tip.
2. Rootspoilers:
ittir -"tttod employsa triangular-section strip fixed to the leadingedge
"itfr. trirg n"ur the root. At high angles of attack, the.airflow is
obstructed in following the contourof the leading edgeand this resultsin
a breakdown of the aiiflow whereby an early stall is inducedat the wing
root.
3. Changeof aerofoilsection:
The aerofoifsectionmay be graduallychangedby decreasing the camber
slightly at or near the tips, or by sweepback.This results in a slight
72
STALLINC
decreasein lift at the tips thus giving an aerofoil with more gradual
stallingcharacteristicsfrom the root to the tip. The effect of sweepback
is to increasethe stallingangle.
4. Slatsand Slots
By employingslatsand slotson the outboard sectionsof the wing, the
effectiveangleof attack at that part of the wing is decreased. Thus, when
the root sectionreachesthe critical angleof attack, the tip remain
sections
unstalled.
Note:Taperingthe aerofoil from root to tip gradually reducesthe C.

towardsthetips;thisin itselfreducesthehighrollingmomentwhich
would occur if the one tip stalledbeforethe other.
c
o
Angle of Attack
Figure8-8 Effectof Flapsand Slotson Maximumliftsat StallingAngle.
73
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
8.17 The effectof aspectratio on the stallinganSle:
Nole: When referring to stalling angle, it is that angle with the horizon as
viewed abeam by the pilot from the flight deck.
As discussedunder wing tip vortices, the net direction of the airflow is
altered.
Angle of Attack
of AspectRatioon theC.(max).
FigureB-9:Effect
Aircraft having high aspectratios (long span and short chord) have very
little induced downwash and, therefore, the net direction of the airflow
remains largely unaltered. Conversely, aircraft with low aspect ratio
wings (broad tips) induce a large amount of downwash which alters the
net direction of the airflow significantly.
Becauseof this altered airflow, low aspectratio wings have significantly
higher stalling anglesthan do wings of high aspectratio. (SeeFig 8-10).
74
STALLINC
EffectiveStalling Angle of Aftack Reduced
S t a l l i n gA n g l e H i g h e r
* R'AJ,
Non-EffectiveStalling
Angle of Attack Direction of the R.A.F
Figure8-10
Nole:This explainswhy rectangularwingsusuallystall from the root to

the tip. The effectivestallingangleof attack is reducedat the tips
dueto the presence of thewing tip vortex resultingin the net direc-
tion of the airflow beins altered.
8.18 The Effectof Sweepbackon the stallingangle:

In itself, a sweptwing has a low aspectratio and thus fhe presenceof wing
tip vortices are marked and give rise to a downwash that alters the net
direction of the relative airflow. Since an aerofoil stalls when the critical
anglebetweenthe chord line and the relative airflow is exceeded,the pres-
enceof the downwash alters this relative airflow and, having a downward
component, results in the stalling angle being higher when the critical
angle of attack is reached.
Swept wings therefore, have higher stalling angles than those of
unsweptwings (Fig 8-l l).
FigureB-11
75
P R I N C I P LO
EFSFLICHT
8.19 Theeffectof Flapon the stallingangle:

With each successiveincreaseof flap, the characteristicsof the aerofoil
are changed, ie the chord line assumesa steeperinclination, being the
straight line from leadingedgeto trailing edge.The critical stallingangle
(about l5 degrees)is therefore reachedwith little or no inclination of the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft (ie aircraft in straight and level attitude).
Any further increasein flap setting in this attitude would result in the
critical stalling angle of attack being exceeded.To prevent this,
the aircraft would have to be placed in a nose down attitude, thereby
reducing the critical angle of attack to within limits (about 15 degrees).
Fig 8-12.
S t r a i g h ta n d L e v e l
N o F l a pL / D1 4 "
-!*u
,'o.,
F l a pD o w n Lower Nose Attitude
Reduced.
Aircraft Stalled
Aircraft Unstalled.
Figure
B-1-
Thus, the effect of flap reducesthe stalling angle although the critical
angle of attack remainsabout l5 degrees.
Note:The stalling angle, or level flight stalling angle,is increasedwhen
leadingedgeflaps are employed.
Further referenceto wing planforms and their stall characteristicsare
discussedin Chapter 10.
Key Points to Remember

With increasedangle of attack, whilst maintaining level flight,
induced and profile drag will increase.
Whilst maintaininglevelflight, at a constantaltitude,an increasein
speedwill result in a reduction in induced drag.
Profile drag equals induced drag at V.,r.
76
STALLINC
High Taper Wing
Figure8-.13 Wing Planforms(Exaggerated)

and their stall patterns.
4 Profiledragis proportionalto speed.

5 Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto speed.
6 With an increaseof weightof the aircraft the Vâ will increase.
7 With an increasein altitudethe stallinganglewill remainthe same.
8 With an increaseof speedthe stallinganglewill remainthe same.
9 Washoutof a wing will ensurethe root of the wing stallsfirst.
l0 Stall inducersmay be fitted to the leadingedgeof the wing root to
ensurethat the wing stallsat the root first.
ll Stallwarningsensors
arenormallyfitted at, or near,thewing leading
edge.
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
l2 If the centreof gravity is forward of the centre of pressurea down

load will existon the tailplane.
l 3 If thecentreof gravityis forwardof thecentreof pressurethestalling
speedwill be increased.
t 4 The nearerthecentreof pressureis to thecentreof gravitythe lower
the stallingspeedwill be.
At the point a wing entersa stalledcondition:

a) Lift and Drag rapidly reduce.
b) Lift slowlyreducesand Drag rapidly increases.
c) Lift reducessharplyand Drag considerably increases.
d) Lift rapidly reducesand drag increases
slightly.
Ref Para8.3
A wing will stall:

a) at the stallingangle.
b) at the optimumangleof attack.
c) just belowthe stallingangle.
d) just abovethe stallingangle.
Refpara8.I
With increasingaltitudethe angleat which a wing will stall:

a) remainsthe same.
b) reduces.
c) increases.
Ref para 8.2
As the angle of attack of a wing is increasedin level flight:

a) the C of G moves aft and the C of P forward.
b) the C of P and transition point move forward.
c) the C of P moves aft and the separation point forward.
d) the C of P moves forward and the stagnation point aft over the upper
surface.
Ref para8.3
7B
STALLINC
5 Stallinducersmay be fitted to a wing:

a) at the tip to causethe root to stall first.
b) at the root to causethe tip to stall first.
c) at the root to causethe root to stall first.
d) at the tip to causethe tip to stallfirst.
Ref para 8.4
79
Spinning
9.1 Introduction
Spinningis a complexsubjectto explainin detailand cannotbe described
in generiltermswhicharetruefor all typesof aircraft.Onetypeof aircraft
miy behavein a certainmannerin a spinwhilst anothertypewill behave
quiie differentlyunderthe sameconditions.In the examplegivenin this
chapterthe spinis takento be deliberatelyinduced,erectand to the right.
9.2 Phasesof the Spin

The full spinmanoeuvreconsistsof threefundamentalphases:
(a) The incipientspin.
(b) The fully developedspin.
(c) The recovery.
(d) The steadyerectsPin.
(a) TheIncipientSpin
A necessary ingredientof a spinis the aerodynamicmovementknown as
autorotation.this is basicallythe rotational movementof the aircraft
about its normal axis,and it leadsto an unsteadymotion which is a
combinationof:
i) The ballisticpath of the aircraft, which is dependenton the entry
attitude.
ii) An increasingangularvelocitygeneratedby the autorotativerolling
momentand the drag inducedyawingmoment.
(b) TheSteadySpin
The incipientitage of the spin may continuefor sometwo to six turns
after which the aircraft will settledown into a steadystablespin.There
will be somesideslipand the aircraft will rotate about all threeaxes.In
most casesthis sta6lecondition, the steadyspin, is characterised by a
steadyrateofrotation and a steadyrateofdescent.
SPINNINC
(c) TheRecovery
The recoveryis initiatedby the pilot's operationof the controlsfirst to
opposethe autorotation and then to reducethe angle of attack so as
to unstall the wings. A steepdive thereuponensuesfrom which the
aircraftmay be normallyreturnedto straightand levelflight.
(d) TheSteadyErect Spin

During rotation the aircraft will describea ballistic trajectory the
characterof which will be dependantupon the entry manoeuvre.To
the pilot this will appearas an unsteady,oscillatoryphaseuntil the
aircraft settlesdown into a stablespinwith steadyratesboth of descent
and of.rotation about the axisof the spin.This will occurif the aerody-
namicand inertiaforcesandmomentsachievea stateof equilibrium.The
attitudeof the aircraftat this stagewill dependon the aerodynamicshape
of the aircraft, the positionof the controlsand the distributionof mass
throughoutthe aircraft.
9.3 Motion of the Aircraft

Themotion of thecentreof gravityin a spinhastwo primarycomponents:
i) A verticallinearvelocity(rateof descent= V fps).
ii) An angularvelocity(=O radiansper sec)abouta verticalaxis,called
the spin axis.The distancebetweenthe CG and the spin axisis the
radiusof the spin(R) and is normallysmall.
The combinationof thesemotionsresultsin the aircraftdescending in

a verticalspiral or helix.The helix angleis usuallysmall generallyless
than 10".Fig 9-l showsthe motion of the aircraftin a spin.
As the aircraft alwayspresentsthe samefaceto the axisof the spin,it
lollows that it must be rotatingabout a verticalaxispassingthroughthe
centreof gravityat the samerateastheCG is rotatingaboutthe spinaxis.
The angularvelocitymay be resolvedinto componentsof roll, pitch
and yaw with respectto the axesof the aircraftitself.In the spin shown
rn Fig 9-lb the aircraftis rolling right. For convenience
the directionof
the spinis definedby the directionof yaw.
In order to understandthe relationshipbetweenaircraft attitudeand
theseangularvelocitiesit is usefulto considerthreelimiting cases:
ta) LongitudinalAxis Vertical

\\'hen the longitudinalaxisis verticalthe angularmotion will be a roll.
B1
(b) LateralAxis Vertical

For the aircraftto presentthe samefaceto theaxisof the spin,the aircraft
must rotateabout the lateralaxis.The angularmotion is all pitch.
(c) Normal Axis Vertical

For the aircraft to presentthe sameface(inner wing tip) to the axis of
rotation,the aircraftmust rotateaboutits normal axisat the samerateat
which it rotatesaboutthe axisof rotation.Thus the angularmotion is all
yaw.
Although theseexamplesare hypotheticaland may not be possiblein
practicalterms,theyillustratethe relationshipbetweenthe aircraft'satti-
iude and angularvelocities.Betweenthe extremesquotedin the previous
paragraph,the motion will be a combinationof roll, pitch and yaw, and
dependson:
(i) The rate of rotation of the aircraft aboutthe spin axis.
(ii) The attitudeof the aircraft.This is usuallydefinedin terms of the
pitch angleand the wing tilt angle.Wing tilt angle(whichmust not
be confusedwith bank angle),involvessimultaneousdisplacement
about the normal and the longitudinalaxes.
The aircraft'sattitude in the spin also has an important effecton the
sideslippresent,as shownin Fig 9-lc. If the wingsarelevel,therewill be
Axis (Symbol) Longitudinal (x) Lateral (y) Normal (z)
PositiveDirection Forwards To right Downwards
AngularVelocity
Designation Roll Pitch Yaw
Symbol p q f
PositiveDirection to right nose-up to right
Momentsof Inertia A B C
Moments
Designation rolling moment pitching yawlng
moment moment
Symbol L M N
PositiveDirection to right nose-up to right
Usedin thisChapter.
Table1: SignConventions
82
SPINNING
outwardsideslip;that is, the relativeairflow will be from the directionof

the outsidewing (to port in the diagram).If the attitudeof the aircraftis
changedsuchthat the outer wing is raisedrelativeto the horizontal,the
sideslipis reduced.This attitudechangecan only be due to a rotation of
the aircraftabout the normal axis.The anglethroughwhich the aircraft
is rotated,in the planecontainingthe lateral and longitudinalaxes,is
known asthe wing tilt angleand is positivewith the outerwing up. If the
iving tilt can be increasedsufficientlyto reducethe sideslipsignificantly,
the pro-spinaerodynamicrolling momentwill be reduced.
a FORCES
Lift= Centripetal
Force
_ wv2 _
- g R - wo2R
s
Spinto Right
(Q RadiansPerSec)
Weight
b ANGULAH
VELOCITIES
r = Rateof Yaw
l--'f
o=,","J:"*
c SIDESLIP
Wing -
Titt
Angle
(Positive)
Figure9-1 Themotionof an aircraftin an ErectSpinto the right
83
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
9.4 Balance of Forces in the SPin

only two forcesareactingon the centreof gravity while it is moving along
its helicalpath, ascan be seenin Fig 9-1 a:
a) Weight
b) The aerodynamicforce (N) coming mainly from the wings
The resultant of thesetwo forcesis the centripetalforce necessaryto
producethe angularmotion.
Sincethe weight and centripetalforce act in a verticalplanecontaining
the spin axis and the CG, the aerodynamicforce must also act in this
plane,ie it passesthrough the spin axis. When the wing is stalled,the
iesultant aerodynamicforce acts approximately perpendicularto
the wing. For this reasonit is sometimes calledthe wing normal force.
If thewings arelevel(lateral axishorizontal),thenfrom the balanceof
forcesin Fig 9-l a:
a. Weight = DraB = CoY' PY2S
!= rE
V C"%pS
b. Lift = Centripetalfbrce
Wc)2R
CyYtPY2S =
p = gCr%pV'S
---
wo-
where: R = spinradius,S= area
! = rateof descent,W = weight
If thewingsarenot level,the departurefrom the levelconditioncanbe

regardedasi rotation of the aircraft about the longitudinaland normal
axis. Usuallythis angle,the wing tilt angle,is small and doesnot affect
the followingreasoning.
9.5 Effect of Attitude on Spin Radius

If for somereasonthe angleof attackis increased by a nose-upchangein
the aircraft'sattitude,Figg-2, the verticalrate of descentV will decrease
becauseof the higher Co. The increasedalpha on the other hand, will
decrease C, which, togetherwith the lower rate of descent,resultsin a
SPINNINC
decreasein spin radius. It can also be shown that an increasein pitch

increasesthe rate of spin,which will decreaseR still further.
The two extremesof aircraft attitude possiblein the spin are shownin
Fig 9-2. The actual attitude adopted by an aircraft will dependon the
balanceof moments.
Steep Spin
Figure9-2Simplified
diagramof PitchAttitude.
The effectsof pitch attitude are summarised below:

An increasein pitch (ie a flatter spin) will:
a Decreasethe rate of descent.
b Decreasethe spin radius.
c Increasethe spin rate.
nr can also be seenthat an increasein pitch will decreasethe helix angle.
9.5 AngularMomentum
spin,equilibrium
ln a steady isachieved
by a balance
of aerodynamic
and
mertiamoments. Theinertiamomentsresultfrom a changein angular
nm,omentum due to the inertiacrosscouplingbetweenthe threeaxes.The
angularmomentumabout an axis dependson the distribution of mass
emdthe rate of rotation. It is important to get a clearunderstandingof
rhe effectsof mass distribution in order to understandthe spinning
of different aircraft and the effect of the controls on
ch,aracteristics
ruaoveryfrom the spin.
B5
Moment of Inertia (I)

To predictthe behaviourof a rotating systemit is necessary to compre-
hend the natureof inertia moments.A moment of inertia expresses not
only the amountof a massbut alsoits distributionaboutthe axisof rota-
tion. It is usedin the sameway that massis usedin linear motion. For
example,theproductof massandlinearvelocitymeasures themomentum
or reslstance io mouement of a body moving in a straight line' Similarly,
theproductof momentof inertia(mass distribution) and angular velocity
meisurestheangularmomentum of a rotating body. Figure 9-3 illustrates
how the distributionof massaffectsangularmomentum.
'l' Radians
Small Per Sec
I €>
F - l
[,J
T Angular
MomentumSmall
L
E=
]
r",ntlnt"il",n"
Figure9-3 Two rotorsof the sameweightand

angularvelocity
The conceptof momentof inertiamay be appliedto a spinningaircraft

by measuringtttedistributionof massabout eachof the body axesin the
following way:
LongitudinalAxis.
The-distributionof the massabout the longitudinalaxis determinesthe
momentof inertiain the rolling planewhich is denotedby A. An aircraft
with fuel storedin wing fuel tanks will havea largevalueof A, particu-
larly if the fuel tanks are closeto the wing tips. On someaircraft types
somefuel may alsobe storedin fuselagefuel tanks, and this combined
with a lower ispect ratio will resultin a reductionof A for suchaircraft
types.
86
SPINNINC
LateralAxis.
The distributionof massaboutthe lateralaxisdeterminesthe momentof
inertia in the pitching plane which is denotedby B. The increasing
complexityof modernaircrafthasresultedin an increasein thedensityof
the fuselagewith massbeingdistributedalong the whole length of the
fuselagewith a consequent increasein the valueof B.
\ormal Axis.
The distributionof massabout the normal axis determinesthe moment
urfinertia in the yawingplanewhich is denotedby C. This quantity will
heapproximatelyequalto the sumof themomentsof inertiain therolling
andpitchingplanes.C, therefore,will alwaysbelargerthanA or B. These
rnomentsof inertia measurethe massdistribution about the body axes
and are decidedby the designof the aircraft.It is thus implicit that the
".aluesof A, B and C for a particularaircraftwill be changedif the dispo-
irtion of equipment,freight and fuel is altered.
9.7 Inertia Moments in a Spin
fip//
nris difficult to represent
the rolling momentsusingconcentrated masses,
a.:is donefor theotheraxes.For an aircraftin the spinningattitudeunder
consideration (innerwing down,pitchingnoseup), the inertiamomentis
anti-spin,ie tendingto roll the aircraftout of the spin.The equationfor
tireinertiarollingmomentis:
L- - (C-B) rq
Prrrlr
T'heimaginaryconcentratedmasses
of thefuselageasshownin Figure9-4
rc:d to flattenthe spin.
Inertia Moment
Figure9-4 Inertiapitchingmoment.
B7
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Yaw
The inertia coupleis complicatedby the fact that it is comprisedof two
opposingcouplescausedby the wingsand fuselage,as shownin Fig 9-5.
Dependingon the dominantcomponent,the couplecanbe of eithersign
and of varyingmagnitude.The inertiayawingmomentcan be expressed
as:
N = (A - B)pq, is negativeand thus anti-spin
whenB > A; positiveand pro-spinwhenA > B.
The B/A ratio hasa profound effecton the
of an aircraft.
spinningcharacteristics
F u s e l a g e( B )
lnertia Moment
Figure9-5 lnertiayawingmoments.
9.8 AerodynamicMoments
to examinethe contributionsmadeby aero-
At this stageit is necessary
dynamicfactorsin the balanceof momentsin roll, pitch and yaw. These
are discussedseparatelybelow.
AerodynamicRolling Moments
The aerodynamiccontributionsto the balanceof momentsabout the
longitudinalaxisto producea steadyrate of roll areas follows:
(a) Rolling Moment dueto Sideslip

The designfeaturesof the aircraft which contribute towards positive
lateral stabilityproducean aerodynamicrolling moment as a result of
sideslip.Evenat anglesof attackabovethestall,this still remainstrue and
the dihedraleffectinducesa rolling momentin the oppositedirectionor
senseto the sideslip.In the spin the relativeairflow is from the direction
of the outerwing (outwardsideslip)and the resultis a rolling momentin
8B
SPINNING
the directionin which the aircraftis spinning;this contributionis there-

fore pro-spin.
@) AutorotativeRolling Moment
It canbe shownthat thenormaldampingin roll effectis reversedat angles
of attackabovethe stall.This contributionis thereforepro-spin.
(c) Rolling Moment dueto Yaw

Theyawingvelocityin the spininducesa rolling momentfor two reasons:
{i) The differencein speedof the wings
Lift of theouterwingis increasedand that of theinnerwing decreased
inducinga pro-spinrolling moment.
(ii) Differencesin angleof attackof the wings
In a spin the direction of the free streamairflow is practicallyvertical
whereasthe directionof thewing motion dueto the yaw is parallelto
thelongitudinalaxis.Theyawingvelocitythereforechangesnot only
the speedbut alsothe angleof attackof the wings.Fig 9-6illustrates
the vectoraddition of the yawingvelocityto the verticalvelocityof
the outerwing.The effectis to reducethe angleof attackof the outer
wingandincrease that of theinnerwing.Because thewingsarestalled
(slopeof C, curveis negative),the outerwing Ct is increasedand the
C, of the inner wing decreased,thus producing another pro-spin
rolling moment.
(Outer Wing lllustrated)
Rateof Descenl
Figure9-6 Changein angleof attackdue to yaw

(outerwing)
B9
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
(d) Aileron Response

Experiencehas shown that aileronsproducea rolling moment in the
conventionalsenseeventhoughthe wing is stalled.
AerodynamicPit chingMoments
The aerodynamiccontributionsto the balanceof momentsabout the
lateralaxis to producea steadyrate of pitch are as follows:
(e) PositiveLongitudinalStatic Stability

In a spinthe aircraftis at a high angleof attackand is thereforedisturbed
in the nose-upsenseby the trimmedcondition.The positivelongitudinal
stability respondsto this disturbanceto producea nosedown aerody-
namicmoment.This effectmay be considerablyreducedif the tailplane
liesin the wing wake.
(f) Dampingin Pitch effect

When the aircraft is pitchingnoseup the tailplaneis moving down and
The pitchingvelocitythereforeproduces
its angleof attackis increased.
a pitching momentin a nosedown sense.The rate of pitch changein a
spinis, however,usuallyvery low andconsequently the dampingin pitch
contributionis small.
(g) Elevatorresponse
the
The elevatorsact in the conventionalsense.Down elevatorincreases
nosedown aerodynamicmomentwhereasup elevatorproducesa noseup
aerodynamicmoment.It shouldbe noted,however,that down elevator
usuallyincreasesthe shieldedareaof the fin and rudder.
AerodynamicYawingMoments
The overallaerodynamicyawingmomentis madeup of a largenumber
of separateelements,some resultingfrom the yawing motion of the
aircraftand somearisingout of thesideslippingmotion.The maincontri-
butions to balancingthe momentsabout the normal axis to producea
steadyrate of yaw are as follows:
(h) PositiveDirectionalStatic Stability

When sideslipis presentthe keel surfaces(Fin and Fuselage)aft of the
CG producean aerodynamicyawingmomenttendingto turn the aircraft
into alignmentwith the sideslipvector(ie directionalstatic stability or
weathercockeffect).This is an anti-spineffect,the major contributionto
which is from the verticalfrn.
Verticalsurfaces forwardof theCG will tendto yaw the aircraftfurther
into the spin, ie they havea pro-spineffect.Outward sideslip,however,
usuallyproducesa net yawingmomenttowardsthe outer wing, ie in the
90
SPINNINC
anti-spinsense.Becauseof possibleshieldingeffectsfrom the tailplane

and elevatorand also becausethe fin may be stalled,the directional
stabilityis considerably
reducedand this anti-spincontributionis usually
r-erysmall.
fi) Dampingin Yaw effect

It hasbeenseenthat the keel surfacesproducean aerodynamicyawing
momentto opposethe yaw. The greatestcontribution to this damping
momentis from therearfuselage and fin. In thisrespectthecrosssectional
shapeof the fuselageis criticaland hasa profoundeffecton the damping
moment.
Fuselage strakes,seeFig 9-7, areusefuldevicesfor improvingthe char-
acteristicsin a spin on sometypes of aircraft. The anti-spindamping
momentis verydependenton the designof the tailplane/fincombination.
Shieldingof the fin by the tailplanecan considerablyreducethe effec-
mveness of the fin. Combiningfin and tailplaneinto a V or Butterfly tail
hasoccasionallybeenusedto improve spin recoveryand has the addi-
tronaladvantages of lighterconstructionand lessdrag.
Figure9-7 Fuselage
Strakes.
Rvdder Response
The rudder acts in the conventional sense,ie the in-spin rudder produces
pro-spin yawing moment and out spin rudder produces anti-spin yawing
nmoment.Becauseof the shielding effect of the elevator it is usual during
recoveryto pause after applying out of spin rudder so that the anti-spin
yauing moment may take effect before down elevator is applied.
91
OFFLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
Balanceof Moments
It can be seenthat the balanceof forcesin a spin has a strong influence
on the rate of descent.It doesnot, however,determinethe rate of rota-
tion, wing tilt or the incidenceat which the spin occurs;the balanceof
momentsis much more critical in this respect.The actual attitude,rate
of descent,sideslip,rate of rotation and radius of spin of a spinning
aircraft can be determinedonly by applying specificnumericalvaluesof
the aircraft'saerodynamicand inertia data to the generalrelationships
discussed below.
Rolling Moments
The balanceof rolling momentsin an erectspinis:
a. Pro-spin:The following aerodynamic

rolling momentsin an erectspin are:
(i) Autorotativerolling moment.
(ii) Rolling momentdue to sideslip.
(iii) Rolling momentdue to yaw.
b. Anti-spin:The inertia rolling
moment- (C - B)rq, is anti-spin.
Thesefactorsshowthat autorotationis usuallynecessary to achievea
stablespin.A smallautorotativerolling momentwould necessitate larger
sideslipto increasethe rolling momenteffectdueto sideslip.This in turn,
wouldincreasethe amountof wing tilt and makethebalanceof moments
in yaw moredifficult to achieve;however,the balanceof momentsin this
axisis not as important asin the other two.
PitchingMoments'
It hasbeenpreviouslystatedthat the inertiapitchingmoment,(C-A)rp,
of the aircraft is alwaysnoseup in an erectspin.This is balancedby the
nosedown aerodynamicpitching moment.The balancebetweenthese
two momentsis the main factor relatingangleof attack to rate of rota-
tion in any given case,and equalibriumcan usuallybe achievedover a
widerange.Increasein pitch will causean increasein the rateof rotation
the spinradius'
(spinrate).This in turn will decrease
YawingMoments
The balanceof yawingmomentsin an erectspin
a. Pro-spin:
(i) Yawing momentdue to appliedrudder.
SPINNINC
A smallcontributionfrom thewing,dueto yaw,is possible

at largeanglesof attack.
Yawingmomentdue to sideslip(verticalsurfacesforward
of CG).
(iv) Inertia yawingmoment,(A - B)pq, if A > B.
h. Anti-spin:
Inertiayawingmoment,if B > A.
Yawingmomentdueto sideslip(verticalsurfacesaft of the
CG).
Dampingin yaw effect.
It can be seenthat in-spin rudder is usually necessaryto achievebalance
urfthe yawing moments and hold the aircraft in a spin.
Jormal Axis
For conventional aircraft (A and B nearly equal), it is relatively easy to
achieve balance about the normal axis, and the spin tends to be limited
to a singlesetof conditions (incidence,spin rate and attitude). For aircraft
rn which B is much larger than A, the inertia yawing moment can be large
and, thus difficult to balance. This could be the causeof the oscillatorv
spin often found with such aircraft.
Yow and Roll Axis

The requirementsof balanceabout the yaw and roll axesgreatly limit the
range of incidence in which spinning can occur, and determine
rrheamount of sideslipand wing tilt involved. The final balanceof yawing
rnoments is achievedby the aircraft taking up the appropriate angle of
attack at which the inertia moments just balance the aerodynamic
moments. This particular angle of attack also has to be associatedwith
the appropriate rate of spin required to balance the pitching moments
and the appropriate angle of sideslip required to balance the rolling
moments.
9.9 SpinRecovery
E-ffect
of Controlsin Recovery
from a Spin
The relative effectivenessof the three controls in recoveryfrom a spin will
now be considered.Recovery is achievedby stopping the rotation and this
nn turn is achieved by reducing the pro-spin rolling moment andlor
mcreasingthe anti-spin yawing moment. The yawing moment is the more
unportant but, becauseof the strong cross-coupling between motions
about the three axes, the rudder is not the only means by which yawing
93
may be inducedby the pilot. Oncethe rotation hasstoppedthe incidence

is reducedand the aircraft recovers.
The control movementswhich experience has shownto be generally
most favourable to recovery from the spin have beenknown and in use
for a long time, ie apply full opposite rudder and then move the stick
forwardrintil the spin itops, maintaining the ailerons neutral.The rudder
is normally the primary control but, because the inertia momentsare
generallylirge in modern aircraft, aileron deflection is also important.
fuh".. th" .esponreof the aircraft to rudder is reduced in the spin the
aileron -uy .i.tt becomethe primary control although, in the final
analysis,it is its effecton the yawing moment which makes it work.
The initial effectof applyinga control deflectionwill be to changethe
aerodynamicmomentabout one or more axes.This will causea change
in airiraft attitudeand a changein theratesof rotationaboutall the axes.
Thesechangeswill, in turn, changethe inertiamoments.
Effect of ailerons
Bu"n uittt. high angleof attackin the spinthe aileronsact in the normal
sense. Applicaiiondf uil.tott in thesamedirectionastheaircraftis rolling
will theriforeincrease theaerodynamic rolling moment.Thiswill increase
the roll rate(p) andaffecttheinertiayawingmoment,(A-B)pq.The effect
of an increatein p on the inertia yawingmoment dependson the mass
distributionor B/A ratio:
(a) B/A>1: In an aircraft whereB/A>1, the inertia yawingmoment is
anti-spin(negative)and an increasein p will decrease.it still further,
ie maiceit more anti-spin.The increasein anti-spininertia yawing
momentwill tend to riise the outer wing (increasewing tilt) which
will decrease the outward sideslip.This will restorethe balanceof
rolling momentsby decreasing the pro-spinaerody-namic moment
due t6lateral stabiiity.The increase in wing tilt will also cause the
rate of pitch, g, to increase,which will, in turn:
(D Causea smallincreasein the anti-spininertiarolling
moment, (C-B)rq, (C>B) and thus help to restore
balanceabout the roll axis.
(ii) Further increasesthe anti-sPin yawing
moment.
(b) B/A<1: A low B/A ratio will reversethe effectsdescribedabove.The
inertiayawingmomentwill be pro-spin(positive)and will increase
with an increasein p.
Due to secondaryeffectsassociatedwith directional stability, the

reversalpoint actuallyoccursat a BIA ratio of 1.3.Thus:
94
SPINNING
r a ) B/A>1.3:Aileronwith roll (in-spin)hasan anti-spineffect.

ib) B/A<1.3:Aileronwith roll (in-spin)hasa pro-spineffect.
Pro-Spin
9-BYawingMoment(N)perdegree
Figure
' of Aileron
Someaircraft have their B/A ratio changedin flight through consump-

tron of stores and fuel. The pilot has no accurateindication of the value
.rf B/A ratio and, where this value may vary either sideof 1.3,it is desirable
.nuring a spin to maintain ailerons neutral to avoid an unfavourable
responsewhich may delay or even prohibit recovery.
.A,nadditional effect of aileron applied with roll is to increasethe anti-
,.prinyawing moments due to aileron drag.
E[fect of Elevators
Ir has already been stated that down-elevator produces a nose-down
aerodynamic pitching moment. This will initially reduce the nose-up
pritchingvelocity (q). Although this will tend to reduce alpha, the effect
on the inertia yawing and rolling moments is as follows:
rxl Inertia Yawing Moment (A-B)pq. If B > A, the inertia yawing
moment is anti-spin. A reduction in q will make the inertia moment
lessanti-spin, ie a pro-spin change. When A > B, however, down-
elevator will cause a change in inertia yawing moment in the
anti-spin sense.
ru) Inertia Rolling Moment (C-B)rq. The inertia rolling moment is
always anti-spin becauseC > B. A reduction in q will thereforemake
it lessanti-spin, which is again a changein the pro-spin sense.
95
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
The result of thesepro-spin changesin the inertia yawing and rolling

momentsis to decrease thewing tilt, thusincreasingthesideslipangle(Fig
9-9)and rateof roll. The rateof rotation aboutthe spinaxiswill increase.
Although thechangein the inertia yawingmomentis unfavourable,the
increasedsideslipmay producean anti-spinaerodynamicyawingmoment
if the directionalstability is positive.This contribution will be reducedif
the down elevatorseriouslyincreases the shieldingof the fin and rudder.
Pro-Spin
Figure9-9YawingMoment(N)perdegreeof DownElevator
The overall effect of down-elevator on the yawing moments therefore

dependson:
(a) The pro-spin inertia moment when B > A.
(b) The anti-spin moment due to directional stability.
(c) The loss of rudder effectivenessdue to shielding.
In general, the net result of moving the elevators down is beneficial
when A > B and rather less so when B ) A, assuming that the elevator
movement does not significantly increase the shielding of the fin and
rudder.
Effect of Rudder
The rudder is nearly always effective in producing an anti-spin aerody-
namic yawing moment although the effectivenessmay be greatly reducd
when the rudder lies in the wake of the wing or tailplane. The resulting
increase in the wing tilt angle will increase the anti-spin inertia yawing
moment (when B > A) through an increase in pitching velocity. The
overall effect of applying anti-spin rudder is always beneficial and is
enhancedwhen the B/A ratio is increased.
96
SPINNING
Figure9-10YawingMoment(N) per Degreeof Anti-spinRudder
Inverted Spin
Figure 9-l I shows an aircraft in an inverted spin but following the same
flight path as in Fig 9-1. Relative to the pilot the motion is now
compounded of a pitching velocity in the nose-down sense,a rolling
velocity to the right and a yawing velocity to the left. Thus roll and yaw
are in opposite directions, a fact which affectsthe recovery actions,paitic-
ularly if the aircraft has a high B/A ratio.
The inverted spin is fundamentally similar to the erect spin and the
principles of moment balance discussedearlier are equaliy valid for
the inverted spin. The values of the aerodynamic moments, however, are
unlikely to be the samesense;in the inverted attitude, the shielding effect
of the wingand tail may change markedly.
The main difference will be causedby the change in relative positions
of the fin and rudder and the tailplane. whereas an aircraft wiih a low-
mounted tailplane will tend to have a flatter erect spin and recovery will
be the more difficult due to shielding of the rudder, the same aircraft
inverted will respond much better to recovery rudder sinceit is unshielded
and its effectivenessis increased by the position of the tailplane. The
converse,however, is true for an aircraft with a high tailplane.
The control deflectionsrequired for recovery are dictated by the direc-
tion of roll, pitch and yaw, and the aircraft's B/A ratio. These are:
(a) Rudder to oppose yaw as indicated by the turn needle.
(b) Aileron in the same direction as the observed roll, if the
B/A ratio is hish.
97
P R I N C I P LO
EFSFLICHT
'l
Figure9-1 The InvertedSpin.
(c) Elevatorup is generallythe casefor conventionalaircraft

but, if the aircraft has a high B/A ratio and suffersfrom
the shieldingproblemspreviouslydiscussed, this may be
lessfavourableand may evenbecome pro-spin.
SPINNING
OscillatorySpin
A combinationof highwing loadingand high B/A ratio makesit difficult
for sucha spinningaircraft to achieveequilibriumabout the yaw axis.
This is thoughtto bethemostprobablereasonfor the oscillatoryspin.In
this type of spin the rates of roll and pitch are changingduring each
oscillation.In a mild form it appearsto the pilot as a continuously
changingangleof wing tilt, from outer wing well abovethe horizonback
to the horizontaloncein eachturn; the aircraft seemsto wallow in the
spin.
In a fully-developed oscillatoryspin the oscillationsin the ratesof roll
and pitch can be quiteviolent.The rate of roll during eachturn canvary
from zeroto about 200degreesper second.At the maximumrate of roll
the risingwing is unstalledwhich probably accountsfor the violenceof
this type of spin.Largechangesin attitudeusuallytake placefrom fully
nose-downat thepeakrateof roll, to nose-upat theminimumrateof roll.
The useof thecontrolsto effecta changein attitudecanchangethechar-
acteristicsof an oscillatoryspin quite markedly.In particular:
(a) Anything which increases
the wing tilt, (egin-spinaileron
or anti-spinrudder)will increasethe violenceof the oscil-
lations.
(b) A decrease
in the wing tilt angle(eg out-spinaileron or
down-elevator)
will reducetheviolenceof theoscillations.
The recoveryfrom this type of spin has beenfound to be relatively easy,
although the shortest recovery times are obtained if recovery is initiated
rvhen the nose of the aircraft is falling relative to the horizon.
Conclusions
The characteristicsof the spin and the effect of controls in recovery are
specificto type. In generalthe aerodynamic factors are determinedby the
geometry of the aircraft and the inertial factors by the distribution of
the mass.
9.10 GyroscopicCross-coupling
BetweenAxes
The effectsof the inertia moments have beenexplained by consideringthe
massesof fuselageand wings acting either side of a centreline.The effect
.'rf theseconcentratedmasseswhen rotating, can be visualised as acting
rather in the manner of the bob-weightsof a governor.
Another, and more versatile, explanation of the cross-couplingeffects
can be given by analogy with gyroscopic precession,regarding the aircraft
as a rotor.
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Inertial Momentsin a Spin

The inertial momentsgeneratedin a spin are essentiallythe sameas the
torqueexertedby a precessing Figures9-12,9-13and 9-14
gyroscope.
illuslratethe inertial or gyroscopic
moments about the body axes.These
effectsare described below:
(a) Inertial Rolling Moments(Fig 9-12)

The angularmomentumin the yawingplaneis Cr, and by imposingon it
a pitchingvelocityof q, an inertiarolling momentis generatedequalto
-Crq, ie in the oppositesenseto the directionof roll in an erectspin.The
inertiarollingmomentdueto imposingtheyawingvelocityon theangular
Figure9-12 TotalInertiaRollingMoment.
100
SPINNINC
momentumin the pitchingplaneis in a pro-spinsenseand equalto +Brq.

