Automotive Innovation (2018) 1:187–210

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42154-018-0031-y

Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology

Xiangyang Xu1,2 · Peng Dong1,2 · Yanfang Liu1,2 · Hui Zhang1,2

Received: 21 June 2018 / Accepted: 31 July 2018 / Published online: 23 August 2018
© The Author(s) 2018

Abstract
Much progress has been made in the development of automotive transmissions over the past 20 years, e.g., an increased speed
number, expanded ratio spread and improved efficiency and shift quality. Automotive transmissions are moving toward
electrification in response to stringent legislation on emissions and the pressing demand for better fuel economy. This
paper reviews progress in automotive transmission technology. Assisted by computer-aided programs, new transmission
schemes are constantly being developed. We therefore first introduce the synthesis of the transmission scheme and parameter
optimization. We then discuss the progress in the transmission technology of a conventional internal combustion engine
vehicle in terms of new layouts; improved efficiency; noise, vibration and harshness technology; and the shifting strategy and
control technology. As the major development trend, transmission electrification is subsequently discussed; this discussion
includes the configuration design, energy management strategy, hybrid mode shifting control, single-speed and multi-speed
electric vehicle transmission and distributed electric drive. Finally, a summary and outlook are presented for conventional
automotive transmissions, hybrid transmissions and electric vehicle transmissions.

Keywords Automotive transmission · Hybrid transmission · Electric vehicle transmission · Distributed electric drive ·
Scheme synthesis · Electrification

Abbreviations ICE Internal combustion engine

ILC Iterative learning controller
AMT Automated manual transmission MT Manual transmission
AT Automatic transmission MOP Mechanical oil pump
CD Charge depleting NMPC Nonlinear model predictive controller
CS Charge sustaining NVH Noise, vibration and harshness
CVT Continuously variable transmission OWC One-way clutch
DCT Dual-clutch transmission PGP Parallel-axis gear pair
DHT Dedicated hybrid transmission PGS Planetary gear set
DOF Degree of freedom PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
ECVT Electric continuously variable transmission PID Proportional-integral-derivative
EM Electric motor R&D Research and development
EOP Electric oil pump RGS Ravigneaux gear set
EV Electric vehicle SE Shifting element
FWD Front-wheel driving THS Toyota Hybrid System
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle

B Peng Dong
peng.dong@buaa.edu.cn 1 Introduction
1 School of Transportation and Science Engineering, Beihang
University, Beijing 100191, China With pressing demands to reduce emissions and improve
2 fuel economy, automotive transmissions have evolved over
Beijing Key Laboratory for High-efficient Power
Transmission and System Control of New Energy Resource the past 20 years while rapidly progressing toward elec-
Vehicle, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China trification. Conventional automotive transmissions for the

