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In the mid-eighties one of us wrote a review enti- of new structures solved, since many protein structures
tled "Protein crystallography and computer graphics - are kept classified by pharmaceutical companies. The
toward rational drug design" [1]. It listed about 10 rate of structure determinations has doubled in the last
projects, a major fraction of the number of protein two years, and this rate is still increasing [9].
structure-based drug design-related projects going on
The large number of structural investigations on medi-
worldwide at that time. Yet at a meeting a few months
ago, Alex Wlodawer showed a slide listing close to cally relevant proteins reflects the general recognition
that the structure of a potential drug target is very pre-
200 structure determinations that have been performed
worldwide on a single protein, HIV protease, com- cious knowledge for a pharmaceutical company, not
only for lead discovery and lead optimization but also
plexed with a large variety of inhibitors; the number
in the later phases of drug development - stages
may have risen even further since then ...
where issues such as toxicity or bioavailability may crop
These two facts dramatically illustrate the explosive up. At these late stages, knowledge of the binding mode
growth in structure-based drug design in the last few of potential drug candidates to the target protein makes
years. The tremendous increase in detailed structural it easier to modify the compound in a rational manner.
knowledge of medically relevant proteins is due to sev- One should never forget, however, that there is often a
eral factors. First, molecular biology techniques have long road between the discovery or design of a tightly-
made it possible to obtain large amounts of virtually binding inhibitor of a target protein and the com-
any protein - although membrane proteins remain mercial availability of a drug. A successfully developed
difficult to obtain in large quantities and with great inhibitor may be too toxic, teratogenic, too rapidly
purity [2]. Second, protein purification methods have cleared, too quickly metabolized, unable to reach the
been continuously improving, thanks in particular to target enzyme in sufficient concentration, unstable in
more efficient chromatographic procedures [3]. Third, solution, too difficult to synthesize in bulk or too costly
over-expression systems have facilitated the produc- to produce. The criteria for allowing a new compound
tion of isotope-labeled proteins, which are the corner- to be administered to large populations need to be
stone of the heteronuclear multi-dimensional experi- quite stringent, and this is the main reason for the fail-
ments used in NMR structural elucidations [4]. Ever ure of compounds to become useful drugs. To predict
higher field strengths have also increased the sensitiv- how a new compound will change the delicate bal-
ity and the information content of NMR spectra [5].
ance of all metabolic, transport and signalling pathways
Fourth, data collection in protein crystallography has in the human body is simply impossible, no matter
been revolutionized due to the widespread introduc- how much pharmacological and toxicological know-
tion of area-detectors [6], the availability of incredibly
how has been invested in tailoring of the compound
powerful synchrotron X-ray sources [7], and the de- for use in humans. Hence, many promising compounds
velopment of cryo-cooling techniques [8]. These in- will unfortunately have to be rejected when they are
novations make it possible to tackle weakly-diffracting found to show unacceptable side effects in humans.
and very radiation-sensitive crystals successfully. Finally,
the introduction of workstations with ever-increasing The emergence of structure-based drug design as a
computing and graphics capabilities has greatly facili- new technology is nevertheless a fascinating develop-
tated the computational side of protein NMR and crys- ment of major, worldwide importance. The final ver-
tallography. All these developments have resulted in an dict on the power of this method will not be clear
exponential growth in the number of protein struc- for one or two decades, since it will take this long for
tures solved. Excluding mutants and complexes with enough cases to be studied to arrive at a statistically
small ligands, 226 structures were published in 1992 valid conclusion. At present, the field is exciting and full
[9]. This is certainly an underestimate of the number of surprising results, as we will show in this review.
but where the binding mode was entirely different from ity ligands can be deduced from the many crystal struc-
what had been intended (see, for example, [16]). tures of protein-ligand complexes:
(a) excellent steric and electronic complementarity
to the target biomacromolecule is required;
(b) a fair amount of hydrophobic surface should be
Tools for structure-based drug design buried in the complex for tight binding;
Although quantitative ab initio prediction of binding (c) sufficient conformational rigidity is essential to
constants remains a tremendous challenge [17,18], a ensure that the loss of entropy upon ligand binding is
number of qualitative rules for the design of high affin- acceptable.