The total inertiarolling momentis thereforeequalto (B-C)rq,or sinceC
> B: -(C-B)rq.
(b) Inertial PitchingMoments(Fig 9-13)

The angularmomentumin the rolling planeis Ap and imposinga yawing
velocityof r on the rolling plane'rotor' causesit to precessin pitch in a
nose-downsensedue to inertia pitching moment (-Apr). Similarly,the
angularmomentumin theyawingplaneis Cr, and imposinga roll velocity
of p on the yawing plane 'rotor' generatesan inertia pitching moment
Inertia Pitching
Moment = -Apr
Angular
Momentum= Cl
Moment = +Crp
Figure9-13 TotallnertiaPitchingMoment.
101
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
(+Crp) in the nose-upsense.The total inertia moment is therefore(C-

A)rp. In an erectspin,roll and yaw are alwaysin the samedirectionand
C is alwaysgreaterthan A. The inertiapitchingmomentis thereforeposi
tive (nose-up)in an erectspin.
(c) Inertial YawingMoments(Fig 9-fa)

Regardingthe aircraft as a rotor havingthe samemoment of inertia in
the rolling plane,its angularmomentumis the productof the momentof
inertiaand angularvelocity(Ap). Imposinga pitchingvelocity(q) on the
lnertia Yawing Note

Moment = +Apq The Direction of
Motion illustrates
the right-hand
E r e c tS p i n i n F i g 1
Figure9-14 TotalInertiaYawingMoment
102
SPINNINC
rotor will generatea torquetendingto precessthe rotor aboutthenormal

axisin thesamedirectionasthespin.Thisinertialyawingmomentis equal
in value to_+Apq where the positivesign indicatesa pro-spin torque.
similarly,the angularmomentumin thepitchingplaneiJequaito Bq, ind
imposinga roll velocityof p on the pitchingplanerotor will generatean
inertial yawing moment in an anti-spinsenieequal to -Bpq. The total
inertial yawingmomentis thereforeequalto (A-B)pq, or iT b > A: -(B_
A)pq.
Key Points to Note:
l. A necessary ingredientof a spin is the aerodynamicmovement
known as autorotation.
2. Autorotation basicallyis the continuousrotation of the aircraft
about its normal or verticalaxis,(or spin axis).This will normally
be coupledwith a rolling moment.
3. In most casesa steadyspin is qualifiedby a steadyrate of rotation
and a steadyrate ofdescent.
4. Recoveryfrom a spinis initiatedby thepilot'scontroloperation,first
to opposethe autorotationand then to reducethe angleof attack.
5. In a spin, the angleof attack of the inner wing is greaterthan the
angleof attack of the outer wing.
6. In a spin,the innerwing is fully stalledand the outer wing partially
stalled.
7. An increasein pitch in a flat spin will:
(i) Decreasethe rate of descent
(iD Decreasethe spin radius
(iii) Increasethe spin rate
8. Evenwhena wing is stalledthe aileronsproducea roiling moment.
9. In a spin,the aircraftis at a high angleof attack.
10. Shieldingof the fin by the tailplanecan considerablyreducethe
effectivenessof thefin asa stabilisingsurfaceduringa spin.This has
led to the employmentof a V, or ButterflyTail on someaircraft as
an aid to betterspinrecovery.
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
I When recoveringfrom a spin the pilot shouldfirst:

a) reducethe angleofattack.
b) opposethe autorotation'
c) increasethe angleofattack'
d) increasethe drag yawingmoment.
Ref para9.10
2 In a spin:
a) the angleof attackis the sameon both wings.
b) the angleof attackis greateron the inner wing.
c) the angleof attackis greateron the outerwing.
d) both inner and outerwingsare fully stalled.
Refpara9.10
3 At high anglesof attackin the spin:

a) elevatorsact in the oppositesense.
b) aileronsact in the normal sense'
c) aileronsare totally non effective.
d) ruddercontrol is lost.
Ref Para9.10
The centripetalforcein a spinis a componentoft

a) weightonly.
b) weightand centrifugalforce.
c) lift.
d) lift and weight.
Ref Para9.10
In a spin:
a) both wingsarefully stalled.
b) the outer wing is fully stalledand the innerwing partially stalled.
c) both wingsarepartially stalled.
d) the inner wing is fully stalledand the outerwing partially stalled.
Ref para9.10
10
Wing Planforms
10.1 lntroduction
Thepreviouschaptershaveconsidered thebasicsof lift, drag,stallingand
spinningand explainedthecausesof thesephenomena. It is however,also
necessary to studyanotherimportantaspectof the designof wings,ie the
planform.The planform is the geometricalshapeof the wing as viewed
from above;it largelydeterminesthe amountof lift and drag obtainable
from a givenwing area,andhasa markedeffecton thevalueof thestalling
angleof attack.
This chapteris concernedmainly with the low-speedeffectsof various
wing planforms.The high-speed effectsare dealtwith in the chapterson
high-speed flight.
10.2 Aspect Ratio

The aspectratio (A) of a wing is found by dividingthe squareof thewing
spanby the areaof the wing:
o=F*"
Ifa wing hasan areaof250 squarefeetand a spanof30 feet,the aspect
ratio is therefore3.6.Another wing with the samespanbut with an area
of 150squarefeetwould havean aspectratio of 6. An alternativemethod
of determiningaspectratio is by dividing the spanby the meanchord of
the wing.Thus, a spanof 50 ft with a meanchord of 5 ft givesan aspect
ratio of 10.
From theprecedingexamplesit canbe seenthat the smallerthe areaor
meanchordin relationto the span,the higheris the aspectratio. A rough
ideaof theperformanceof a wing canbe obtainedfrom knowledgeof the
aspectratio.
10.3 Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag

The origin and formation of trailing edgeand wing tip vorticeswas
explainedearlierand it wasshownthat induceddownwashwasthe cause
of induceddrag.The induceddragproducedby a wing is proportionalto
the lift generated.
105
The amount of induceddrag under a given set of conditionscan be

floundfrom the formula:
Induceddrag = kC,'9S,
nA
Where Crt = the coefficientof induceddrag,
TEA
and A = aspectratio.
From the formula it canbe seenthat induceddragis inverselypropor-
tional to aspectratio. A graphshowingthe curvesof two differentaspect
ratio wingsplotted againstCo and angleof attackis givenin Fig 10-1.
cD
0.16
0.12
0.08
Figure10-1 Effectof AspectRatioon Co
10.4 AspectRatioand StallingAngle

paragraphit canbe seenthat asthe aspectratio is
From the previoUs
theinduced
decreased,io It wasalsostatedthatthestall
dragisincreased.
occurs when the effective angle of attack reachesthe critical angle. Thus
for a given aerofoil section the higher the aspect ratio, the lower is the
stalling angle of attack. For a simple example, consider a wing in level
flight: if there were no induced downwash (and hence no induced drag)
then the wing would stall when the angle of attack reached its critical
angle relative to the'horizontal' total airstream past the wing.
However, all wings have vortices and so induce a downward compo-
nent in the direction of the total airflow; thus the lower the aspectratio,
106
WINCPLANFORMS
the largerthe vorticesand the greaterthe induceddownwash.The stall

will thereforeoccurwhen the effectiveangleof attack,which now hasa
downwardcomponent,reachesthe critical angle.In the two caseswhich
havebeenconsidered, the stallingangleof the wing with no induceddrag
is the lower by, approximately,the angulardegreeof the induced
downwash.
The reducedeffectiveangleof attackof very low aspectratio wingscan
delay the stall considerably.Somedelta wings have no measureable
stallingangleup to 40oor moreinclinationto the flight path. At this sort
of anglethe dragis so high that the flight path is usuallyinclineddown-
wards at a steepangleto the horizontal.Apart from a rapid rate of
descent,and possiblelossof stabilityand control,suchaircraftmay have
a shallowattitudeto the horizonand this canbe deceptive. The condition
is calledthe superstall or deepstall,althoughthe wing may in fact be far
from a true stall and still be generatingappreciablelift.
10.5 Use of High Aspect Ratio

While a high aspectratio wing will minimize induceddrag, long thin
wingsconversely increaseweightand haverelativelypoor stiffnesschar-
Also theeffectsofverticalgustson theairframeareaggravated
acteristics.
by higheraspectratio. Broadly it can be saidthat the lower the cruising
speedof the aircraft, the higher the aspectratios that can be usefully
employed.Aircraft configurationswhich are developedfor very high
speedflight (especiallysupersonicflight) operateat relativelylow lift
coefficientsand demandgreat aerodynamiccleanness. This usually
resultsin the useof low aspectratio planforms.
10.6 The Effectsof Taper

The aspectratio of a wing is the primary factor in determiningthe three-
dimensionalcharacteristics of the ordinary wing and its drag due to lift.
Certainlocaleffects,however,takeplacethroughoutthespanof thewing
and theseare due to the distribution of areathroughoutthe span.The
typicallift distributionis arrangedin someellipticalfashion.
The naturaldistributionof lift alongthe spanof wing providesa basis
for appreciatingthe effectof areadistributionand taperalongthe span.
If the ellipticallift distributionis matchedwith a planformwhosechord
is distributedin an ellipticalfashion(theellipticalwing),eachsquarefoot
of area along the span producesexactlythe samelift pressure.The
ellipticalwing planform then has each sectionof the wing working at
exactly the samelocal lift coefficient and the induced downflow at the
wingis uniformthroughoutthe span.In the aerodynamicsense, the ellip-
tical wing is the most efficientplanform becausethe uniformity of lift
107
OFFLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
coefficientand downwashincursthe leastinduceddrag for a givenaspect

ratio. The merit of any wing planform is then measuredby the closeness
with which the distribution of lift coefficient and downwashapproach
that of the ellipticalplanform.The effectof the elliptical planform is illus-
trated in Fig 10-2 by the plot of local lift coefficient C, to wing
coefficient,c/c.,againstsemi-spandistance.The elliptical wing produces
a constantvalueof c)/c, = L0 throughoutthe spanfrom root to tip. Thus,
the local sectionangleof attack oo and local inducedangleof attack, c'
are constantthroughoutthe span.If the planform area distribution is
anythingotherthanellipticalit may beexpectedthat thelocalsectionand
inducedanglesof attackwill not be constantalongthe span.
A planformpreviouslyconsidered is the simplerectangularwing which
hasa taperratio of 1.0.A characteristic of therectangularwing is a strong
vortex at the tip with local downwashbehindthe wing which is high at
thetip andlow at theroot. This largenon-uniformityin downwashcauses
similarvariationin the local inducedanglesof attackalongthe span.At
the tip, wherehigh downwashexists,the local inducedangleof attack is I
greater than the average for the wing. Since the wing angle of attack
is composed of the sum of u, and cl,o,a large, local c' reducesthe local o.
creating low local lift coefficientsat the tip. The reverseis true at the root
of the rectangular wing where low local downwash exists.This situation
creates an induced angle of attack at the root which is less than the
average for the wing, and a local section angle of attack higher than
the averagefor the wing. The result is shown by the graph in Fig l0-2
which depicts a local coefficient at the root almost 20oh greater than the
wing lift coeffitcient.
The effect of the rectangular planfonn may be appreciated by matching
a near elliptical lift distribution with a planform with a constant chord.
The chords near the tip developlesslift pressurethan the root and conse-
quently have lower section lift coefficients. The great non-uniformity of
local lift coefficient along the span implies that some sectionscarry more
than their share of the load while others carry less. Hence, for a given
aspectratio, the rectangular planform will be lesseffrcient than the ellip-
tical wing. For example, a rectangular wing of ,4'=6 would have 16o/o
higher induced angle of attack and 5% higher induced drag than an ellip-
tical wing of the sameaspectratio.
At the other extremeof taper is the pointed wing which has a taper ratio
of zero. The extremely small area at the pointed tip is not capable of
holding the main tip vortex at the tip and a drastic change in downwash
distribution results.The pointed wing has greatestdownwash at the root
and this downwash decreasestowards the tip. In the immediate vicinity
of the pointed tip an upwash is encounteredwhich indicates that negative
induced anglesof attack exist in that area.The resulting variation of local
lift coefficient shows low C, at the root and very high C, at the tip. The
108
WINC PLANFORMS
a 1.0
Cr
Spanwise Lift Distribution
Root
TaperRatio,ll.t =rI!D$d.
El.Iptjcal Rectangular
1 - 1 n
Sweepback
PointedTio, l, = 0
Figure
10-2 LiftDistribution
andStallPatterns.
effect may be appreciated by realizing that the wide chords at the root
produce low lift pressureswhile the very narrow chords towards the tip
are subjectto very high lift pressures.The variation of t)/c.throughout the
span of the wing of taper ratio = O is shown on the graph of Fig l0-2. As
with the rectangular wing, the non-uniformity of downwash and lift
distribution result in the inefficiency of this planform. For example, a
109
pointedwing of 4=6 would havelTohhigherinducedangleof attackand

i:X ttigt.. induceddragthan an ellipticalwing of the sameaspectratio.
Betwienthe two extremesof taper will existplanformsof more toler-
th. for a wing of taper ratio =0.5 are
able effrciency.The variationsof
similarto theiift distributionof the ellipticalwing and the dragdueto lift
characteristics are nearlyidentical.A wing of 4=6 and taper ratio =0.5
has only 3% highercxrand llh greaterco, than an ellipticalwing of the
sameaspectratio.
The ellipticalwing is the ideal of the subsonicaerodynamicplanform
sinceit providesa minimum of induceddrag for a given aspectratio.
However,the major objectionto the ellipticalplanform is the extreme
difficulty of mechlnicallayout and construction.A highly taperedplan-
form is desirablefrom the siandpointof structuralweightand stiffness,
and the usualwing planform may have a taper ratio from 0.45to 0.20'
Sincestructuralconsiderations are important in the developmentof an
aeroplane,the tapered planform is a necessityfor an efficientconfigura-
tion. In order to preserve aerodynamic efficiency,however,the planform
is tailoredby wing twist and section variationto obtain asnearaspossible
the elliptic lift distribution.
10.7 Stall Patterns

An additionaloutcomeof planform areadistributionis the stall pattern
of the wing. The desirableitall patternof any wing is onewherethe stall
beginsat tlheroot sectionsfirst. The advantages of the_roôtstallingfirst
urJthut ailerons remain effective at high angles of attack,favourablestall
warning resultsfrom the buffet on the tailplane and aft portion of the
fuselagJ,and the loss of downwash behind the root usuallyprovidesa
stable-nose-down moment to the aircraft.Such a stall patternis favoured
but may, in fact, be difficult to obtain with certain wing configurations.
The typesof stallpatterninherentwith variousplanformsar.eillustrated
in Fig iO-2. f.ne variousplanform effectsare separatedasfollows:
(a) The ellipticalplanformhasconstantlift coefficientsthroughoutthe
spanfrom root to tip. Sucha lift distributionmeansthat all sections
will reachthe stall at essentiallythe samewing angleof attack and
the stall will both begin and progressuniformly throughout the
span. While the elliptical wing would reach high lift coefficients
beforean incipientstall,therewould be little advancewarning of a
completestall^.Also, the aileronsmay lack effectiveness when the
wing operatesnearthe stall and lateralcontrol may be difficult.
(b) The lift distributionof the rectangularwing exhibitslow local lift
coefficientsat thetip, andhighlocallift coefficientsat theroot' Since
the wing will initiate the stall in the areaof highestlocal lift coeffi-
110
WINCPLANFORMS
cients,the rectangularwing is characterized by a strong root-stall

tendency.This stall pattern is of course,favourablesincethere is
adequatestall warning buffet, adequateaileron effectiveness, and
usuallystrongstablemomentchangeson theaircraft.Because of the
great aerodynamicand structural inefficiencyof this planform,
however,the rectangularwing finds limited application,chieflyto
low cost,low speed,light planes.
(c) The wing of moderatetaper(taperratio =0.5)hasa lift distribution
whichis similarto that of the ellipticalwing. Hencethe stallpattern
is much the sameasthat of the ellipticalwing.
(d) The highly taperedwing of taper ratio =0.25 showsthe stalling
tendencyinherentwith high taper. The lift distribution of such a
wing hasdistinctpeaksjust inboardfrom thetip. Sincethewing stall
is startedin thevicinity of the highestlocallift coefficient,this plan-
form hasa strong'tip stall' tendency.The initial stall is not started
at the exacttip but at that stationinboard from the tip wherethe
highestlocal lift coefficientsprevail.
(e) The pointedtip wing of taperratio equalto zerodevelopsextremely
high local lift coefficients at the tip. For all practical
purposesthepointedtip will be stalledat any conditionof lift unless
extensivetailoring is appliedto the wing. Sucha planform has no
practicalapplicationto an aircraft which is definitelysubsonicin
performance.
(l) Sweepback appliedto a wing planformaltersthe lift distributionin
a way similarto decreasing the taper ratio. The full significanceof
sweepback arediscussed in the followingparagraphs.
10.8 Sweepback
Swept-back LeadingEdges
This type of planform is usedon high speedaircraft and may take
the form of a swept-backwing, or of a deltawith or without a tailplane.
The reasonfor the useof theseplanformsis their low drag at the higher
speeds.The high speed/lowdrag advantages are however,gainedat the
costof a poorerperformanceat the lower end of the speedscale.
Effect of Sweepbackon Lift

If a straightwing is changedto a sweptplanform,with similar parame-
is reduced.
tersof area,aspectratio, taper,sectionandwashout,the C,_-o*
This is due to premature flow separationfrom the upper surfaceat the
wing tips. For a sweepangleof 45", the approximatereductionin Cr-o*
is around30%.Figurel0-3 showstypicalCr curvosfor a straightwing,a
.t1.1
simplesweptback wing and a taillessdelta wing of the samelow aspect

ratio.
Lift Coefficient
1.
1.4
Tailless Delta
WingA=2
Figure10-3Effectof Planformon C.-",
The main reasonsfor the lowering of the Cr- slope is best explained by
examinationof Figs l0-4 and 10-5.From Fig l0-4 it can be seenthat the
velocity V can be divided into two components, V1 parallel to the leading
edge which has no effect on the lift, and Vz normal to the leading edge
which does affect the lift and is equal to V cos A. Therefore, all other
factors being equal, the Cr of a swept wing is reduced in the ratio of the
cosine of the sweepangle.
Figure 10-5 shows that an increasein fuselagegeometric incidenceA*
will only produce an increasein the angle of attack A* cos A in the plane
perpendicular to the wing quarter chord line. Since it has already been
said that it is airflow in the latter plane which effects Cr, the full incre-
ment of lift expectedfrom the A* change is reduced to that of a A* cos A
change.
Considering Figure l0-3, the stall occurs on all three wings at anglesof
attack considerably greater than those of wings of medium and high
aspectratios. On all aircraft it is desirable that the landing speedshould
be close to the lowest possible speed at which the aircraft can fly; to
achieve this desirableminimum the wing must be at the angle of attack
corresponding to the C.-o^.
112
WINC PLANFORMS
.l
Figure0-4FlowVelocities
on a SweptWing
On all wings of very low aspect ratio, and particularly on those with a
swept-back planform, the angles of attack giving the highest lift coeffi-
cients cannot be used for landing. This is becauseswept-back planforms
have someundesirablecharacteristicsnear the stall and becausethe exag-
geratednose-up attitude of the aircraft necessitates,among other things,
excessivelylong and heavy undercarriages.The maximum angle at which
an aircraft can touch down without recourseto such measuresis about
l5o, and the angle of attack at touch-down will therefore have to be some-
thing of this order. Figure l0-3 shows that the CL corresponding to this
angle of attack is lower than the Cr--u*for each wing. Compared with the
maximum usable lift coefficient available for landing aircraft with
unsweptwings, those of the swept and delta wings are much lower, neces-
sitating higher landing speedsfor a given wing loading. It is now apparent
that, to obtain a common minimum landing speedat a stated weight, an
unswept wing needs a smaller area than either of the swept planforms.
The simple swept wing needsa greater area, and so a lower wing loading,
in order that the reducedCr can support the weight at the required speed.
The tailless delta wing needs still more area, and so a still lower wing
loading, to land at the required speed.Figure l0-6 shows typical plan-
tbrms for the three types of wing under consideration,with areasadjusted
to give the same stalling speed.The much larger area of the delta wing is
evident.
113
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
F i g u r e1 0 - 5 Effecton Angleof Attackby Incidence

Change
10-6Planform
Figure Areasgivinga Common
Speed
Stalling
Effect of Sweepbackon Drag

The main r"uion for employing sweepback as a wing planform is to
improve the high speedcharacteristicsof the wing. Unfortunately this has
adverseeffectJon the amount of drag produced at the higher range of
anglesof attack. The induced drag increasesapproximately in proportion
to l as alreadyexplained,c,_is reducedby sweeping
This is because,
cosA
114
WINCPLANFORMS
the wing, and thereforeto maintainthe samelift the angleof attack has
to be increased.This increases the induceddownwashand hencethe induced
drag.
The practicalsignificance of this high increasein drag is the handling
problemsit imposesduring an approachto landing. Becauseof the
greaterinduceddrag, the minimum drag speedis higherthan that for a
comparablestraightwing,and the approachspeedis usuallylessthan the
minimum drag speed.Therefore,if a pilot makesa smalladjustmentto
the aircraft'sattitudeby, for exampleraisingthe noseslightly,the lift will
be increasedslightly,but there will be a large increasein drag which
will resultin a rapidfall off in speed,with a largeincreasein powerneeded
to restoreequilibrium.In fact, the stagemay be reachedwhereeventhe
useof full power is insufficientto preventthe aircraft from descending
rapidly.
1
Drag
V App
Figure10-7lmprovement
in ApproachSpeedStability
On someaircraft this problem is overcomeby employinghigh drag

devices,suchasairbrakesor drag-chutes, theprofiledrag.This
to increase
resultsin a flatter drag curvewith the minimum drag speedcloserto the
approachspeed,seeFig l0-7. A further advantageis that more power is
requiredon theapproach,which on turbojetaircraft,meansbetterengine
response.
115
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Pressure
Gradient
Across Wing
lsobars
P o o l i n go f
Boundary
Layer at TiP
Layer.
10-BOutflowof Boundary
Figure
Effect of Sweepback on Stalling

when a wing is swept back, the boundary layer tends to changedirection
and flow towards the tips. This outward drift is causedby the boundary
layer encountering an adversepressuregradient and flowing obliquely to
it over the rear of the wing. The pressuredistribution on a swept wing is
shown by isobars in Fig l0-8. The velocity of the flow has been shown by
two components, one at right anglesand the other parallel to the isobars.
Initially, when the boundary layer flows rearwards from the leading edge_
it moves towards a favourable pressuregradient, ie towards an area of
lower pressure.Once past the lowest pressurehowever, the component at
right anglesto the isobars encountersan adversepressuregradient and is
reduced. The component parallel to the isobars is unaffected, therefore
the result is that the actual velocity is reduced (as it is over an unswept
wing) and also directed outwards towards the tips.
The direction of the flow continues to be changed until the component
at right anglesto the isobarsis reducedto zero, whilst the parallel compo-
116
WINCPLANFORMS
'pool'
nent,becauseof friction, is alsoslightlyreduced.This resultsin a
of slowmovingair collectingat the tips.
The spanwisedrift initiatesa tendencytowards tip stalling, sinceit
thickensthe boundarylayerover the outer partsof the wing and makes
it more susceptible to separation,bringingwith it a suddenreductionin
Cl-u* ov€r the wing tips.
At the sametime as the boundarylayer is flowing towardsthe tips, at
high anglesof attack, the airflow is separatingalong the leadingedge.
Overtheinboardsectionit re-attaches behinda short'separationbubble',
but on the outboardsectionit re-attaches only on thetrailingedgeor fails
to attachat all. The separatedflow at the tips combineswith the normal
wing tip vorticesto form a large vortex (the ram's horn vortex). The
factorswhich combineto form this vortex are:
(a) Leadingedgeseparation
(b) The flow aroundthe wing tips
(c) The spanwiseflow of the boundarylayer.
Thesefactorsareillustratedin Fig 10-9and the sequence of the vortex
developmentand its effecton the airflow over the wing is shownin Fig
10-10.From the latter it can be seenthat the ram's horn vortex has its
origin on the leadingedge,possiblyas far inboardas the wing root.
The effectof the vortexon the air aboveit (theexternalflow) is to draw
the latter down and behindthe wing, deflectingit towardsthe fuselage
(Fiel0-11).
Flow
Around
Wing
Tips
Figure10-9 VortexDevelopment.
117
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
B o u n d a r yl a y e r
of Ram'sHorn Vortex
Figure10-10 Formation
Figure10-11 Influenceon ExternalFlow.

WINGPLANFORMS
The spanwiseflow of theboundarylayerincreases asangleof attackis

increased.This causesthevortexcloserinboardto becomedetachedfrom
the leadingedge(seeFig 10-12).As a result,outboard aileronssuffera
markeddecrease in responsewith increasingangleof attack.This,in turn,
meansthat comparativelylarge aileron movementsare necessary to
manoeuvrethe aircraftat low speeds; the aircraftresponsemay be corre-
spondinglysluggish.Thiseffectmay becounteredby limiting theinboard
encroachment of thevortexasdescribedbelow,or by movingtheailerons
inboard.Another possiblesolutionis the useof an all-movingwing tip.
10.9 Alleviatingthe Tip Stall

Most of the methodsusedto alleviatethe tip stall aim either at main-
taining a thin and thereforestrongboundarylayer,or re-energizing the
weakenedboundarylayer:
(a) BoundaryLayerFences
Used originally to restrict the boundary layer out-flow, fencesalso
checkthe spanwisegrowth of the separationbubble along the leading
edge.
(b) LeadingEdgeSlots
Thesehavethe effectof re-energizing
the boundarylayer.
(c) BoundaryLayerSuction
Suitablyplacedsuctionpointsdraw off theweakenedlayer;a newhigh-
energylayeris then drawndown to take its place.
(d) BoundaryLayerBlowing
High velocity air is injectedinto the boundary layer to increaseits
energy.
(e) Vortex generators

The purposeof thesedevicesis to re-energise the boundarylayer by
makingit moreturbulent. The increased turbulence resultsin high-energy
air in layersimmediatelyabovethe seriously retarded layer beingmixed
in and so re-energizingthe layer as a whole.Vortex generators are most
commonly fitted aheadof control surfacesto increasetheir effect by
speedingup and strengtheningthe boundary layer. Vortex generators
also markedly reduceshock-inducedboundary layer separation,and
reducethe effectsof the uppersurfaceshockwave.
119
OF FLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
Figure10-12 Shiftof Ram'sHorn Vortex
(f) LeadingEdgeExtension
Also knownis a'sawtooth'leading edge,the extended leadingedgeis
a commonmethodusedto avoid the worst effectsof tip stalling.The effect
of the extensionis to cut down the growth of the main vortex.A further
smallervortex, starting from the tip of the extension,affectsa much
smallerproportionof tlie tip areaand in lying acrossthewing,behindthe
tip of the eitension,it has the effectof restrictingthe outward flow of
the boundarylayer.In this way the severityof the tip stall is reducedand
with it thepiich-uptendency.Furthereffectsof theleadingedgeextension
are:
(i) The t/c ratio of the tip areais reduced,with consequent
benefitsto the criticalMach number.
(ii) The CP of the extendedportion of the wing lies aheadof
what would be the CP positionif no extensionwerefitted'
The mean CP position for the whole wing is therefore
farther forward and, when the tip eventuallystalls,the
forward shift in CP is lessmarked, thereforereducing
the magnitudeof the nose-upmovement'
(g) LeadingEdgeNotch
'"The
notJhedleadingedgehas the sameeffectas the extendedleading
edgein sofar asit cauiesa similarvortexformationtherebyreducingthe
mignitude of the vortexoverthe tip areaand,with it, the tip stall.Pitch-
up lendenciesarethereforereduced.The leadingedgenotch canbe used
in conjunctionwith an extendedleadingedge,theeffectbeingto intensify
the inboard vortex behind the devicesto createa strongerrestraining
effecton boundarylayer outflow. The choicewhetherto useeither or
WINCPLANFORMS
both of thesedeviceslies with the designerand dependson the desired

flight characteristicsof the aircraft.
10.10 Pitch-up
LongitudinalInstability
Longitudinalinstabilityresultswhen the angleof attackof a sweptwing
increasesto the point of tip stall.The instabilitytakesthe form of a nose-
up pitchingmoment,calledpitch-up,andis a self-stalling tendencyin that
the angleof attack continuesto increaseoncethe instabilityhas set in.
The aerodynamiccausesof pitch-up are detailed in the following
paragraphs.
Centreof,PressureMovement
When the swept-backwing is installed,the CP lies in a certainposition
relativeto the CG, the exactposition being the mean of the centresof
pressurefor everyportion of the wing from the root to the tip. When the
tip stalls,lift is lost over the outboard sectionsand the meanCP moves
rapidly forward; the wing moment (Fig l0-13) is reducedand a nose-up
pitchingmomentresultswhich aggravates the tendency.
F i g u r e1 0 - 1 3N o s e - u pP i t c h i n M
g oment
Resulting fromTip Stalling
Changeof Downwashoverthe Tailplane

Figure 10-14showsthat the maximum downwashfrom a swept-back
r*'ingin unstalledflight comesfrom the tip portions;this is to be expected
sincethe C, is highestover theseparts of the wing. When the wing tips
stall,effectivelift productionis concentratedinboard and the maximum
'Jownwash now operatesover the tailplaneand increases the tendencyto
pitch up. This effectcan be reducedby placing the tailplaneas low as
possiblein linewith, or below,thewingchordline,sothat it liesin a region
rn which the downwashchangeswith angleof attack arelessmarked.
121
WashoutDue to Flexure
Whena sweptwing flexesunderload, all chordwisepointsat right angles
to themain sparare raisedto the samedegree,unlessthe wing is specially
designed sothat this is not so.Thereforein Fig l0-15,thepointsA and B
risethroughthe samedistanceandthepointsC andD risethrougha same
distancebut one that is greaterthan A and B. ThereforeC risesfarther
than A and there is a consequentloss in incidenceat this section.This
'washoutdue to flexure',and it is obviously
aeroelasticeffectis termed
greatestat thewing tips.
Unstalled Tip Stalled
Max Downwash
Max Downwash
Resultant
Downwash
( (t, .T|_
|,?""n",,i1"o-"", : I
Tail Moment -J
Increased
Iil \
I
Increased
Tail Moment
\
Wing Moment
Decreased
Figure 10-14 Variation of Downwash
It is most noticeable during high g manoeuvreswhen the loss of lift at

the tips and the consequentforward movement of the centre of pressure
causesthe aircraft to tighten up in the manoeuvre. A certain amount of
washout due to flexure is acceptable provided the control in pitch is
adequateto compensatefor it, but it can be avoided by appropriate wing
design.
L-
WINC PLANFORMS
Figure10-15Washoutdueto Flexure
Pitch-upon Aircraft with Straight Wings

On aircraft with low aspectratio, short-spanwings, pitch-up can be
causedby the effect of the wing tip vortices.As the angleof attack is
increasedthe vorticesgrow largeruntil, at or nearthe stall,they may be
large enoughto affect the airflow over the tailplane. As each vortex
rotatesinwards towardsthe fuselageover its upper half, the tailplane
incidenceis decreasedgivingriseto a pitch-uptendency.
Rateof Pitch-up
From the pilot's point of view,pitch-upis recognized whenthe pull force
on thecontrol columnwhich is beingappliedto the aircraftnearthe stall
hasto be changedto a pushforceto preventthenosefrom risingfurther;
themorethespeeddecreases thefartherforwardmustthecontrolcolumn
be movedto restrainthe nose-uppitch. Pitch-upin levelflight or in any
I g stall is usuallygentle,sincethe rate at which the stall is spreadingis
comparativelyslow and is usuallyaccompaniedby the normal pre-stall
buffeting.When the stall occursin a manoeuvreincurringaccelerations
due to g force, the onsetof pitch-up can be violent and sudden,corre-
spondingto the rate of spreadof the stall.
The CrescentWing
The crescentwing planform combinesvariablesweepwith a changing
thickness/chord ritio. At the root sectionwherethe'wingis thickest,the
angle of sweepis greatest.As the t/c ratio is reducedspanwise,so is
the angleof sweep,so that the outboardsectionsarepracticallyunswept.
Hencelhereis litile or no outflow of the boundarylayet at the tips. The
advantages of thecrescent wing are:
(a) The criticaldrag riseMach numberis raised.
(b) The peakdrag riseis reduced.
(c) Because of thelack of outflow of the boundarylayerat the tips,
tip-stallingis prevented.
10.11 Forward SweeP
General
The benefitsof wing sweepcan be achievedby sweepingthe wing back-
wards or forwards,yet only in recentyearshas the forward sweptwing
(FSW), becomea seriousalternativeto sweepback. The reasonfor this
liesin the behaviourof wing structures under load.
The main advantages lie in the sub/transonicregime.Taking the 70,'h
chordline as the averageposition for a shock-waveto form when the
critical Mach numberis approached,the sweepangleof this chordline
influenceswavedrag.
The FSW can maintainthe samechord-linesweepas the swept-back
wing (SBW) but due to a geometricadvantage,achieves. this with less
lead'ingedge sweepand enjoys the advantages accruing from this
subsonically.
The deciiion to employ FSW or SBW will depend,inter alia, on the
speedregimeenvisaged for the design.Due to betterlift/drag ratio in the
-
sub-soniiand neariransonicspeedrange- typical combat air patrol
fuel consumptionis improvedoverthe sBw. For a high speedsupersonic
interceptionthe highersupersonic drag is a disadvantage.
Wing Flexure
Undir flexural load the airflow seesa steadyincreasein effectiveangleof
attackfrom root to tip, the oppositeeffectto aft-sweep.Under g loading,
lift will be increasedit the tipi, leadingto pitch-upas the centreof pres-
suremovesforwards.Additionally, the increasedangleof attack at the
tips now leadsto increasedwing flexure,which itself leadsto increased
effectiveangleof attack at the tips. The result of this aeroelasticdiver-
genceis likely to be structuralfailure of the wing, so it is not surprising
124
WINC PLANFORMS
that sweepbackwasconsideredto be a better option until comparatively

recently.What changedthe situationwasthe developmentof carbonfibre
technology,which made possiblecontrolled wing twist under load; so
allowing the effectdescribedto be eliminated.
Vortex Generation
Figure 10-16showsthe differencein ram'shorn vortexbehaviour.Inthe
sweptforward designthe ram's horn vortex developsinwardstowardsthe
root, not outwardstowardsthe tips.
There will, of course,still be vorticesfrom the wing tips, but theseno
longer reinforceand aggravatethe ram's horn vortex, which now lies
alongthefuselage, or slightlymoreoutboardif a smallsectionof thewing
root is sweptback.
Figure10-16Comparison
of Ram'sHorn VortexBehaviour
Stalling
A sweptforwardwing will tend to stall at the root first. This stall can be
controlledin a numberof ways.Sincea conventionaltailplanewould tend
to lie in a vortex,the popularoption is to combineforward sweepwith a
canardforeplane.Downwashfrom a carefullyplacedcanardcan delay
root stall,and eventhe vorticesfrom the canardcan be usedto energise
theairflowoverinboardsectionsof thewing,maintaininglift up to higher
anglesof attack.
The root-stallcharacteristicsgive bettercontrol at the stall as aileron
controlis retained,but may incur a penaltyin directionalcontrol asthefin
andrudderareactingin the chaoticturbulencefrom the root separation.
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
10.12 DeltaWings
Tailless Delta
on aircraft using this type of wing the angle of attack is controlled by
movement of the trailing edge of the wing: an upward movement
produces a downward force on the trailing edgeand soincreasesthe angle
of attack. When compared with an identical wing which usesa separate
tailplane to control the angle of attack, the taillessdelta revealstwo main
differences:
(a) The C.-u* is reduced
(b) The stalling angle is increased
Reduction of Cr,-.*
The chord line of a wing is defined as being a straight line joining the
leading edgeto the trailing edge.If a given wing/aerofoil combination has
a hinged tiailing edge for use as an elevator, then when the trailing edge
is moved from one angular position to another, the effective aerofoil
section of the wing has been changed.
When such a wing reachesits stalling angle in level flight, the trailing
edge elevator must be raised to impose a downward force on
thJtrailing edgeto maintain the wing at the required angle of attack. The
raised trailingidge has two effects:it deflectsupwards the airflow passing
over it and so reducesthe downwash (the amount of which is proportional
to the lift) and it reducesthe extent both of the low-pressurearea over the
upper surface of the wing and the high-pressure area below, thereby
lowering the Ct.
The curvesof Fig I 0- 17 show that any sectionwith a raisedtrailing edge
must suffer a decreasedCrmaxcoffiParedto the basic section.
Increasein Stalling Angle