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internal combustion engine (ICE) are generally classified into
manual transmission (MT), automated manual transmission
(AMT), automatic transmission (AT), dual-clutch transmis-
sion (DCT) and continuously variable transmission (CVT).
This review focuses on the progress of AT, DCT and CVT
because they largely account for the development of trans-
mission technology in the past 20 years and have gradually
replaced MT and AMT in passenger cars.
Automotive transmissions are undergoing electrification
to meet stringent legislations pushing for CO2 reduction. As
electromechanical coupling systems, transmissions in hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) are important in terms of achieving different driving
modes, such as series, parallel and power-split modes. With
the integration of the electric motor (EM) into conventional
ATs, DCTs and CVTs are examples of transmission electrifi-
cation and are normally realized by adding a hybrid module
or replacing the launching element with a hybrid module.
Such add-on solutions have excellent inheritance because
most parts can be shared between conventional transmissions
and hybrid transmissions, which facilitates modular design
and manufacture. In contrast to add-on solutions, dedicated
hybrid transmissions (DHTs) are completely newly devel-
oped for HEVs and PHEVs. The complexity of a mechanical
system is generally lower than that of conventional multi-
speed transmissions.
As for electric vehicles (EVs), single-speed gearboxes are
most commonly used today. It is not necessary for an EV
to have a complex multi-speed transmission owing to the
torque and efficiency characteristics of the EM. However,
a two- or three-speed transmission can benefit the minia-
turization of the EM in terms of reducing the EM peak
torque. Furthermore, energy consumption can be reduced
by optimizing the operating points of the EM through gear
shifting. Many companies have therefore developed two-
or three-speed transmissions for EVs. To improve the effi-
ciency and reduce weight, EV transmission tends to be
fully integrated with the EM and power electronics. The
distributed electric drive is one direction of the research
and development (R&D) of EVs, and it has attracted much
attention because of its simple vehicle architecture and
high drive efficiency. Some in-wheel motors are close to
industrialization.
Along with the development of HEVs, PHEVs and EVs,
automotive transmission technology is currently in a transi-
tion phase moving toward electrification. It is thus necessary
to review and provide an outlook for the development of auto-
motive transmission. The remainder of the paper is organized
as follows. Section 2 introduces the synthesis of a transmis-
sion scheme and parameter optimization. Section 3 discusses
the progress in the transmission technology of a conventional
ICE vehicle. Section 4 presents the state of the art of elec-
trified transmission technology for HEVs, PHEVs and EVs.
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X. Xu et al.
Finally, a summary and future research directions are pre-
sented.
2 Synthesis of a Transmission Scheme
and Parameter Optimization
Regarding the development of automotive transmissions, the
first step is to find a competitive transmission scheme with
high power density, high efficiency and low R&D costs. This
section introduces the theory and methodology of the synthe-
sis of the transmission scheme. The parameter optimization
of transmission schemes is also reviewed in this section.
2.1 Synthesis of the Transmission Scheme
An AT is a system having multiple degrees of freedom
(DOFs) mechanically connected by several planetary gear
sets (PGSs), parallel-axis gear pairs (PGPs) and shifting ele-
ments (SEs). It achieves different gear ratios by engaging
different SEs to reduce the number of DOFs of the system.
Depending on the numbers of PGSs, SEs and DOFs, the max-
imum number N of candidate transmission schemes can be
calculated as [1]
 
p
N  CC 3 × CCL 2 × A33 , (1)
n+ p n+ p
where L, n and p are, respectively, the numbers of SEs, DOFs
and PGSs.
Taking the synthesis problem of a transmission scheme
with three PGSs, three SEs and four DOFs as an example, the
total number of candidate transmission schemes is about 1.9
billion, among which it is difficult to find the best. Several
synthesis methods have been proposed in the literature to
solve this complex problem.
2.1.1 Benchmark Method
The benchmark synthesis method starts from a basic scheme,
which can be selected from existing transmission schemes
having good performance [2]. By adding or removing partial
PGSs and SEs or tuning the stationary ratio of PGSs and PGPs
[3], a new transmission scheme is extended from the basic
scheme. Dong synthesized a 13-speed AT scheme based on
an eight-speed AT scheme by adding one SE [4], as shown
in Fig. 1. A 9-, 11- or 13-speed clutching sequence can be
realized by tuning the stationary ratios of PGPs.
The method requires little calculation effort to facilitate
manual operation. However, it relies heavily on the experi-
ence of the designer and the features of the selected basic
scheme. Therefore, the final solution is usually not a global
optimal solution.
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology 189

Housing Housing
PGS1 PGS1
B1 B1
0 C3 C1 0 C3 C1
C4 C4
6 4 6 4
3 5 3 5
1 1
Input 1st axis Input 1st axis

10 PGP2 PGP1 10 PGP2 PGP1

PGP3 PGP3
7 7
8 8
2 2
PGS3 2nd axis PGS3 2nd axis

Final drive 9 Final drive 9

˄ ˅
˄FD˅ ˄
˄FD˅ ˅
11 C2 11 C5 C2
PGS2 PGS2

Output Output Output Output

8AT 13AT

Fig. 1 Transmission schemes of eight-speed and 13-speed ATs. (Reproduced with permission from [4])