Fig. 1. Protein structure-based drug design cycle. Lead compounds originate from either random screening of a few hundred thousand
compounds or from design. In the latter case, synthesis can be bypassed by using docking of compounds available commercially or
in-house. Design is the result of docking, linking and building, or any combination of the three. Due to the imperfections of computer
scoring, only about 2 % of the designed compounds pass the first criterion to become a lead, namely having micromolar affinity.
Verification of the structure of the protein-lead complex is essential. New rounds of structure-based design are then performed until a
promising compound shows up for pre-clinical trials. At this stage the structure is still useful: knowledge of the essential protein-ligand
interactions dictates where structural modifications to improve the pharmacodynamic properties should not be made. After successful
clinical trials a new drug is born.
580 Structure 1994, Vol 2 No 7
At least three additional criteria have to be taken into forms shape matching [26]. A newer version of this
account in the inhibitor design cycle: program incorporates a GRID-like energy evaluation
(d) chemical stability; which requires charges to be assigned to all atoms
of the database ligands [27]. It should be mentioned
(e) sufficient solubility in water for inhibition tests that the subgraph isomorphism techniques employed
and structural studies; in the above programs are not new and are widely used
(f) ease of synthesis, including the avoidance of chi- in traditional pharmacophore matching programs like
ral centers and of 'dead-end leads' (i.e. compounds ALADIN [28], FOUNDATION [29], MACCS-3D [30],
which are synthetically not easily amenable to many ChemDBS-3D [31], and CATALYST [32] (for an ex-
variations). cellent review see [33]).
Some of these rules and criteria have been incorpo- A third method for docking is Metropolis Monte
rated in a number of computer programs for automatic Carlo searching combined with a simulated annealing
protein structure-based inhibitor design. The meth- scheme. Energy evaluations from precalculated GRID-
ods of these computer programs for protein structure- like potential energy maps speed up the procedure.
based ligand design can be grouped as: docking, link- The ligand is kept rigid in the program BOXSEARCH
ing or building of methods (Fig. 2). Only two of these [34], while AUTODOCK [20] also alters the conforma-
programs came to light in the eighties, but at least ten tion of the ligand. Flexible ligand docking is computa-
new programs have been introduced in the last four tionally very demanding but may become more pop-
years. A virtual explosion of methodologies is under ular in the future as computing power continues to
way. increase.
Fig. 2. Methods for protein structure-based inhibitor design. All methods first characterize the target site in terms of shape and the
presence of specific surface properties, e.g. hydrophobic sites (H), hydrogen bond donors (D) and acceptors (A). Subsequently, docking,
building or linking algorithms are applied. In docking, molecules are retrieved from a huge database and evaluated for complementarity
to the target site. Usually, only one ligand conformation is tested because of computational intractability. Building starts from a highly
complementary fragment, either found by docking or known from a previous protein-ligand structure. This fragment, called the 'seed',
is appended with a myriad of different fragments, which each in turn can be substituted further. This combinatorial explosion, which is
also the hallmark of the linking method, is contained by pruning techniques, of which the most recent ones are Monte Carlo methods
and genetic algorithms. In linking, highly complementary fragments are linked into one molecule.
likely to have a higher affinity. In addition, the combi- maintained while the linker must be chemically fea-
nation molecule will have a higher specificity than the sible. Moreover, the linker should be quite rigid, since
separate functional groups. Linking different fragments the more rigid the linker is, the less rotational entropy
together is not easy, however, since the optimal posi- is lost upon binding, giving higher affinity. Obviously, if
tion and orientation of the fragments must be largely the linker makes additional favorable interactions with
582 Structure 1994, Vol 2 No 7
the target protein this further enhances the affinity as tein site of interest. Completely novel molecules are
well as specificity. Hence, the problem of finding op- also generated by so-called 'genetic algorithms' that cy-
timal linkers is by no means trivial. CAVEAT [40] tries cle back and forth between making random modifica-
to find a suitable cyclic linker from external databases, tions of a two-dimensional description of a ligand and
while NEWLEAD [41]. builds a linker from an inter- evaluating the fit of the next generation of molecules at
nal library of fragments. LUDI [24] can also be run the three-dimensional level in the active site of the tar-
in a link mode. The major benefit of these programs get protein (JM Blaney, D Weininger, andJS Dixon, per-
for automatic linking is that they show the medicinal sonal communication). Such programs are idea-gener-
chemist many alternatives for positioning the same key ating tools which show the ligand design team entirely
fragments. novel ways to fill up active sites with small molecules.