The planform of the delta wing givesit an inherently low asp€ctratio and
therefore a high stalling angle and a marked nose-up attitude at the stall
in level flight. If a given delta wing is used without a tailplane, ie the
trailing edge is used as an elevator, then the stalling angle is higher than
when the samewing is used in conjunction with a tailplane'
All elsebeing equal (planform, aspect ratio, area, etc), changesin the
amount of cambei (by altering the angular setting of the trailing edge
elevator) do not affect the stalling angle appreciably. That is, the angle
between the chord line and the direction of the airflow remains constant
when at maximum cr irrespective of the setting of the hinged trailing
edge. Figure 10-18illustrates this point and it can be seenthat for both
'tailed' and 'tailless' aircraft the stalling angle is the same when
the
measuredon the foregoing principles.
126
WINC PLANFORMS
aS
Basic Section
Angle of Attack
Figure10-17 Effectof HingedTrailingEdgeon CL-""and StallingAngle.
It is however, normal practice and convention to measurethe stalling

anglewith referenceto the chord line obtained when the moveable trailing
edge is in the neutral position, and not to assumea new chord line with
each change in trailing edge movement. When the stalling angle is
measured with referenceto the conventional fixed chord line, it can be
seenfrom Fig l0-18 that the angleis greater.Figure l0-18 also showsthat,
becausethe wing proper is set at a greater angle at the stall when a trailing
edgeelevator is used,the fuselageattitude is more nose-up,giving a more
exaggeratedattitude at the stall in level flight.
Since it is easierto refer to angle of attack against a fixed chord line,
the basic chord line is always used as the referencedatum. This conven-
tion is the reasonfor the apparently greater stalling anglesof taillessdelta
wings; it is perhaps a more realistic method, as the pilot is invariably
aware of the increasedattitude of his aircraft relative to the horizontal.
but is not always aware of increasesin the angle of attack.
OF FLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
of StallingAngle.
Figure10-18 Comparison
The C" Curve

Reference to Fig 10-3 shows that the peak of the curve for the lift
coefficient is very flat and shows little variation of Cr over a compara-
tively wide range of angles.This very mild stalling behaviour enablesthe
delta wing to be flown at an angle of attack considerably higher than that
of the C.-u*, possibly with no ill effects other than the very marked
increasein the drag. The flat peak denotesa gradual stall, with a conse-
quent gradual loss of lift as the stalling angle is exceeded.
The Slender Delta

The slender delta provides low drag at supersonicspeedsbecauseof its
low aspect ratio. This, combined with a sharp leading edge, produces
leading edge separation at low angles of attack. Paradoxically, this is
encouraged.Up to now the vortex so produced has been an embarrass-
ment as it is unstable, varies greatly with angle of attack, causesbuffet,
increasesdrag and decreasesC.-u*. By careful design,however, the vortex
can be controlled and used to advantage.
Vortex Lift
The vortex on a slenderdelta is different in character from that on a wing
of higher aspectratio (greaterthan 3). On the slenderdelta the vortex will
cover the whole leading edgefrom root to tip, rather than start at the tip
and travel inwards at higher anglesof attack. Its behaviour is therefore
more predictable, and, as it is present during all aspects of flight, the
following characteristicsmay be exploited:
(i) Leading edge flow separation causesCP to be situated nearer
mid-chord. Hence there will be less difference between CP
subsonic and CP supersonicthan before, and longitudinal
stability is thereby improved.
128
WINCPLANFORMS
(ii) The vortex core is a region of low pressure,thereforean

increasein Cr maj be expected. On the conventionaldeltathis
cannotbe utilizedas the vortex seldomapproachesanywhere
nearthe wing root and most of its energyappearsin the wake
behindthe wing, whereit produceshigh induceddrag.On the
slenderdelta the low pressurein the vortex is situatedabove
the wing and can resultin an increasein Cr_of asmuch as 30oh
underfavourableconditions.
10.13 Polymorphic
Aircraft
General
An aircraft which is designedto fly at supersonicspeedsmost of the time
usually has poor low speed characteristicswhich have to be accepted,
although various high lift devicesare available for reducing take-off and
landing speedsand improving the low speedhandling qualities. In order
to achieve the desired high speed performance, the aircraft has thin
symmetric wing sectionsand highly swept or delta wing planforms; these
wings are very inefficient at low speedswhere unswept wing planforms
and camberedwing sectionsare required.
In the caseof an aircraft which is required to be operated efficiently at
both high and low speeds,variable wing sweepis a desirablefeature to be
incorporated in the design. The wings can thereby be swept back when
the aircraft is being flown at high speedsand swept forward again
when flying at low speeds.Such aircraft are often labelled 'swing wing'.
Stability and Control Problems

When the wing of an aircraft is swung backwards the aerodynamic centre
moves rearwards. The CG of the aircraft also moves back at the same
time, but, since most of the weight of an aircraft is concentrated in the
fuselage,the CG movement is lessthan that of the aerodynamic centre.
The rearwards movement of the aerodynamic centre produces a nose-
down changeof trim and an increasein the longitudinal static stability of
the aircraft. Additional up-elevator is required to trim the aircraft and
this results in additional drag called 'trim drag'. This extra drag can form
a relatively large part of the total drag of an aircraft at supersonicspeeds
and it is essentialthat it should be kept as small aspossible.Various design
methods are available for reducing or eliminating the trim changes
produced by sweepingthe wings.
Wing Translation
Theierodynamic centrecan be movedforward againby translatingthe
wing forwirds asit is sweptback.This methodinvolvesextraweightand
structuralcomplications.
Movement
The aircraftcanbe designedso that the CG movesrearwardsin stepwith
the aerodynamiccentreby mountingsomeweightin the form of engines,
etc at the wing tips.As, however,engineswould haveto swivelto remain
alignedwithlhe airflow, additionalweight an{ 9!her complications
r.rirlt. Another possiblemethodof movingthe CG is by transferringfuel
to suitabletrim tanksin the rear fuselage'
LeadingEdgeFillet andPivot Position

AnothJr soi"utioncanbeobtainedby positioningthepivot point outboard
'glove'. The
of the fuselageinside a fixed, leadingedge fillet, called a
optimum pivot position for minimum movementof the CP dependson
the wing planfoim, but it is usuallyabout 20o/oout along the mid-span.
HowevJr,the fixed glove-fairingpresentsa highly sweptportion of the
Glove-FairingPivot
S m a l lC PS h i f t
Figure10-19Movement
WINCPLANFORMS
I spanat low-speed, minimum-sweep settings.This incursthe undesirable

penaltiesthat variablegeometryis designedto overcome.A compromise
betweensweepingthe wholewing and a long glovegiving the minimum
CP shift,is usuallyadoptedasindicatedin Fig 10-19.
10.14CanardDesign
A canard-typeconfigurationis onewhichhasa foreplanelocatedforward
of thewinginsteadof themoreconventionaltailplane.On an aircraftwith
a long slenderfuselage with enginesmountedin thetail and a CG position
well aft, this layout has the obvious geometricadvantageof a longer
momentarm.This enablesthe stabilityand trim requirements to be satis-
fied by a foreplane of smallerareathan that of a tailplane.The trim drag
problemwill alsobe reducedbecause, at high speeds,an up-loadwill be
requiredon theforeplaneto trim the aircraft.Thereare,however,certain
disadvantages with this layout:
(a) Stalling problems

On a 'conventional'tailplaneconfiguration,the wing stallsbeforethe
tailplane, and longitudinal control and stability are maintainedat
the stall. On a canardlayout, if the wing stallsfirst, stabilityis lost, but
if the foreplanestallsfirst thencontrol is lost and the maximumvalueof
Cr is reduced.Onepossiblesolutionis to usea canardsurfaceand a wing
trailing edgeflap in combination,with one surfaceactingas a trimming
device,and the other as a control. Alternatively,an auxiliaryhorizontal
tailplaneat the rearmay be usedfor trim and control at low speed.
(b) InterferenceProblems
In the sameway as the airflow from the wing interfereswith the tail unit
on the conventionaltail layout, so the airflow from the foreplaneinter-
fereswith the flow around the main wing and vertical fin in a canard
layout.This can causea reductionin lift on the main wing, and can also
result in stability problems.The interferencewith the vertical fin can
causea markedreductionin directionalstaticstabilityat high anglesof
attack.The stabilitymay be improvedby employingtwin verticalfins in
placeof the singlecontrol verticalfin.
10.15 Summary
Planform Considerations
Planformis the geometricalshapeof the wing whenviewedfrom above,
and it largelydeterminesthe amount of lift and drag obtainablefrom a
givenarea,it alsohasa pronouncedeffecton the stallingangleof attack.
131
OFFLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
Aspectratio (A) is found by dividing the squareof the wing spanby the
areaof the wing:
o =F.* o'v#&a;a
are affectedby aspectratio:
The followingwing characteristics
a) Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto aspectratio'
b) The reducedeffectiveangle of attack of very low aspectratio
wingscan delaythe stall considerably.(Somedeltawingshave
no measurable stallingangleup to 40')'
In the aerodynamicsense,the ellipticalwing is the most efficientplan-
form becaur. ih. uniformity both of lift coefficientand of downwash
incursthe leastinduceddragfor a givenaspectratio.
Any swept-backplanform suffers a marked drop in CI--u*when
compired with an unsweptwing with the samesignificantparameters;
alsoihe boundarylayer tendsto changedirectionand flow towardsthe
tips.
The spanwisedrift of the boundarylayer setsup a.tendencytowards
tip stallingon sweptwing aircraft.This may be alleviatedby the useof
one or more of the following:
(a) Boundarylayerfences.
(b) Leadingedgeslots.
(c) BoundarylaYersuction.
(d) BoundarylaYerblowing.
(e) Vortex generators.
(0 Leadingedgeextension.
(g) Leadingedgenotch.
The factorseffectingpitch-upare:
(i) LongitudinalinstabilitY.
movement.
(iD Centreof Pressure
(iii) Changeof downwashover the tailplane.
(iv) Washoutdue to flexure.
The advantagesof a crescentwing are:
(a) The criticaldrag riseMach numberis raised.
: (b) The peakdrag riseis reduced.

It
I 132
a
WINCPLANFORMS
(c) Becauseof the lack of outflow of the boundarylayer at

the tips, tip-stallingis prevented.
A FSW stallsat the roor first, prolongingaileroncontrol.The config-
uration may offer an advantagein L/D ratio over sweepbackin the
appropriatespeedrange.
Whencomparedwith a deltawhichusesa separatetailplaneto control
angleof attack,the taillessdelta revealstwo main differences:
(a) The Cr--* is reduced.
(b) The stallingangleis increased.

Vortex lift hasthe followingcharacteristics:
(i) Leadingedgeflow separationcausesthe CP to besituated
nearerto midchord.
The vortexcore is a regionoflow pressure,thereforean
increasein Cs may be expected.
The canard configuration has the following advantages and
disadvantages:
Advantages
(a) The control surface is ahead of any shocks which may
form on the mainplane.
(b) On an aircraft with a long slenderfuselagewith engines
mountedin the tail and the CG positionwell aft, thefore-
planehasthe advantageof a long momentarm.
(c) The stabilityand trim requirementscan be satisfiedwith
a smallerforeplanearea.
(d) Because upJoadswill be required,the trim dragproblem
is reduced.
Disadvantages
(i) If the wing stallsfirst stabilityis lost.
(ii) If the foreplanestallsfirst control is lost.
(iiD In the sameway as the airflow from the wing interferes
with the tail unit on the conventionaltail layout, so the
airflowfrom theforeplaneinterfereswith theflow around
themainwing andverticalfin of thecanardconfiguration.
133
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
I Sweptwingsareusedon someaircrafttypesto:
a) delayM".',.
b) giveimprovedlow speedhandling.
c) producegreaterlift for a givenwing area.
d) reducelateralstabilitY
Refpara10.8
Induced drag is:

a) proportional to asPectratio.
b) inversely proportional to aspectratio.
c) inversely proportional to lift.
d) proportional to sPeed.
Refpara 10.5
The higher the aspectratio of a wing:

a) the greater the induced drag.
b) the greater the rigidity of the wing.
c) the lower the stalling angle.
d) the greater the vortex drag.
Ref Para10.5
Spanwisemovementof airflow on a sweptwing may be reducedby:

a) high camberedivings.
b) non slottedtrailing edgeflaPs.
c) increasedangleofincidence.
d) wing fences.
Ref para 10.8
As a swept wing passesthrough the transonic speedrange:

a) a nose up pitching moment is experienced.
b) the wing C of P moves forward.
c) the wing C of G moves aft.
d) a nose up trim will be required.
Ref para10.10
134
,r1
FlightControls
11.1 Introduction
The purpose of flight controls is to enablethe aircraft to be rotated about
its three axes.Control in pitch is exercisedby elevators which move the
aircraft about its lateral axis, control in roll by the ailerons which move
the aircraft about its longitudinal axis and control in yaw by the rudder
which moves the aircraft about its normal. or vertical. axis. Controls
usually take the form of hinged aerofoils mounted on the trailing edge of
the wing, the horizontal stabiliser or tailplane, and the rudder normally
attached to the trailing edge of the fin. When they are moved they alter
the effectivecamber of the section to which they are attached and there-
fore alter the amount of lift being generated.Within reason,controls are
positioned as far away as possiblefrom the axis of rotation about which
they are effective, so that they create the largest moment for the least
amount of force.
When a control surface is deflectedthe forces acting on it try to return
it to the neutral position. The total returning force is the lift force on the
control surface multiplied by the distance of the centre of pressure of
the control surfaceto the hinge. This force is called the hinge moment and
is shownin Fis 11-1.
Hinge
Moment
! t
+i xF
Hinge t\4oment= FX
F i g u r e11 - 1
Obviouslythis hingemomenthas to be opposedby someforce if the

control is to remain deflected,and this force is suppliedby the pilot
13s
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
through the control column or rudder bar. The degreeof lift force gener-
ated by a control surface will depend on the square of the speed,and as
the speedincreasesit can reach considerablemagnitude. Becauseof this,
on any but very low speedaircraft the amount of control force required
will be far too high for easyoperation of the controls without some form
of assistance.This assistanceis called aerodynamic control balancing.
Various forms of aerodynamic balancing are used, and they all operate
on the principle of either reducing the hinge moment or producing a force
which will help to balance the hinge moment by acting in the opposite
direction. The various types of aerodynamic balancing used on current
aircraft are discussedin the following paragraphs:
1 1 . 2 I n s etH i n g e
This type of aerodynamic balancingis commonly usedon modern aircraft
and athieves its reduction of control column loading by positioning the
hinge so that part of the control surfaceleading edgemoves in the oppo-
site direction to the remainder of the control surface. Fig 1l-2 shows an
example of this type of aerodynamic balance.
I
--! I
X
InsetHinge
11-2
Figure
Care must be taken in the design of this type of balance to ensurethat

the centre of pressure is not too near the hinge line. When a control
surfaceis defleited its centreof pressuremoves forward, and if the margin
betweenthe centre of pressureand the tringe line is too small it is possible
that the centre of pressurewill move forward of the hinge line and so lead
to the surface overbalancing.
FLIGHTCONTROLS
1 1 . 3 H o r n B a la n ce
In this type of systema portion of the control surfaceitself acts ahead of
the hinge line, so producing a force in opposition to the hinge moment.
Such a balanceis shown in Fis 11-3.
HornBalance
F i g u r e11 - 3
11 . 4 B a l a n c e
Ta b
This type of system has the same effect as the horn balance but is
produced by attaching a small aerofoil to the trailing edge of the control
surface and is arranged so that when the control surface is moved the
balance tab is automatically moved in the opposite direction
mechanically. (Fig I l-a)
F i g u r e11 - 4
The balancetab, althoughquite small,is acting at a considerable

distancefrom the hingeline of the main control surface,and therefore
producesa considerableassistance in moving it. There is someloss of
overalleffectof the control in this systemand alsoa smalldrag penalty
is incurred. It should be noted that when the main control surfaceis
deflectedthe tab movesin the oppositedirection,but, the chord line of
the tab remainsparallelto the chordline of the fixed surfaceas shownin
Fig ll-4. This balancedmotion achievesthe requiredobjectiveswhilst
avoidingany excessive dragpenalties.
137
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
11.5 ServoTab
This type of tab is usedon largersubsonicaircraft as an aid to the pilot
in overcomingheavycontrol loads.with this type of systemwhen the
controlcolumnis movedthetab is movedby thecontrolinput whichthen
causesthe airflow to be deflectedwhich in turn movesthe control surface.
The systemis shownin Fig I l-5.
Controlrod Servotab
down
'!"'-
Freeto pivot
Frompilot'scontrol
Figure11-5 Servotab oPeration
11.6 Anti-Balance Tab

Thistypeof tabis usedto increasetheloadon thecontrolcolumnwhen
thecontrolsurface It operates
isdeflected. in a similarway
automatically
to a balance tab but in the opposite direction. The anti-balance tab is
often used to increasethe'Feel'in a control system.Fig 1l-6 shows an
example of an anti-balancetab.
F i g u r e1 1 - 6
138
FLICHT
CONTROLS
The typesof aerodynamicbalancediscussedso far are quite suitable

for slow and medium speedaircraft but when consideringthe require-
mentsof high speedaircraft they are no longerof very much value.The
problemsinvolved in flying at high true airspeedsand high Mach
numbersmake it virtually impossiblefor satisfactorycontrol to be
achievedby manual controls.In view of this, power operationof
all control surfacesis desirable.In a conventionalcontrol systemthe
control columnforcesfelt by the pilot conveysa considerable amountof
information on control deflectionbut as there is no direct connection
betweenthe control columnand the control surfacein a poweredcontrol
system,the 'Feel' felt on the control column due to the air loadsacting
upon it will not be felt as in a manual system.In order to maintain
accuratecontrol ofthe aircraftandto preventoverstressing ofthe aircraft
artificialfeelmust be provided.As the control surfaceis beingoperated
by hydraulicpowerthetabsaspreviouslymentionedwill havelittle or no
effect.An exampleof a simplepower operatedcontrol systemis shown
in Fig11-7.
F i g u r e11 - 7
11.7 lnternal Balance

Although fairly commonly used,this form of aerodynamic balanceis not
obvious becauseit is contained within the contour of the parent control
surface.When the control is moved, a pressure difference is generated
betweenupper and lower surfaces.This difference will try to deflect the
beak aheadof the hinge-line on the control producing a partial balancing
moment. The effectivenessis controlled in some casesby venting air
pressureabove and below the beak, seeFig I 1-8.
139
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
H i n g eL i n e
F l e x i b l eS e a l
F i g u r e1 1 - B
11.8 MassBalance
Problemscan arise with oscillatorymovementsof the control surface
causedby variationin themomentof thecontrol surfacecentreof gravity
aboutthe hinge.This variationcanbe broughtaboutthroughthe flexing
of the entire structurewhen a load is appliedto it. It is possibleunder
somecircumstances for theseoscillationsto be divergentand cause
completefailureof the structure.
'Flutter', and as the main factor
T[is form of oscillationis called
involvedis the momentof the centreof gravityaboutthe control surface
hinge,the possibilityof it beingreducedby movingthe centreof gravity
nearerto the hingeline must be considered.This is usuallyachievedby
addingweightsto the control surfaceso positionedthat they act in front
of the hingeline and therebymove the control surfacecentreof gravity
to, or just in froni of, the hingeline, as shownin Fig 1l-8. On modern
aircraftthe massbalanceweightsare normallyhousedinsidethe control
surfacestructure.
Weightof aileron
Massbalance
i .l
Figure1 -9
I
L 140
FLIGHT
CONTROLS
It wasstatedpreviouslythat eachsetof controlsoperatesaroundone of

the threeaxesof movement.
Elevators controltheaircraftaboutthelateralaxis,that isinpitch.
Ailerons control the aircraft about the lonsitudinal axis.that is
in roll.
Rudder controlsthe aircraft about the normal or verticalaxis.
that is in yaw.
Unfortunatelythe operationof somecontrolscausesadditionalmove-
ment about another axis, and the most obviousexampleof this is the
effect of aileronswhich are designedto give a rolling moment about
thelongitudinalaxis.In orderto achievethis,oneaileronmustbelowered
and the other one raised,and the onewhich is loweredwill alwayscause
additionaldrag and so producea yawingmomentin the oppositedirec-
tion to the intendedturn. This effectis called'adverseaileronyaw', and
it is mostmarkedwhenailerondeflectionanglesarelarge,usuallyat low
speeds. Therearetwo methodsof correctingthe condition,thefirst being
differentialailerons.In this system(Fig l1-10a)the up-goingaileron
movesthrougha greateranglethanthedown-goingand thedragis,there-
fore, balancedon eachsideof the aircraft.The other methodis by useof
whatis calleda Friseaileron,(seeFig I l-l0b).
\
I L.rg"
upwaro
movemen
D i f f e r e n t i aal i l e r o n s
.l
F i g u r e 1 - 1 0a F i g u r e11 - 1 0b
The excessdrag from ailerons is generatedby the down-going aileron

so in the Frise system the up-going aileron is mechanically arranged to
project below the undersurfaceof the wing when raised. This createsthe
additional drag to balancethe increaseddrag of the down-going aileron.
Frise ailerons are not in generaluse today as, in particular, they are most
unsuited to high speedaircraft.
141
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
11.9 Adverseroll tendencydue to rudder deflection

Reference to diagram(a) of Fig 11-l l, showsthat if therudderis deflected
to the right, the lift force generatedby the fin and rudder will yaw the
aircraft io the right. The fin will have a centreof pressureas doesthe
wing, and dependingon the verticalCistancebetweenthe fin centreof
p.esiureand lhe centreof gravityon the longitudinalaxisof the aircraft,
iherewill be a tendencyfor the aircraftto roll to the left in this case.
A tall fin will clearlyproducea greatertendencyto roll than a short
one,(diagram(b) Fig 1l-11).
The phrase'tendency in view of the fact that the
to roll' is emphasised,
roll is normally totally maskedby the extra lift from the fastermoving
wing.Clearlythismaskingeffectwill dependupon thespanof theaircraft;
a greaterspanproducingmorelift, (diagram(c) Fig I l-11).
lf, otr certain aircraft(eg Britanniaand Belfast),thereis a noticeable
roll due to yaw, this can be eliminatedby interlinkageof aileronsand
rudder.It is therefore,most unlikelythat any pilot would evernoticeany
adverseroll whenyawingthe aircraft.
'o'
a,r1
l / 1 t
ft/"ll
\t/ |
-__y ul
l
\
\
t
L----------J
l'---_----! |
l
l
I
l
q
.-l I
< _t_f_
LJ-{
\ /
--all
.l
Figure 1-11
The wing structureof an aircraft is flexible and the varying loads

brought about by operatinga control surfacewill tend to twist or bend
thest-ructure.Thiseflectis particularlynoticeablewith ailerons,andwhen
an aileronis deflecteddownwardsthe resultantforceon theaileronpasses
through its centreof pressureasillustratedin Fig ll-lZ-
Thii forcehasa momentaboutthemain structuralmemberof thewing
which will causethe wing to twist, decreasing its angleof incidence.This
will, of course,decreasethe lift being produced by the wing whe-n
the iequired effect of deflectingthe aileron down is to increasethe lift.
If the wing twist is suchthat thesetwo forcescanceleachother out then
I
l
L 142
FLICHTCONTROLS
Reduction
in CL
Dueto WingTwisl
wino I
rwisj
-t I
F i g u rIe1 - 1 2
the aileron will have no effect, and if the processis continued further the
application of aileron will producea roll in the oppositedirection to that
intended. The force generatedby the aileron is proportional to the square
of the speed,so this effect will be most marked at high speeds.In fact, the
effect can be so marked that on somehigh speedtransport aircraft above
a certain speedthe ailerons are.lockedand roll control is vestedin spoilers
alone.
One of the major problems associatedwith the useof the conventional
elevator is that the application of trim in the longitudinal plane reduces
the effect of the elevator control. Trim tabs will be dealt with in the next
section, but suffice it to say here that to allow an aircraft to be flown
straight and level a certain amount of continuous deflection of the
elevator may be necessary,this deflection being maintained by a trim tab.
Whichever way the elevator is deflectedits full range of movement will be
consequentlyreduced in this direction.
On largejet transport aircraft the changesin longitudinal trim due both
to use of fuel and to speed changes can be large, and a conventional
elevator and trim tab systemis not suitable. It is replacedby a horizontal
stabiliserwhich can move in its own right. Operated by electro-hydraulic
jacks it produces a very powerful leverageabout the lateral axis to cope
with the very large trim changesinvolved. It has the immense advantage
that, whatever position it is set in, it leavesfull elevator control available.
These days, the idea of the all-moving tail plane has been adopted for
use on low speedaircraft as well. The additional force that it generates
enables a smaller horizontal stabiliser to be used with a consequent
reduction in weight and drag.
Mention was made earlier of a type of control called a spoiler. As
shown in Fig 11-13spoilers are panels in the upper surfacesof the wing
that are hinged at their leading edgesand can be openedand shut so that,
when open they reduce the amount of lift being generatedby the wing.
143
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Spoiler .
-\
-
-
F i g u r e l l - 13 S p o i l e r s
Spoilershavethreenormal uses:
(t When operatedthrough small anglesindependentlyon
onewing or the othertheycanbeusedto augmentaileron
control, or evenreplaceit.
(iD On landing,after the aircraft has actuallycontactedthe
runway,if the spoilerson both wingsarefully openedthe
'lift dumping'.
lift is completelydestroyed;This is called
It enablestheaircraftto sitmorehrmly on thegroundand
thus reducethe distancerequiredto stop and it is alsoof
considerable valuein crosswindlandings.
(iii) Lift dumpingin high levelflight.
Modern jet transportaircraft haveextremelylow drag coeffrcients in
the cruisingconfiguration.This makesthem somewhatreluctantto slow
down from high speeds, and on someaircraft airbrakesarefitted.
An airbrakeusuallyconsistsof a flat sectionwhich can be raisedinto
the airflow so that it createsthe maximumamount of drag whilst at the
sametime not damagingthe lift. Airbrakes are not all that common
however,and resortusuallyhas to be madeto other meansof slowing
down rapidly when required.One of the most commonlyusedmethods
is the loweringof the main gearto createadditionaldrag, but on some
aircraft reversethrust from the enginesmay be selectedin the air aswell
ason the ground.
Someaircraft, notably delta wing types,have a systemwherebythe
aileronsand elevatorsare combinedinto one control calledan elevon.
Whenthe control columnis movedbackwardsor forwardsboth surfaces
moveup and down together,but whenthecontrol columnis movedside-
ways one elevon comes up and the other goes down. Another
combinationof controlsis that of elevatorand rudder to producea V or
butterflv tail. This is thencalleda ruddervator.
I
FLIGHTCONTROLS
Single
Rudder
Partial
S p a nT a b
Elevator
( S i n g l eS p a n l
Stabilizer
Double Slotted
Flap
Flaperon
Flap
Aileron
Figure11-14 LargeJetControlSurfaces
and
High LiftDevices
In theexampleaircraftshownin Fig I l-14 all primary control surfaces

are operatedby hydraulic activatorswhich, in turn, are controlledby
electronicsignalsoriginatingfrom the flight deckcontrolsand the auto
flight systems.
Aileron operationis confinedto the lower airspeedenvelopeand at
high speedthe aileronsarelockedout of actionand lateral(Roll) control
is a functionof the spoilersand flaperons.This later functionis to reduce
wing flexureat high speed.
Someaircraft employ two setsof ailerons,one outboard for lower
speedsand the other inboard for high speed.In suchcasesthe outboard
aileronsare lockedout at high speeds.
I Control about the lateral axis is achievedby the:

a) rudder.
b) ailerons and rudder.
c) ailerons.
d) elevators.
Ref para I 1.8
145
P R I N C I P L EOSF F L I G H T
The purpose of a balance tab is to:

a) increasecontrol surfacefeel.
b) reduce the load on the control surface.
c) reduce the load at the control column.
d) reduce control surface flutter.
Ref para ll.4
When a control surface is deflectedwhich is fitted with horn balance:

a) the horn is located aft of the hinge line.
b) the horn moves in the opposite direction to the surface.
c) the horn acts aft of the hinge line.
d) the control column loads will be increased.
Ref para I 1.3
On a differential aileron control system the:

a) up and down going ailerons move through the same angle of deflection.
b) up-going aileron moves through a greater angle of deflection.
c) up-going aileron leading edgeprotrudes below the wing undersurface.
d) down-going aileron moves through a greater angle of deflection.
Refpara I 1.8
Frise ailerons are fitted to:

a) increasethe rate ofroll.
b) reduce control column loads.
c) combat adverseaileron Yaw.
d) prevent overloading of the control system.
Ref para 11.8
146
12
Tabs
12.1 Introduction
Tabs are small aerofoil sectionshingedto the trailing edgesof control
The main purposesfor which they are usedare:
surfaces.
(a) Trimming
(b) Aerodynamicbalancing
(c) Servooperation
For aircraft in flight to be in equilibrium,the momentsabout eachof
the threeaxesof the aircraftmustbalance.If theydo not balancethen an
additionalforcemustbesuppliedby deflectionof thecontrolsto keepthe
aircraft in equilibrium.It is most undesirablethat continuouscontrol
surfacedeflectionbeappliedat thecontrolcolumnbecause of thephysical
effort involved,and to overcomethis problem trimming tabs are
provided.The actionof a trim tab is bestunderstoodby consideringthe
situationwith an aircraftwhich tendsto flv nosedown continuouslv.To
rabNeutrar
€, F1
^:
pirotHordsErevatorinRequired y
Position for Level Flight with Force= CP x d
Tab Trimmed
No Stick ForceSince CP x d = cp x D
Figure Principleof the Tab
147
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
correct this the elevator must be deflectedupwards and maintained in this

position. To bring this about, the trim tab attached to the trailing edgeof
the elevator is deflected downwards as shown in Fig 12-1. This diagram
indicatesthat the total force exerteddownwards by the elevator is Fl x d,
the distanceof the elevator'scentreof pressurefrom its hinge, A. The trim
tab, having been moved in the opposite direction, exerts a force F2
upwards through its centre of pressure,and although this force is smaller
than Fl it has a much longer arm from the hinge of the main control, B,
therefore its total moment is able to balance out that of the main control.
It should be noted that the action of the trim tab also slightly reducesthe
effect of the main control surface. The final force exerted is F1-F2 and
this will necessitatea slightly larger deflection of the main control surface
with a subsequentsmall increasein drag.
Trimming tabs are normally controlled either by trim wheels in the
cockpit or, alternatively, by electrical switchesactivating motors. These
controls are usually arranged so that they act in a natural sense,that is to
say with the control wheel moved in the direction in which the aircraft is
required to be trimmed, ie aircraft nose high, move the top of control
wheel forward towards the nose to bring it down. On some light aircraft
fixed trimming tabs may be fitted and they consist of small sheetsof metal
which can be bent permanently to correct known out-of-trim forces, but
they cannot, of course, be adjusted in flight. As with any other aerody-
namic control surfacethe effect of a trim tab is proportional to the square
of the speed.At high speedsvery small trim adjustmentswill achievethe
desired effect whereas at low speedsa considerable movement may be
required. Figl2-2(a) and l2-2(b).
To Trim
Wheel
FixedTab.
T o C o n t r o lC o l u m n Ad.iustable
on the Ground T o C o n t r o lC o l u m n
Fixed Tab. Trim Tab
F i g u r e1 2 - 2( a ) Figure12-2(b)
Balancetabs are a form to easethe load on the controls.They are

mechanicallyarrangedto move in the oppositedirection to the main
control surface,asillustratedin Fig l2-3(a).The operationof this typeof
tab is completelyautomatic, and as can be seenfrom the diagram it
producesa forcein the oppositedirectionto the main control surfacebut
at the costof producinga smallreductionin control effectiveness.
148
TABS
T o C o n t r o lC o l u m n
F i g u r e| 2 - 3 ( a ) Figure12-3(b)
In someaircraft, far from requiring assistance in moving a control

surfaceagainstthe aerodynamicloads,the hingemoment is too small.
This resultsin very low loadsat the control column,a lack of feeland the
possibilityof over-stressing the airframedue to an excessive inadvertent
deflectionofthe control surface.It occursbecause ofthe hingebeingtoo
closeto the centreof pressureof the control surface.In orderto improve
the situation an anti-balancetab is fitted which operatesin the same
directionas the control surface,suchasillustratedin Fig 12-3(b).
On someaircraft,aerodynamicbalanceis not considerednecessary at
low speedsbut is requiredat higherspeedswhen the aerodynamicloads
increaseconsiderably. A type of balancetab to dealwith this situationis
calleda springtab. The bisis of the systemis illustratedin Fig l2-4.The
movementof the control column is transmittedto a lever pivoted on
the main control surfacebut not directly operatingit. Operationof the
surfaceis through springs,and at low aerodynamicloadsthe movement
of this pivot arm is transmittedto the main control surfacethrough the
springs,and no alterationin the geometrybetweenthe pivot and balance
tab takesplace.When the aerodynamicloadsincrease,however,trans-
missionof control columnmovement,via the pivot arm, to the control
surfacecompresses thespring.This upsetsthegeometryof thesystemand
bringsinto operationthebalancetab on thetrailingedge,thusgivingsome
assistance in movingthe control surface.
Control Cgnt_rol
lnput Input
The Servo-Tab System
Figure'12-4 F i g u r e1 2 - 5
149
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
When manualcontrolsareusedto operatevery largecontrol surfaces

the loads involved, evenwith the assistanceof balancetabs, may be
unacceptable.Under thesecircumstancesservotabs are usedto operate
the control surfaces.A servotab is a small aerofoil section,onceagain
attachedto the trailing edgeof the main control surface,whichis directly
operatedby the control column.In this systemthereis no directconnec-
tion betweenthe control column and the main control surfaces,the
control column only operatingthe servotabs. As the systemdepends
entirelyupon aerodynamicforces,any movementof the control column
whenthe aircraftis on the groundwill produceno control surfacemove-
ment,only the servotabswill move.This systemis illustratedin Fig l2-5.
Caremustbe exercised in pre-flightchecksfor full and freemovementof
control surfaces when servo tabsare used.
In the sectionon flight controls, mention was made of the variable
incidencehorizontalstabiliser. In this systemthe incidenceof the entire
horizontalstabiliseris changed, as required, to adjustfor longitudinaltrim
requirementsinsteadof using a conventional trim tab. The horizontal
stabiliseris pivoted about its central point and moved by electro-
hydraulic jacks. The change in longitudinal trim which this systemcan
exert,comparedto an ordinarytrimming tab, is very considerable, and in
viewof this precautionshaveto be takenagainst the result of a runaway
in the operatingsystem,winding the horizontalstabilisereitherfully up
or fully down. This is usuallyachievedby havingthe left and right halves
of the horizontal stabiliserentirely separatefrom each other and each
beingoperatedby two separated systems. This will obviatethe possibility
of both sidesof the stabilizer running away togetherand alsoproducesa
multipleredundancyin the event of partial failure of one of the electro-
hydraulicsystems.This form of longitudinal trimming is a necessity on
jet
large aircraft wherethe conventionalsystem of elevator and trim is
unableto copewith thelargetrim changesbrought about by, frrstly,large
centreof gravity movements;secondly,wide operatingspeedrangeand,
finally, high lift devices.It will be remembered that as the elevatoris not
deflectedin any way for the purposes of trimming, the full range of
control is alwaysavailablefrom it.
On supersonicaircraft, for instance,Concorde,the deflectionof
controlsurfacesat highsubsonicand supersonic speeds is undesirabledue
to theaerodynamiceffectsinvolved.Oneway of overcomingthisproblem
is to usefuel in varioustanks to trim the aircraft. When passingfrom
subsonicto supersonicspeedsthereis a markedrearwardmovementof
thecentreof pressurewhichcancausea severeout-of-trimsituation.This
can be overcomeby pumping fuel to move the centreof gravity to be
coincidentwith thecentreof pressure, andin Concordethis is in fact done
automatically.
I
TABS
12.2 Control locks

All aircraftrequiresomemechanicalmeansof lockingthe controlsin the
neutral position when on the ground to preventpossibledamagefrom
gustsin high windswhenparked.On smalleraircraft thesemay take the
form of wood or metaldeviceswhich canbe slid overthecontrol surfaces
to lock themin positionand preventtheir movement.On largeraircraft
it is common practiceto have internal locking systems,but obviously
either type of control lock must be removedprior to take-off. In this
contextit shouldbe bornein mind that externallocksfitted to a servotab
operatingsystemwill permit the movementof the control columnon the
flight deck with the locks in placeas only the tabs are being operated,
therefore,on aircraftwith this typeof equipmentit is essentialto confirm
that any externallocksfitted havebeenremoved.Most modernaircraft
with hydraulicallyoperatedcontrolshaveintegralhydrauliclocks.
Chapter 12: Test Yourself.
1 Theeffectiveness
of a trim tab is:
a)proportional
to thespeed.
b) proportionalto the squareofthe speed.
c) inverselyproportionalto the squareofthe speed.
d) not proportionalto the speedin any way.
Ref para l2.l
2 If the hingemomentof a control surfaceis too small:

a) balancetabsmay be required.
b) horn balancemay be required.
c) an anti balancemay be required.
d) massbalancewill be requiredto reducecontrol columnloads.
Ref para 12.1
3 A fixed trim tab may be adjustedby:

a) an engineeronly.
b) a typeratedpilot.
c) a testpilot only.
d) any qualifiedpilot.
Refparal2.l
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
Ifan aircraftis flying noseheavy,to return the aircraftto levelflight requires:

a) elevatortrim wheelaft, tab up movement.
b) elevatortrim wheelforward, tab up movement.
c) elevatortrim wheelaft, tab down movement.
d) elevatortrim wheelforward,tab down movement.
Ref para 12.l
Whena control surfaceis deflectedthe antibalancetab will:

a) movein the oppositedirectionand increasecontrolcolumnloads-
b) movein the oppositedirectionand decreasecontrol columnloads.
c) movein the samedirectionand increasecontrol columnloads.
d) movein the samedirectionand reducecontrol columnloads.
Refpara 12.1
tI 152
L
13
High Lift Devices
13.1 Introduction
High lift devicesare incorporated on aircraft wings to reducethe distance
required for take-off and landing. The distanceused by an aircraft either
to take off or land dependson the speedinvolved, and this speedin its
turn is related to the stalling speed of the aircraft. An aircraft cannot
approach to land at a speedbelow its stalling speed,therefore the higher
the stalling speedthe longer the distancerequired to complete the landing
run. The sameappliesfor take-off, the aircraft not being able to leave the
ground until it has achieved flying speed, ie above the stalling speed,
therefore the lower the stalling speedunder thesecircumstancesthe less
distanceis required. All high lift devicesproduce the sameeffect, that is
to increasethe coefficient of lift of the wine. The methods used for
increasingthe Cr are:
(a) Flaps
(b) Slats
(c) Boundary layer control
A flap is a hinged aerofoil section which can be mechanically lowered
either from the trailing edge or the leading edge of a wing. The effect of
lowering a flap is to increase the overall camber of the wing and thus
increasingthe coefficient of lift. Some types of flap also increasethe wing
area, thus augmenting the additional camber and producing even more
lift.
13.2 Typesof Flap

There are many different types of flap in common use and some of the
more usual ones are shown below.
(a) Plain flap.