2.1.2 Line Chart Analysis Method A D C

New transmission schemes can be inspired through analy- B C D

sis of the relative rotational speed relationship of each basic A B C
component of a scheme [5], as shown in Fig. 2. By determin- O A B
ing the sequence of the gear ratio, all possible gears can be O B
found. Auxiliary components are added to the connection of
each gear, and the numbers of PGSs and SEs are obtained. 1/ 1/ 1/
According to the rational speed of each basic component, the
O
performance of the scheme is obtained [6]. Constraints are
iR—Reverse gear
imposed on the connection conditions of the gears, and the i1—First gear
synthesis process is greatly simplified [7]. i2—Second gear
The method has low computational accuracy and requires A
1
a high level of professional skill [8]. With an increasing num- B
ber of DOFs, the transmission scheme becomes increasingly C
complex such that synthesis based on this method becomes
tedious. It is also difficult to synthesize all feasible transmis-
sion schemes. D

2.1.3 Component Analysis Method

Wan [9] proposed a synthesis method based on component
analysis in 1965 as shown in Fig. 3. By analyzing impor-
tant factors, such as the combinations of basic components
of PGSs and their structural and parametric characteristics,
all feasible schemes are deduced. A variety of early trans-
missions were successfully found using this method.
However, with increasing numbers of PGSs, SEs and
speeds, the number of candidate transmission schemes
Fig. 2 Line chart representation of a two-DOF transmission scheme.
(Reproduced with permission from [6])
increases dramatically [10], as does the calculation effort.
It is therefore mostly agreed that this method is effective for
the synthesis of a transmission scheme with fewer than three
DOFs [11].

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190 X. Xu et al.

z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3
z2 z1 z2 β β β
z1 α b α α z3
O O z3 z2 z1 b
O B
C2 C1 o b
z2 z2 z2
Fig. 3 Component analysis method

(a) (b)
Ring Ring Ring Carrier
Zs Zs e7
Carrier Ring
o z3 β
Carrier
Carrier c3 e5 e3
Zr Zr

c2 α c1
Sun Sun Sun Sun e1 e8

Fig. 4 Lever representation of a PGS e6 e4

e2
g b z1 z2

2.1.4 Lever Analysis Method

A PGS can be represented by a lever, where the kinematics
between the sun gear, ring gear and planet carrier follows
the lever rule [12–14], as shown in Fig. 4. Therefore, the
lever method is largely intuitive. However, the overall scheme
needs to be simplified to a two-DOF system, and this becomes
more exhaustive work for the synthesis of a scheme having
more than three DOFs.
2.1.5 Graph Theory Method
By defining all components as points and their connections
as edges on a planar graph, graph theory performs well in
representing AT schemes as shown in Fig. 5. In addition, the
planarity checking algorithm of graph theory can be used
to judge the structural feasibility of transmission schemes
for further evaluation and parametric optimization [15, 16].
Therefore, the synthesis of a transmission scheme based on
graph theory is much easier for computer implementation
[17, 18]. Much effort has been put into this method and
improved synthesis models based on graph theory have been
proposed [19–21]. Li [22] built a graph theory model for
scheme synthesis where the PGS was taken as a basic unit and
computer-aided design was implemented employing compo-
nent analysis.
2.1.6 Coding Synthesis Method
Gumpoltsberger proposed a shaft coding synthesis method
for an AT scheme with PGSs. The basic shaft components of
each PGS are coded. With the permutation and combination
algorithm, a complete coding sequence that can construct all
possible transmission schemes is integrated. This method is
outstanding when synthesizing transmission schemes have
Fig. 5 Structural representation based on graph theory. (Reproduced
with permission from [22])
more DOFs. However, the initial scheme database is usu-
ally large such that the overall computational efficiency is
low because more memory and more calculation effort are
required to remove unreasonable schemes [23]. Ma built a
synthesis model for a four-DOF AT scheme by combining
the shaft coding rule, component analysis and graph theory.
She combined the depth-first searching algorithm and the
D.M.P. algorithm to improve the computational efficiency
[24, 25].
In general, the benchmark method, line chart analysis and
lever analysis can be used to quickly synthesize and analyze
new schemes. However, these methods place extremely high
demands on the designer. Additionally, they are only suitable
for synthesizing schemes with fewer than three DOFs. The
graph theory method converts the scheme into a graph model
and eliminates solutions having mechanical interference. The
component analysis method and the code synthesis method
can obtain all possible schemes by enumeration. However,
with increasing numbers of DOFs and PGSs, the scheme
becomes more complex. More detailed constraints need to
be established to reduce the computational time.
The position of the EM must be considered when syn-
thesizing DHT schemes. Many works have studied the
configuration design of a DHT system on the basis of previ-
ous achievements of AT synthesis. Studies have established
lever models for one or two PGSs. The DHT schemes can
be obtained by determining the connecting position of the
engine and EM [26, 27]. However, this leverage analysis for
the synthesis of DHTs is also only suitable for two or three
DOFs because of its complex lever conversion rules.