checked versus all possible conformations of the pro- and SPROUT. Desolvation is scored by DOCK, Group-
tein molecule. The key issue is whether a sufficient Build and GROW. In GROW, the enthalpy change of
number of ligand conformations from a sufficiently step (a) is also evaluated. Scoring is receiving consider-
large reservoir of small compounds are tested for their able attention. For example, DOCK initially used shape
fit versus a sufficiently large number of conformations fitting, but now has a considerably more sophisticated
of the protein. Promising results have been obtained scoring function [27]. It is to be expected that in the
with DOCK, even though only a tiny fraction of all pos- next years considerable progress in developing reason-
sible conformations of protein and ligands were inves- ably reliable scoring algorithms will be made.
tigated. This holds great promise for the future, as new
algorithms and the continuous increase in computer
power will allow the testing of more conformations.
Progress and successes
It is beyond the scope of a review like this to give
a comprehensive list of published protein structures
Scoring - a serious problem which are of relevance for the potential design of new
Because of the very large number of potential ligands drugs. Max Perutz, in his recent book [53], shows that
generated by docking, building or linking strategies, there are numerous protein structures available to start
it is essential to be able to estimate the free energy a drug design process. And every week, if not every day,
change of the protein-ligand interaction. For this, an new structures are added to the list, ranging from small
efficient scoring algorithm is required. Three steps can proteins like cytokines and growth factors to multi-en-
be distinguished in the process of a ligand binding to zyme complexes and viruses. The following selection
a protein in solution: of results is intended to give a sense of the range of
(a) both protein and ligand have to be brought from projects currently in progress.
their conformation free in solution to the conformation The structures of picornaviruses, like rhinovirus and
they will adopt in the complex; poliovirus, form a basis for the development of tightly-
(b) the surfaces of both protein and ligand that will binding ligands which prevent infection - presumably
be buried in the complex have to be desolvated; by blocking the uncoating process of the virus. For
the rhinoviruses, responsible for the common cold, the
(c) the ligand must be properly oriented and trans- great variability of the virus poses a tremendous chal-
lated to interact with the protein and to form a com- lenge for the design of a broad-spectrum drug. This
plex. variability is seen not only in the antigenic regions but
For the energy evaluation of step (a) the flexibility of also in the ligand-binding pocket [54]. As well as the
the protein can often be ignored; in other words, all potential for designing a drug that inhibits viral replica-
ligands are designed to bind to the same static pro- tion, structure-based drug design offers the possibility
tein conformation. A full conformational analysis for of designing ligands that stabilize the virus coat; with
the ligand in solvent is required, however. Storing a potential application for poliovirus vaccines [55]. Full
representative ensemble of low energy conformers to- implementation of the polio vaccination program in
gether with their energies allows the calculation of en- third world countries is hampered by the thermolability
thalpy and entropy changes, in other words, the strain of the virus used in the vaccine, which requires the
and loss of conformational entropy upon adopting the vaccine to be kept at low temperatures, without a sin-
bound conformation. The loss of internal rotational en- gle interruption, from manufacturer to injection in the
tropy is in practice estimated from the number of rotat- patient. A ligand which would stabilize the virus might
able bonds that are frozen out upon complex forma- be of tremendous value in allowing the vaccine to be
tion. Step (b) is generally approximated by empirically exposed to higher temperatures and thus to be more
calculating the solvent-accessible surface contributions easily used in tropical areas.