The plain flap (Fig l3-l) is an aerofoil sectionmerely hingeing down from
the trailingedgeof the wing.
153
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
'13-1
Figure
(b) Split fiap.

As illustratedin Fig l3-2, the split flap hingesdown from the undersur-
faceof the trailing edge.This hasthe advantagethat the camberof the
uppersurfaceof the wing is not disturbedbut, at the sametime the flap
will producea considerable amountof drag.
.l
Figure3-2
(c) Slotted flap.

One of the problems with flaps in general is that at large flap anglesthe
air tends to separateaway from the flap upper surface,thus reducing its
effectiveness.This can be minimised by putting a small slot between the
trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the flap, as illustrated in
Fig l3-3. The slot produces a venturi which speedsthe air up, thus giving
it more kinetic energy and enabling it to follow the contour of the flap
farther rearwards before breaking away.
SLOTTED FLAP
F i g u r e1 3 - 3
154
H I G HL I F TD E V I C E S
(d) Fowlerflap.
The Fowler flap, in addition to moving downwards,also movesrear-
wardsin sectionswhenit is lowered.Whilst increasingthe camberof the
wing this also enlargesthe wing area,and will result in a very large
increasein the coefficientof lift. It is quite usualfor Fowler flapsalsoto
haveslats,and thistypeis illustratedin Fig l3-4.
FOWLERFLAP
F i g u r e1 3 - 4
(e) Kruegerflap.
This is a leadingedgeflap which increases
the leadingedgecamber,and
is illustratedin Fig l3-5.
.:_
/-
KRUEGER
FLAP I
F i g u r e1 3 - 5
(f) Leadingedgedroop.
In this systemthe entireleadingedgeof thewing is mechanicallylowered,
as shownin Fig 13-6.This has the effectof increasingthe leadingedge
camber.As can be imagined,the mechanismfor lowering the leading
edgemust be extremelycomplicated,and this type of high lift devicehas
not found seneralfavour.
LEADING
EDGEDROOP
F i g u r e1 3 - 6
155
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
The increasein cambercausedby the loweringof flapsproducesmore lift

from the given wing section.If we considerstraight and level flight, on
lowering of flaps the greaterlift will enableeither the angleof attack to
be reducedor the speedto be reduced.Generallyspeaking,a compromise
is reachedbetweenthesetwo factors and the speedis considerably
reducedwith a small reduction in the angle of attack. The effect of
loweringflapsis not constantfrom zeroangledown to their full deploy-
ment.A selectionof flapsdownto approximately30'will givea verylarge
increasein lift for a comparativelysmall penalty in drag, but further
lowering, to say 60o,will not produce much increasein lift but will
producea considerable increasein drag. When consideringthe distance
requiredfor take-offone might first feelthat the lowestspeedfor take-
off would givethe shortestdistance,the whole effectbeingachievedby
largeflap angle.
Unfortunately,as alreadymentioned,alarge flap angleincursa very
high drag penaltywhich reducesthe accelerationof the aircraft, so you
would end up with a rather long distancebeforeyou could reach the
unstickspeed.A lowerflap anglewould givea higherunstickspeed,but,
with lessdrag, better accelerationwould be achieved.In practice,a
compromiseis reachedbetweenthesetwo limits and a flap settingof
somewhere in the regionof l0' to l2o is usedfor take-ofl-.
The distancerequiredto land dependson the touch-downspeed.The
lowestspeedwill be givenby selectionof full flap, this giving the lowest
stallingspeed.In addition the selectionof full flap will producea very
considerable amountof dragwhich will assistin decelerating the aircraft
on landing.
13.3 Leadingedgeslots
(//a
t---J
)
Slot closed Slot open
Figure13-7
The leadingedgeslot,when opened,preventsthe airflow from breaking

awayat the normal stallingangle.This allows the wing to be used at
higheranglesof attack,giving higher Cr and so lower speeds.Seealso
F i s sl 3 - 1 4& l 3 - 1 5 .
156
I
I
lL
HICH LIFTDEVICES
Angle of Aftack
F i g u r e1 3 - B
13.4 Slats
Slatsarelift augmentationdevicesthat take the form of a smallauxiliary
aerofoil,highlycambered,adjacentto theleadingedgeof a wing (forming
a slot),usually along the completespan.They are adjustable,control
beingeitherautomaticor manualby the pilot. The effecton the Cr and
angleof stall/attackmay be seenin Fig l3-9, Cr being increasedby
approximately700/o, and angleof stall by somel0o.
o
o
10 15 20
Angleof Attack
F i g u r e1 3 - 9
157
The effectof the slat is to prolong the lift curveby delayingthe stall
until a higherangleof attack.Whenoperatingathigh anglesof attackthe
slatis genlratinga high lift coefficientbecauseof its markedcamber.The
resultint actionlaerodynamically, is to flattenthemarkedpeakof thelow
pressureenvelope,chinging it to one.with a more gradualgradient,as
may be seenin Fig t:-tO-.This flatteningmeansthat the boundarylayer
does not undergo the suddenthickening due to negotiatingthe steep
peak, so retainingits
'.r.rgy gradieit that existedbehind the former
pressure
a'nd enabling it to penetratealmost the full chord before
separating.
'Figure"l3-10
also showsthat althoughthe_pressuredistributionis
flatte"r,theareaof thelow pressure regionis unchangedor evenincreased'
ftr. purrugeof the boundarylayer over the wing is as-sisted by the air
flowing thiough the slot (betweenslat and leadingedge)accelerating
throug-hthe vinturi effect, thus adding to the kinetic energy and so
helpingit to penetrateagainstthe adversepressuregradient'
A
t \\
k
NoSlat WithSlal
Figure13-10Effectof Slatson Pressure

Distribution
To summarisethe foregoingthus far, slatshavethe effectof:

(a) Delayingseparationuntil an angleof attackof 25'to 28o
is attained,during which time:
(b) Lift coeflicienthas increasedby approximately70%' lt
shouldbe evidentthat the stallingspeedof a slattedwing
is significantlyreduced,eg if an unslattedwing stallsat
100f t, its fully slattedcounterpartwould stallat approxi-
mately80 kt. The exactamountof reductiondependson
the length of leadingedgecoveredby the slat, and the
chord of the slat.
I
I 158
I
L
HICHLIFTDEVICES
Automatic slatsare often locatedat the wing leadingedgein front of

aileronsin order to increasethe stalling angleby being iutomatically
extendedwhen the aileronmovesdown. Normally the actionof a down
goingaileronwill reducethe stallingangleof the wing at that point.
13.5 SlatControl
sinceslatsare of useonly at high anglesof attack,somemethodmust be
usedto fair the slatswith theleadingedge,thusprecludingincreased drag
at normal flight configuration.
If theslatsaresmallandthedragis negligibletheymay befixed,ie non-
automatic.Large slats,however,are invariablyof the automatictype.
They are usuallyof the mechanicalcontrol,hydraulicallyactuatedkind,
their selectionbeingmechanicallymatchedto the seleciionof flap, the
linkagebeingsuchthat slatsareextendedbeforeflap andbeforetheipeed
reachesthat usedfor approachand landing.The reverseoccurson take-
off, whenslatsarefully in only afterflap is up, andat thecorrectairspeed.
In the eventof malfunctioneitherof flapsor slats,it is usualto be able
to 'split' the linkagebetweenthe two, thus isolatingthe inoperative
control, allowing the serviceable unit to operatenormally. on some
aircraftthe stallsensingunit may be usedto extendslatsonly if the sensor
is activatedby approachto the stall angle.Figure l3-lL illustratesa
typicalslatsegmentof thekind morecommonto aircraftwith sweptback
wlngs.
SlatCIosed
Slat.pen-\
Figure
1 3 - 11
13.6 The BoundaryLayer

This may be bestdescribedas the layer of air extendingfrom the surface
to lhe point whereno drageffectis discernible,or, that regionof flow in
which the speedis lessthan 99ohof the free streamflow, and it usually
existsin two forms - laminar and turbulent.Figure l3-12 illustratesthi
boundarylayer.
159
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
Distancefrom
S u r f a c e0 . 7 i n
Laminar Sub-LaYer
F i g u r1e3 - 1 -
In general,the flow at the front of a body is laminar and becomesturbu-

lent at a point some distance along the surface, known as the transition
point. From Fig 13-10it may be seenthat the rate of changeof velocity is
greaterat the surfacein the turbulent flow than in the laminar. This higher
iate ofchange ofvelocity results in greater surfacefriction drag.
It can be ieen that the nature of the boundary layer is a controlling
factor in the determination of surface friction drag, but more important
still, the nature of the boundary layer also determinesthe maximum lift
coefficient, the stalling characteristicsof a wing, the value of form drag
and, to some extent, the high speedcharacteristicsof an aircraft'
The bound ary layer cannot be eliminated entirely, though some
measure of control of it may be afforded by wing devices,one already
dealt with being LE slots (Fig l3-7), which have the effect of re-energising
the boundary layer. Others are:
(D Boundary layer fencesto restrict the boundary layer
outflow. They also check the spanwisegrowth of the
separation'bubble'alongtheleadingedges.
(iD Boundarylayer suction;suitablyplacedsuctionpoints
draw off the weakenedlayer so that a new high energy
layercan takeits place.
(iiD Boundarylayer blowing;high velocityair injectedinto
the boundarylayerto increaseits energy.
(iv) Vortex generators; the boundarylayer,
thesere-energise
and are usuallypositionedaheadof control surfaces.
160
HICHLIFTDEVICES
(v) LE extension,also known as 'sawtooth' LE - restricts

the outwardflow of the boundarylayer.
(vi) LE notch, has the sameeffectas LE extension.These
forms (v) and (vi), are dealtwith in a later chapter.
Slatand slottedflaD
Figure13-13SIatand SlottedFlap
Combination
13.7 Slatand SlottedFlapCombination

The combinationshown at Fig 13-13will provide a75oh increaseof
maximum lift with a basic aerofoil angle at max lift of 25". This will
providemore control of the boundarylayer with an increaseof camber
andwing area.The pitchingmomentthat a trailingedgeflap will produce
on its own can be neutralised.
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
"\u"/
' Y.
...
,,"1 Shown Fully Extended
F i g u r e1 3 - 14
Max Cr
4.0 at 28'
? n
,*\'"Y
c
.9 Max Ct
---1-
E \ 2.4 at 22"
H ,.0
= -'"4%'r"iZ Max C.
1. 6 a t 1 5 "
1.0
*''q
5' 10' 15.
Angle of Attack
Figure
1 3 - 15
HICH LIFTDEVICES
.:::=::::li=:::::::::t::::..._=
==-=-.i=::_=:-=NS\\\::::':::--==
--==-===:N
:::-:::::-::.-:=S=SN\.\::\=I-----------11-----
Figure13-16 Effectof slot on airflow over an aerofoil

at largeangleof attack
I A Fowler flap is one which when selected:

a) increasescamber and wing area.
b) increaseswing area only.
c) increasescamber only.
d) dumps lift only.
Refpara13.2
2 When the angle of attack of a wing is increased:
a) the boundary layer becomesthinner.
b) the transition point moves aft.
c) the boundary layer thickens.
d) boundary layer thicknessis unaffected.
Refpara13.6
163
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
As the angleof attackof a wing is increasedin levelflight:

a) laminar flow at the front of the wing becomesturbulentat the separation
point.
b) laminar flow at the front of the wing becomesturbulent at the transition
point.
c) boundarylayerseparationat the leadingedge.
d) boundarylayerseparationwill not occurbelowthe stallingangle.
Ref para 13.6
employedon a wing:
Vortex generators
a) ensurethat the root endstallsfirst.
b) ensurethat the tip stallsfirst.
c) arelocatednearthe trailing edge.
d) arenormallypositionedaheadof control surfaces.
Ref para
A vortex generator is designedto:

!
a) enhancewing tip vortices.

I
b) re-energisethe boundary layer.
i c) delay M",i
II d) increaseair pressure.
i Refpara13.6
I
i
:
{ 74
Stabifity
14.1 fntroduction
The studyof aircraftstabilitycan
purposeof thischapterthesubject be.extremery comprex, so for the
witt..uegreatrysimpiiT;; stabilityis
first definedin senirarterms"'ro-ii'#'r
designer thenbe ,..n r,o, the aircraft
incorpo"rates
stabilityinto an aircraft.
"/,4.2
Definitions
To quoteNewtons's firstraw again,'abodywil tendto remain
of restor of uniformmotion;Jii in a state
sucha bodyis sodisturbed, JiJturueoby externarforce,.where
rr"uiiiti ir".on".rn.d with themotion
bodvaftertheexternar for;; h;;;;rr.19y"0. rr,i, moiron of the
considered undertwoheadind,ri;il r;"b'ity and may best be
dynamicstabilitv:
14.3 StaticStability
Staticstabilitvdescribes the immediate
disturbance' reactionof the bodyfoilowing
(bynamic. rt"bilit ;;;t'., ttr.
response is related,ill..::qry1,9e"1-1Om subsequent reaction.) The
positive,neutrarandnegative state by useof the terms
itauifity.posrtrve
towardsthepositionprior to distuib'ance, stabilityindicates a return
oI a newpositionof a constantrerationsli; neutrar ,turJ'ityiG taking up
negativestab'itv indicatesu "o"ii"ro;ilil.rs";;; i; irrl""ri'eril, whereas
state.Theexampres.s{royn iJ;l1i" originar
rtrourorr.lp-i"omakethiscrear.Notethatin
colloquial usage positiu.ry riuur.'u'J,iigu,ru.rv
- ---o ,t"tr" "[ uruurry
and unstablerespectively.- smbre
tntt^rstabirity
@
N"* position
O
Figure14-t StaticStabilityAnalogies
Inordertorelatetheresponseofabodytoitsinitialstateofequilibrium
'bowl and ball' in illus-
the
it is usefulat this ,tug" ti * the analogyof initialposition to a
i."ir"" i."#ig i+-riiiitte Uattisdisplitedfromits
new posirion,the ..;;;;';iitt. 6"ff will describe staticstabilitv' If it
its
it is said to have positive
tendsto roll back ;;";;; "lgir.r position,
from its original position it has
stability;if it tendst; ;;ll f;rih., fouy
in iti newpositionit has
nesativestability,urrOif tn. ball tendsio remain
neitral stabilitY.
Neoative SloPe
Ne!ative Static StabilitY
Neutral Static StabilitY
Positive SloPe
Positive Static StabilitY
Disturbance
Removed
Figure14-2Craphof the Degreesof Stability
Theconceptofstability.degree,canbeexpressedmoreusefullyi
plotttd on t!: vertical axis'
graphicalform of e:ii ti-Z iisplacement'
volts'etc'No scaleis given
may referto anysyst;, egdistance'moments' to hours, or
to the horizontal ".il;hl;--uy uury from microseconds
*ii#ffi the
to measure
theresponse in thisformmakesit possible
twoparameters:
""tr;ie;;.. or ttluitityusingthefollowing
the responseis
(a) The sign of the slopeindicateswhether
favourible or unfavourable'
staticstability'
(b) The slopeof the curveis a measureof the
Beforeconsideringtheresponse of theaircraftto disturbanceit is neces-
into componentsaboutthe three
saryto resolvett. ,n?i# of'ti'. uit"tuft
body u*.t Passing throughtheCG'
MOTION (ABOUT STABILITY
AXIS
THE AXIS)
Roll(P) Lateral
Longitudinal(x)
Pitch(q) Longitudinal
Lateral (Y)
Yaw(r) Directional
Normal (z)
(Weathercock)
I
t 166
D
I
'i
STABILITY
t It is important to realizethat the motion involvedis angularvelocity
and the disturbanceassumedis an angular displace-"rri. In the first
instanceit is helpful to considerthesecomponentsseparatelyalthough,
in other than straightand levelflight, the motion of t^heajrciaftis m6re
complex,egin a levelturn the aircraftis pitchingand yawing.
14.4 DirectionalStability
A simpleapproachboth to directionaland to longitudinalstabilityis to
considera simpledart. The flightsor vanesof a da--rt ensurethat th-edart
is alignedwith the flight path. consider first the pair of vaneswhich
impart positivedirectionalstability;thesemay bi referredto as the
verticalstabilizers.Figurel4-3 showihow a displicementin yaw through
an angleB, resultingin sideslip,producesa restbring-o-.rrt and, thei6-
fore, positivedirectional(staticfstability.Two poin"tsare worth noting:
(a) The dart rotatesaboutits centreof gravity (CG).
(b) The momentumof the dart momentarilycarriesit along
the originalpath, ie the relativeairflow Ref,is equaland
oppositeto the velocltyof the dart.
(ptanView)
Figure14_3The positiveStabilityof a dart
_.An aerodynamicl!up" like a fuselagemay be unstable.Referenceto

Figl4-4 showsthat this occurswhenthecentieof pressure(cp) is in front
of the CG.
167
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Force
II
I
, Flight Path
I
I
I
I
\
Unstable
Moment
(Plan View)
Figure14-4The NegativeStaticStabilityof a
StreamlineBodyWhen CP is aheadof CC'
fin to prodrtce
It is necessary,therefore,to add a vertical stabilizeror
the^CP
p*iti".
"U.t Or*ctional rt"Uifii' and this has the effect of moving
keel surface
iliAitt. CC iFig i+ii. rit generalit may be said that the
while the keel
"iifr.-f"*f"ge aheld of itre Cb has an unsiableinfluence, the rudder
surfacebehind ttre CC trasa stableinfluence.(For simplicity,
is considered to be'locked'.)
Restoring
Moment
(PlanView)
Unstable Stable
lnfluence Influence
( S i d eV i e w )
a fin
F i g u r e14-5PositiveStaticStabilitywith the additionof
.t6B
I
+
{ STABILITY
t
1 given displacement,
Io.. u and thereforesideslipangle,the degreeof
1
I
positivestabilitywill dependuponthesizeof theresiorinlgmoment,which
is determinedmainly by:
I (a) Designof the verticalstabilizer.
(b) The momentarm.
Designof the Fin and Rudder

The vertical stabilizeris a symmetricalaerofoil and it will producean
aerodynamicforceat positiveanglesof attack.In sideslip,thLrefore,the
total sideforceon the fin and rudderwill be proportionaiio the lift coef-
ficient and the area.The lift coefficientwill uary, ason any aerofoil,with
aspectratio and sweepback. At high anglesof sideslipit is possiblefor the
fin to stalland to avoidthis thedesigneicanincreasethe siallingangleby
increasingthe sweepback,decreasingthe aspectratio or uy ritting
multiple fins of low aspectratio.
MomentArm
The positionof the centreof gravity,and thereforethe distancebetween
the cG and thecentreof pressureof theverticalstabilizer,may be within
the control of the pilot. Forward movementof the cG will lengthenthe
momentarm therebyincreasingthe directionalstability:rearwardmove-
ment will decrease the directionalstability
LongitudinalStability
The analogy of the dart can be usedwith advantageto introduce the
conceptof staticlongitudinalstability.In this casethe dart is viewedfrom
the side and the horizontalstabilizersproducea pitching moment (M)
tendingto reducethe displacement in pitch. on anaircraff, the tailplane
and elevatorsperform the functionsof a horizontal stabilizerand the
conclusionsreachedwill be equallyvalid. For simplicity,the explanation
is limited to stick-fixedstaticstability,ie elevatorjlocked.
Figure l4-6a showsa wing with the cp forward of the cG bv the
distancex. A nose-updisplacement will increasethe aneleof atiack.
increasethe (L) by the amount dr and increaseth. i,ing pitching
-lift
momentby the amountdrx. The resultis to worsenthe nose-ufdisplacel
ment: an unstableeffect.In the figure at b, the cp is aft of the cG and
thewing momentresultingfrom a displacement in pitchwill bestabilizing
in its effect.
The pitchingmomentis alsoaffectedby the movementof the cp with
angleof attackand it follows,therefore,that the relativepositionsof the
cP and cG determinewhetherthe wings have a stableor unstable
character.
169
OF FLICFlT
PRINCIPLES
a UnstableContribution
Figure14-6 Variationsin the Positionof CPand CG'
influ-
Taking the worst case,therefore,the wing may h-avean unstable
to overcome this'
ence and the horizoniutrtuUitlr.r must be designed
-'-ih;rilplified
diajia- i" eig 14-7illustrateJthegrowth of a systemof
in angleof
forces0". to OirpfuJ.-.ni in f,itctr, in this casean increase
wing (and all
attack.The tail contributionmust overcomethe unstable
--il; ";r;ibutions for positivestaticlongitudinalstability..
;lir;;j
attack
0.g... of poritiu.'stability for a givenchangein angleof
and the tail
O.p.rO, ipon the differencebetweenihe wing moment
ie (Total Lift,.il)y
,n-J.."t, this differenceis calledthe restoringmoment,
- (Total Lift*i,r)x = net pitchingmoment'
The main faltors whiih affectlongitudinalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the tailPlane'
(b) Positionof the CG.
170
STABILITY
Tailplane
Wing I
x =+_1<___--- y ________-->]
l-
AircraftCG dL t"ir
Lrait
Figure
14-7Changes
in Forces
andMomentsdueto a Small
Nose-up (da)
Displacement
Design of the Tailplane

The whole-tailplaneis an aerofoil and the lift force resulting from a change
in angle of attack will be proportional to the cr,u'and the lrea. The incri-
ment in lift from the tail will depend upon the slope of its c. curve and
will also be affectedby the downwash angle behindlhe wing (if the down-
w-ashchangeswith angle of attack). The tail design features which may
affect the restoring moment are therefore:
(a) Distance from CP,.l to CG (moment arm).
(b) Tail Area. The total lift provided by the wing = Cr__i,eQS
and the total lift produced by the tail = Cr,.lqS.
For a given aerofoil of given planform, the cr- varies with angle of
attack at a constant q (EAS). Therefore in comparing tail momentJwith
wing moments, it is necessaryonly to compare the reipective area(s)and
moment arms (CG position).
(c) Tail Volume.The productof the tailplaneareax moment
arm is known as the tail volume. The ratio of the tail
1olum9to the wing volumeis the main parameterusedby
thedesignerin determiningthelongitudinalstabilityof the
aircraft.
(d) Planform.The slopeof the Cr curvefor a lifting surfaceis

affectedby aspectratio, taper and sweepback.The plan-
form of the tailplanethereforeaffectsthe changein Cr_
with changein angleof attack causedby a disturbance.
171
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
For example,the Cr incrementswill be lower on a swept-

back tail than on one of rectangularplanform.
(e) Wing Downwash.Wherea disturbancein angleof attack

resultsin a changein the angle of downwashfrom the
wings, the effectiveangle of attack at the tail is also
changed.For example,if the aircraft is displacednose-up
and the downwashangleis increased,then the effective
angleof attack on the tailplaneis reduced.The total tail
lift will not be asgreatasit would otherwisehavebeenand
so the restoringmoment is reduced.This decreasein
stability is compensatedfor by moving the CG farther
forward,therebyincreasingthe momentarm.
Positionof the CG
The positionof the CG may be marginallyunder the control of the pilot
of thi aircraft. From Frg l4-7 it can be seenthat its positionaffectsthe
ratio of the tail momentto the wing momentand thereforethe degreeof
stability.In particular:
the positivestability.
a) Aft movementof the CG decreases
b) Forward movementof the CG increasesthe positive

stability.
Becausethe position of the cG affectsthe positive longitudinal
in pitch. The aerody-
stability,it alsoaffectsthe handlingcharacteristics
namic pitching moment producedby deflectingthe elevatorsmust
override the restoring moment arising from the aircraft's positive
stability,ie the stabilitythat opposesmanoeuvre.For a given elevator
deflectiontherewill be a smallresponse in an aircraftwith a forward CG
(stablecondition)and a largeresponse in an aircraft with an aft CG (less
stablecondition).
NeutralPoint
EveryaircraftFlightcrewManual givesthepermittedrangeof movement
of thL cG. The forward positionis determinedmainly by the degreeof
manoeuvrabilityrequiredin the particular aircraft type. of greater
importanceto thepilot is the aft limit for the cG. If the cG is movedaft,
ouisidethe permittedlimits, a positionwill eventuallybe reachedwhere
the wing moment(increasing) is equalto the tail moment(decreasing). In
this situationthe restoringmoment is zero and the aircraft is therefore
neutrallystable.This positionof the CG is known as the neutralpolnt.
The aft limit for the CG, as quoted in the flightcrew manual, is safely
172
I
L
STABILIry
forward of the neutral point. If the loading limits for the aircraft are
exceeded,.it is possibleto havethe cG positi,onon, or aft of, the neutral
point. This unsafesituationis aggravatedwhen the controlsare allowed
to 'trail', ie stickfree.
CG Margin (Stick Fixed)

The larger the tail area,the larger the tail moment, and so the farther aft
is the cG position at which the aircraft becomesneutrally stable.The
distancethrough which the cG canbemovedaft from the quoteddatum,
to reachthe neutralpoint, is calledthe static(or cG) margin,and is an
indication of the degreeof longitudinal stability. The gr6aterthe cG
margin, the greaterthe stability, ega training or fighter aircraft, may have
a marginof a few inchesbut a largepassenger aircraftmay havea margin
ofa few feet.
Figure
14-8t',.#X|]:ilenr Curves
and
14.5 Trim Point (Stick Fixed)

Figure l4-8 (the brokenline) showsa curveof aircraftpitchingmoment
coefficient.cv, aboutthe cG vs cr. Thezero-liftpitchingmorient, cro,
is negativefor most aerofoil sections.The negaiiveslo-peof the curve
denotesstability,ega pitch-up,increasingthe cr_,generaGs a nose-down
restoringmomentabout the cG. The curvewill however,nevercrossthe
positivehorizontalaxis,whichmeansthat thereis no valueof cr at which
the aircraft will be in trim (wherec*= a).If cvo can be madepositive
by introducinga nose-uppitchingmoment,then the curveis raiied (the
solidline) and the aircraftcanbe broughtinto trim. This canbe achieved
by settingthe tailplaneat a lower angleof incidencethan the mainplane
to generatea down-load.
173
LongitudinalDihedral
Theiifferencebetweenthetwo settingsis known aslongitudinaldihedral,
but hasno effecton thebasicstabilityof theaircraft.Varyingthetailplane
incidenceonly shiftsthe trim point. As the Cl vs angleof attackcurvesof
the mainplaneand tailplanemay be regardedas straightlines(up to the
stall),the variation in lift per degreealpha change,doesnot dependon
the initial incidencesettingsnor on their difference.
ElevatorAngle to Trim
If the angleof attackis increasedfrom the trim point, the aircraft'slongi-
tudinal stabilitywill producea stable,nose-downpitchingmoment.To
maintainthe new angleof attack,an equaland oppositemoment,nose-
up, will be requiredfrom the elevators.When this is achieved,by raising_
the elevators,a new trim point is established, ie at the higher angleof
attackon themainplane,thetail hasbeenmadeto producea greaternose-
up momentby alteiingtheeffectivecamberon thetail. Thereverseapplies
when the angleof attack on the mainplaneis reduced.This does not
usuallyaffectthe positivelongitudinalstability.
AerodynamicCentre
In texi bookson stabilityit is usublto find that the aerodynamicist writes
'aerodynamiccentre'(AC) rather than of the centreof pressure.
of the
The AC is a point within the aerofoil,and usuallyaheadof the CP, about
whichthepitchingmomentis independent of angleof attack;it is a conve-
nient andialculated datum for the mathematicaltreatmentof stability
and control.
Stick-FreeLongitudinalStabiltty
If the elevatoris allowedto trail freely,the changein tail forcedue to a
displacementwill dependon the position taken up by the floating
elevator.Usuallythe elevatorwill trail with the relativeairflow and this
will reducethetail moment.Under theseconditions,with thetail moment
reduced.the balancebetweenthe tail and wing momentsis changedand,
therefore,the positionfor the CG, about which the momentsare equal,
will be farthef forward, becausethe lesseffectivetail requiresa longer
momentarm.That is, theneutralpoint is fartherforward,soreducingthe
stick-freeCG margin.Sincethis margin is a measureof the longitudinal
stabilityit follows that when the elevatorsare allowedto float free the
longitudinalstabilityis reduced.
ManoeuvreStability (SteadyManoeuvresOnly)
In theprecedingpaiagraphsthelongitudinalstaticstabilitywasdiscussed
with respectto a-disturbancein incidencefrom the condition of trimmed
levelflight. A pilot must alsobe ableto hold an aircraft in a manoeuvre
174
STABILITY
and the designerhasto provideadequateelevatorcontrol appropriateto

the role of the aircraft.
Thefollowingparagraphsconsidertheeffectson an aircraftof a distur-
bancein angleof attack and normal acceleration. It shouldbe carefully
notedthat the initial conditionis, as before,steadylevelflight.
The differencebetweenstatic and manoeuvrestability is that
manoeuvrestability dealswith a disturbancein angleof attack (u) and
load factor (n) occurringat constantspeed,whereasstaticstabilitydeals
with a disturbancein angleof attackat constantload factor (n = l).
If an aircraft is trimmedto fly straightand level(the initial condition,
Fig l4-9a),and is then climbed,dived and pulled out of the dive so that
at the bottom of the pull-out it is at its original trimmedvaluesof speed
and height(Fig 1a-9b),thentheaircraftcanbeconsideredashavingbeen
'disturbed'fromits
initial conditionin two wavs.both contributinsto the
overallmanoeuvrestability:
(a) It now has a greaterangleofattack to producethe extra
lift requiredto maintain a curved flight path (L = nW).
This is the sameas the static stabilitv contribution
discussed earlier.
(b) It hasa nose-uprotation about its CG equalto the rate of
rotation about its centreof pull-out.
a L e v e lF l i g h t
Figure14-9 Forces
Actingon an Aircraftin
b Pull-Oul a SteadyManoeuvre.
175
Because the aircraft is rotatingabout its own CG, the tailplanecan be

consideredto be moving downwardsrelativeto the air or, alternatively,
the air can be consideredto be moving upwardsrelativeto the tailplane.
In eithercasetheeffectiveangleof attackof thetailplanewill beincreased
(seeFig la-10); thus the manoeuvrestability is greaterthan the static
stabilityin levelflight.
Vertical
Velocity
Figure14-10Increasein TailplaneAngleof Attack

dueto itsVerticalVelocitY
If the aircraft's longitudinal stability is greater in manoeuvre, the

position of the CG which achievesneutral stability will be farther aft than
ior the straight and level case. This position of the CG is called the
manoeuvre pbint (corresponding to the neutral poir't) and the distance
betweenthe-CG and the manoeuvrepoint is called the manoeuvre margin.
It will be seenthat for a given position of the CG, the manoeuvre margin is
greaterthan the CG margin.
Effect of Altitude
ionsider an aircraft flying at two different heights at the sameIAS (ie the
same value of Cr) and apply the same load factor in each case' Since
the TAS is higher at altitude, the rate of pitch of the aircraft decreases
(Centripetal force = MV' = MdiV, where 0) = rate of rotation).
r
Figure 14-11shows the decreasein tailplane angle of attack-dueto the
higher TAS and lower rate of pitch. At the same IAS, the higher aircraft
has less manoeuvre stability because of the reduction in the tailplane
contribution.
176
STABILITY
C h a n g ei n
Angle of Attack
a t H i g hA l t i t u d e
C h a n g ei n
Angle of Attack
at Low Altitude
Low Altitude
H i g hA l t i t u d e
Figure Effectof Altitude on the Tailplane

Contribution
Lateral Stability (Stick Fixed)

When an aircraft is disturbedin roll about its longitudinal axis the angle
of attack of the down-going wing is increasedand that on the up-going
rving is decreased(seeFig 14-12).As long as the aircraft is not near the
stall the differencein incidenceproducesan increaseof lift on the down-
going wing and a decreaseon the up-going wing. The rolling moment
producedopposesthe initial disturbanceand resultsin a 'damping-inroll'
effect.Sincethe damping-inroll effectis proportional to the rate of roll of
the aircraft, it cannot bring the aircraft back to the wings-levelposition;
thus in the absenceof any other levellingforce, an aircraft disturbed in
roll would remain with the wings banked. Therefore, by virtue of the
damping-in roll effect, an aircraft possesses neutral static stability with
respectto an angle of bank disturbance.However, when an aircraft is
disturbed laterally it experiencesnot only a rolling motion but also
a sideslippingmotion causedby the inclination of the lift vector (seeFig
t4-12).
The forcesarisingon the different parts of the aircraft as a resultof the
sideslipproducesa rolling moment tending to restore the aircraft to its
initial wings-levelposition. It is seenthereforethat the lateral static
stability of an aircraft reactsto the sideslipvelocity(v)or a displacement
rn yaw (seeFig l4-13b). This effect has iconsideiable influence on the
long-termresponse(lateraldynamic stability) of the aircraft.
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
Components
U p - G o i n gW i n g
Angle of Attack Reduced
Roll
Components
D o w n - G o i n gW i n g
Angle of Attack Increased
Figure
14-12Damping-in
RollEffect
Each different part of the aircraft will contribute towards the overall
value of the lateral static stability and these contributions will be of
different magnitude depending on the condition of flight anci the partic-
ular configuration of the aircraft. The more important of these
contributions are:
(a) Wing contribution due to:
(D Dihedral.
(ii) Sweepback.
(b) Wing/fuselageinterference.
(c) Fuselageand fin contribution.
(d) Undercarriage, flap and power effects.
178
STABILITY
Resultant
Force
Producing
Sideslip
\-----
sioeslip
\---\ velocity(v)
Figure14-.1
3 VectorActionof Forwardand SideslipVelocities
Dihedral Effect
Dihedral effect can be explained in a number of ways but the explanation
illustrated at Fig 14-14 has the advantage of relating dihedral effect to
sideslip angle. In Fig 14-14 it will be seen that due to the geometric
dihedral, a point nearer the wing tip (A or D) is higher than a point
inboard (B or C). A sideslip to starboard will therefore produce the
following effects:
(a) Starboard Wing. The relative airflow will crossthe wing
(from A to B) at an angleequalto the sideslipangle.Since
point A is higherthan point B this will producethe same
effectasraisingthe leadingedgeand loweringthe trailing
edge,ie increasingthe angleof attack. So long as the
aircraft is not flying near the stalling speedthe lift will
increase.
(b) Port Wing.By a similar argument,the angleof attack on
the port wing will reduceand its lift decrease.
A stablerolling momentis thus producedwheneversideslipis present

(ie following a disturbancein yaw). This contribution dependson the
dihedralangleand slopeof the lift curve.It will thereforealsodependon
aspectratio beingincreasedwith an increasein effectivechord length.It
is alsoaffectedby wing taper.This is one of the most important contri-
butions to the overall stability and, for this reason,the lateral static
179
I -
I
i
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
'dihedral effect' although there are a
stabilityis often referred to as the
number of other important contributions.
A HigherthanB-
IncreasedAngle
of Attack
Effect
14-14Dihedral
Figure
Sweepback
wing sweepback has the effect of producing an additional.stabilizing
'effective'
contiibution thus increasing the dihedral of the wing (10" of
sweephas about the sameeffect as 1" of dihedral). Figure 14-15illustrates
the principal effects on wing geometry of sideslip.
(a) Angte of Sweep.The component of flow acceleratedby the-
se"iion-ca-ber is proportional to the cosineof the angle of
sweep. The angle of sweep of the leading (low) wing is
decreasedand that of the trailing wing is increasedby the
. sideslip angle. A stable rolling moment is therefore
induced bY the sidesliP.
(b) Aspect Ratio. On the leading (low) wing the span is
increased and the chord decreased,which is an effective
increase in aspect ratio. On the trailing (high) wing, the
span is decreasedand the chord is increasedresulting in a
riduction in aspect ratio. This again produces a stable
rolling momeni becausethe more efficient (low) wing
produces more lift.
180
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
'dihedraleffect'althoughthere are a
stabilityis often referredto as the
numberof other important contributions.
A HigherthanB-
IncreasedAngle
of Attack
Effect
14-14Dihedral
Figure
Sweepback
wing sweepback has the effect of producing an additional.stabilizing
'efiective'
contiibution thus increasing the dihedral of the wing (10" of
sweephas about the sameeffect as 1' of dihedral). Figure l4-15 illustrates
the principal effects on wing geometry of sideslip.
(a) Angte of Sweep.The component of flow accelerated by the-
seciion-ca-ber is proportional to the cosineof the angle of
sweep. The angle of sweep of the leading (low) wing is
decreasedand that of the trailing wing is increasedby the
. sideslip angle. A stable rolling moment is therefore
induced bY the sidesliP.
(b) Aspect Ratio. On the leading (low) wing the span is
increased and the chord decreased,which is an effective
increase in aspect ratio. On the trailing (high) wing, the
span is decreasedand the chord is increasedresulting in a
riduction in aspect ratio. This again produces a stable
rolling momeni becausethe more efficient (low) wing
produces more lift.
.rB0
STABILITY
(c) TaperRatio.Another, smallereffect,arisesfrom a tapered

w!ng. An increasein taper ratio, defined as tip chord,
affectsthe lift coefficientand also producesa small stable
rolling momentin sideslip.
Trailing
Effect of SweeDBack
Figure
14-15Effect
of Sideslip
on a
SweptPlanform
Variation with speed