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Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology
Graph theory is also applied for the synthesis of DHTs
[28–30]. A graph model of PGSs is first built. A certain num-
ber of points are randomly selected as the fixed connections to
the energy resource. Clutch connections are then introduced
into the graph model. All design schemes are obtained by
traversing all points. Peng proposed a model-based design
method to realize the above design process efficiently [28,
31]. By analyzing the characteristics of each operating mode
of DHT systems [32], different constraints are deduced and
the configuration schemes that meet the design requirements
are finally obtained [33–37]. Meanwhile, the corresponding
computational algorithms for the structural design of DHT
systems have been discussed by taking the wheelset as the
basic topology unit in graph theory [38, 39]. Although a
design process and its computer-aided synthesis based on
graph theory have been employed, it remains necessary to
focus on how to find the best solution with multiple DOFs
and high efficiency.
FEV proposed an integrated approach for synthesizing
multi-axial DCT schemes. By introducing the dual-clutch
shaft into the power transmission path, a plurality of DCT
schemes with n + x gears are synthesized, each having the
same structural dimensions as the original DCT schemes with
n gears [40]. Leesch proposed a synthesis method for DCT
schemes that involves traversing the power flow path [41].
In summary, many studies on the synthesis of transmission
schemes have been conducted. However, with the increasing
numbers of components and DOFs, the computational effi-
ciency of synthesis is declining because more time is required
for the detection of mechanical interference and isomorphic
schemes. Therefore, how to improve the versatility and effi-
ciency of the synthesis algorithm will be an ongoing research
hotspot.
2.2 Parameter Optimization
The performance of a transmission scheme in terms of, for
example, the gear ratios, mechanical efficiency and structural
compactness will depend on design parameters. It is therefore
essential to find the optimal parameters with which to design a
transmission scheme with good performance [42]. However,
this is difficult because there are a great many parameters and
many optimization goals.
Most work nowadays focuses on the parametric optimiza-
tion of the stationary ratios of PGSs. Ideal transmission ratios
for all gears are usually given in advance by experienced engi-
neers as the initial optimization target. The transmission ratio
of each gear is determined by the stationary ratios of PGSs.
Some numerical algorithms, such as dynamic programming,
ant colony, particle swarm and genetic algorithms, have been
shown to be effective for solving such problems [4, 43].
There remain strict requirements in addition to the trans-
mission ratios [44] in the parametric design of a transmission
191
scheme. However, the computational effort increases dramat-
ically once these are taken into account. For conventional
ATs, how to build a parametric optimization model consid-
ering as many factors as possible will be another ongoing
research hotspot. Chen proposed an improved minimum and
maximum principle to optimize the detailed gear param-
eters (including the gear modulus, gear teeth number and
gear width) of a two-speed transmission scheme and built an
optimization model for the optimal dynamic and economic
performance [45, 46]. For DHTs in HEVs and PHEVs, the
main focus is energy management and mode shifting control
[47]. However, the coordination of multiple power sources
is also an important factor, and few published works have
focused on structural parametric optimization design.
3 Progress in the Transmission Technology
of a Conventional ICE Vehicle
This section gives a general review of the latest develop-
ments of conventional automotive transmission for the ICE.
The transmission layout synthesis, efficiency improvement,
noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) technology, shifting
strategy and control technology are discussed separately.
3.1 Transmission Layout Synthesis
Novel AT and DCT schemes have continuously emerged
in recent years with an increasing number of speeds. A
growing number of automakers are introducing these novel
multi-speed transmissions to their vehicles, as a part of a
continuing effort to improve the drivability and fuel econ-
omy of their vehicles. On the one hand, the highest gear
ratio has been decreased to improve fuel economy when a
vehicle is cruising. On the other hand, the lowest gear ratio
has been increased to improve drivability when a vehicle is
launching or creeping. The increasing speed number allows
for smaller gear steps that provide comfort and smooth shifts.
CVT schemes have not changed greatly. The main type is still
the chain or belt drive. Jatco integrated an auxiliary gearbox
with one Ravigneaux gear set (RGS) and three SEs to achieve
a wider ratio spread [48]. Other CVT concepts, such as the
toroidal variator, are still far from industrialization.
3.1.1 AT Schemes
Figure 6 shows AT schemes of different companies for lon-
gitudinal application. In 2001, ZF launched its six-speed AT
based on the Lepelletier concept with one single PGS, one
RGS and five SEs [49]. In 2007, ZF introduced its eight-speed
AT with four PGSs and five SEs instead of the Lepelletier-
based structure [50]. The system has four DOFs, which
means three SEs need to be engaged for each speed. This
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192 X. Xu et al.