of various functional groups buried in the complex and Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) was the first target
translating this buried accessible surface into changes protein solved in complex with a drug - even though
of free energy of hydration. The loss of overall trans- the complex was a cancer drug, methotrexate, bound
lational and rotational entropy in step (c) is very simi- to a bacterial enzyme, it was an important first step
lar for all ligands. The enthalpy change of forming the [56]. Three-dimensional structures of dihydrofolate re-
protein-ligand complex in step (c) can be estimated ductase have been the basis for the design of several
from a force-field calculation. improved inhibitors [57]. Both DHFR and thymidy-
None of the described inhibitor design programs calcu- late synthase (TS), another enzyme involved in folate
lates all components of the free energy of binding out- metabolism, are excellent targets for drug design since
lined above. All of them estimate the enthalpy change they are crucial for pyrimidine and purine synthesis.
of step (c), however, sometimes by considering only In the search for new cancer chemotherapeutics a TS
some of the various contributions (van der Waals inter- inhibitor with Ki = 960 nM was rationally changed into
actions, hydrogen bonds, and so on). Loss of internal one with Ki = 15 nM; the compound is now in clinical
rotational entropy is only taken into account by LUDI evaluation [58]. Recently, the three-dimensional struc-
584 Structure 1994, Vol 2 No 7
ture of a bifunctional DHFR-thymidylate synthase from In vitro, acyclovir is a molecule with great potential for
the protozoon parasite Leishmania major has been treating T-cell leukemias and autoimmune diseases, but
unravelled [59], providing an opportunity for a two- it is limited in vivo by its inability to penetrate cells
pronged attack for drug design for the treatment of and by its chemical and enzymatic instability. Using the
leishmaniasis. structure of purine nucleoside phosphorylase, it has
proved possible to design a nanomolar membrane-per-
A stunning example of successful improvement of a meable inhibitor [67].
lead compound has been published in the case of
influenza virus neuraminidase. The investigators used In the case of essential proteases of malaria and schis-
GRID to find a favorable position for adding a positively tosoma, the structures of the proteases of interest are
charged substituent to the sialidase inhibitor 2-deoxy- not available. Since this class of proteins is so well un-
2,3-didehydro-D-N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac2en) derstood, however, it was possible to construct protein
[60]. This modified saccharide not only binds over models by 'homology modeling' and use these models
three orders of magnitude better than the parent com- for inhibitor design. Screening of 83 molecules from a
pound, but is also effective in vitro and in vivo against DOCK run yielded two micromolar inhibitors [68].
virus infection. Selective inhibitor design is yet another opportunity
Structural studies on elastase have revealed the erratic offered by structural knowledge. A search for new
drugs for the treatment of sleeping sickness exploited
mode of binding of closely related inhibitors. Three
the differences between the structures of human and
modifications of the same parent ligand molecule led
to surprisingly different binding modes of the three trypanosomal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydroge-
nase. Starting from adenosine as a lead, a 45-fold
daughter molecules [61].
increase in inhibition of the parasite enzyme was
Thrombin provides an example where natural com- achieved while the new compound was a poorer in-
pounds have been used as leads in a structure- hibitor of the human enzyme than the lead (CLMJ Ver-
based drug optimization process. The three-dimen- linde, et at, & WGJ Hol, unpublished data) (Fig. 3).
sional structure of the leech inhibitor hirudin has been High-resolution NMR structures of medically important
the basis for the development of compounds such as proteins are gradually appearing in the literature. An
'hirulog', a potent inhibitor of thrombin [62]. Frag- excellent example is the structure of FK506-binding
ments of the natural target of thrombin, fibrinogen, protein (FKBP) complexed with the immunosuppres-
have also been incorporated into high-affinity ligands sant ascomycin. The quality of such NMR structure de-
[63]. Surprisingly, oligonucleotides can also be found terminations is considerable, as evidenced by a mere
that inhibit the activity of thrombin. The binding mode 0.8A root mean square deviation for all non-hydrogen
has been unravelled in a three-dimensional structure atoms when compared with the FKBP complex with
[64] and is likely to allow the development of yet an- the highly analogous immunosuppressant FK506 [69].
other family of thrombin inhibitors.