The changesin the slope of the lift curve associatedwith changesin aspect
ratio and sweep result in variations in lift forces of the 'leading' and
'trailing'
wings. The contribution of sweepto the lateral (static) stlbility
.t81
thereforebecomesmore important at the higher valuesof Cr-,ie at the

lower forward speeds,becausethe Cr curvesare divergent.This is very
'dihedraleffect'variesconsiderably
important becauseit meansthat the
overthe speedrangeof the aircraft.At high speedsa lowerangleof attack
is neededthan that for low speeds,thereforethe stabilityat high speeds
is much lessthan that at low speeds.To reducethe stability to a more
reasonablevalue at the higher anglesof attack, it may be necessary to
I incorporatesomenegativedihedral(ie anhedral)on a swept-wing
I
aircraft.
Handling Considerations
'dihedraleffect' of sweepbackin sideslip
It has beenshown that the
producesa strongrolling moment.This has beenreferredto somewhat
II
impreciselyasroll with yaw.Two applicationsof this effectat low speeds,
whereit is strongest,are worth considering:
(a) Cross-Wind Landings. After an approach with the
aircraft heading into a cross-wind from the right, the pilot
must yaw the aircraft to port to align it with the runway
prior to touchdown. This action will induce a sideslip to
It (b)
starboard and the pilot must anticipate the subsequent
roll to port in order to keep the wings level.
lil'ingDrop. The greatertendencyof a swept-wing aircraft
to drop a wing at a high angle cf attack (aggravatedby a
steep curved approach) may be further increased by a
i large deflection of corrective aileron. In such casesthe
dihedral effect of sweepbackmay be utilized by applying
rudder to yaw the nose towards the high wing - sideslip
to the left, roll to the right. It must be said, however, that
modern design has reduced the tip-stalling tendency and
improved the effectivenessof ailerons at high incidence
and the problem is not as acute as it might have been in
the'transonic era'.
WinglFuselage Int erfer ence

(a) Shielding Effect Most aircraft will be affected by the
shielding effect of the fuselage.In a sideslipthe section of
'shadow'
the trailing wing near the root lies in the of the
fuselage.The dynamic pressureover this part of the wing
may be lessthan that over the rest of the wing and there-
fore produces lesslift. This effect will tend to increasethe
'dihedral effect' and on some aircraft may be quite
considerable.
182
a H i g hW i n g
"r"r$
I
q=
b Low Wing and High Fin
Drag I
f \
_-=--=---h-
*_,6\
C Tee-Tail
Figure
14-16Wing/Fuselage
Configuration.
(b) Vertical Location A stronger contribution towards

lateral stability arises from the vertical location of the
wings with respectto the fuselage.It is helpful to start by
consideringthe fuselageto be cylindrical in cross-section.
The sideslipvelocity will flow around the fuselage,being
deflectedupwards acrossthe top and downwards under-
neath. Superimposing a wing in this flow has the
following effect, illustrated in Fig 14-16:
183
(i) High Wing.A high-mountedwing will lie ina region

of-upwash on the up-streamside of the fuselage
tending to increaseits overall angleof attack'
Converiely,on the down-streamsideof the fuselage
the wing ii influencedby the downwashtendingto
reduceIts angle of attack' The differencein lift
produced by each wing will cause a restoring
moment to increasewith sideslip'This effect has
beendemonstrated to be equivalentto l'-3'of dihe-
dral.
(ii) Low lV'ing. The effect of locating the wing on the

bottom oi the fuselageis to bring it into a regionof
downwashon the up-streamsideand into upwash
on the down-strearrrside of the fuselage'The angle
of attack of the leading(low) wing will be decreased
andthatofthetrailingwingincreased.Thisgivesrise
to an unstablemoment e(uivalent to about 1"-3o
anhedral.
on lateral
From thesefacts it can be seenthat there is zero effect
fuselage.The effectis
,t"Uiriiv *rr"n the wing is mountedcentrallyon the.
junction'
i;;**d as separatiorio"".,.tat the wing/fuselage
FuselageIFin Contr ibutions

of drag
Si;; ihe aircraft is sideslipping,there will be a component
is abovethe
o"oori"n the sideslipvelocity.If lhe dragline of the aircraft
C"ffi;Ji*ifi U'.u ..rtoring momenttendingto raisethe low wing'
ihir";;;itdration is therefore'acontribution towards positivelateral
contri-
,t"-Urftty.C"nu"rr.ly, rJiag line belowthe CG will be an unstable
line is determined by the Egometry of the
f"tio". 1.n. position'ofthe?rag
coitributions, illustratedin Fig 14-16,are:
".rti." uir"tuit b.rt the major
(a) High wing.
(b) Low Wing and High fin and rudder'
(c) Tee-tailconfiguration.
as well as
The tee-tail configuration makes the fin more effective
contributingits own extradrag.
Slipstreamand Flap Contributions

i;;;6;rtant effectswhichreducethedegreeof positivelateralstability
areillustratedin Fig 14-17:
184
STABILITY
a Destabilizing
Effectof Slipstream
Increasein Lift
due to DihedralEffect
b Destabilizing
Effectof Flaps
effectof Flapand
Figure14-17 Destabilizing
Slipstream.
(a) Slipstream. Due to sideslip the slipstream behind the

propeller or propellers is no longer symmetrical about
the longitudinal axis. The dynamic pressurein the slip-
stream is higher than the free stream and covers more of
the trailing wing in sideslip.The result is an unstable
moment tending to increase the displacement.This
unstable contribution is worse with flaps down.
185
(b) Flaps. Partial-spanflapsalter the spanwisedistribution

of pressureacrossa wing. The local increasein lift coef-
ficient near the root has the effect of moving the
'half-span'centreof pressuretowardsthe fuselage(in a
spanwisesense). The momentarm of the wing lift is thus
riduced and a given changein Cr due to the dihedral
effectwill producea smallermoment.The overalllateral
stabilityis thereforereducedby loweringinboard flaps.
The designgeometryof the flap itself can be used to
controlthiscontribution.In particular,a swept-backflap
hinge-linewill decreasethe dihedral effect,whereasa
swept-forwardhingeJinewill increaseit.
DesignProblems
It is desirablethat an aircraftshouldhavepositivelateralstaticstability.
If, however,the stabilityis too large,it canleadto the dynamicproblems
listedbelow,someof which arediscussed later:
(a) Lateraloscillatoryproblems,ip Dutch roll.
(b) Large aileron control deflectionsand forces under
asymmetricconditions.
(c) Large rolling responseto rudder deflectionrequiring
aileion movement to counteractthe possibility of
'autorotation'undercertainconditionsof flight.
14.6 DynamicStability
General
fromequilibrium,
Whenanaircraftis disturbed motionand
theresulting
corresponding changesin theaerodynamic forcesandmomentsactingon
true for displace-
the airiraft may be quite complicated.This is especially
ment in yaw *irich affectsthe aircraftboth in the yawingand the rolling
planes.
Someof the factorsaffectingthe long-termresponse of the aircraft are
as follows:
(a) Linearvelocityand mass(momentum).
(b) Staticstabilitiesin roll, pitch and yaw.
(c) Angularvelocitiesaboutthe threeaxes.
I I Angular
.J I momentum
(d) Momentsofinertiaaboutthethreeaxes.
186
STABILITY
(e) Aerodynamicdamping momentsdue to roll, pitch and

yaw.
consider a body which has beendisturbedfrom equilibriumand the

sourceof the disturbancethen removed.If the subsequentsystemof
forcesandmomentstendsinitially to decrease thedisplacement,thenthat
body is saidto havepositivestaticstability.It may, however,overshoot
the equilibriumcondition and then oscillateabout it. The terms for
possibleformsofmotion whichdescribethedynamicstabilityof thebody
are listedbelow:
a) Amplitude increased- negativestability.
b) Amplitudeconstant- neutralstability.
c) Amplitude'damped'- positivestability.
d) Motion heavilydamped;oscillationsceaseand themotion
becomes'dead-beat' positivestability.
e) Motion diverges- negativedynamicstability.
Figure 14-18illustratesthesevarious forms of dynamicstability; in

eachcaseshown,the body haspositivestaticstability.
.NegativeDynamic Stability
Negative Dynamic Stability (Divergence)
PositiveDynamic Stability (Damped Phugoid) F i g u r e1 4 - 1 8 F o r m so f

Motion
187
Dynamicstabilityis more readilyunderstoodby useof the analogyof

the'bowl and ball'described earlier.For example,whenthe disturbance
is removedthe ball returnsto the bottom of the bowl and is saidto have
staticstability. However,the ball will oscillateabout a neutral or equi-
librium positionand this motion is equivalentto dynamicstabilityin an
aircraft.
If the oscillationsare constantin amplitudeand time then a graph of
the motion would be as shownin Fig 14-19.The amplitudeshowsthe
extent of the motion, and the periodic time is the time taken for one
completeoscillation.This type of motion is known as simpleharmonic
motion.
Periodic Time
The time takenfor onecompleteoscillationwill dependupon the degree
of static stability, ie the strongerthe static stability, the shorterthe
periodictime.
9 Simple
Figure-14-i Harmonic
Motion.
Damping
In thi simple analogy given it is assumedthat there is no damping in the
system;the oscillations will continue indefinitely and at a constant ampli-
tude. In practice, however, there will always be some damping if only
becausethe viscosity of the fluid (air) is a damping factor which is propor-
tional to the speed of mass. Damping can be expressedas the time
required (or number of cycles)for the amplitude to decay to. one half of
its initiai value (see Fig l4-18 Damped Phugoid). An increase in
the damping of the system (eg from a more viscous fluid) will cause the
oscillations to die away more rapidly and, eventually, the damping will
be such that the oscillation ceases.In this case,after the disturbance has
been removed, the mass returns slowly towards equilibrium but does not
overshootit, ie the motion is'dead-beat'(Fig l4-18 - PositiveDynamic
Stability).
188
STABILITY
DynamicStability of Airuaft
Dynamicstabilitydependson the particulardesignof the aircraftand the
speedand height at which it is flying. It is usuallyassumedthat for
'conventional'aircraft
the couplingbetweenlongitudinal(pitching)and
lateral(includingdirectional)motionscanbe neglected. This enablesthe
longitudinaland lateraldynamicstabilityto be consideredseparately.
DesignSpecification
Oscillatorymotions which have a long periodictime are not usually
important;evenif the motion is not naturallywell damped,the pilot can
control the aircraftfairly easily.To ensuresatisfactoryhandlingcharac-
teristics,however,it is essential
that all oscillatorymotionswith a periodic
time of the sameorder as the pilot's responsetime are heavilydamped.
This is because the pilot may get out of phasewith the motion and pilot-
inducedoscillations(PIO)may develop.Theminimumdampingspecified
is that oscillationsmay decayto one half of their original amplitudein
one completecycleof the motion. Somemodern aircraft do not satisfy
this requirementand in many casesit hasbeennecessary to incorporate
autostabilizationsystemssuch as pitch dampersor yaw dampersto
improvethe basicstabilityof the aircraft.
LongitudinaI DynamicStabili ty
Whenan aircraftis disturbedin pitch from trimmedlevelflight it usually
oscillatesabout the originalstatewith variationsin the valuesof speed,
height and indicatedload factor. If the aircraft has positivedynamic
stability,theseoscillationswill graduallydieawayand theaircraftreturns
to its initial trimmedflight condition.The oscillatorymotion in pitch can
be shownto consistof two separateoscillationsof widely differingchar-
acteristics; the phugoidand the short-periodoscillation,Fig 14-20.
Displacement
Figure14-20BasicComponentsof Longitudinal
DynamicStability
189
Phugoid
thiJis usuallya long period,poorly dampedmotion involvinglargevari-
ationsin the speedand heightof the aircraft but with negligiblechanges
in load factor(n).It canbe regardedasa constantenergymotion in which
potentialenergyand kinetic energyare continuouslyinterchanged.The
phugoid oscillationis usually damped, and the degreeof damping
h.pendson the drag characteristics of the aircraft.The moderndevelop-
ment towards low-drag designhas resultedin the phugoid oscillation
becoming more of a problem.
Short-Period Oscillation
This oscillatorymotion is usually heavily dampedand involveslarge
changesof loadfactorwith only smallchangesin speedand height.It can
be regardedsimplyas a pitchingoscillationwith onedegreeof freedom.
As stited earliei the time takenfor onecompleteoscillationwill depend
upon thestaticstability,andin thiscaseit is theperiodictime of the short-
periodoscillation.
Stability Factors
The longitudinaldynamicstability of an aircraft,that is, the mannerrn
which it returnsto a conditionof equilibrium,will dependupon:
(a) Staticlongitudinalstability.
(b) Aerodynamicpitch damPing.
(c) Momentsof inertiain Pitch.
(d) Angle of pitch.
(e) Rate of pitch.
ililt
i
lI
ilttl
oscillation
Figure14-21 Short-period
L 190
STABILITY
Lateral DynamicStability
When an aircraft in trimmed level flight is disturbedlaterally, the
resultingmotion consistsof the following components:
(a) RollingMotion. Initially theroll will only changetheangle
of bank, and will be rapidly damped.
(b) SpiralMotion. A combinationof bank and yaw will result
in a gradually tighteningspiral motion if the aircraft is
unstablein thismode.The spiralmotion is not usuallyvery
importantbecause, evenif it is divergent,the rateof diver-
genceis fairly slowand the pilot cancontrol the motion.
(c) DutchRol/. This is an oscillationinvolvingroll, yaw and
sideslip.The periodictime is usuallyfairly short and the
motion may be weakly damped or even undamped.
Becauseof thesecharacteristics of the Dutch Roll oscilla-
tion, lateraldynamicstabilityhas alwaysbeenmore of a
problemthan longitudinaldynamicstability.
Spiral Stabilily
The lateralstabilityof an aircraftdependson theforcesthat tendto right
the aircraftwhena wing drops.At thesametimehowever,thekeelsurface
(includingthe fin) tendsto yaw the aircraft into the airflow, in the direc-
tion of the lowerwing. Oncethe yaw is started,the higherwing, beingon
the outsideof the turn and travellingslightly fasterthan the lower,
producesmore lift. A rolling moment is therebyset up which opposes,
and may be greaterthan,thecorrectingmomentof thedihedral,sincethe
roll due to yaw will tend to increasethe angleof bank.
If the total rolling momentis strongenoughto overcomethe restoring
forceproducedby the dihedraland dampingin yaw effects,the angleof
bank will increaseand the aircraft will enter a diving turn of steadily
increasingsteepness. This is known asspiralinstability.A reductionin fin
area, reducingdirectional stability and the tendencyto yaw into the
sideslipresultsin a smallergainin lift from the raisedwing and therefore
in greaterspiralstability.
This form of instabilityis not very important.Many high performance
aircraft when yawed,either by prolongedapplicationof rudder or by
asymmetricpower,will developa rapid rolling motion in the directionof
the yaw and may quickly entera steepspiraldive;this is due to the inter-
actionof the directionaland lateralstabilitv.
DutchRoll
Oscillatory instability is more seriousthan spiral instability and is
commonly found to a varying degreein combinationsof high wing
191
OFFLIGHT
PRINCIPLES
loading, sweepback(particularlyat low IAS) and high altitude.

Oscillatoryinstability is characterizedby the combinedrolling and
yawingmovementor'wallowing'motion. When an aircraft is disturbed
laterallythe subsequent motion may be eitherof the two extremes.The
aerodynamiccausesof oscillatoryinstability are complicatedand a
simplifiedexplanationof oneform of Dutch Roll is as follows:
Consider a swept-wingaircraft seenin planform. If the aircraft is
yawed,say to starboard,the port wing generatesmore lift due to the
largerexpanseof wing presentedto the airflow and the aircraft accord-
ingly rolls in the directionof yaw. However,in this casethe advancing
port wing also hasmore drag becauseof the larger areaexposedto the
airflow. The higher drag on the port wing causesa yaw to port which
resultsin the starboardwing obtaining more lift and reversingthe direc-
tion of the roll. The final resultis an undulatingmotion in the directional
and lateral planeswhich is known as Dutch Roll. Sincethe motion is
causedby an excessiverestoringforce, one method of temperingthe
effectsis to reducethe lateral stability by settingthe wings at a slight
anhedralangle.
The lateral dynamicstability of an aircraft is largelydecidedby the
relativeeffect of:
(a) Rolling momentdueto sideslip(dihedraleffect)
(b) Yawing momentdue to sideslip(weathercockstability).
Too much weathercockstabilitywill leadto spiralinstabilitywhereas

too much dihedraleffectwill leadto Dutch Roll instability.
14.7 SUMMARY
Static and Dynamic Stability of Aircraft

Stabilityis concernedwith the motion of a body after an externalforce
hasbeenremoved.Staticstabilitydescribes its immediatereactionwhile
dynamicstability describesthe subsequentreaction.
Stabilitymay be of the followingtypes:
(a) Positive- the body returnsto the position prior to the
disturbance.
(b) Neutral - the body takesup a new position of constant
relationshipto the original.
(c) Negative- thebodycontinuesto divergefrom the original
position.
192
I
l-
STABILITY
The factorsaffectingstaticdirectionalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the verticalstabilizer.
(b) The momentarm.
The factorsaffectingstaticlongitudinalstabilityare:
(a) Designof the tailplane.
(i) Tail area.
(ii) Tail volume.
(iii) Planform.
(iv) Wing downwash.
(v) Distancefrom Cp,uirtoCG.
(b) Positionof CG.

(D Aft movementof the CG decreases
the positive
stability.
(ii) Forwardmovementof the CG increases
the positive
stability.
Manoeuvrestabilityis greaterthan the staticstabilityin levelflight and
a greaterelevatordeflectionis necessaryto hold the iircraft in isteady
pull-out.
The factorsaffectingstaticlateralstabilityare:
(a) Wing contributionsdue to:
(D Dihedral.
(iD Sweepback.
(b) Wing/fuselageinterference.
(c) Fuselageand fin contribution.
(d) Undercarriage,flapand powereffects.
Someof thefactorsaffectingthe long-termresponse

of theaircraftare:
(a) Linear velocityand mass.
(b) The staticstabilitiesin roll, pitch and yaw.
(c) Angular velocitiesabout the threeaxes
I f Angular
(d) Momentsof inertia about the threeaxes J I momentum
193
(e) Aerodynamicdampingmomentsdue to roll, pitch and

yaw.
The longitudinaldynamicstabilityof an aircraft dependsupon:
(a) Staticlongitudinalstability.
(b) Aerodynamicpitch damping.
(c) Momentsof inertiain pitch.
(d) Angle of pitch.
I) i I Angular
momentum
(e) Rateof pitch. jt
The lateral dynamicstability of an aircraft is largelydecidedby the
relativeeffectot
a) Dihedraleffect.
b) Weathercockstability.
Chapter14: TestYourself
I Stability about the normal or vertical axis is provided by:
a) the rudder.
b) the fin and keel surface.
c) the tailplane.
d) the wings and keel surface.
Refpara 14.4
2 Longitudinal stability is increasedif the:
a) CP moves forward of the CG.

b) CP acts through the samepoint as the CG.
c) CG is forward of the CP.
d) thrust acts on a line below total drag.
Refpara 14.4
3 Lateral stability may be increased:
a) with trailing edge flaps lowered.

b) with a high wing.
c) with anhedral wings.
d) with low set wings.
Refpara 14.4
194
STABILITY
4 Directionalstabilitymay be increased
with:
a) reducedstaticmargin.
b) pitch dampers.
c) horn balance.
d) yaw dampers.
Ref para 14.4

Lateralstabilitymay be increased
with:
a) increaseddihedral.
b) increasedanhedral.
c) loweredtrailing edgeflaps.
d) yaw dampers.
Ref para 14.4
195
15
Forcesin Flight
15.1 Introduction
The four forces acting in level flight are lift, weight, drag and thrust. The
lift acts through the centre of pressure,the weight through the centre of
gravity. The drag and thrust act along lines parallel to the longitudinal
axis and this is illustratedin Fie 15-1.
THRUST
WEIGHT
15-1
Figure
For straightand levelflight theseforcesmust be in equilibriumbut if

thepointsthroughwhichtheseforcesact arecoincidentthentheopposing
pairsmust be equal.
Lift = Weight
Thrust = Dras
15.2 PitchingMoments
The positionsof the CP and CG vary throughoutflight, and undermost
conditionsare not coincident,CP varyingwith angleof attack and CG
varying as fuel is used.The resultis that the opposingforces(Lift and
Weight)setup a couplecausingeithera nose-uppitch, or a nose-down
I
pitch, dependingon the relativepositionsof CP and CG. This is
I
illustratedin Fig l5-2 and 15-3.
II
I 196
I
L
il
J
II
I
It
t NosEDowN
/
I
I PTTCHTNG
MOMENT
I
DOWNLOAD
F i g u r e1 5 - 2
N O S EU P
P i T C H I N GM O M E N T
F i g u r e1 5 - 3
Ideally, the pitching momentsarising from the Thrust and Drag

couplesshouldneutralizeeachother in levelflight, but the idealis difh-
cult to attainand,asfar aspossible,theforcesarearrangedasin Fig l5-1.
With this arrangement, theT/D couplecauses a nose-upmoment,and the
L/IV couple a nose-downmoment, the lines of action of eachcouple,
beingsuchthat the strengthof eachcoupleis equal.If, now, the engineis
throttled back,the T/D coupleis weakened,and the L/TVcouplepitches
the nosedown.
The tailplaneand/or elevatorhas a stabilizingfunction in that it
suppliesthe forcenecessary to counterany residualpitchingmoments.If
any nose-upor nose-downpitch occurs,the elevatordeflectioncan be
alteredto provide an up or down load to trim the aircraft.This is also
shownin Fig l5-2 and l5-3.
If the elevatorhasto producea down load balancingforce,this effec-
tivelyincreases theaircraftweight.So,to maintainlevelflight at the same
speed,the angleof attackmust be increasedto maintainlift. The increase
in dragis known as trim drag.
197
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
The RelationshipbetweenAngle of Attack,IAS and Altitude

assumingthat in levelflight lift equalsweightthen:
Lift=Weight=%pV2SCL
ie our normal theory of flight formula + angleof attack where:
P = density
V=TAS
S = wing area
C. = a constantcoefficientof lift
As for a givenweightlift will be constant,thenthe equationmust also
be constant.The only variablesin the equationare density,TAS and
angleof attack. It must be rememberedthat the expressiont/zpYzis
dynamicpressureor IAS. In view of this, for a fixed IAS and weightthe
angleof attackwill be constantfor any altitude.
Looking at it from a differentpoint of view,if IAS (%pY') is increased
then,to keeptheequationbalanced,theangleof attackmustbedecreased
and viceversa.To summarise:
(D At constantweight and IAS, angleof attack
regardless
of altitude.
(ii) If IAS is increased,angle of attack must be decreasedand
vice versa.
For optimum aerodynamic efficiency,the maximum amount of lift will
be produced for the least amount of drag. This, of course, means flying
at the maximum lift/drag ratio which has already been shown to occur at
a fixed angle of attack, usually around 4o. It was also shown that for a
given weight this will representa frxed indicated airspeed, regardlessof
height. If however, the weight decreasesdue to use of fuel, then it will be
necessaryto decreasethe indicated airspeed to maintain the same angle
of attack.
15.3 Effectsof Climbing,Glidingand Turning

(a) Climbing
During a climb, an aircraft gains potential energy by virtue of elevation,
achievedby one or a combination of two means, viz:
(a) Use of propulsiveenergyabove that requiredfor level
flight.
(b) Expenditureof the aircraft'skineticenergy.
198
t
t
I
I
I FORCES
IN FLIGHT
4 In a climb, althoughthe weightcontinuesto act verticallydownwards

I the lift doesnot. The lift is now at right anglesto the fliglit path of the
aircraft,and effectiveweightcan now be resolvedinto twb components,
one-supported by the lift and the other actingin the oppositedirectionto
the flight path, in the samedirectionas drag. From this, two thingscan
be seen:f,rrstlythe lift is now lessthan that requiredin straightand level
flight, W 99r y, and secondly,the thrust hasto be equaland oppositeto
the suT of drag and weightcomponentsalongthe flight path T= D + W
Sin y. This is shownin Fig 15-4.It is still consideredsufficientlycorrect
to assumeL = D up to about 15"climb angle(Cos 15. = 0.9659,ie the
error is lessthan 2%).
Rate andAngle of Climb

Figures l5-4(a) and (b) show that rate of climb is determinedby the
amount of excesspower, and angle of climb by the amount of excess
thrust left after opposingdrag.
-/1
:
-/ l,.
t
\1rucos8
W Sin8 \,. W E I G H TC O M P O N E N T
P E R P E N D I C U L ATR
O
FLIGHTPATH.
y A N G L EO F
"
CLIMB
F i g u r e1 5 - 4
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
Rate of Climb
Fig 15-4(a) S i n y = Vc = Rate of Climb
V Speedin Climb
Fig 15-a@) S i n y= Thrust - Drag
Weight
Therefore V c = Thrust- Drag
V Weight
Therefore V c = V (Thrust- Drag)

Weight
Power(Avaliable)- Power(Required)
Weight
= ExcessPower
Weight
Vt-Vd whereVt = Thrust HorsePower
w Vd = Drag Horsepower
Angleof Climb
From Fig l5-a(b) it can be seenthat for the maximum angle of climb,
where Sin y = Thrust - Drag, the aircraft should be flown at a
Weight
speedwhich givesthe maximum differencebetweenThrust and Drag.
Alternatively,if climb angle= 0, ie levelflight, then
Thrust-Drag -0
Weight
But if climb is vertical,ie 90o,then
Thrust=Drag+Weight
or
T h r u s t - D r a g -- 1
'
W.ight-
So,it canbe deduced,the factorcontrollingthe angleof climb will be the

excess ofthrust overdrag.
PowerAvailableand PowerRequired
Thethrustpowercurvefor a pistonenginediffersfrom that of ajet engine,
as shownin Fig 15-5.The main reasonfor this is that the thrust of a jet
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
remainsvirtuallyconstantat a givenaltitude,regardless
of speed,whereas
the piston engine,under the sameset of circumstances and for a given
bhp, suffersa loss at both ends of its speedrangebecauseof reduced
propellerefficiency.
THP(avail)=@
5s0
The horsepowerrequiredto propel an aircraftis found by
Pwr(reqd)=W
Thecurvedepictedin Fig 15-5canbeassumed to applyequallyto a piston

or a jet propelledaircraft,ie the airframedrag is the sameregardless of
power and speed.The increasein power requiredat the lowestspeedis
causedby rapidly risingeffectsof induceddrag.
POWERAVAILABLE
POWERAVAILABLE
PISTON
/L POWER
READ
THRUST (DRAGx TAS)
HORSE
POWER
M I N D R A GS P E E D
MIN POWER TAS. (K)

SPEED
F i g u r e1 5 - 5
201
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I G H T
Climb Performance
The best climbing speed(highestrate of climb), is that at which the excess
power is maximum, so that after somepower is used in overcoming drag,
the maximum amount of power is available for climbing. The vertical
distance between power available and power required representsthe
power available for climbing at that speed.Note, in Fig l5-5, that this
speedfor the piston engineis approximately l75K (TAS), and for the jet
approximately 400K. ln the latter, there appears to be a fairly wide band
of speedswhich would still give the same excesspower; in practice the
higher speedis used in the interest of engine efficiency. At points X and
Y all available power is being used to overcome drag, therefore these
points are the V-in zfld V-u* for the particular power setting.
Effect of Altitude
The THP ofjet and piston enginesalike decreasewith altitude, due mainly
to decreasingair density, so that the power available curves of both types
are lowered. Figure 15-6 shows power available and required curves for
both enginetypes,at MSL and 40,000ft. In Fig l5-4, it is indicatedthat,
at altitude, the power required to fly at minimum drag speedis increased,
becausethough Vvo.ueremains the same at all heights, in EAS terms, the
speedused in calculation of THP is TAS, which increaseswith altitude
for a given EAS. Therefore the THP required to fly at any EAS increases
with altitude. Also, from Fig l5-4, speed for best rate of climb also
decreaseswith altitude. The altitude at which rate of climb becomes
zero is known as the absoluteceiling.Serviceceilingis the altitude at which
the rate of climb has dropped to 100 fpm.
Power
Reqd. , Power Reqd
M.S.L. i 40,000 ft
Power Avail.
40,000 ft
100 200 300 400 EAs 40-@0ft.

100 2A0
Figure5-6
F O R C EISN F L I G H T
Power
A v a i l .M . S . L .
Power Avail.
40,00oft.
THRUST
HORSE
POWER
Power
A Reqd.
Power 40,000fl
Reqd. ) t - - -
M.S.L
100 2OO 300 400 500 EAS.40,000fl

100 zoo 300
Figure5-6 (cont'd)
(b) Forcesin a Glide

For a steadyglide,enginegiving no thrust, the Lift, Drag and Weight
forcesmust be in equilibrium(ignoringdeceleration effects).Figure l5-7
showsWeightbalancedby the resultantof Lift and Drag. The lift vector,
actingperpendicular to theflight (glide)path,is now tiltedforward,whilst
the drag vectorstill actsparallelto the glidepath. To maintainairspeed,
energymust be expendedto overcomethis drag, and the sourceof this
energyis the aircraft'spotentialenergy,ie Attitude.
When the aircraftis placedin a nosedown attitude,asin a descent,the
component of weight in the direction of the flight path augments
the thrust, the aircraft will accelerate, lift and drag will change,so, in
order to achievea balancedcondition with a constantairspeed,thrust
must be reduced.From the foregoing,it may be seenthat the controlling
factor of the glideangleis the lift/drag ratio of the aircraft.An increase
in weightwill not affectglideangle,asall componentswill expandby the
sameproportion,but an increasein weightwill increasespeedalongflight
path.
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
L=Wcos E
D=WSin E
L TOTAL
,.'l REACTION
VSinU
F i g u r e1 5 - 7
Gliding (Descent)for Endurance

It canbe seenin Fig 15-7(a)that the minimum rateof descentis achieved
=
by makingV Siny as smallaspossible,but, D x V (ie power.required)
WV Sin fiignoring decelerationeffects),thus for a givel aelght the rate
of descentiJ least,at the speedwherethe powerrequired(DV) is least.
Gliding (Descent)for Range

If distinceis to be maximum,glideanglemustbe minimum,asevidentin
Fie 1s-7(b).
D=Max=WCosy
T=Min=WSinY
Therefore
W Cosy = Max
WSinY
but
WCosT = L
WSinY D
The best angleof glide thereforedependson maintaining an angle of
attack which givesthe bestLift/Drag ratio, or for maximum endurance
the aircraftshouldbe flown for minimumdrag.
204
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Effect of Wind
Gliding for minimum rate of descent,or for endurance,is unaffectedby
wind, becausethe positionat the end of glideis unimportant.But when
gliding for range,the target is the point of arrival, thus the aim is
maximumdistanceoverthe ground.
Gliding for rangeis achievedas explainedpreviously,ie by flying for
minimum drag. However,that appliesonly in still air conditions.The
grounddistanceby approximately
effectof a headwindwill beto decrease
the ratio "t An increaseof airspeedcould reducethetime the wind

ffi.
effectwould act, and thus improve ground distance.Similarly,if there
werea tailwind,grounddistancewould beincreased, a reductionof speed
would improve the distance,sincethe wind effect time would be
increased.
Effect of Weight
Variationin weightwill not affectglideangle,providedspeedis adjusted
to suit the all up weight.A simplemethod of estimatingspeedchanges,
to compensate for weightchanges(up to about 20o), is to adjustspeed
(EAS) by half the percentage changein AUW, eg a weightreductionof
l0% would necessitate a decrease
in speedof 5o/o.
Althoughrangeis unaffectedby weight,glideendurancedecreases with
weightincrease.
PenetrationSpeedis the optimum gliding speedfor any wind speed.
(c) Turning
During a turn weightstill actsverticallydownwardsbut a secondforce,
centrifugalforce,occursfrom the aircraft travellingalonga curvedpath.
This centrifugalforcehasto be opposedby a centripetalforcewhich can
only be obtainedas a resolvedpart of the lift force.Because the lift also
hasto balancethe weightin addition to the centripetalforce,it is evident
that in turn thelift hasto be increasedto a greatervaluethanweight.This
is illustratedin Fig l5-8.
If the aircraftis banked,with the angleof attackconstant,the vertical
componentof lift will be too smallto balancetheweight,thusthe aircraft
will descend. Therefore,as angleof bank increases, angleof attackmust
be increased,the verticalcomponentis then sufficientto maintainlevel
flight, whilst the horizontal componentis sufficientto produce the
requiredcentripetalforce.
205
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
I
F i g u r e1 5 - 8
Effect of Weight
If the IAS in a turn is maintainedat a constantfigure the increasedlift
can only be obtainedby an increasein the angleof attack.The in0rease
in lift will, of course,producemore induceddrag whiuhwill requirean
increasein thrust. As the angleof attack has beenincreasedthe Vvingis
nearerto its stallingangle,thereforethe stallingspeedwill be increased.
The increasein the value of lift is, in fact, equivalentto increasingthe
aircraft'sweight. The amount by which this is apparentlyincreasedis
'n'. For instance,if the weight is apparently
calledthe load factor or
'n' becomestwo and this is called a 29 tttrn. The increasein
doubled
stallingspeedassociated with the load factormay be calculatedfrom the
followingformula:
Stallingspeed= normal stallingspeedx V g load (n)
For examplean aircraft with a normal stallingspeedof 100$-S:arVine

out a 29 turn would haveits stallingspeedincreased by 100x V 2 = 140kt
approximately.
In a steadylevelturn, thrustbeingignored,lift is providingboth a force
to balanceweight,and a centripetalforceto turn the aircraft.If the same
TAS and angleof bank canbe sustained, the turn radiusis basicallyinde-
pendentof weightor aircraft type.
206
FORCES
IN FLICHT
Minimum RadiusTurn
To achievea minimum radiusturn, it can be shownthat:
(a) Wing loadingmust be aslow as possible.
(b) Air mustbe asdenseaspossible,
ie as at MSL.
(c) The maximumvalue of product of Cr and angleof bank
must be obtained.NOTE: nol maximum angleof bank,
sinceangleof bank is increasedto increasethe lift force
requiredfor thecentripetalforce.To do this, at thecritical
angleof attack,speedmust be increased,but an increase
in speedmay causea fall in maximumvalueof Cr.
The Maximum RateTurn