B1 B1 C1
B2 B2 B1 B2
C2 C2 C3
C3 C4
C1
C3 C2
C1
Aisin &
Toyota F1 F1

6-speed 8-speed 10-speed

C3
B2 B1 B2 C2
C2
B1

C1
C1
ZF

C3

6-speed 8-speed

B1 B2 B4 B1 B2 B3
B3
C2 C3
C1
C2
C3
Mercedes
-Benz C1

7-speed 9-speed

C1 B1 B2 B3 C2 B2 B3 B4
B1

Allison C2 C1

6-speed 9-speed

C2
B1 B2 C1 C4
B1 B2
C1 C2 C3

C3
GM

8-speed 10-speed

Fig. 6 AT schemes of different companies for longitudinal application

transmission is a market benchmark in that it offers consid-
erable progress in terms of fuel savings, the power-to-weight
ratio and functionality.
Aisin developed a six-speed AT for rear-wheel-driving
vehicles based on the Lepelletier concept [51]. A new eight-
speed AT was then released in 2007 by Aisin and Toyota
jointly, again on the basis of the Lepelletier concept [52].
However, the stationary ratio of the single PGS changes from
negative to positive and there is one more clutch than for the
six-speed AT. In 2017, Aisin and Toyota introduced their
new 10-speed AT. The gear train is made up of one RGS, two
single PGSs, four clutches and two brakes [53]. In compari-
son with their eight-speed AT, ten speeds are achieved using
the same number of SEs but one more single PGS. This new
gear train also has four DOFs. In addition, the one-way clutch
(OWC) for the shift between first and second gears is elimi-
nated.
Mercedes-Benz, in 2003, released its seven-speed longi-
tudinal AT, which consists of one RGS, two single PGSs and
seven SEs [54]. Although it was the first gear train having four
DOFs on the market, there are still four SEs disengaged for
each speed, which produces large drag torque. In 2015, Mer-
cedes introduced its nine-speed longitudinal AT. The gear
train is again a four-DOF system that has four single PGSs,
but the number of SEs is reduced to six [55]. A specific soft-
ware tool was developed to find this transmission scheme
within specific constraints, such as those of the size, ratio,
spread and optimal gear efficiency.
GM and Ford jointly developed eight-speed and 10-speed
longitudinal ATs. The eight-speed AT has a transmission
scheme similar to that of the ZF eight-speed AT including
four single PGSs, three clutches and two brakes [56]. The
10-speed AT has one more clutch and was the first AT in mass
production having five DOFs [57]. Allison is now develop-