Most of the examples we have given involve enzymes
Knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of HIV as targets. However, it is to be expected that the nu-
protease, a small but crucial protein from the AIDS merous structures of cytokines, growth factors and hor-
virus, has led to structure-based design of nanomolar, mones and their interaction.with receptors (see, for
bioavailable, non-peptide inhibitors [65]. Few proteins example, [70,71]) form new starting points for the de-
have been crystallographically studied more frequently sign of low molecular weight compounds modulating
than this protease - there are now very many known signal transduction. Such compounds may become im-
inhibitor-protease complexes. Interestingly, this goal- portant tools in controlling inflammation, suppressing
oriented research also provides an extremely precious the immune system or controlling cell growth. The in-
database of known structures of protein-ligand com- formation from the large number of DNA-binding pro-
plexes with associated binding constants. This is a teins which have been structurally characterized will
gold-mine for the fundamental research of theoretical one day be used to regulate gene expression by low
biophysicists, and will allow them to sharpen their the- molecular weight compounds. Also, many proteins of
oretical and computational tools. Eventually this will of the immune system are being fully characterized (for
course be beneficial for improving the scoring tools in example, MHC class I [72] and class II [73] molecules)
the ligand design process. and form yet another starting point for new drug dis-
covery programs.
Other success stories for structure-based ligand de-
sign include ligands for such diverse proteins as strep-
tavidin, purine nucleoside phophorylase, and various
proteases. Although streptavidin is not a drug target, Drug resistance in infectious diseases and cancer
the discovery of a peptide ligand for streptavidin by For infectious diseases the development of a single
library screening procedures is most illuminating, since therapeutically useful compound is by no means the
the peptide binds in an entirely different mode from end of the story. Such a compound, when used on a
that of the natural ligand, biotin [66]. large scale, will almost always lead to the occurrence
Structure-based drug design Verlinde and Hol 585
membrane receptors of neurotransmission at atomic 17. Hermans, J. (1993). An editorial comment: the limits of simula-
resolution. tions. Proteins 17, ii.
18. Kollman, PA (1994). Theory of macromolecule-ligand interac-
In future we may also see further developments in com- tions. Curr. Opin. Struck BioL 4, 240-245.
19. Goodford, PJ. (1985). A computational procedure for determin-
puter programs which predict the effect of blocking an ing energetically favorable binding sites on biologically important
enzyme in a pathway on the flow of metabolites - macromolecules J Med Cem. 28, 849-857.
or signals - through the pathway. Yet another area 20. Goodsell, D.S. & Olson, A.J. (1990). Automated docking of sub-
is the incorporation of toxicology data in knowledge- strates to proteins by simulated annealing. Proteins 8, 195-202.
21. Nishibata, Y. & Itai, A (1993). Confirmation of usefulness of
based systems. Eventually we may see the sequenc- a structure construction program based on three-dimensional
ing of entire genomes of pathogens, followed by- the receptor structure for rational lead generation. J. Med Chem
selection of target proteins which are either absent 36, 2921-2928.
in the host or very different from analogous proteins 22. Rotstein, S.H. & Murcko, MA (1993). GroupBuild: a fragment-
based method for de novo drug design. J. Med Cemn 36,
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termination and screening of libraries and databases 23. Miranker, A. &Karplus, M. (1991). Functionality maps of binding
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So many activities are going on that it is hard to keep Mol Des 6, 61-78.
up with all developments on so many frontiers. We 25. Lawrence, M.C. & Davis, P.C. (1992). CLIX: a search algorithm
hope that this review has at least given a flavor of the for finding novel ligands capable of binding proteins of known
excitement in the field, results obtained and challenges three-dimensional structure. Proteins 12, 31-41.
26. Kuntz, I.D., Blaney, J.M., Oatley, SJ., Langridge, R. & Ferrin, T.E.
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Acknowledgements We thank Prof. Charles Bugg and Dr. Hidong Kim ing with grid-based energy evaluation. J Comput Chem 13,
for critically reading the manuscript and appreciate the help of Dr. 505-524.
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