To achievea maximumrate turn, it can be shownthat:
(a) Wing loadingmust be aslow aspossible.
(b) Air mustbe asdenseaspossible,
asat MSL.
(c) The maximumvalueof theproductof angleof bank,speed
and Cr must be obtained.Note, as for the samereasons
givenin precedingparagraph.
Altitude
With increasein altitude, there is an increasein the minimum radius,
mainlydueto theEAS/TASrelationship.An additionalincrease is caused
by thereductionin Cr-u*,becauseMachNo is higherat altitudefor a given
TAS.
An increasein altitudewill causethe rate of turn to decrease.
Effect of Thrust
Evenin levelflight, it canbe seenthat someaircrafthavetheir thrust line
inclined to the horizontal,thus producinga componentof thrust
augmentinglift. In the minimum radiusturn, and maximum rate turns
discussed, the aircraftis flown for Cr-u*,which is obtainedat the critical
angle,the thrust componentassistslift, so eitherlesslift is requiredfrom
the wing, or the turn can be improved.However,the reductionof thrust
with increasingaltitudewill causea reductionin turning performance,in
additionto that causedby theEAS/TASrelationshipandthegreaterCr-u"
reduction.
207
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
Effect of Flap
Lowering of flap produces more lift, also more drag at any given EAS. A
smaller radius of turn may thus be achievedwith flap, providing the flap
limiting speedis not a critical factor, and the available power is sufficient
to overcome the extra drag.
(d) Turning and Manoeuvres:EssentialPoints to Note
Centripetal force:
Consider an object swinging around at the end of a piece of string the
object travels along a curved path produced by the pull ofthe string act-
ing on the object. Since this radial force is directly towards the centre the
accelerationmust also be towards the centre. This centre-seekingforce is
called centripetalforce, and in accordancewith the third law of motion,
is opposedby an equal force called the centrifugal force. Centripetal force
in the casewe are consideringis also called Horizontal Component of Lift.
Although the object on the string is following a curved path of motion,
it is continually trying to obey the first law of motion, ie to continue
travelling in a straight line . . . true or false?True - should the string be
released, centripetal force is removed and the opposite reaction
(centrifugal force) disappearssimultaneously. In this instance,the object
at once obeys the first law of motion and flies off in a straight line at a
tangent to its previous circular path.
It is important to realisethat, without centripetalforce,no objectwhether
a car or aircraft can be made to turn, and the first law of motion applies.
Centripetal force during a given turn is directly proportional to the
mass of the body, the square of its speedand is inversely proportional to
the radius of the turn. It is calculated from the formula:
Centripetalforce = W V' ,,-
; ; (in lb)
Centripetalforce m V2..-.
r (ln Newtons)
Where: W the weight/orm is the mass
Y2 the squareof the TAS in feet/secor
m/sec
r = the radiusin feetor metres
o = the sravitationalforceof 32.2ftlsec/sec
208
FORCES
IN FLICHT
towardsthecentre,the followingformuia
To calculatethe acceleration
applies:
tt2
Acceleration
a
Where
r12
v - the velocityin feet/secor metres/sec
r = the radiusin feet or metres
Turning
For an aircraftto turn, centripetalforceis required.This centripetalforce
is derivedby resolvingthe inclinedtotal lift forceinto two components,
namely:
(a) Verticallift component
(b) Horizontal lift component
Thus, it is the horizontallift componentthat providesthe centripetal
forcerequiredto pull theaircrafttowardsthecentreof theturn asit moves
alonga path of circularmotion.(Referto Fig 15-9).However,duringa
turn, lift hasa doublerole to play.Not only is it resolvedinto a horizontal
componentto providecentripetalforce,but alsohasto providea lifting
forcesuchthat the aircraft maintainsa constantheightduring the turn.
It will be seenfrom Fig l5-9 that any iriclinationof total lift from the
TOTAL
LIFT
CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
WEIGHT F i g u r e1 5 - 9
209
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
verticalresultsin a smallervefiicalcomponentof lift, which would then

be too smallto balancethe weightof the aircraft.
Therefore,to preventthe aircraftfrom descending, the angleof attack
mustbe progressively increasedto maintaina greater total lift. Oncethis
hasbeenaccomplished, the verticalcomponentof lift is largeenoughto
maintain level flight, while the horizontal componentis large enough
to generatethe requiredcentripetalforce.However,an increasein angle
of attack resultsin an increasein drag, which must be balancedby an
increasein powerif the speedis to remainconstant.
SteepTurns
A steepturn is classifiedasa turn havingan angleof bank in excessof 45
degrees.Larger bank anglesrequirea largerangleofattack to produce
the requiredtotal lift increment.However,the penaltyof largeanglesof
attackis drag.Eventually,the aircraftwill reacha speedso low, that any
further increasein angleof attack will result in a stall. At this instant,
angleof attack and induceddrag are so high that full power is usually
necessary to keepthe speedconstant.
REOUIRED
L I F TI N C R E A S E
.l
Figure5-10
210
IN FLICHT
FORCES
Wing Loading
Wing loadingis the weightof the aircraft dividedby the wing area.
SinceL = W and L = Ct'/zpY2S,thenW = CrVrpY'S
Thus wing loading(ie the weightcarriedby a wing of givenarea)affects
both the maximumand minimum stallingspeeds.
However,modern tendencyis to increasethe wing loading by
decreasingthe wing area and increasingthe speed,and to use flap to
reducelandingspeeds.
Load Factor
The load factorof a givenaircraftin a givenconditionof flight is defined
as the lift dividedby the weight.It is denotedby n.
In straightand levelflight, L = W; thereforen = l. In any manoeuvre
wherelift is greateror smallerthan weight,L = nW.
In any manoeuvre,the stallingspeedis proportionalto the squareroot
of the load factor. (Vn) Limit load factor.
Calculationof centripetalforce and loadingduringa turn:

Consideran aircraftweighingI 1,500lb, flying at 200knots (338'sec)in
a turn havinga radiusof 2000feet.
Centripetalforce= y y'
g r
- 1 1 5 0 0x 3 3 8 ' =
32.2 x 2000
Centripetalforce = 20,400Ib
Refer to Figure l5-l I for the wing loading calculation.The wing load-
ing which is equal to lift may be calculated by Pythagoras' Theorem,
where:
TL2=F2+L2
TL={pzayz
TL = rvD0400t;I5mz
TL = 23418lb
Accelerated or g stallsin a turn:

As alreadydiscussed, any increasein bank angle(tighteningof the turn)
adverselyaffectsthestallingspeed.Eventually,theangleof attackreaches
the criticalangle,resultingin the buffet.
211
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
l.C.L,
WI
F i g u r e1 5 - 11
However,should one wing stall beforethe other, the aircraft would

tendto roll in or out of the turn, due to unequallift distribution.This roll
'flicking movement'.
may in some.casesresultin a
Recoveryis initiated by moving the control column forward and, in
doing so, decreasing the angleof attack, therebyunstallingthe aircraft.
'high speed'or'accelerated'stall.
This occurrenceis known as a
Minimum RadiusandMaximum Rate of Turns

thehorizontalcomponent(iecentripetal
As theangleof bankis increased,
force)consequentlyincreases. force, the
The greaterthis centre-seeking
(ie
lessthe radiusbecomes minimum radius).
Figurel5-12demonstratesthat:
hn| = - J - = w = v
HCL wv'lgr gr
212
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Figure
15-12
A verticalbankedturn is impossiblebecause evenif Total Lift becomes

infinity no verticalcomponentcan be obtained.However,evenwith a
verticalbank thereis a limit to the radiusof the turn because(apartfrom
sideslipping),the wingsmust provide all the horizontal force (ie Ct Yz
V2S),represented by the formula:
Centripetalforce = W V'lg r (D
but - Centripetalforce = Cr %pV2S(verticalbank) (ii)
Therefore: WV2/gr = Cr %pY2S (iii)
or r = ZWI(CIpSS) (iv)
Straightand levelstallingspeedis givenby the equation:
W = L = CL-u,/rpY'S (v)
213
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLIGHT
Therefore, by substituting this value of W into the equation (iv), we get:

= (2 Cr-.*) ,Lpyrs
Cr-pSg
= fILt\ x Cs(-.J
\g / cr (vi)
Equation(vi) showsthat whenC.-u* is equalto the Cr, the radiusof the
turn will be minimum. (Obviously,when Cr is at a maximumvalue,
the angle of attack is the stalling angle and the radius of turn = V2S
gt
Load factor: Total weight = 23418 = 2.0

Aircraft weight 11500
The loadingon the aircraftis thus 2.0.
Furthermore,it is true to saythat the load factor variesasthe secant

( I ) of the bank angle.
(Cosine)
Consideran aircraftin a 60 degreebank turn.
Cosine60 degrees= 0.5
Secant60 deerees= 2.0
Thus,the aircraft hasa load factor of 2.0during a 60 degreebank turn.
Determinationof the stallingspeedduring a turn:

Any manoeuvrewhich requiresadditionallift consequently increasesthe
load factor and thusraisesthe stallingspeed.This is true of any turn and
the stallingspeedmay be calculatedfrom the formula:
New stallingspeed= Old stallingspeedx Vlotdltctor
From theforegoingexample,let us assumetheaircrafthad a basicstalling
speedof 85 knots at grossweight.The newstallingspeedduring the turn
is therefore:
NewV = oldV, x Vn
= 85 X \/T
= 120knots.
214
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
Answer the following questions
I During a turn havinga bank angleof 45 degrees,

the stallingspeed
is 100knots.Calculatethe basicstallingspeed.
Answer: 84 knots
2 Assumean aircraftweighingI I,500poundspulling out of a dive.If
a forceof 4 gwasregistered, what wasthe centripetalforceand the
new stallingspeedif the basicstallingspeedwas78 knots?
pounds; 156knots.
Answer:46,000
Thus, the minimum radiusof turn is settledby the stallingspeedof that

aircraft.However,enginepoweris the final decidingfactor in settlingthe
minimum radius.
To summarize:
I) Fly at any speedprovid'edenginepowercan maintainit.

2) Fly at the maximumpermissibleload factor (Cr-.,).
3) Air must be as denseas possible(densityis a factor in the lift
formula).
Maximum RateTurns
In this turn, the angularvelocityof the aircraft during a turn must be as
high aspossible:
ie Velocity (ftlsec)
radius (f0 = Time
Thus minimum time will resultif the radiusis kept at a minimum value
and the aircraft is flown at a minimum speed(ie whereCr_is maximum).
To summarize:
l) Fly at the stallingspeed.

2) Fly at maximumload factor.
3) Air must be asdenseas possible.
2' t5
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
ClimbingandDescendingTurns
During I climbingturn, the outerwing travelsa greaterdistancethan the
inner wing. This resultsin the outer wing having a larger angleof attack
which leadsto an overbanksituation.
Bank must thereforebe held off during climbing turns. The opposite
appliesfor descending turns,wherebank must be held on.
I I
I
(9
z
J-
0
z
= ;
u u
F z
f z
o T
I
- 92? .- ....*
Horizontaldistancetravelled. INNERWING
i€E
I
Horizontaldistancetravelled OUTERWING
o
z
; A of A Outer wing
E
U
.---"""t
F
l A of A Inner wing {greatest}
ol
I
Chapter15 TestYourself.
I With increasingaltitude the power required from a piston engine:
a) reducesand power available increases.

b) increasesand power available increases.
c) increasesand power available reduces.
d) increasesand power available remains constant.
Ref para 15.3
2 The height at which the rate of climb drops to 100 fpm:
a) is termed the absolute ceiling.

b) is known as the rated ceiling.
c) is the serviceceiling.
d) is the critical height.
Ref para 15.3
216
FORCES
IN FLIGHT
If the weight of an aircraft is increased,its glide rangewill:
a) be the same.
b) be increased.
c) be reduced.
Ref para 15.3
4 With an increasein aircraft weight:

1
a) glide endurancewill remain the same.
x b) glide endurancewill increase.
c) glide endurancewill reduce.
Ref para 15.3
5 In a turn the centrifugaleffectis opposedby:
a) centripetalforce
b) thrust only.
c) a componentof weight.
d) a componentof thrust and weight.
Refpara15.3
16
High SpeedFlight
16.1 lntroduction
Low speed aerodynamics is based on the assumption that air is incom-
pressible;the attendant errors are negligible since at low speedsthe
amount of compression is negligible. At speedsapproaching that of
sound, however, compressionand expansionin the vicinity of the aircraft
are sufficiently marked to affect the streamline pattern about the
aircraft. At low subsonic speedsa flow pattern is establishedabout
the aircraft, but at high subsonic and supersonicspeedsthe flow around
a given wing can be controlled, and its behaviour predicted. In the tran-
sonic range where a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow exists,
marked problems of control and stability arise, necessitatingspecial
designfeatures to minimise the effects of compressibility.
15.2 Definitions
(a) Speed of Sound The speed at which a very small pressure
disturbance is propagated in a fluid under certain conditions.
Speedof sound is proportional to the absolute temperature(K)
and can be calculated from the formula:
Local speedofsound (LSS) = 39 x @
Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the LSS' In
fact, at MSL at ISA LSS = 661 kt, and at 30,000ft LSS = 589
kt.
Derivation of the formula for ISA conditions is as follows:
LSS=C x \f28-86K=661 =CruD88-'f
Therefore
C- 661 = 38.95'
\r&rK
For practicalpurposes,the figureof 39 may be used.
(b) Mach Number(M) The ratio of True Airspeed(TAS) to the
local speedof soundapplicableto air temperature.Thus
218
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
MachNo (M) = therefore

at sealeveltemperature
l5oC
ffi
TAS = 529kt. LSS = 661kt. M _ 5 2 9 _ 0.80
661
(c) Free Stream Mach No ( Mrs) The Mach number of the flow
at a point unaffected by the presenceofthe aircraft.
(d) Local Mach Number (M) When an aerofoil is placed in a
subsonic airflow, the flow is acceleratedin some places, and
slowed down in others. The local Mach number is the speedat
some specified region of flow, and may be greater than, the
sameas, or lower than Mrs.
(e) Critical Mach Number ( M",i,) This is the lowest Mes which for
a given aerofoil and angle of attack, gives rise to a Mr of 1.0
on the aerofoil. As will be seen, M".i, for a wing varies with
angleof attack.
(0 Compressibility Mach Number The Mach number at which,
because of compressibility effects, control of an aircraft
becomes difficult, and beyond which loss of control is
probable.
(e) Critical Drag Rise Mach Number relates the Mach number to
an appreciableincreaseof drag associatedwith compressibility
effects,usually 10-15%higher than M",i,.
16.3 Airflow
(a) Subsonicflow when freestreamMach numbersare suchthat
local Mach numbersare lessthan M 1.0at all points.
(b) Transonicflow, the Mes is high enoughto produceM1, sorns
of which are greaterthan M 1.0.
(c) Supersonicflow, Mrs is such that at all points Mr are greater
thanM 1.0.
(d) Hypersonicflow, Mnsis greaterthan M 5.0.
16.4 Speedof Sound
Anything which movesthroughthe air createspressurewavesand,what

may not be generallyrealised,thesewavesnot onlv travel out in all
219
directionsfrom the objectbut they radiateat the speedofsound. Ifthe

objectis moving at a speedlessthan the speedof soundthesepressure
waveswill be ableto move awayfrom the object.When consideringan
aircraft moving at very high speedit is possiblethat the sound waves
cannotget awayfrom it, becausethe aircraft'sspeedis closeto the radi-
ation spiedof thewaves.It is this whichgivesriseto theproblemsof high
speed
- flight.
Figure 16-1(a)illustratesthe situationof an aircraftflying at lessthan
the speedof sound.If its startingpoint is A, thenthe pressurewavessent
out in all directionsfrom the aircraftaremovingsteadilyawayand by the
time point B is reachedthey will be well clearof the aircraft.This should
be contrastedwith the situationillustratedin Fig 16-l(b) wherethe
aircraft is travellingjust at the speedof sound.The pressurewavesare
alsotravellingat the speedof soundwith theresultthat theypile up ahead
of the aircraft and form into a pressurewave,alsocalleda shockwave'
3
M =0.5 J
o
z
{a) PressureWaves Formed by Object Moving FoNard {b) PressureWaves Formed by Object Moving FoMard
at LessThan Localspeed of Sound at Local Spesd of Sound
(a)
(c) PressureWaves forming Mach Cone with Obiect

Moving Foruard at a Speed Greaterthan lhe Local
Speedof Sound
Figure
H I C HS P E EFDL I G H T
shownin Fig l6-l(c). An aircraft travellingsubstantiallyfasterthan the

speedof soundwill leaveits own pressurewavesbehindand form a cone
of pressure
wavesasillustratedin Fig l6-l(d).
16.5 ShockWaves
When a shockwaveis formedthe pressuredistributionover the wingsis
materiallyaltered,causingconsiderablealterationsin the valuesof lift
and dragand alsoaffectingcontrol operation.It couldbearguedthat few
civil passenger transport aircraft are capableof reachingthe speedof
sound,however,the air overthe uppersurfaceof the wing is deliberately
accelerated in orderto producelift and eventhoughtheaircraftitselfmay
be flying belowthe speedof sound,someof theair flowingoverthewings
may beaccelerated to Mach 1.0.Whentheairflow overtheuppersurfaces
of the wing reachesMach 1.0,the actualspeedof the aircraftis calledthe
critical Mach Number or M".i,.When this point is reacheda shockwave
forms overtheuppersurfaceof thewing because thepressurewavesfrom
the rear of the wing that aretrying to moveforward aremeetingair trav-
ellingat exactlythesamespeedflowingbackward.This is similarto trying
to movealonga movingwalkwayin thewrongdirectionat the samespeed
as the walkwayis travelling.The point at which this shockwaveusually
forms is just aft of the point of maximumcamberof the wing wherethe
acceleration of the air is greatest.In front of the shockwavethe flow is at
or higherthan Mach I whilst behindthe flow it is still subsonic.
At theshockwave,the normallawsof physicsseemto breakdown and
as the air passesthrough the shockwavethe pressureincreases and the
temperatureincreases. If the speedof the aircraftis increasedstill further
the regionof supersonicflow on top of the wing also increasesand the
shock wave will start to move back towardsthe trailing edge.On
the undersurfacethe curvatureof the wing is usuallylessthan on the
uppersurfaceand the shockwavewill form later.However,oncehaving
formed,if the actualspeedof the aircraftis further increased,this shock
wavewill alsomove rearwardand when the actualspeedof the aircraft
reachesMach I both shockwaveswill havemigratedto the trailing edge
of the wing. At the sametime anothershockwavewill form closeto the
leadingedgeof the wing, this is calledthe bow wave.If speedis further
increasedthis bow wavewill actuallytouch the leadingedgeof the wing
and is thentermedan'attachedbow wave'.This is illustratedin Fig l6-2
and further speedincreases will not changethe relativepositionsof these
two shockwaves,but will just bendthem backwards.The next diagram,
Fig l6-3, illustratesthe behaviourof the shockwavesfrom a speedbelow
Mach I to onewell in excessof the speedof sound.
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
F i g u r e1 6 - 2
Flow
Subsonic SubsonicFlow
------------>
(a)M = 0.6
Flow
Subsonic
InciDientShockWave
Suddenincreaseof Pressureand Density
Fallin Velocity
Supersonic
P Flow
Subsonic
>;===
SubsonicFlow
-----------tr-
(b)M = 0.8
Supersonic Flow
Subsonic
FullvdevelopedShockWave
lncreaseof Pressureand DensitY
Fallin Velocity
Flow
Supersonic Flow
Subsonic SonicFlow
(c) lV= 1.0 ------>
Flow
Supersonic Flow
Subsonic
Bowwave
approaching\
fromfront
= Supersonic SupersonicFlow
E Supersonic _------->
( d )r v= 1 . 1 @ Subsonic
= Supersonic
: Supersonic
FullyDeveloped
bowwave
Supersonic Flow
--------------t
(e)[/ = 2.0
F i g u r e1 6 - 3
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
16.6 Wave Drag

For aircraftnot designedfor transonicand supersonicflight, the forma-
tion of theseshockwaveswill havea markedeffecton lift, drag and also
on the generalstabilityof the aircraft and its control.The basiccauseof
the problemsis the separationof the airflow behindthe shockwavedue
to the rise in pressure.This causesthe boundary layer to separate,
reducingtheamountof lift producedby the wing and an increasein drag.
This increasein drag is very marked3t M".itand produces'wavedrag'-
as previouslymentionedin the chapteron total drag. If speedcan be
increasedfurther againstthis drag force the shockwaveswiil move
towardsthe trailing edge,thus reducingthe amountof separatedair and,
in fact,thelift will startto increaseagainand thedragdecrease. However,
this will only occur in aircraft which are designedfor transonicflight
but the total developedlift at higherspeeds is lessthan at subsonicspeeds
for the sameangleof attack.This is because Cr is lessfor any givenwing
sectionand angleof attack at supersonicspeeds. The changein both lift
and drag areillustratedin the followinggraphs,Fig l6-4 and Fig l6-5. It
shouldbe notedthat this lossof lift which occursasa resultof the shock
waveis not dissimilarin effectto that producedby a low speedstall. For
this reasonit is sometimescalleda'high speedstall' and givesriseto the
first of thecontroldifficultiesencountered in flying an aircraftat or above
Mcrit.
t
UD
McRtr 1.0
Figure 16-4 Variation of Co with Mach No at

Constant Angle of Attack
Wave drag arisesfrom two sources,viz: energydrag and boundary

layerseparation.
Energy drag stemsfrom the nature of changesoccurring as a flow
a shockwave.Energylost dueto temperatureriseacrossthe shock
crosses
223
wavebecomesdrag on the aerofoil.The more obliquethe shockwaves,

the lessenergythey absorb,but sincethey becomemore extensivelater-
ally and affectmore air, energydrag risesas Mnsincreases.
iloundary layer separation;at certainstagesof shockwavemovement
thereis considerableflow separation(Fig l6-3). The turbulencerepre-
sentslost energyand contributesto the drag. As Mns increasesthrough
the transonicrangethe shockwavesmoveto the trailing edgeand sepa-
ration decreases,thus drag decreases.
Thetotal effecton dragis shownin Fig l6-4 (CDbrokenline),thehump
in thecurvebeingcausedby drag associated with the trailing edgeshocks
arisingfrom energyloss,separationof the boundarylayerand the forma-
tion of the bow shockwaveaboveM 1.0.
16.7 Reduction of Wave Drag

To reducethe effectof wave drag, shock wavesmust be as weak as
possible,therefore,wingsmusthavea sharpleadingedgeaswell asa thin
iection to keepthe deflectionangleto a minimum so producinga weak
bow shockwave.The thin wing will have a reducedcamber,thus the
adversepressure gradientacrossthewing shockwaveswill besmaller,and
the strength of the shockwaveswill be reduced.Fuselagesmay be treated
in a simiiar manner, for a given minimum cross section,an increasein
length (within reason)will reducewave drag.
on Lift
16.8 Effectsof Compressibility
To consider this aspectit is necessaryto start at a speedwhere compress-
ibility effects become significant and seehow they vary with increasing
Mach No.
(a) Subsonic Risein Ct An increasein velocity is always accom-

panied by a decreasein pressure, and since the velocity
increase in a compressible flow is greater than that in an
incompressible flow for the same wing, the pressure will be
lower,lhus lift is greater for a wing in a compressibleflow' At
low speed,where air can be consideredincompressible,lift is
proportional to V2, ie Cr can be assumedconstant for the same
ingie of attack. At moderately high speedsdensity changes
becomesignificant, lift increasesat a rate higher than indicated
by V', ie Cr increasesfor the same angle of attack'
Another factor affecting Cr is the amount of warning the air
getsof the wing's approach. As speedincreasescompressibility
iffects increaseand the reducedupstream warning causesflow
displacement to start closer to the wing. This effectively
224
H I G HS P E EFDL I C H T
increases theangleof attack,soincreasingCr. Thereis a slight

lossof lift due to movementof the stagnationpoint forward,
but overallthereis an increasein Cr.
(b) TransonicVariationsin Cr In consideringthis aspect,five

significantspeeds
are selected,
A, B,C, D and E in Fig 16-5,
and areusedin Fie 16-6.
.l
Figure 6-5
At A l.l4rs= 0.75, the flow acceleratesrapidly from the stag-
nation point along both upper and lower surfaces,giving a
sharp drop in pressure,and the wing is above M".i,. Over the
top surface of the wing, as yet there is no shock wave, and Cr
has risen by 60% of its low speedvalue for the same angle of
attack. Over the bottom surfaceflow is still subsonic.
At B Mes= 0.81.With the accelerationto this speed,the shock
wave has formed and is strengthened,and will be approxi-
mately 60% chord (Fig 16-3); there is no shock wave on the
undersurface. Behind the shock wave on the rear part of
the wing there is no real change in pressure differential
betweenupper and lower surfaces;ahead of it and behind the
40% (approximately) chord, pressure differential has
increasedconsiderably due to supersonic acceleration up to
the shock wave. This effectively increasesthe C1 to roughly
double its incompressiblevalue. It also causesthe CP to move
rearward to approximately 30% chord. Flow under the
bottom surfacebecomessonic.
= 0.89.A shockwavehasformed on the undersurface
At C }i{.{.es
225
and moved to the trailing edge,while the upper shockwave

hasremainedvirtually stationary.The reasonfor the differing
behaviouris the effecteachshockwavehason the boundary
layer.Suchan arrangementof shockwavesleadsto a pressure
distributionsuchthat the wing behindthe upper shockwave
is producingnegativelift, which hasto be subtractedfrom the
positivelift producingarea. Lift coefficienthas droppedto
approximately30o/o belowits incompressible valueand centre
olpressuremovesforward to approximately300/o chord.The
reasonfor the slopebetweenB and C is the relativemovement
betweenupperand lower shockwaves.
At D Mrs= 0.98.The top surfaceshockwaveis forcedto the

trailing edge,the area of negativelift is replacedUVt-!"
orthodbx pressuredifferential.The Cr is approximatelyl}oh
abovebasicvalue,andthe CP hasmovedrearwardto approxi-
mately45ohchord;this movementof the CP is experienced by
all aircraftgoingthrough the transonicrange.
At EMrs= 1.4.AboveM l'0 thebow shockwaveforms,and

at M 1.4is almostattachedto the leadingedge.The wholeof
thewing is producinglift, and the CP is at approximatelymid-
chord positlon.The Cr-is reducedto a valueof 30ohlessthan
valuedueto thestagnationpoint movingto-
its incompressible
the mostlorward point on the leadingedge,and to the lossof
pressureenergythrough the bow shockwave.
The shockwavepositionsfor eachstationconsideredabove

areshownin Fig 16-6.
Mrs=075 M r s= 0 . 8 1
Mrs=098
F i g u r e1 6 - 6
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
15.9 Supersonic
Fallin CL
The full explanationof this aspectis beyondthe scopeof thesenotes,but
sufficeit hereto point out that in practice,any decrease
in lift betweenthe
tl upperlimit of the transonicrangeand Mo, 1.4would be maskedby trim
t changesresultingfrom passingthroughthetransonicrange.Thepractical
I
resultis that the lift curveslopebecomesprogressively more gentlewith
an increasein Mrs in the supersonic range.The variationsin Cr at super-
sonicspeedsdependmainly on attendantcompressibilityproblemswith
increaseof speed,and adversepressuregradient increaseswith speed
increase.
16.10 Effectsof lncreasingMach No on Stability
TransonicLongitudinalStability
Most aircraft operatingin the transonicrangeexperiencea nosedown
pitch with speedincrease,mainly due to two causes:
(a) Rearwardmovementof CP which increases
longitudinal
stability.
(b) Modification of airflow over the tailplane.The effectof
mainplaneshock wavesis to modify the flow over the
tailplanewhich will tend to pitch the aircraft nosedown.
of nosedown pitch
The effectson an aircraft'shandlingcharacteristics
are two-fold.
(i) At someMach No an aircraftwill becomeunstablewith
respectto speed,necessitating a rearwardmovementof
the control column.This particularproblemis dealtwith
more fully in Mach Trim.
(iD The requirement for a large up deflection of

reducestheamountof availablecontrol
elevator/tailplane
for
deflection manoeuvres.
Super sonic LongitudinalStabilit y

The rearwardmovementof the CP in the transonicrangecontinuesasthe
into full supersonicflight. Thus all aircraft experience
aircraft accelerates
a markedincreasein longitudinalstability.
TransonicLateral Stability
Disturbancesin therollingplaneareoftenexperienced
in transonicflight,
227
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
on Someaircraft one wing starts to drop when M",i, is exceeded,due

mainly to the differenceinlift on th'etwo winggbecauseshockwavesdo
not form at identicalMach numbersand positionson eachwing.
SupersonicLateral StabilitY
Li.i"i ri"Uitity depends,aftersideslip,on the lowerwing developinglift-
SinceCr-decreases in supersonic flight thecorrectingforceisthusreduced
and dihedral and sweepback consequentlylesseffective.Another
are
adverseeffectis the lift/dragratio decreasing dueto surfacefriction drag,
the decreasein lift/drag raiio being due to pressuredifferencesbetween
upperandlowersurfaces combinedwith the pressuresat thewing tips and
their associated Mach cones'
DirectionalStability
ihe trendtowardsiear mountedengines, andconsequently an aft CG, has
meanta decreased arm aboutwhich the fin can act' Also, the supersonic
decreasein Ct for a given angleof attack caused by sideslip means.a
ieduction in fin effectiveness.Subsonically, the fuselage side force in
a sideslipactsin front of the CG and the verticalfin surfaces are ableto
ou.r"o*. the destabilisingcondition. In supersonic flight the fuselage
sideforcemovesforward.As long as the aircraft is in balancedflight no
piour.- arises,but if the relativeairflow is off the longitudinalaxis a
hestabilisingforceat the noseresults.This is causedby asymmetryin the
strengthof t-hetwo shockwavesproducinga pressuregradientacrossthe
nose.
Figure16-7
228
H I C HS P E EFDL I G H T
The noseforce illustratedin Fig 16-7is tendingto preventthe nose

beingturned into the relativeairflow and is thereforedestabilising. The
forceincreases with speedand hasa longerarm than the fin and rudder.
The point of applicationof the forceis difficult to define,but is located
at that part of the fuselagewherethe cross-sectional areais increasing.
One answerto this problemis to fit longerfins and increasetheir
numbers,but thereis a limit if only for wavedragconsiderations. A better
methodis the fitting of yaw dampers,whichhavealreadybeendealtwith.
Mach Trim
The devicewhich correctsor compensates for longitudinalinstabilityat
high Mach numbersis the Mach Trimmer.As statedpreviously,at some
Mach numberan aircraftwill becomeunstablewith respectto speed;this
is potentiallydangeroussinceany inattentionon the part of the pilot in
allowing a small increasein Mach No will producea nosedown pitch,
which will give further increasein Mach No, in turn leadingto even
greaternosedown pitch.However,the Mach Trimmerwill in fact correct
or compensate for the initial increasein speed.
The Mach Trimmer is sensitiveto Mach numberand is programmed
to feedinto the elevator/stabiliser a signalwhichis proportionalto Mach
number so that stability remainspositive.The signalfed into the
elevator/stabilisersimplycausestheir deflectionin a directionto compen-
satefor the trim change.
Mach trim operationin normalconditionswill not be shownup by the
behaviourof theaircraft,but will usuallybeindicatedby activationof the
trim wheeland/orilluminationof a monitor lisht.
Mach trim operationshouldbecheckedagainstMach numberfor any
significantchangein flight condition.
SomeKev PointsSo Far

Fixed Trim tabs are usedto correctpermanentout-of-trim faults
and can only be adjustedon the ground.
2 Fixed Trim tabsshouldonly be adjustedby an engineer.
J A Balancetab is fitted to assistthe pilot in moving the controlsin
flight.
A Servotab is activatedby movementof the control columnwhich
directly movesthe tab which then aerodynamicallymovesthe
control surface.
On somesupersonic aircraftlongitudinaltrim is achievedby moving
fuelfrom onefuel tank to another.The tanksarepositionedfore and
229
aft underthe floor and by pumpingfuel from oneto the other the C of G
is moved.
6 A high aspectratio wing givesimprovedlift and reduceddrag.
7 Employmentof sweptwings,or wingswith sweptleadingedges,will
delayM"6,.
8 For a givenwing areaat a givenangleof attack a sweptwing will
producelesslift.
9 A sweptwing is moreproneto tip stall.
10 Spanwisemovementof airflow over a sweptwing may be reduced
by:
Wing Fences.
LeadingedgeNotches.
Savr,or DogtoothLeadingedges.
Vortex Generators.
Wing Blowing.
Chapter 16: Test Yourself.
I Most aircraft operating in the transonic speed range experience:
a) no pitch change.
b) a nose up pitch change.
c) a nose down pitch change.
d) none of the above.
Refpara16.l0
2 During the transonic speedrange the:
a) C of P moves forward.
b) C ofP doesnot move.
c) C of G moves aft.
d) C of P moves aft.
Refpara16.10
Auto Mach Trim will primarily function:
a) at all speeds.
b) only at high subsonicspeeds.
speeds.
c) only at supersonic
d) within the transonicspeedrange.
Ref para
230
H I C HS P E E F
DL I C H T
4 As an aircraftaccelerates
throughtransonicto supersonicflight:
a) longitudinalstabilityincreases.
b) longitudinaland lateralstabilityincreases.
c) longitudinalstabilityreduces.
d) longitudinalandlateralstabilityreduces.
Ref para 16.10
Wave drag arisesfrom two sources:
a) interferencedrag and boundary layer separation.

b) energy drag and boundary layer separation.
c) energy and induced drag.
d) boundary layer separation only.
Refpara16.6
231
17
andTheir
Manoeuvres
Fundamental
Affects,Trimand EngineFailure
17.1 Introduction
of theprinciples
Thischapteris intendedto bringtogetherthoseaspects
of anaircraft.
of flightthatareinvolvedin someof thebasicmanoeuvres
17.2 Li ft
Example: Increasedweight whilst maintaining level flight
An increaseof weight will require an increaseof lift to main-

tain level flight, which will normally be initiated by aft
movement of the control column to produce an up deflection
of the elevators.
The movement of the elevatorsUP will produce a down load
on the tailplape, resulting in the longitudinal axis rotating
about the lateral axis to increasethe angle of attack.
The increasein angle of attack will result in the following:
(a) Centre of Pressure
Will move forward.
(b) Transition Point
Will move forward.
(c) Boundary Layer
Will become thicker.
(d) Separation Point
Will move forward
(e) Stagnation Point
Will move down and aft towards the underside of the
wing.
(0 Induced Drag
Will increaseas the angle of attack and the resultant lift
increases.
232
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
(e) Upwash and Downwash

Will increaseas the angle of attack is increased.
(h) Power
In order to maintain level flight with increasedangle of
attack and maintaining constant airspeed, then power
must be increasedto balance the increasein dras.
(i) Power Required
It may also be said Power Available reducesand Power
Required increases.
(f) Stalling
Whilst the stalling angle will remain the same,due to the
weight increasethe stalling speedincreases.
17.3 LaftRelatedto Camber

Whilst different cambers are used for wing sectionsto satisfy individual
type requirements,a number of basic principles must be appreciated.
Example: High Camber wing at zero angle of attack:

(a) Will produce some lift and some drag
(b) High Camber wing sections will produce some lift and
some drag even when at small negativeanglesof attack.
Example: Symmetrical wing sections:
(a) Will produce no lift and some drag at zero angle of
attack.
(b) Must have a positive angle of attack to produce lift.
17.4 Yaw to Port (ConventionalFin and KeelSurface)

The following principles are applied to an aircraft when it is yawed to
port.
(a) Left rudder pedal pushedforward causingrudder trailing
edge to move to port.
(b) Some part of the leading edge of the rudder will move to
starboard.
(c) This action will cause the aircraft to yaw about the
normal or vertical axis to port.
233
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
(d) The airflow over the starboard wing is now at a greater

velocity than that over the port wing and so more lift is
being generated by the starboard wing than the port
wing, the result being a roll to port.
(e) So a yaw to port will also result in a roll to port.
17.5 Yaw to Port (LargeFin and KeelSurface).

(a) Left rudder pedal pushedforward causingrudder trailing
edge to move to port and rudder leading edge to
starboard.
(b) Aircraft yaws to port about the normal or vertical axis.
(c) Action of rudder on a large fin causinga lift force of high
magnitude to cause the fin to move about the longitu-
dinal axis towards the right in a clockwise rotational
movement when viewed from the rear, hence a roll to
starboard,
(d) So it can be said on an aircraft with a large fin and keel
surface when the aircraft is yawed to port it will tend to
roll to starboard.
Note: It can therefore be said that an aircraft with a normal or
conventional sizedfin and keel surfaceis spirally stable in that
when yawed to port it will readily roll to port and allow a spiral
to be executedin a stable manner.
If, however, the aircraft has a large fin and keel surface,when
yawed to port it will tend to roll to starboard and will resist a
ipiral to port by rolling out of it and so can be said to be spirally
unstable.
17.6 Increaseof Spe.edWhilst MaintainingLevelFlightat a

constantaltitude
An increaseof speedfor a given angle of attack will result in an increase

of lift and so in order to maintain a constant altitude:
(a) The angle of attack must be reduced by pushing the
control column forward.
(b) The reduction in angle of attack will result in the Centre
of Pressuremoving aft.
234
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
ANDTHEIR
EFFECTS
(c) The induceddrag reducing.