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Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology 193

B1
B2
C1
C2

ZF

9-speed

B1
S1
B2 B3
C2
C1
Honda C3

10-speed

B2 B1
F1 B2 C3
B1 C1
C1
C3 C2
C2
Aisin

6-speed 8-speed

B1 B2 B2
B3
B1 S1 B3
C1
F1 C1
C2

GM C2 C3

6-speed 9-speed

B1 B3 B4 B2 B3
B1 S1 B2 B4
B2 C1 B1
B3 C1
C1
C2
C2 C2

Ford

8F24 8F35 8F57

Fig. 7 AT schemes of different companies for front-transverse application

ing a nine-speed AT for the medium-duty commercial truck
market [58]. An additional PGS and brake have been added
on the basis of Allison’s proven reliable six-speed AT. The
new gear train features four PGSs and six SEs. Prototypes
are being tested internally.
Front-wheel-driving (FWD) vehicles account for 75%
of the market of passenger cars. Regarding ATs for front-
transverse application, cost and size pressure is even higher
because FWD vehicles are particularly prevalent in the cost-
sensitive market of compact and mid-size cars. Figure 7
shows the AT schemes of different companies for front-
transverse application. ZF, in 2013, launched its nine-speed
AT with four single PGSs and six SEs [59]. In terms of size,
the length of a front-transverse AT is important. In consid-
eration of the installation space, ZF arranged the PGSs and
SEs in a nested manner. Additionally, two dog clutches were
first applied as SEs in ATs because of their small diameter
and length.
The front-transverse ATs of Aisin are also Lepelletier-
based structures [60, 61]. Aisin introduced six-speed and
eight-speed ATs to the market in 2004 and 2013, respectively.
GM developed its six-speed AT with three single PGSs, two
clutches, four brakes and one OWC [62]. On the basis of this
scheme, GM developed a nine-speed AT that they launched
to market in 2017 [63]. The nine-speed AT uses a compound
PGS to replace one single PGS. By means of one selectable
OWC, only one SE is added in the new scheme. Ford devel-
oped three eight-speed ATs having different engine torques
[64]. The 8F35 and 8F57 are based on the six-speed and
nine-speed ATs jointly developed by GM and Ford.
Honda is well known for its four-speed and five-speed
countershaft-type ATs. However, it is difficult to increase
the speed number using only PGPs. In 2017, Honda intro-
duced its novel 10-speed AT with four single PGSs, three
brakes, three clutches and one selectable OWC [65]. Shen-
grui developed an eight-speed AT by combining three single