(d) The TransitionPoint and SeparationPoint movingaft.
(e) The StagnationPoint moving forward and up towards
the leadingedge.
(0 The BoundaryLayerbecomingthinner.
Note: Induceddrag will reduceas the squareof the speed.
Profiledragwill increaseas the squareof the speed.
17.7 StallingAngle
It must be notedthat for a givenwing shapethe stallinganglewill remain
the sameregardless of speed,weight,altitudeor any otherfactor and can
generallybe regardedas beingin the order of l4o to l5o.
17.8 StallingSpeed
Unlike the stallinganglethe stallingspeedis a variablequantity.
(a) The stallingspeedwill beincreased
if theC of P is forward
of the neutralpoint.
(b) The stallingspeedwill be reducedif the C of P is aft of
the neutralpoint.
(c) The stallingspeedwill bereducedif a power-onapproach
is made with a propeller-drivenaircraft due to an
increasedthrust componentfrom the propellerand the
airflow tendingto re-energise
the wing boundarylayer.
17.9 Multi-Engined
Aircraft
Before describingthe various proceduresinvolved in multi-engined
aircraft we are going to look at the aerodynamicsof enginefailure and
asymmetricflight.
Under normal conditionsof flight, thrust is providedin equalpropor-
tions to provide Total thrust which is opposedto Total drag, the two
forcesactingthrough the aircraftcentreline.(Fig l7-l)
Considerthat the right-handenginefails. Immediately,Total thrust
movesfrom the aircraft centrelineto the thrust line of the left engine.
Furthermore,the right hand propellernot only ceases to producethrust
but generates a considerableamountof drag until the propelleris feath-
ered!With Total thrust moving to the left and Total drag moving to the
235
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
+
rorAl rHRUsr
I
andTotalDragin
17-1TotalThrust
Figure
NormalFlight
right, the opposing forces causea yaw towards the failed engine. (Fig
t7-2)
The eventsthat follow if no correctiveaction is taken are as follows:
the yaw producesa roll in the samedirection (like further effectsof
rudder),and the aircraft nosewill follow the down-goingright wing tip
into a spiraldive.It hasa similareffectto putting a bootful of right rudder
in andthen leavingthe aircraft to sort itself out without any help from
othercontrols.
-
F A I L E DE N G I N E
Figure17-2TotalThrustand Drag,RightEngineFailed
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
17.1OMinimumControlSpeed
In a multi-engined aircraft the aerodynamic consequencesof engine
failure are dealt with by applying rudder to oppose yaw to prevent the
yaw/roll/spiral dive sequence.
The rudder, however, like any other flying control, is only as effective
as the airflow over it and herein lies a problem. If you let the speeddrop
too low the rudder will lose its effectivenessand will be incapable of
combatting the yawing force of the live engine,aided and abetted by drag
from the failed engine.
The minimum speedat which it is possibleto maintain direction on one
engine (known as minimum control speed),cannot be quoted as a single
figure for any particular aircraft as it varies according to circumstances.
The following are the primary factors that affect it:
I Altitude:
Since more power means more asymmetric thrust (and therefore
yawing action) it follows that minimum control speedwill be at its
highest at full throttle altitude where maximum power can be
developed.
2 Load:
A fully loaded aircraft must, speedfor speed,fly at a higher angle of
attack than when nearly empty. A higher angle of attack means
more drag and that in turn demandsmore power. So, back to square
one; more power, more yaw, more yaw and, in consequence,a higher
minimum control speed.
3 Drag:
This takes us back to Point 2. More drag means more power means
more yaw, etc. Drag is rnentionedhere as a separateitem to draw
attention to the fact that flying with cooling flaps open and the
landing gear extendedwill demand more power from the live engine
- and will therefore mean an increasein minimum control speed.
Flaps:
Use of flap spoils the lift/drag ratio eventhough someflaps give very
little drag increaseuntil after the first l0 to l5 degreesof depression.
As a guideline it is probably best to regard the flaps as coming under
'drag'
the heading of and leave them up, unlessthe aircraft manual
specifically advisesotherwise.
Windmilling:
While some of the early light twins had fixed-pitch propellers, these
days constant speed/featheringtypes are universal.
The drag from a windmilling propeller is very considerable
237
'anti-thrust' (ie
however,and sinceit will provide a greatdeal of
drag),minimumcontrol speedwill be appreciablyhigherthan-usual
untii the propelleris feathered.Rememberthat windmillingdrag is
asymmetricdrag- and that is Poison.
Pilot limitations:
Modern aircraft are equippedwith adequatetrim, so the pilot
shouldnot be hamperedby the physicallimitation of beingunable
to apply sufficieni rudder. Adequate experienceand training in
asymmetricprocedureswill ensurethe ability to operateat low
minimumcontrol speeds.
Critical Engine:
When both-propellersrotate in the samedirection,slipstreamand
torqueeffecfshavea natural tendencyto createyaw. In the caseof
-ode.n piston-engine aircraft,wherethe propellersturn clockwise
whenseenfrom the rear,the yaw tendencyis to the left.
Failureof an enginemeanslossof powerandthat,in turn, induces
a drop in speed.To maintain height the angleof aTack must be
increasedso that the aircraftis flying alongin a tail-down/nose-up
attitude.
In the tail-downattitudethe propshaftsareinclinedupwardsand
the topsof the propellerdiscsarethereforetilted backwards.If you
think ibout it, that meansthedown-goingpropellerblade(ietheone
on theright of thediscwhenseenfrom asternduringclockwiserota-
tion) will havea biggeranglethan the up-goingbl?-dgon the other
side. It is a cursewlll known to pilots taking off in a tailwheel
aircraft.where,until thetail is raised,thepropellershaftis effectively
tilted.
As illustratedin Fig 17-3,andkeepingin mind that we aremain-
taining height on reducedpower in a tail-down flight attitude:
becausethJdown-goingbladehas an increasedangle,more thrust
is beinggenerated 6y th-eright half of the propellerdiscthan by the
left. 1i Jffect, the ientre of thrust for the port engineis moved
towardsthe aircraft centrelinewhilst that for the starboardengine
is movedaway.
The amountof yawingforce that can be generatedby an engine
dependson the amouniof thrust and the moment arm, through
whi"h it acts.Sincemomentarm B is longerthan momentarm A,
the starboardenginewill clearly exert more yawing force during
engine-outflight than could the port engine.
bonr.qu..rily, thegreateryaw (andthereforethehigherminimum
control speed)would in this instanceresultfrom thelossof the port
engine.In other words, when the propellersrotate clockwise,the
criticalengineis on the left.
238
AND THEIREFFECTS
MANOEUVRES
FUNDAMENTAL
up
Lowspeed/nose
F i g u r e1 7 - 3
Figure17-4An exaggerated of forceswhich

comparison
theportengineisthe
showsthatfroma controlstandpoint
lvorseoneto lose
It is not always easy to demonstrate a meaningful difference in

minimum control speed between the port and starboard engines, but
much ado has been made of the subject. In any case,some popular light
twins now have handed propellers,the left one turning clockwise and the
right one anticlockwise, thus the minimum control speedis tlre same for
'V'
both engines.The following is a list of codes relating to multi-engine
aircraft handling:
239
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
Vr Decision speedduring tdke-off,

Up to that speedthere should be enough runway for the aircraft to
stop if, for any reason,you should decide to abandon the take-off.
Beyond Vr you are committed to presson and take offon one engine.
V. Rotate speed:
At this stagethe nose should be lifted to attain the take-off attitude.
V2 Take-off safety speed;
This is, in fact, minimum control speedwith an added safety margin
to cater for the following factors which could apply if an enginefails
during or immediately after take-off:
(a) Element of surprise
(b) Failure of the critical engine (ie the port)
(c) Landing gear down, flaps in take-off position, propeller
windmilling
(d) Pilot of averagestrength and ability
Provided the aircraft has attained Vz, it should be possible to main-
tain direction and height while things are being sorted out.
Y^", Minimum Control Speed- Ground:
Should an engine fail during the take-off run, this is the minimum
speedat which direction can be maintained.
Some aircraft with good nosewheelsteeringcan handle the situa-
tion at any speed provided the nosewheelis in contact with the
ground.
Y^"^ Minimum Control Speed- Air:
This is the minimum speedat which it is possibleto maintain direc-
tion after failure of the critical engine.No safety allowance is made
for any of the items in Vz so it is of little practical value other than
for demonstration purposeswhile training multi-engine pilots.
Y^", Minimum Control Speed- Landing:
This is the lowest speedat which it is possibleto maintain direction
when full power is applied following failure of the critical engine
while in the landing configuration. This speedis important since it
relatesto the asymmetric overshoot.
Vn" Never exceedspeed:
The ASI should be marked with a red radial line at this speed.
Vno Normal Operating Speed:
'maximum structural cruising speed', this is the top of
Also called
the green arc marked on the ASL Beyond this speed we enter the
yellow or cautionary area which must be avoided while flying in
turbulence.
240
FUNDAMENTAL
MANOEUVRES
AND THEIREFFECTS
Yr"" Speedfor best engine-out rate of climb:

This should be marked on the ASI as a blue radial line and is often
'blue
referred to as the line' speed.
V3 The all enginesscreenspeed:
The speed at which the aeroplane is assumedto pass through the
screenheight with all enginesoperating on take-off.
V4 The all enginessteady initial climb speed:
The speedassumedfor the first segmentnoise abatement take-off
procedure.
Yo, The target threshold speed:
The scheduled speed at the threshold for landing in relatively
favourable conditions.
Yrû,The maximum threshold speed:
The speedabove which there is an unacceptablerisk of overrunning;
normally assumedto be Vo' + 15 knots.
Y*u The minimum demonstratedlift-off speed:
The minimum speedat which it is possible to leave the ground (all
engines)and climb out without undue hazard.
Additional'V' codesrelating to general aircraft handling:

Vs Stall speed:
The speedat which the aircraft exhibits those qualities acceptedas
defining the stall.
Y., The minimum speedin the stall:
The minimum speedachievedin the stall manoeuvre.
Y"o Stall speedin landing configuration:
Y.o Maximum operating speed:
The maximum permitted speedfor all operations.
Mro - maximum Mach operating speedfor all operations.
Y.,, Maximum demonstratedflight diving speed:
The highest speeddemonstrated during certification.
Moo - highest Mach speeddemonstrated during certification.
Y*o The rough-air speed:
The recommendedspeedfor flight in turbulence.
M*o - recommendedMach Number for flight in turbulence.
VB Design speedfor maximum gust intensity:
One of the parametersused in establishingVoo
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLIGHT
Vc Design Cruising speed:

One of the speedsused in establishingthe strength of the aircraft.
VD Design Diving speed:
Another of the speedsused in establishing the strength of the
aircraft.
VF Flap Limiting speed:
The maximum speedfor flight with the flaps extended.
Y r*, Speedfor minimum drag:
Yr*, Speedfor minimum power'.
Vr" Maximum speedforflight wilhflaps extended:
Vro Maximum speedfor operatingflaps:
V," Maximum speedfor flight with gear extended:
V,o Maximum speedfor operating gear:
VA Design Manoeuvring speed:
VA Maximum speedfor full deflection of controls:
V* Best angle of climb speed:
V, Best rate of climb speed:
Screenspeed(and screenheight):
The speedassumedat 35 feet above the runway after take-off and at
30 feet above the runway on approaching to land, which is used in
establishingthe field performance of the aeroplane.
Zero rate of climb speed:

The speedat which, for a given thrust from the operating engines,
the drag of the aircraft reducesthe climb gradient to zero.
On a twin-engined aircraft, with clockwise rotating propellers (Right

Handed), with reduced power and a tail down attitude the critical engine will
be:
a) either port or starboard.

b) the port engine.
c) the starboard engine'
Ref para 17.9
1 4 1
AND THEIREFFECTS
MANOEUVRES
FUNDAMENTAL
Vuo
a) is the maximumoperatingspeed.
b) is the flap limiting speed.
c) is the minimumpowerspeed.
d) is the designmanoeuvringspeed.
Ref para17.10
V* is the:
a) zero rate of climb speed.

b) best rate of climb speed.
c) best angle of climb.
d) maximum speedfor full deflection of controls.
Refpara17.10
At a constant height an increaseof aircraft weight requires:
a) an increaseof power.
b) an increaseof power available.
c) a reduction in angle of attack.
d) an increasedstalling angle.
Ref para 17.2
With an increasein angle of attack of an aerofoil:
a) the C of P moves aft.

b) the C of G moves aft.
c) the separation point moves aft.
d) the stagnation point moves aft.
Ref para 17.2
243
1B
of Controls
DuplicateInspections
18.1 PilotResponsibility
A pilot is authorisedto carry out the secondpart of a duplicateinspec-
tion of an aircraft'scontrol systemsif:
(a) he is licensedon that type of aircraft.
(b) the control systemhasonly had a minor adiustmentmade
to it.
(c) thereis no licensedengineeravailable.
This is intendedto coverminor adjustmentsto control systemsmade
on light aircraftawayfrom base.
ChapterA5 - 3 refersto this
BritishCivil AirworthinessRequirements
authorisation.
The following paragraphsare basedon BCAR Chapter,A'5- 3 and
Civil Aircraft InspectionProcedures.
18.2 Control SystemDefinition

A control systemis definedasa systemby which the flight attitudeor the
propulsiveforceof an aircraftis changed.A duplicateinspectionis there-
fore requiredfor the following:
(a) Flying control systemswhich include primary flying
controls(elevator,rudderandailerons),togetherwith tabs,
flaps, airbrakesand the mechanismsusedby the pilot to
operatethem.
(b) Propulsivesystemcontrols,which includeprimary engine

conlrolsand relatedsystems (egthrottle controls,fuelcock
controls,oil coolercontrols)and the mechanisms usedby
the crew to operatethem.
244
INSPECTION
DUPLICATE OF CONTROLS
of ControlSystems
18.3 DuplicateInspection
A duplicateinspectionof a control systemis definedas an inspec-

tion which is hrst madeand certifiedby one qualifiedpersonand
subsequentlymade and certified by a secondqualified person.
Componentsor systemssubjectto duplicateinspectionmustnot be
disturbedor readjustedbetweenthe first and secondparts of the
inspection,and the secondpart of the inspectionmust, as near as
possible,follow immediatelyafter the first part.
In somecircumstances, due to peculiaritiesof assemblyor accessi-
for both partsof theinspectionto bemade
bility, it may benecessary
simultaneously.
A duplicateinspectionof the control systemin the aircraft shallbe
made:
(a) beforethe first flight of all aircraft after initial assembly.
(b) before the first flight after the overhaul,replacement,repair,
adjustmentor modificationof the system.
The two parts of the duplicateinspectionshall be the final opera-
tions,and asthepurposeof theinspectionis to establishtheintegrity
of the system,all work should have beencompleted.If, after the
duplicateinspectionhas been completed,the control systemis
disturbedin any way beforethe first flight, that part of the system
which hasbeendisturbedshallbe inspectedin duplicatebeforethe
aircraft flies.
The correct functioningof control systemsis at all times of vital
importanceto airworthiness, and it is essentialthat suitablelicensed
aircraft engineersand membersof approvedinspectionorganisa-
tions responsiblefor the inspectionor duplicateinspectionshould
be thoroughlyconversantwith the systemsconcerned.The inspec-
tion mustbecarriedout systematically to ensurethat eachandevery
part of the systemis correctlyassembled, and is ableto operatefreely
over the specifiedrangeof movement without risk of fouling.Also
that it is correctlyand adequatelylocked,cleanand correctlylubri-
cated,and is working in the correct sensein relation to the
movementof the control bv the crew.
18.4 PersonsAuthorisedto Certify DuplicateInspections

Personnelauthorisedto makethe first and secondparts of the duplicate
245
inspectionof control systemsin accordancewith Chapter,A.5- 3 of

BCAR are asfollows:
(a) Aircraft engineersappropriatelylicensedin Categories
A, B, C andD.
(b) Membersof an appropriatelyapprovedInspection
Organisationwho areconsideredby the ChiefInspector
competentto makesuchinspections.
(c) For minor adjustmentsto control systemswhen the
aircraftis awayfrom base,the secondpart of the dupli-
cate inspectionmay be performedby a pilot or flight
engineerlicensedfor the type of aircraftconcerned.
Tension Rod
S h e a rP i n
InspectionHole
Cable End Fitting
/
Control Cable
Figure1B-2(a)
Not more than 3 threads showing
Figure1B-2(b)
i
L
INSPECTION
Thread
must Fibreor
showabove
thenut Nyloninsert
Fr---r-l
t l
t l
SPRING
WASHER
LOCKING
PLATE
(b)
S P L I TP I N N I N G
'l
Figure 8-3
247
P R I N C I P LO
EFSFLICHT
18.5 FlyingControlSystems
General Points
Movement of the pilot's flying controls can be transmitted to the aircraft
control surfacesby a systemof flexible steelcables.Although one of the
oldest methods of control, it is still used extensivelytoday. An alternative
type of control systemis formed from light alloy tubes. Thesetubes form
a iigio link systemthat also gives positive control under all flight condi-
tions. Both methods will be considered in some detail in this chapter.
Where it is necessaryto changethe direction of a control run, whilst main-
taining a strong, flexible and positive connection, a sprocket and chain
system may be fitted at appropriate points in the control run. Since all
flying control systemsstart in the cockpit, we shall begin this discussion
by looking at controls which the pilot operatesin order to fly the aircraft.
Control Column
The control column is the most important singlecontrol that the pilot has
to operate.Its movement controls both the ailerons and the elevators.The
dual controls illustrated in Fig 18-4 are interconnectedso that movement
of one has exactly the same effect as movement of the other. We shall,
therefore, consider the movement of only one of them. As illustrated in
Fig l8-4, the control column is pivoted at a mid-position to allow side-
ways movement about that point. The bottom of the unit is attached to
the aileron control system so that sidewaysmovement of the control
column will move the ailerons. The control column is pivoted on the
angled crank of a torque tube which also carries a lever arm to which the
elevator control systemis attached. Moving the control column fore and
aft rotates the torQue tube, thus moving the elevators.
Rudder Bar and Pedals

The rudder is controlled from the cockpit by moving the rudder pedals.
These pedals may be separateunits or are attached to a rudder bar.
Moving the rudder pedals operates a mechanical system to which the
rudder is attached.Putting the left foot forward swingsthe rudder to port;
conversely,putting the right foot forward swingsthe rudder to starboard.
The rudder bar (or individual rudder pedals) can be adjusted to suit the
leg reachof the pilot.
Trimming Tab Controls

We have seen that the primary control surfaces(ailerons, elevators,
rudders) are moved by operating the pilot's controls. This may be as a
direct result of physical effort on the part of the pilot, or it may be as
a result of a signalfed from the pilot's controls to a powered flying control
248
INSPECTION
c o n t r o lc o l u m n
(port)
a i l e r o nc o n t r o l
a d i u s t a b l es t o p
'elevatorcontrol tube
r i g g i n gp o i n t s
t o r q u et u b e
assembly
a i l e r o nc o n t r o lc a b l e
F i g u r e1 B - 4D u a lC o n t r oC
l olumns
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLIGHT
brake toe oedal
s P r i n gl o a d e d
Plunger
BarandPedals
1B-5Rudder
Figure
-
unit. In the first instance - ie with no power assistance the control
surfacesnormally have small trimming tabs fitted to them, as described
in previous chapters. These trimming tabs are controlled from the
cockpit, as illustratedin Figure l8-6.
An aircraft is said to be irimmed when there is no load on the control
column or rudder bar/pedals, and the aircraft is flying steadily without
any changein direction or altitude. The controllable trimming tabs ensure
thit, for iny unwanted variation from the trimmed condition, the appro-
priaie contiol surface(s)may be re-trimmed to remove the loading on the
pilot'r control. Trimming 1abs, where fitted, are adjusted frequently
during each flight.
Methods of Operating Control Systems

job it
Ba"n co"t".ol iystem"in an aircraft is constructed for the particular
has to do. Consequently,there are considerabledifferencesin the design
of control systems- not only between those in different aircraft, but
between different systemsin the same aircraft. We cannot deal with all
the variations in a book of this type. We can however, deal with the
common areasin control sYstems.
250
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OF CONTROLS
.l
Figure 8-6 TrimmingTabControls
As alreadystated,flying controlsare normally operatedby cablesor

by control tubes,and eachmethodwill now be considered.
18.6 Control Cables
Generalpoints
Cablesprovidea strong,light andflexiblemethodof control and areused
extensively Cablesoperatein tensionand can,
in aircraftcontrol systems.
therefore,only be usedto pull the control. However,two cablescan be
arrangedin theform of a continuousloop to providea pull in both direc-
tions(Fig l8-7).
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
q=
control
fai rleads columns
control lever controi cables turnbuckles
i
i
Figure
18-7CableSystem
Construction of Cables
Flying control cablesare normally preformed; that is, the strands in the
cable are formed into the shape they will assumein the complete cable.
The cables,which are made of galvanigedor corrosion-resistantsteel,are
impregnated with an anti-friction lubricant during manufacture.
core or king wire

INSPECTION
DUPLICATE OFCONTROLS
A cableis madeup of steelwireswhich,in turn, areformedinto strands,

as illustratedin the two examplesof Fig l8-8. Each strand consistsof
severalwires(7 or 19)which are wound helicallyin one or more layers,
the centrewire beingknown as the corewire or king wire. Eachcableis
madeup of severalstrands(usually7), wound helicallyaroundthecentre
or corestrand.The cableis describedby the numberof strandsit contains
and by the numberof individualwiresin eachstrand.Figure l8-8ashows
that a 7x7 cableconsistsof 7 strands,eachhaving7 wires;Figure l8-8b
showsa7xl9 cable- 7 strands,eachhavingl9 wires.Thenumberof wires
in eachstrand,the number of strands,and the overall diameterof the
cabledeterminethebreakingload of thecable.For example,a7x l9 cable
of 6.4mm(%in) overalldiameterhasa minimumbreakingloadof 70001bf.
Cablesareclassifiedeitherby theminimum breakingload, whichmay be
quotedin cwtf, lbf or kN, or by the nominal diameterin inches.
It is often necessary
to coil a cablewhenhandlingit for assemblyinto
an aircraft.The coil shouldbe of largediameter;neverlessthan 50 dia-
metersof the cableinvolvedandwith a minimumdiameterof 150mm.To
avoid kinking the cable, and thus making it unserviceable,uncoiling
should be done by rotating the coil so that the cable is paid out in a
straightline.
Pulleys
Pulleysare usedto changethe direction of operationof flying control
cables,and to give support on long straightruns. A cableguide (or
retainer)is fitted to the pulley to ensurethat the cableremainson the
pulley.A typicalpulley,with its retainer,is illustratedin Fig l8-9. When
adjustinga control,it is importantto ensurethat the cableendfittingsdo
not foul the pulley,otherwisethe cablemovementwill be restricted.Also
look for possiblemisalignmentbetweenthe cableand pulley:this must
not exceed2'(Fig l8-9b).
F i g u r e1 8 - 9P u l l e y
P R I N C I P LO
ESFFLICHT
Screwiack
A cable-operatedtrimming tab control systemusually operates a Screw-
jack at the output end of the system.The screwjack(Fig 18-10)is attached
by means of an adjustable rod to the trimming tab. The cable movement
rotutes the sprocket of the screwjackto reposition the trimming tab. This
unit acts as i lock, retaining the trimming tab in the desiredposition until
the cockpit control is next moved.
trimming tab
Figure1B-.1
0 Screwjack
18.7 CableTensioning
Needfor tension.For a wire cablecontrol systemto operateeffectively,
the cabletensionmust be correct.It shouldbejust sufficientto operate
the control - neithertciotaut nor too slack;excessivetensionimposesan
unnecessary load on the control system, whilst a slack cable resultsin
ineffectiveresponse. We shallseelaterthat cablesystems tensionedto
are
a pre-determined value,in accordance with the servicinginstructionsfor
the particularsystem.The valuechosenis suchthat sufficienttensionis
maintainedovera rangeof operatingtemperatures. The rangeof temper-
atureoverwhich the tensionremainssatisfactory depends upon whether
or not a cabletensionregulatoris fitted in the system (see later).
Temperaturechange,cable stretch,and generalwear of supporting
parts aifect the tensionwhich must, therefore,be checkedand adjusted
is necessary at specifiedintervals.Somecablesystems havecompensating
devicesfitted which ensureeffectiveoperation over a much wider range
of temperatures than would otherwisebe possible.
Turnbuckles
It is normal to useturnbucklesto adjustthe tensionof cablesin flying
control systems. Thereare two typesof turnbucklesin commonuse(Fig
l8-11) and the typefitted will matchthe end fittings on the cables.
254
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OF CONTROLS
undercut identifies LH thread
F i g u r e1 8 - 11
Whenconnectingcablestogetherusinga turnbucklethe threadsmust be

evenly engagedat each end. It is important to ensurethat sufficient
threadsare engaged,otherwisethe load on the cablecould strip the
threads.
With theAmericantypeof turnbuckle(Fig 18-I I a) not morethan three
threadsshouldbe visible.
Cable end frttingsthat engagewith the British tensiontype of turn-
buckle(Fig l8-l 1b)havesmall'witness'holesdrilledin theirshanks.The
turnbucklethreadmust at leastreachtheseholesfor the connectionsto
be 'in safety'.
All turnbucklesarelockedin the approvedmannerusinglockingwires
or clips,as shownin Fig 18-l and 2.The Britishtypeis alsolockedwith
lockingnuts.
Adjusting the tensionin a cublesystem

There are many different types of metal in an aircraft, eachof which
expandsat a differentratewith increasingtemperature.The effectof this
in a cablesystemis that the tensiontendsto decrease with an increasein
altitude.Thus,to retainsufficienttensionat altitude,the pre-determined
load must be high. This requiresa strong structure,with a resulting
increasein weight.Furthermore,comparedwith a tensionregulated
system(seelater),stressand staticfriction are alsohigher.
While tensioningis being carried out to the correctvalue of pre-
determinedloadby evenlyadjustingall the turnbucklesin the system,the
correctrelativepositionsof the pilot'scontrol and the relevantcontrol
255
surfacemustbemaintained.The cabletensionis checkedfrequentlyusing

a tensiometerasthe adjustmentsare made.
CableTensionRegulator
A cabletensionregulatoris a mechanicaldevicewhich,whenfitted in a
cable system,allows the cablesunder all conditionsof temperature
changeand structuraldeflectionsto take up and let out equallyon each
sideof the circuit, thus maintaininguniform tension.The compensating
unit of a tensionregulatormay be manufacturedwith eitherone or two
springs;a doublespringunit is describedbelowand illustratedin Fig 18-
12.
This type of regulatorconsistsof a pair of springJoadedquadrants,
with a pointerand scalefor recordingthe changein lengthof the cables.
The cablesare insertedthrough slotsin the recessed end of the grooved
quadrantsand the cableendsare securedat the anchoragepoints.The
basicpurposeof the regulatoris to keepthe effectivelengthof the cable
constantevenwhen the actual length has beenincreasedor decreased
i eitherby changeof temperatureor structuralflexing.The graphis used,
the cable
l
in conjunctionwith the regulatorscalereading,whenassessing
tension(seelater).Let us seehow the regulatorfunctions.
.l
Figure 8-12 CableTensionRegulator
256
INSPECTION
DUPLICATE OFCONTROLS
Figure l8-l3a showsthat any extensionof the cablesattachedto the

quadranttendsto give equal slackeningof the cables.The regulator
springsthenimpart a rotarydisplacement to thecablequadrants,andthis
movementis transmittedby the link arms to the crosshead, causingit to
move freelyalongthe lockingshaft. This movement is controlled by the
pressureof compressionspringsto govern the cables at their correct
pre-settension.
Figure 18-13bshowsthat any shorteningof the cableswill have the
reverseeffect,tendingto giveequaltensioningof the cables.This givesa
rotary displacement of the quadrantsand movesthe crossheadinwards
along the lockingshaftby the actionof the link arms.
Figurel8-13cshowsthat whenthepilot operates a 'regulated'control,
I the crossheadtilts on its lockingshaft,causingit to lock on to the shaft.
Both quadrantsarenow lockedtogetherand operateasa leverto givethe
pilot positivecontrol of the system.
l o c k i n gs h a f t
Figure18-13CableTensionRegulator
257
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
A tensiometeris not usedto checkthe tensionin a regulatedsystem.

Thecabletensionis adjustedon both sidesof thecircuit (usuallyby means
of turnbuckles)until thecorrectreadingis obtainedon theregulatorscale.
The readingobtaineddependsupon the prevailingtemperature,and the
correct readingfor that temperatureis obtainedfrom a specialgraph
printedin the relevantmanual(Fig l8-12).
After thecableshavebeensetto thecorrecttension,regulatorcompen-
sationmay be checkedby graspingboth cablesneartheir point of entry
to the regulator and forcing both cablesin towards each other. The
resultingmovementof the quadrantsshouldbe smoothand even.If the
regulatorfails to move,or the movementis jumpy, it may indicatethat
thecableshavebeenwronglyriggedsothat the tensionis uneven,causing
thecrosshead to tilt and'lock'the system.
Comparedwith a cable system,a regulatedcable control system
ensuresa relativelyconstanttension.Because of this, the levelof tension
canbe reduced; this in turn provides:
i *Lower staticfriction *Lessstructuralweight *Improvedresponse
I
t 18.8 MechanicalStops
The nextcheckis to ensurethat the control surfacemovesto its designed

maximumtravelposition,in both directions,whenmovedby the cockpit
control.
The maximum travel of a primary control surfaceis limited in each
directionby mechanical(limit) stops.Thesestops(Fig l8-14)arefitted to
limit the control surfacemovementin either direction and thus avoid
damagedue to excessive travel.In a manualsystem,the stopsareusually
locatednearthe control surface,and a secondpair ofstops,known asthe
overridestopsor secondary stops,are fitted to limit the pilot's control
movementshould the main stop fail. Secondarystopsare adjustedto a
specified clearance under normal operating conditions.In powered
c o n t r o lc o l u m n
striker plates
AILERON
STOPS
I adjustablestops
I
L
F i g u r e1 B - 1 4M e c h a n i c aSl t o p s
DUPLICATE
INSPECTION
OFCONTROLS
control systems,themechanicalstopsarelocatedon the input sideof the

poweredflying control unit (PFCU); usuallythey arelocatednext to the
pilot's control in the cockpit,thuslimiting the control systemmovement
from that position.During the riggingprocedure,the main mechanical
(primary)stopsmay needto be re-setto ensurethat the control surface
reaches, but doesnot exceed,its maximumtravelposition.
I An American type turnbuckleis in safetywhen:
a) it is wire locked.
b) not more than threethreadsare showing.
c) the inspectionholesareobscured.
d) the lock nuts are tight.
Ref para 18.7
2 Primarycontrol stopsarelocated:
a) at the control surface.

b) at the control column.
c) at any convenientpositionin the control run.
d) at the mixer unit.
Ref para 18.8
Automatic cabletensionis provided by:
a) turnbuckles.
b) control stops.
c) tensionregulators.
d) pulleys.
Ref para 18.7
4 Ifa control systemcabletensionis too high:
a) control surfacerangeof movementwill be reduced.

b) controlswill be easierto move.
c) excessive wearwill take placeon cablesand pulleys.
d) flutter is more likely to occur.
Refpara18.7
5 Whena pilot carriesout a duplicateinspection:
a) he or shemust signthe first signatureblock.

b) he or shemust be an ATPL holder.
c) he or shemust alsobe a type ratedengineer.
d) no otherengineermust be available.
Ref para 18.4
19
AircraftConstruction
19.1 AirframeStructuralDesign
This chapter is intended to be a brief introduction to the study of
uirf.u-.t f.om the designer'spoint of view, including some of the general
problems confronting him.
19.2 Definitions
To avoid misconceptionsof the engineeringterms used in this chapter a
list of definitions is given below:
S/ress: The force exerted between two contacting bodies or
parts of a body. It is measuredasthe load per unit area'
Strain: The deformation causedby stress.It is recorded as the
change of size over the original size'
Elastic When stressexceedsthe elastic limit of a material' the
'set', and on releaseof
Limit material takes up a pefinanent
the load it will not return completely to its original
shape.
Srffiess The ratio of stressover strain'

or Rigidity:
Ultimate That point beyond which, if stress is increased, the
Strength: material will fail'
19.3 Designinga new Aircraft

The Specification
Theinitialstepin theproductionof a newaircraftis thepreparation of a

splcifrcatio.t. termsof speed,
thir will statetherequiredperforman-ce.in
ring., ceilingand payload etc.The general
conditions in whichthe
uiiriuii is re{uiredio'operate are also such
stated, as type of runway
260
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
surface,temperatureconditionsand altitude.The strengthand lengthof

availablerunwaysmust also be taken into accountso that new aircraft
may useexistingrunways,and in mostcasesmay operateworldwide.The
specificationwill alsogivethe strengthrequirements and will stipulatea
factor of safetyto allow for unforseencontingencies or for accidentally
exceedingbasicdesignlimitations.If the strengthrequirementsare too
severe,the aircraftwill be penalizedby excessive structuralweight;if not
severeenough,there is a risk of failure of structural components.In
choosingthesestrengthconditions,the aim must be to ensurethat the
aircraftwill be ableto carry out all the normal manoeuvresappropriate
to its role. It is desirableto makethe airframeas strongas possible,but
the extrastructuralweightneededto ensureadequatestrengthfor certain
manoeuvresmust not be out of proportion to the advantagegained.
Manoeuvresfor which the aircraft is not stressedare called prohib-
ited manoeuvres.
19.4 The Design

When the specificationhas beenproduced,the designteam will decide
what they considerto be the bestform and sizeof aircraft to meet the
requirements. At this stageit mustbe emphasized that any aircraftdesign
is inevitablya compromisebetweenthe conflictingdemandsof payload
requirements,performance,economy,reliability, cost, easeof mainte-
nanceandsoon.Thedesigner's own preferencewill influencetheultimate
layout of the airframe;this explainswhy there are so many different
shapesand layoutsfor aircraft,althougheachis more or lesscorrectfor
its task.The requirementsfor speedand rangeare usuallyso dominant
that only an aerodynamically cleanmonoplanedesigncan be used,and
designeffort is concentratedon achievingthe minimum drag by careful
positioningof wings,fuselage,tail unit, and engines,and by the cleanest
possiblestowageof radar aerials,etc. Still further reductionsin drag
arepossibleby eliminatingthe tail unit, and eventhe fuselage, by usinga
flying wing design;but the problemsof longitudinalcontrol and stability
are then difficult to solvesatisfactorily.In everyheavy or high speed
design,much caremust be taken to providecontrolswhich requirethe
leastpracticableforceto operatethemandwhichareeffectivethroughout
the speedrange.
The next stagein the developmentof a new aircraft is usuallywind-
tunneltesting.Work startsin the wind-tunnelon modelsof the selected
designto checkthe exactoutlineof the aircraft,thelift and drag,to work
out maximum air loads that will be exertedon all surfacesunder all
possibleflight conditions,togetherwith the performance,stability and
control of the airuaft, so that errors can be detectedat an early stage
and the designmodifiedasnecessary.
261
During the wind-tunnelteststagea full-sizewoodenmock-upis often

madeso that positionsmay be found for modelsof all the equipmentto
be carriedin it. The mock-up is also usefulto checkthe field of view,
to ensuresufficientspaceand headroomfor flightcrewand passengers,
and to checkthe positionof controlsin relationto the instrumentpanel,
etc.In general,themock-upworksasa rough3-D checkon all thedimen-
sionsmadeby the designstaff and draughtsmen.
A detaileddesignof the airframestructureis thenbegun.Probablythe
most important part is the calculationof the strengthof the aircraft.
The airframe has to be sufficientlystrong to withstand aerodynamic,
landingand handlingloads.The aerodynamicloadsarecalculatedfrom
wind-tunnelexperiments for the accelerationand speedsin the specifica-
tion and multiplied by the factor of safety. Loads imposed by
manhandlingon the ground,especiallyon light aircraft,are often many
timesgreaterthan the aerodynamicloadsand must be allowedfor if the
i aircraftis not to be coveredwith 'Do not pushhere'and
'No step'signs.
Other featuresthe detaileddesignmust includeare:

(a) A smoothskin of the requiredaerodynamicform.
(b) Sufficientstiffnessto retdin its correctshapeunder aerodynamic
loads.
(c) Mounting pointsfor the engines.
(d) Protectionfor flightcrewand radio gear,often in a pressurized
compartment;heatingand/or refrigerationfor crew, passengers
and equipment.
(e) Suitablebreakdownpoints,to enablethe aircraftto be dismantled
for transport,or repairby replacementof components.
(l) The minimumnumberof points requiringservicingand examina-
tion, and easyaccessto them.
The overall designmust lend itself to easyand cheapproduction
methodsand repairs.With aircraftspeedsconstantlyrising,necessitating
a complexstructureto providethe strength,this requirementis becoming
more difficult to meet.
When the generalarrangementof the aircraft is settled,the structural
designmay proceed.In this the designerhascompletefreedomof choice,
but he is usuallyinfluencedby pastpracticeand experience.
One of the main problemsthat a designerhas to overcomeis that of
excessive weight.An increaseof lo/oin the weight of the structurecan
mean as much as 5ohto l0o/oincreasein the grossweight of the aircraft.
Briefly,thisis dueto the'snowball'effectwhereincreased more
lift creatOs
drag, necessitating largerengines,and thereforemore fuel for the same
262
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
performance. Conversely, a saving of loh in the weight of the structure

can result in 5o/otol0% reduction in total weight of the completed aircraft.
As the various components are manufactured some are set aside for
fatigue testing. This, for example, can involve placing whole wing struc-
tures in deviceswhich can vibrate and flex the wing at various frequencies,
thereby simulating in a relatively short time many thousands of flying
hours. These tests are usually continued until a unit fails, in which event
the unit can either be modified or strengthenedand the safelife tirne of
the wing can be calculated.
The fuselagesof most pressurizedcivil transport are often subjectedto
'tank
a test'. The fuselageis completely immersedin a large tank of water,
and the pressure inside it is raised until the differential between the
inside and outside of the cabin is similar to that during flight at cruising
altitudes. The pressurecan then be raised and lowered, simulating climbs
and descents.This is normally continued until fatigue failure occurs,
which may indicate that strengthening is required or it can serve to give
an indication of the safe life of the fuselase.
19.5 StructuralRigidity
In the early days ofaircraft designan aircraft was consideredto be accept-
able if it was made strong enough to withstand the direct air loads acting
upon it. As aircraft speedsincreasedit was found that vibration could
occur in the wing and tail units and it often appearedto be associatedwith
the control surfaces. In some instances the vibration was sufficiently
severeto causecomplete disintegration of the airframe.
After several years of research an explanation was evolved for a
phenomenon now known as flutter. Design features to overcome flutter
are nowadays incorporated as a matter of course in aircraft design. The
following paragraphs present a simple non-mathematical explanation of
a very complex subject.
Vibration may occur in three ways and can be caused by the wing
bending or flexing, by wing twisting, or by control surfacemovement. The
vibration due to wing flexing and twisting can be controlled by structural
rigidity, whilst control surface movement is governed by the elasticity in
the control cablesor rods. Figure l9-1 illustrates the way in which a wing
may twist in torsion: The torsional axis can be taken as the line about
which the wing will twist if a force is applied to the wing, other than on
the line of the axis itself.
A wing will not twist if a force is applied to the torsional axis. The wing
may, however, bend or flex under this force, as illustrated in Fig l9-2.It
can be seen that the torsional axis is an important feature of the wing
structure and can be taken as the point or line about which the wing will
either twist in torsion, or bend in flexure.
263
OF FLlCHT
PRINCIPLES
.
I
Figure19-1Wing Twistor Torsion
The third form of vibration is causedby the control surfaceitself

vibratingin the airstreambecauseof incorrectbalancingor slackness in
the control runs. The first two forms of vibration are, in themselves,
harmlessand can quickly be dampedout by the rigidity of the airframe.
However, when brought about by an externalforce, for examplethe
airstream,furtherreactionswill occurwhichmay eventuallyleadto struc-
tural failure.
,/,'4
\ atr'
Figure19-2 Wing Bendingor Flexure
19.6 Flutter
causeof structuralfailure.It is a violentvibrationof
Flutteris a possible
264
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
theaerofoilsurfacescausedby interactionof their massand aerodynamic

loads.Threeforms of flutter affectthe wins:
(a) Torsionalflexuralflutter.
(b) Torsionalaileronflutter.
(c) Flexuralaileronflutter.
TorsionalFlexural Flutter
This occursasa resultof thewingflexingand twistingundertheinfluence
of aerodynamicloads.The sequence of eventsis as follows:
(a) The wing is takento bein stablehorizontalflight with the
torsionalaxisaheadof the CG of the wing. The lift (L) is
balancedby thereaction(R) causedby the bendingof the
wing due to the aircraftweight.
(b) A disturbancecausesthe incidenceof the wing to be
momentarilyincreased, resultingin an increasein lift; L is
now greaterthan R and the wing flexesupwards.Because
of inertia, the CG will lag behindthe torsionalaxis and
therebyfurther increasethe angle of incidence,and so
increaselift evenmore.
(c) Stiffnessof the wing bringsthe torsionalaxisto rest,but
inertia causesthe CG to travel farther, decreasingthe
angle of incidence.L is then lessthan R, and the wing
startsto descend.
(d) Stiffnessof the wing bringsthe torsionalaxisto rest,but
inertiacausestheCG to travelfarther,increasingthe inci-
dence.L is again greaterthan R and the flutter cycle
beginsagain.
Torsional flexural flutter can be preventedin the design,either by
ensuringthat the wing is sufficientlystiff so that the critical flutter speed
of the permissible
is far in excess maximumspeed,or by ensuringthat the
CG of the wing is on, or aheadof, the torsionalaxis.
TorsionalA ileronFlutter
This is causedby thewingtwistingunderloadsimposedon it by themove-
mentof theaileron.Figurel9-3 showsthe sequencefor a half cycle,which
is describedas follows:
(a) The aileronis displacedslightlydownwards,exertingan
increasedliftins forceon the aileronhinse.
(b) The wing twistsaboutthe torsionalaxis- thetrailingedge

rising,takingthe aileronup with it. The CG of the aileron
is behind the hinge line; its inertia tendsto make it lag
behind, increasingaileron lift, anr,lso increasingthe
twistingmoment.
(c) The torsional reactionof the wing has arrestedthe

twisting motion but the air loads on the aileron, the
stretchof its control circuit, and its upward momentum,
causeit to overshootthe neutralposition,placinga down
load on the trailing edgeof the wing.
(d) The energystoredin the twistedwing, togetherwith the

aerodynamicload of the aileron,causethe wing to twist
in the oppositedirection.The cycle is then repeated.
Torsionalaileronflutter can be preventedeitherby mass-
balancingthe aileronsso that their CG is on, or slightly
aheadof, the hinge line, or by making the controls
irreversible.Both methodsare employedin modern
aircraft;thosewith fully poweredcontrolsand no manual
reversiondo not requiremass-balancing; all otheraircraft
havetheir control surfacesmass-balanced.
Torsional ot
ElasticAxis
Figure19-3 Torsional
AileronFlutter
266
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
Flexural Aileron Flutter