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6 7 5 R 6 5 R 4 5 1

2 6 3 7

2 4 3 1 2 4 3 1

Volkswagen 7-speed Volkswagen 6-speed Volkswagen 7-speed

R
R 4 5 1 R4 5 3

2 4 8 6

2 6 7 1
2 6 7 3
1 3 7 5

Great Wall Motor 7-speed Honda 8-speed GETRAG 7-speed

Fig. 8 DCT schemes of different companies

PGSs, three PGPs and five SEs on two parallel axes [66].
A nine, eleven or thirteen-speed clutching sequence can be
realized by adding one clutch and tuning the stationary ratio
of the three PGPs [4].
3.1.2 DCT Schemes
DCTs combine the advantage of MTs (i.e., high efficiency)
with that of ATs (i.e., power shifts). Owing to the lack of
a torque converter, DCTs require a higher first gear ratio to
launch the vehicle.
Figure 8 presents several DCT schemes that are in mass
production. The first DCT for passenger cars, DQ250 from
Volkswagen (VW), went into serial production in 2003 [67].
A wet multi-plate dual-clutch module from BorgWarner is
applied to divide the gears into odd gears and even gears.
An advantage of DCT over AT is that only one disengaged
clutch causes drag losses. In 2007, VW introduced its seven-
speed DCT with a dry dual-clutch module from LuK [68].
Compared with DQ250, DQ200 has higher efficiency but
lower torque capacity. DQ500 came onto the market in 2009
[69] and is a seven-speed DCT with a wet multi-plate dual-
clutch module. VW uses this DCT in larger and higher-output
vehicles.
The success of the VW DCT sets a benchmark in terms
of the shift speed, sports performance and efficiency. Other
vehicle or transmission manufacturers, such as GETRAG,
Great Wall and Geely, have started developing their own
DCTs. Honda released its eight-speed DCT in 2014 with an
ultra-flat torque converter, the adoption of which helps vehi-
cles launch powerfully and smoothly. Additionally, instead
of the integrated dual-clutch module in conventional DCT,
the dual clutch is separately arranged on parallel shafts to
reduce inertia [70].
DCTs are mainly applied for FWD vehicles. To achieve
more speeds, DCTs must have more PGPs, synchronizers
and forks. However, this is difficult to realize within the lim-
ited space of the engine compartment. Therefore, the speed
number of DCTs is currently less than that of ATs. It has
been reported that VW was once developing a 10-speed DCT
adopting the winding gear concept but this effort has since
been terminated.
3.2 Efficiency Improvement
Transmissions have tended to have more speeds in recent
years because of legislative pressure relating to CO2 reduc-
tions and fuel economy. However, driving simulations indi-
cate that increasing the speed number beyond 10 will not
improve the fuel economy appreciably [71]. Different opti-
mization approaches have therefore been investigated for

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Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology 195

Type of return Multi-coil Slotted disc Separating

springs spring pack spring spring

Drag torque
No No Yes
reduction

Graphic

Installation
space

Fig. 9 Different types of return spring. (Reproduced with permission

from [72]) Fig. 10 Fluid dam and catch tank. (Reproduced with permission from
[75])
mechanical and hydraulic systems to improve transmission
efficiency. brake for reverse and the low forward gear are replaced by
integrating a selectable OWC in Ford eight-speed, GM nine-
speed and Honda 10-speed ATs. The use of a dry dual-clutch
3.2.1 Mechanical System
module can improve the efficiency of the DCT because there
is no oil sheared between plates. Nevertheless, the torque
The transmission scheme is important in terms of improv-
capacity of a dry clutch is limited.
ing the efficiency of a mechanical system. Newly developed
Gear churching accounts for a large portion of torque
ATs usually have four or even five DOFs instead of three
losses in transmissions. To reduce gear churching, current
DOFs because it means that fewer SEs are disengaged for
transmissions adopt a fluid dam between the differential and
each speed, resulting in small drag losses. Optimizations
housing. Fluid catch tanks are designed on the housing to
regarding friction loss and drag torque loss are continuously
catch the oil pumped up by the final gear. The oil flow around
in progress on the component level. Low-friction bearings,
the final gear can thus be optimized and the fluid level can
seals and damper systems have gradually become popular in
be reduced as shown in Fig. 10. As a result, gear churching
ATs, DCTs and CVTs, contributing greatly to improvements
losses can be minimized.
in efficiency.
The efficiency of CVTs is generally lower than that of
Mubea developed new separating springs using waved
ATs and DCTs. However, it has improved greatly during the
disks positioned among clutch plates [72]. As shown in Fig. 9,
last decade. Jatco [22] developed a new variator system for its
compared with the coil spring and disk spring, the drag torque
CVT7 W/R, which increased the friction coefficient between
losses of disengaged SEs can be greatly reduced through the
the belt and pulleys by means of optimized flank geome-
active separation of clutch plates. A potential drag torque
try and higher sheave stiffness. The pulley thrust force for
reduction of up to 5 Nm can be achieved using separating
clamping the belt can thus be reduced, decreasing the line
springs. In addition, the separating spring provides installa-
pressure and oil pump driving torque. In addition, the rela-
tion space savings. There is the potential to further reduce
tive slipping between belt elements and bands as well as the
drag torque losses on the clutch lining surface by, for exam-
clearance between belt elements are reduced by means of a
ple, optimizing the groove pattern, groove shape and friction
smaller rocking edge height and endplay, reducing the belt
material. The design optimization of the clutch lining surface
internal friction and thus mechanical losses.
has been studied in simulation and experiment [73, 74].
ZF applied two dog clutches in their nine-speed AT and
investigated the feasibility of applying dog clutches in their 3.2.2 Hydraulic System
longitudinal eight-speed AT. Simulation results of the New
European Driving Cycle show that a potential fuel saving The hydraulic system occupies a large portion of torque
of 1.1% can be achieved by replacing the two brakes of losses in transmissions. To reduce the drive torque of an oil
the eight-speed AT with dog clutches [50]. However, dog pump, many transmissions adopt a newly designed pump sys-
clutches are not widely applied in ATs because of the con- tem. Aisin optimized the gear design of the oil pump in its
cern about shift quality. To reduce drag torque losses, the eight-speed AT. As a result, the pump diameter was reduced