Flexuralaileronflutter is generallysimilarto torsionalaileronflutter,but
is causedby the movementof the aileronlaggingbehindthe riseand fall
of the outer portion of the wing asit flexes,thereforetendingto increase
the oscillation.This type of flutter is preventedby mass-balancing
the aileron.Thepositioningof themass-balance weightis important- the
nearerthe wing tip the smallerthe weight required.On many aircraft
the weightis distributedalongthe wholelengthof the aileronin the form
of a leadingedgespar,therebyincreasingthe stiffnessof the aileronand
preventinga concentratedweightstartingtorsionalvibrationsin the
aileronitself.
So far only wing flutter hasbeendiscussed, but a few momentsconsid-
erationwill showthat mass-balancing must alsobe appliedto elevators
and ruddersto preventtheir inertia and the springinessof the fuselage
startingsimilar troubles.Mass-balancing is extremelycritical; henceto
avoid upsettingit, the painting of aircraft markingsetc is no longer
allowedon any control surface.The dangerof all forms of flutter is that
the extentofeach successive vibrationis greaterthan its predecessor,so
that in a secondor two the structuremay be bent beyondits elasticlimit
and consequently fail.
Centre of
Pressureof Wing
Figure AileronReversal
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
To raiseonewing,the aileronattachedto that wing is lowered(Fig 19-

4). This increases tlie lift of the aileron(Az),exertingan upwardforceon
the hinge. If the wing has insufficient stiffnessit will twist about its
torsionil axis, raising the trailing edge,relativeto the leadingedge,
thereby reducing the incidence of the wing. This in turn decreases the
lift of ihe wing (L:), and in particularly bad casesmay exceed the lifting
effectof the aileron(ie L, + A: becomes lessthan 1' + Ar).As a resultthe
-
wing goesdown the opposite effectto that intended.This is known as
aileronreversal.
Divergence
in ext"reme cases,lack of torsionalrigidity in the wing causesdivergence'
If the incidenceof a wing is momentarilyincreased,the lift of the wing
will alsoincrease,and the centreof pressurewill move forward' Should
the torsionalaxis of the wing be behindthe centreof pressure,both the
increaseof lift and its forward movementmagnify the couplewhich is
twisting the wing in the direction of increasedincidence.Conversely,
shouldthe initiil disturbancedecreasethe angle of incidence,the
decreased lift and the aft movementof the centreof pressurebehindthe
torsionalaxistend further to reducethe incidence.
In both casesthis twistingactionis opposedby the torsionalreaction
of the wing; but sincethe lift forceincreases with the squareof the speed,
thereis a ciitical speed(knownasthe divergentspeed),beyondwhich the
aerodynamiccouplewill build up more rapidly with changeof incidence
than the torsionalreactionof tlie wing, and consequentlythe wing will
continueto twist until it breaksoff. This is avoidedin eitherof two ways:
by making the wing sufficientlystiff in torsion (but not necessarilyin
flLxure)so-thatthe divergentspeedis well beyondthe maximumpermis-
siblespeedfor the aircrait;or by designingthe wing so-thatits torsional
axisis in front of the aerodynamicaxis,in which casedivergence cannot
occurat any speed.
19.7 TheStructure
The basicforcesactingon an aircraftin flight, ie lift, weight,thrust,drag,
are all primary criteiia in the designof the aircraft's structure.The
designeihasto-.ntu.. that thestrengthof theairframeexceeds thenormal
-uii*u- operatingloadsimposedon it, by the ryqr1ir9d safetymargin.
Theseforcei will vary considerablythroughoutthe flight envelope,and
aredependenton suchthingsasloading (g), airspeed_, turbulence,move-
ment of control surfaces,changesin configuration(loweringof landing
gear,
" etc)and landing.
On oldertypesof aircraft, abiplaneconfigurationwasalmoststandard
and the useoi externalwiresand bracingstrutsenabledwing structures
268
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
to be made which were extremely rigid compared with the weight and
strength of the component parts. The wings and fuselageswere built up
from a light framework of wooden ribs, spars and formers covered with
a skin of fabric tightened by doping. The wires and struts bracing the
mainplanes formed what was, in effect, a large lattice girder; wires were
also used to brace the tailplane and fin.
As the top speedof aircraft increased,so the shape and layout of the
aircraft, and the materials used in its construction changed. The mono-
plane layout became universal, bringing with it the more sophisticated
problems of designing a thin unbraced wing that was strong enough to
resistthe tension, compressiveand twisting loads imposed upon it. Metal
was used for formers, ribs and as an outer skin in place of the plywood
and fabric of the earlier aircraft. The conflicting requirements of light
weight and strength usually resulted in a compromise, and aluminium
alloys are usedextensivelyin medium speed,subsonicaircraft. For super-
sonic aircraft, the kinetic heating effect of prolonged supersonic flight
could cause the conventional light alloys to lose some of their strength
and specially formulated light alloys have to be used; other materials,
such as stainlesssteel,which is heavier,stronger and more expensive,have
to be used in the construction.of aircraft designedfor continuous super-
sonic flight at the higher Mach numbers. Some examples of airframe
construction are shown in Fig l9-5 a, b, c and d.
Figure19-5aStressed
Skinor Monocoque
Construction
Stressedskin is a type of constructionin which the skin of the aircraft

takesa considerable proportion of the load on the aircraft.
OF FLICHT
PRINCIPLES
Cross
- BracingWi166
| Bracino
Longeron Struts'
Figure19-5b WarrenCirder
Used extensivelyon older light aircraft designsin which the skeleton

frametakesmost of the load and the skin very little.
.19-5c
Figure Wing
Cantilever
Figure19-5d BracedWing
270
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
19.8 Wing Construction
Spars
In order to resistthe bendingforcesimposedon it, an idealsparis given
a certaindepth.An exampleof this is an ordinary ruler, which will flex
easilywhen loadedon the upper or lower flat surfaces,but is very stiff
whena loadis appliedto theedge.Unfortunately,themodernwing is thin
in cross-section,precludingthe useof a deepspar.Two, three,or more
sparsare usedin the wing to givethe necessarystrength.A sparusually
consistsof solidboomsat the top and bottom, connectedby a thin plate
web. Normally theseare manufacturedas separateitems and riveted
together,but somesparsaremadein one piecefrom monoblocforgings,
machinedto perfectshape.Figure 19-6illustratesthree typical spar
sections.
Stressed-skin
Although somelight aircraft still have parts of the airframecoveredin
fabric, most aircraft today are metal clad. In subsonicaircraft,the wing
skeletonof sparsand ribsis coveredwith a light alloy skin.This is riveted
to the frameworkand is designedto stiffenthe wing by taking someof
the loads.This type of constluctionif known as 'stressedskin' and
producesa relativelystrongwing without too largea weightpenalty.The
wing canwithstandtwistingor torsionloads,and is usuallystrengthened
by the additionof span-wise stringersto withstandthe bendingor flexure
loadings.
a. Simple plate web and extruded booms.

'Fail-safe'
b spar in which no crack can propagate.
S p a r m a c h i n e df r o m s i n g l ef o r g i n g .
Figure19-6 Typicalsparsections
l 271
P R I N C I P LO
EFSFLICHT
wingconstruction
19-7Stressed-skin
Figure
Machined Skin
The faster an aircraft flies, the greater the rigidity required of the struc-
ture. To achievethis the stressed-skinof the slower aircraft is replacedby
a machined skin manufactured from a solid billet of metal. The metal is
milled away by high precision machines so that in its final form the
contour of ttrb wing-is very accurately reproduced, together with
the necessarystrengthening buttressesand ribs. Altogether up to 90oh
of the originil metal will becut away, leaving a structure that is not only
extremelystrong and preciselyshaped,but also light in weight. The panels
so produced are joined together to form a rigid, strong wing.
Figure|9-8 Machinedskinwing construction
Torsion-Boxes
In this form of constructionthe skinsof the upperand lower surfacesof
the wingjoin the front and rear sparsrigidly togetherto form a box. To
thefron-tiparis attachedtheleadingedgeand to the rear sparthe trailing
edge,ailer'onand flaps.To increasethe load-carryingcapacityof the skin
bet'ween the spars,ifis commonto corrugateit and then coverthe corru-
gationswith ihin sheet.This form of constructionis much usedand a
iariation of it, which has a number of spars,one behind the other,
forminga seriesof boxes,appearsparticularlysuitedto aircraftwith low
aspectratios.
272
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
Figure
19-9Torsion
BoxConstruction
D-Spar Construction
The front spar, which takes most of the bending load, is placed as near as
possible to the point of maximum thickness of the wing, and the skin of
the leading edge is rigidly attached to it to form a D-shaped tube, which
takes nearly all the torsional stressesof the wing.
Figure19-10D-SparConstruction
ControlSurfoce
For speedsup to 300-350kt fabric-coveredaileronsbuilt up on a spar
andribsareusuallysatisfactory. Higherspeeds demanda rigidity that can
only be obtainedby a stressed-skin coveringbuilt up in much the same
way asa D-sparwing.Additional stiffnesscanbe obtainedby employing
longitudinalfluting of the skin (ie spacedcorrugations);in this design
most of the ribs can be eliminated.
Braced Wings
This designfeatureis usedalmostexclusivelyin smallhigh wing aircraft.
The bracingstruts,running from the fuselageto a point about half-way
alongthewing, relievethe sparsof muchof their verticalload and anchor
them in tension.The designercan thereforesaveweightin the wing, but
becauseof the additional drag, this form of constructionis limited to
aircraftwith a low top speed.
273
FuselageConstruction
Fuselages presenta basicallysimplerstructureproblem than do wings.
A fuselageis usuallybuilt up from a skeletonof framesor transverse
'stringers',the whole
membersjoined by longitudinalgirdermembersor
frameworkbeingcoveredby stressed skin.The shapeof the cross-section
of the fuselagewill vary with the job that the aircraft has to perform.
Pressurized transportaircraft havecircularcross-sections; this hasbeen
found to be the most suitableshapeto resistthe differentialpressures.
Light aircraftoftenhavea rectangularsectionfuselage; this beingan easy
and strongshapeto construct.
B
Figure19-11 Typicalpressure
cabindoors
Pressurization
The ideal shapefor a pressurevesselis a sphere;passengers and freight
are best carried in a box shape.In pressurized transport aircraft the
designercombinesthesetwo shapesas much aspossible and the pressure
cabin is usuallyin the form of a circular tube with hemispherical ends.
This structure is easy to construct from light alloys and the stresses
inducedby pressurization are not difficult to calculate.The problemsof
providingopeningsfor doors,windows,etcaremoredifficult.Wherecut-
outs are made in the stress-carryingskin, additional strengtheningis
neededaround the edgesto provide a stresspath around the aperture;
strongrims alonearenot sufficient,theloadsmustbegraduallyabsorbed
by ihe surroundingstructureto preventany suddenstressconcentration
that could leadto fatigue.The ideal shapefor any openingin a pressure
cylindershouldbe an ellipsewhich is of course,why many aircraft have
their windowsthis shape.Elliptical door shapesare not so practicable
from a loadingaspectand the more commonshapeis a rectangulardoor
with roundedcorners.(Fig 19-11).
274
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
SealingProblems
Ideally, a pressurizedcabin shquldbe airtight; in practice,leaksare kept
to a minimum. Sealingmust be effectiveunder all conditions,including
the structural flexing that occursduring flight, and the expansionand
contraction causedby temperaturevariation. For doors, the sealing
medium normally usedis an inflatabletube, fitted betweenthe door edge
and the aircraft structureand inflated to form an airtight seal(Fig 19-12).
Control rodsor cablespassingout of thecabinmust be adequatelysealed
againstleakage,whilst allowing movementand self alignmentwith a
minimumof friction.The sealshownin Fig l9-13is a typicalexamplethat
relieson greasein conjunctionwith packing rings to provide an airtight
seal.
Aircraft
skin Tube bulges and
I UDE
bends against
clamping bead when inflated
strip Care should be taken that
Sealing
bead
Rubber
tube
Door
(a) Tube Deflated {b} Tube Inflated
Figure19-12 Methodof SealingDoor
SupersonicAir craft Structures

To achievestrongerairframesthe machinedskin type of construction
originallydevisedfor wingscanalsobe appliedto mostpartsof the fuse-
lage. However, for aircraft designedfor prolonged flight at high
supersonic speeds evenstrongermaterialshaveto beused.Because of the
kinetic heatingeffectat high Mach Number, parts of the skin can be
raisedto over 120"CatM2.0. At this temperaturealuminium alloys lose
40%of their strength.Therefore,in order to retain acceptablestrength
andrigidity,largepanelsaremadefrom a stainless steelhoneycombsand-
wich,(Fig 19-14).This consistsof a core,built from thin stripsof stainless
steelin the form of a honeycomb,and brazedtogether.The finishedcore
is then machinedto the shapeof the requiredpaneland placedbetween
ready-shaped innerandouterskins,alsoof stainless steel.It is thenheated
in an inert atmosphere until all thejoints havebeenbrazedtogether.This
resultsin an extremelyrigid andrelativelylight structurewhichwill retain
its strengthat temperatures of around260"C.
275
P R I N C I P LO
EFSF L I C H T
Nipple
Control Felt
Cable Glands
R u b b e rS e a l i n gG a s k e t
{-'Cabin' +,Atmosphere, --...+
Figure19-13 Methodof sealingcontrolcable
Layer of Bonding or brazing material making perfectseal
Figure19-14 Sectionof stainless

steelhoneycomb
sandwichpanel
Complete airframes can be built up from honeycomb sandwich

panelling,pre-shapedas describedin the previousparagraph,with
extrudedstainless steelboundarymembers,transverse strutsand attach-
ment points incorporated.Areas subjectedto large stresseshave the
densityof the coreincreased, and the skin thickened.Figure 19-15illus-
tratesihe sectionof the wing of an aircraft designedfor continuousflilht
276
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
at speedsof aroundMach 3. The leadingand trailing edgeshavea solid

honeycombcoreand the skin is of a honeycombsandwichsupportedby
weldedstainlesssteelspars.At this point mention must be madeof the
'safelife' and 'fail-safe'.A structuredesignedfor a
structuralconceptof
given safelife is one in which actual testing of similar structureshas
enabledthe designerto calculatethe minimum flying hoursbeforewhich
'safelife' for that
structural failure will occur. This figure is then the
particularstructure.A'fail-safe' structureis onein which,by duplicating
primary structures,an alternativepath is availablefor a load.Therefore,
if one memberfails, the remainingstructurecan carry the load for a
limited time. In somecasesthis will involvean extra weightpenalty,but
often the standbypart can justify its existenceby performingsome
separate task.An exampleof this is thewindowof a pressurecabin,which
consistsof two layersof glasswith a sandwichof dry air between.
Normally, the pressuredifferentialis supportedby the inner layer,but
shouldthis fail thenthe outer lavercan be madeto take the load.
A S o l i d h o n e y c o m bl e a d i n ga n d t r a i l i n g e d g e s
B Honeycomb sheeting
C Stainlesssteel welded soars
D M a c h i n e de x t r u d e ds h a r p t r a i l i n ge d g e
.l
Figure 9-15 Wing sectiondesignedfor Mach 3
Airframe Limitations
Except during landing, or manoeuvring on the ground, all loads on an
aircraft structure are imposed aerodynamically in two ways, either as the
result of a manoeuvre or becauseof atmospheric disturbance, (eg gusts).
Limitations, such as indicated speeds,Mach number, accelerations,
weights and CG positions, are imposed for reasons of safety. These
usually depend on factors not related to the skill of the pilot. All airframe
limitations are quoted in the Flightcrew Manual for the type, and must
not be exceededintentionallv.
277
Limitations take into considerationthe aircraft'srole, structure,and

controllability,and areimposedonly whenthey are essential.Disregard
of limitationsleadsto damageand weakensthe aircraft structureso that
it may fail immediatelyor on a subsequent flight.
IAS Limitations
The airloadsacting on the airframe dependprincipally upon dynamic
pressure(the %pYzeffect)and vary roughly as the squareof the IAS.
Figurel7-16 showshow the dynamicpressure, whichis 35 lb per square
foot at 100knots, increases to no lessthan 875lb per squarefciot at 500
knots. Thereforeat a certainspeedthe total load on someparts of the
airframe,usually the wings or tail structure,increasesup to the safety
limit. The strengthof the tail structureis oftenthe limiting factorbecause
a considerable down load, producedby the elevatorsor tailplane,is
requiredto keepthe wingsat the angleof attacknecessary to producethe
largeamountof lift whenmanoeuvringat high g.
I
o
J
o
f
.E
G
Knots IAS
Figure19-l 6 Effectof IASon the dynamicpressure

experiencedby an aircraft
A further considerationis that at high IAS the loads on the airframe

may be greatenoughto causeaeroelasticdistortionwhich could so alter
of the aircraft as to make its behaviour
the stability characteristics
unpredictable.
278
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
The maximum permissible IAS given as the service limitation in the

Flightcrew Manual is slightly lower than the designmaximum IAS, which
is the highest figure for which the aircraft is stressed.The difference
between the two gives the pilot a small safety margin. If the design
maximum IAS were permitted, even the slightest inadvertant exceeding
of it would almost certainly causedarnageto the aircraft.
Mach Number Limitations

A Mach number limitation is usually imposed when violent compress-
ibility buffetting may lead to structural failure, or when loss of control
due to compressibility effects may cause the aircraft to exceed the
structural limitation before control can be regained.Alternatively it may
be necessaryto impose a Mach number limitation in the early stagesof
an aircraft's servicelife becausetrials have not been completed to allow
clearanceto a higher Mach number. When a Mach number limitation is
imposed it may be quoted as a definite figure, such as 0.88M, or as a
specificcondition of flight, eg when a nose-up trim change occurs.
On some aircraft Mach number limitations are imposed at low
altitudes, becauseeven temporary or partial loss of control at the high
accompanying IAS could quickly result in a dangerous situation; the
larger aerodynamic and g loads set up by violent behaviour, added to
the already large loads imposed by the high IAS, might well be more
than the airframe could absorb.
Flight in Turbulence
Turbulent air imposes g loads on the airframe, the effect of which is
proportional to the IAS. If turbulent air is encountered when flying at
high IAS, the air speed should be reduced to that recommended in the
Flightcrew Manual for safeflight in theseconditions. Speedshigher than
the recommendedfigure may result in damage to the airframe, whereas
lower speedsmay lead to difficulty in control.
Prohibited Manoeuvres
The flying controls enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft into any
attitude. Some of theseattitudes may lead to dangerously high loadings
and air speedswhich the aircraft has not been designedto withstand. To
protect the pilot and the aircraft certain manoeuvresare prohibited.
Undercarciageand Flap Limiting Speeds

The speedlimitations for the raising and lowering of the flaps and under-
carriage arise either from the limited strength of the components to
withstand the air loads, or from the power of the operating mechanism.
The limiting speedstill applies with the servicein the extended position
unlessthe Flightcrew Manual statesa higher speed.Further, should the
279
undercarriage or flaps be loweredat higherspeedsthe trim and stability

of the aircraftmay be markedlyaffectedand the airframeoverstressed.
Unlessthe FlightcrewManual for the type statesthat the flaps are
designedto assistmanoeuvres, theyshouldnot be usedunderconditions
of loadingappreciablygreaterthan thoseof steadylevelflight. It should
be notedthat thefiguresquotedarelimitationsand arenot recommended
as the bestspeedsat which to performtheseoperations.
WeightLimitations
Weight limitationsare imposedon all aircraft, the determiningfactors
beingthe strengthof the undercarriage,particularlyfor the landingcase,
and the loadsthat can be absorbedby the wingswhen manoeuvringat
the maximum permissibleg. On twin and multi-enginedaircraft the
performanceon asymmetricpower is sometimescritical, and exceeding
the weightlimitationsmay resultin a seriousdrop in performance.
FlightcrewManuals often give more than one weight limitation, for
example:
a) Maximum weight for take-off and gentlemanoeuvres
only, and a lower limit-
b) Maximum weight for all other permittedforms of flying,
and a still lower limit-
c) Maximum weightfor landing.
This meansthat at the highestweight the aircraft must be handled
gently, moderateturns should be made and only small amounts of g
imposed.Also the IAS and Mach numbershouldbe kept well within the
limitationsuntil the weight falls to the limit at which all forms of flying
are permitted.The limits imposedfor landingshouldbe exceededonly
when an emergencylanding must be made and excessload cannot be
jettisoned.In thiscaseeverycaremustbetakento avoidlargeshockloads
and the aircraftlandedas gentlyaspossible.
CG Limitations
Flying limitationsincludethe most forward and most rearwardpermis-
sible positionsof the CG. The aircraft should be flown at standard
loadingsat which the CG is within safelimits. Allowanceshouldalways
be madefor any shift of the CG as fuel is used.Non-observance of CG
limits can leadto instability at all speedsand to uncontrollablenoseor
tail-heaviness at low speeds,the latter becauseofthe elevatorsreaching
the limit of their movement.
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
I In an aircraftstructureSTRAIN is:
a) measuredasthe load per unit area.

b) the changeofsize overthe originalsize.
c) the originalsizeoverthe changeofsize.
d) measuredasthe total forceactingon a givenstructuralsection.
Ref para 19.2
2 Rigidity is the:
a) changeof sizeoverthe originalsize.

b) ratio of strainoverstress.
c) ratio of stressoverstrain.
d; measure of loadper unit area.
Ref para 19.2
3 A monocoquestructureis alsoknown as:
a) rigid construction.
b) stressedskin.
c) warrengirder.
d) quasiconstruction
R ef para r9.7
4 Warren girder constructionemploysthe principle of:
a) the aircraftskin takingmost of the load.

b) the aircraftskin taking minimal load.
c) all metalconstruction.
d) all wood construction.
Ref para 19.7
5 Torsionalaileronflutter may be causedby:
a) wing flexure.
b) massbalanceforward of the aileronhingeline.
c) control surfaceC of G on the hingeline.
d) fitting of hydraulic servosto the aileron control system.
Ref para 19.6
281
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
SomeMore Key Points

I In levelflight Lift, Weigtit,Thrust and Drag aresaidto act through
the centreof gravity.
2 Induceddragis proportionalto lift.
3 Induceddrag is greatestat the wing tip.
4 Induceddrag is inverselyproportionalto speed.
5 Profiledragis proportionalto speed.
6 The stallingangleis the angleabovewhich a wing will stall.
7 At zeroangleof attack a camberedwing will producesomelift and
somedrag.
8 At zero angleof attack a symmetricalwing will produceNO LIFT
but somedrag.
9 Induceddrag reduceswith increasedaspectratio.
l0 A high aspectratio wing hasa long spanand a shortchord.
II An increaseof aspectratio resultsin a reductionin stallingangle.
12 With increasingaltitudethe stallingangleof wing remainsthesame.
l3 With increasingspeedthe stallingangleremainsthe same.
14 With increasedaircraft weightthe stallingspeedincreases.
15 With the aircraft CG on its forward limit the stalling speedis
increased.
16 3" to 4" angleof attack is known asthe optimum angleof attack.
17 From zerodegrees angleof attackup to theoptimumangleof attack
the Lift/Drag ratio increases.
l8 Above the optimum angleof attackthe LiftlDrag ratio reduces.
19 The optimumangleof attackis the bestangleof attackin thecruise.
20 Aileron flutter is primarily causedby wing flexure.
2l Aileron flutter is most likely to occuron a flexiblewing with rigid
aileronsat high speed.
22 Aileron flutter may be reducedwith massbalanceof the control
surfaces.
23 The objectiveof massbalanceis to bring the control surfaceCG to
the surfacehinseline.
282
i
I
l-*
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
24 Massbalancingis achievedby fitting weightsto the control surface

which act forward of the hingeline.
25 When the angleof attack is increasedin flight the C of P will reach
its farthestforward point just belowthe stallingangle.
26 In flight an increasein angleof attack will resultin the transition
point movingforward.
27 As the angleof attack is increased
in flight the BoundaryLayer will
thicken.
28 In level flight the stagnationpoint is that position where air is
brought to restjust in front.of the aerofoilleadingedge.
29 The stagnationpoint is staticpressureplus dynamicpressure.
30 In flight, with an increasein angleof attack,thestagnationpoint will
movedown and aft.
3l When trailing edgeflaps are loweredin flight the wing centre of
pressuremovesaft.
32 Whentrailingedgeflapsareloweredin flight thewing stallingangle
is reduced.
33 Slatsare normallyfitted in front of the aileronsat the wing leading
edgeto increasethe stallingangle.
34 Sweptwingsare employedto delayM"",.
35 For a givenwing areaand angleof attacka sweptwing will produce
lesslift than a straightwing.
36 A sweptwing tendsto increaselateralstability.
37 A sweptwing is more prone to tip stall.
38 Spanwisemovementof airflow over a sweptwing may be reduced
by Wing Fences,Leading EdgeNotches,Extendedor Saw Tooth
LeadingEdges,or Vortex Generators.
39 The purposeof a vortex generatoris to re-energise
the boundary
layer.
40 Vortex generatorsare normally fitted on the upper wing surface
towardsthe leadingedgein front of the control surfaces.Some
aircraft may havethem acrossthe completespan.
4l Balancetabs are fitted to control surfacesto assistthe pilot in
moving the controlsby reducingcontrol columnloads.
42 A Springtab is fitted to reducecontrol columnloadsat high speed.
283
PRINCIPLES
OF FLICHT
43 An AmericanTypeTurnbuckleis in safetywhennot morethanthree

threadsareshowing.
44 An AmericanType Turnbuckleis lockedby wire locking.
45 throughthetransonicspeedrangethewing
As an aircraftaccelerates
C of P will moveaft producinga nosedown pitchingmoment.
46 The nosedown pitchingmomentgeneratedasan aircraftaccelerates
throughthe transonicspeedrangeis adjustedor trimmedout by the
Auto-Mach Trim System.
47 Washoutof a wins is the reductionin ansleof incidencefrom root
to tip.
48 Induceddrag equalsprofile drag at V-o.
49 An increaseof aircraftweightwill haveno affecton gliderangebut
will reduceglideendurance.
50 Generallya V or ButterflyTail, will aid spin recovery.
FINAL TEST.
I The angleof attackof an aerofoilis the anglebetween:
a) chord and the longitudinalaxis.

b) wing and the lateralaxis.
c) wing leadingedgeand trailing edge.
d) chord and the relativeairflow.
2 Directionalcontrol of an aircraft is achievedby useof the:
a) rudder.
b) elevators.
c) fin.
d) ailerons.
3 The wing spanis the distancefrom:
a) leadingedgeto trailing edge.

b) wing tip to wing tip.
c) wing tip to fuselagecentreline.
d) wing tip to wing tip minusthe width of the fuselage.
CONSTRUCTION
AIRCRAFT
4 The threeaxesofan aircraft are saidto act through the:
a) centreofpressure.
b) wing leadingedgecentresection.
c) centreof gravity.
d) transitionpoint.
5 The chord line is a:
a) line tangentialto the wing surfaceat the leadingedge.

b) line equidistantfrom upperand lower surfaces.
c) line equidistantbetweenleadingand trailingedges,from root to tip.
d) straightline from leadingedgeto trailing edge.
6 Yawing is a rotation about the:
a) longitudinalaxis.
b) lateralaxis.
c) transitionpoint.
d) normal axis.
7 A high aspectratio wing hasa:
a) long spanand long chord.

b) long chord and short span.
c) long spanand short chord.
d) short spanand high chord.
8 Rolling is a rotation of the aircraftabout the:
a) longitudinaland normal axis.

b) lateraland normal axis.
c; longitudinalaxis.
d) lateralaxis.
9 Lateralcontrol is achievedwith the useof:
a) rudder.
b) tailplane.
c) elevators.
d) ailerons.
285
OFFLICHT
PRINCIPLES
1 0Pitchingis the movementof the aircraft about:
a) the normal axis.

b) the lateralaxis.
c) the longitudinalaxis.
d) all threeprimary axes.
l 1 Adverseyaw when rolling about the longitudinalaxis may be

preventedby useof:
a) a smallerfin.
b) equaldeflectionlateralcontrol surfaces.
c) differentialailerons.
d) increaseddihedral.
12 ln a FriseAileron control system:
a) the up-goingaileronmovesthrough a greateranglethan the down

goingaileron.
b) the down-goingaileronleadingedgeprotrudesinto the airflow.
c) the up-goingaileronproducesincreaseddrag.
d) the down-goingaileronallowsair to spill from belowthe wing to
the upper surfaceof the aileron.
l3 When an aircraftfitted with spoilersis rolled to port the:
a) port spoileris deflectedup.

b) stbd spoileris deflecteddown.
c) port spoileris deflectedup and the stbd down.
d) port upperspoilerup and port lower spoilerdown.
14 The primary control stops:
a) will be engagedat the control column when the surfaceis fully

deflected.
b) when engagedwill leavea small clearanceat the control column
secondarystops.
c) when engagedwill leavea small clearanceat the control surface
secondarystops.
d) are duplicated,one at the control column the other at the control
surface.
286
AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
l5 An American type control Turnbuckle is in safety:
a) when at least three threads are showing.

b) when the inspection hole is covered by thread.
' c) when the inspection hole is clear.
d) wtren not more than three threads are showing.
l6 A stiff nut is in safetywhen:
a) it cannot be tightened with the fingers.

b) the thread of the bolt is level with the face of the nut.
c) the threaded portion of the bolt is above the level of the nut.
d) the threaded portion of the nut is above the level of the end of the
bolt.
, 17 Inset hingesprovide:
a) mass balance to assistcontrol movement.

, b) aerodynamic balance to prevent flutter.
. c) aerodynamic balance to prevent control snatch.
) aerodynamic balance to assistin control movement.
l8 The lowering of leading edge flaps will causethe C of P to:

,
, &) move aft.
b) move aft and towards the wing root.
' c) move forward.
'
d) remain in the sameposition.
I 19 A servo tab is normally employed on:

I
''
a) transonicaircraft.
: bi largesubsonicaircraft.
j q) light aircraftonly.
I d) control surfacessubjectedto occasionalheavyloads.
i
I
| 20 To limit the rangeof movementof control surfacesin flight:

t
I a) cablesare tensionedto a set value.
tr Ul primary and secondaryinternal control stops are provided.
I c) primary and secondaryexternal control stops are provided'
d) control tension regulators are provided.
I
J
I
! 287
T
PRINCIPLES
OFFLICHT
2l For an aircraft without cabletensionregulatorsfitted in the flying

controlsystems, an increase will causecabletensionto:
in'temperature
a) decrease.
b) increaseonly at high altitude.
c) increaseonly at low altitude.
d) increase.
22 Anti-balanceTabs:
a) movein the samedirectionas the control surface.

b) movein the oppositedirectionto the control surface.
c) havea fixedvalueanddo not movein relationto thecontrol surface.
d) are directlyconnectedto the control column.
23 The purposeof a springtab is to:
a) providefeelfeedbackin a control system.

b) providea reductionin thepilot'seffort to movethecontrolsagainst
high air loads.
c) providea constantstaticfriction for the controls.
d) providea constantloadresistance to surfacedeflectionat all speeds.
24 As a trailing edgeplain flap is loweredto the max lift positionthe C

of P will:
a) moveforward.
b) moveforward and towardsthe wing root.
c) moveaft and towardsthe wing tip.
d) moveaft and towardsthe wing root.
25 A Fowler Flap will increase:
a) wing area.
b) wing areaand camber.
c) wing areaand aspectratio.
d) wing areaand finenessratio.
Final TestAnswers
l.d 6.d ll.c l6.c 2l.d
2.a l.c l2.c l7.d 22.a
3.b 8.c l3.a l8.c 23.b
4.c 9.d l4.b l9.b 24.d
5.d l0.b l5.d 20.b 25.b
288

Aerodynamics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aerodynamics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contents

Chapter I Properties of the Atmosphere ll

3.12 Wing Loading 3l

Chapter 3: Test Yourself 34

8-l5 Detail Calculationsand Factors Affecrins

ll.7 InternalBalance 139

16.7 Reductionof WaveDrag 224

1.2 Gas Composition

Oxygen is essentialfor the sustenanceof life and the combustion of

1.3 Regionsof the Atmosphere

lowesttemperature,and additionally it is the region fot maximum wind

(b) TemperatureVariation in the Troposphere

The InternationalStandardAtmosphere(ISA) usesthe comparable

(d) Temperature andAircraft Performance

where: Cr_= coefficient of lift Thus: Ct lz pY2S

and S = surface area

In the atmosphere,pressureis causedby the massof the gaseousmole-

(c) Variation of Pressurein the Atmosphere

(c) Variation of Densityin the Atmosphere

(d) Variation of Densitywith Humidity

(g) Air Densityandthe HumanBody

atmosphericdensityfound in winter in high latitudeswill givethe highest

1.8 The Gas Laws

1.9 The InternationalStandardAtmosphere

In order to providea datum for aircraft performancecomparison,and

(a) IndicatedAirspeed(IAS) The dynamicpressureof air againsta

Ref para 1.4

Ref para 1.6

3 Total pressureof air will:

Ref para 1.5

4 A reductionin air pressureresultsin:

5 The absoluteceilingof an aircraftis the altitudeat which the:

Ref para 1.7

If the speedof the moving air is comparativelyslow,say 100kt, the

pressureat sealevel.In fact the dynamicpressure will only amountto less

2.2 Streamline Flow

Figure 2-3 Mass Flow

it is wherethefull dynamicpressurepluswhateverstaticpressureis effec-

I The airflow over the upper surface of a cambered wing:

As the camberof an aerofoilsectionis increased:

Ref para 2.4

The stagnation point on an aerofoil in flight is:

The stagnation point is:

Ref para 2.4

3.3 Thickness/ChordRatio (,,Fineness Ratio,,)

3.4 Angle of Attack

3.5 Angle of lncidence

3.6 Wash Out

3.8 Wing Area

3.9 MeanChord (Geometric)

3.12 Wing Loading

3.16 Axesand FlightControls(PrimaryControls)

forward movesthe rudderto the right causingthe aircraft to yaw to the

3.17 AlternativeFormsof Control

I The thickness/chordratio of a wing is also known as the:

2 The angle of attack of an aerofoil section is the angle between the:

Ref para 3.4

3 The Mean Chord (Geometric) is the:

Ref para 3.9

4 A High Aspect Ratio wing is a wing with:

ProfileDrag or'ZeroLift Drag'

4.2 Profile Drag (ParasiteDrag)

(a) Skin FrictionandBoundaryLayer

the turbulentare:(a) Velocityof flow, (b) Viscosityof thefluid, or air, (c)