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Fig. 11 Position of the vane-type pump in the Mercedes-Benz nine-
speed AT. (Reproduced with permission from [55])
by 9.4% and the drive torque was reduced by 33% relative to
the oil pump in Aisin’s six-speed AT [61]. Jatco downsized
the oil pump and optimized the valve geometry and oil chan-
nel in its CVT7 W/R. The internal friction of the oil pump
was ultimately reduced by 30% [76].
ZF first adopted a vane-type pump instead of a gear-type
pump in its eight-speed longitudinal AT. The vane-type pump
has lower leakage and higher efficiency than the conventional
gear-type pump. A consumption advantage of about 0.8%
was achieved using the vane-type pump in the ZF eight-speed
AT [50]. The vane-type pump is generally positioned off-axis
close to the oil tank via a chain drive, as shown in Fig. 11,
resulting in short paths and flow-favorable ducting and cross
sections. The suction height can be reduced, and cavitation
can be avoided. The energy loss is thus reduced.
The vane-type pump has become increasingly popular in
transmissions because of its high volumetric and mechanical
efficiency. However, excessive oil flow will result in large
losses at high engine speed because the mechanical oil pump
(MOP) depends on the input speed. To solve this issue, novel
transmissions have been developed with a smaller MOP and
integrated auxiliary electric oil pump (EOP). The smaller
MOP reduces losses at high engine speed while the EOP can
support the MOP for oil flow at low engine speed. Such a two-
pump system has been widely applied to improve efficiency.
Dong [77–79] investigated the two-pump system through
driving simulation. Results showed that there was a best
combination of the sizes of the MOP and EOP with respect
to optimal energy conservation. The energy consumption of
the two-pump system could be reduced by 40% compared
with the original one-pump MOP. Additionally, a stop–start
capability can be achieved using the two-pump system.
A directly operating solenoid valve has gradually replaced
the conventional pilot solenoid valve in ATs. Compared
with the pilot control system, the directly operating solenoid
valve is advantageous in terms of leakage and accuracy.
Higher efficiency can therefore be achieved. In addition, a
directly operating solenoid valve greatly reduces the hard-
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X. Xu et al.
ware requirements of the valve body. The total number of
valves in the Aisin eight-speed longitudinal AT has been
reduced by 20% compared with conventional ATs [52].
Transmission fluid in ATs, DCTs and CVTs tends to have
lower viscosity in the normal temperature region with the
aim of reducing agitation resistance and thus improving
efficiency. However, more attention needs to be paid to leak-
age. In ATs and CVTs, the torque converter is important
for comfortable vehicle launching. However, the transmis-
sion efficiency is poor when the torque converter is in a
hydrodynamic condition with the lock-up clutch disengaged.
Therefore, the lock-up region of the torque converter expands
toward the area of low speed and torque constantly with the
help of an improved damper system and multi-disk lock-up
clutch.
3.3 NVH Technology
The noise and vibration arising from automotive transmission
are transmitted to passengers through airborne and structure-
borne paths and lead to discomfort [80]. Hence, the NVH
problem in automotive transmission affects the vehicle driv-
ing comfort.
Whining, rattling, clunking, shifting and bearing noises
are the five main types of noise in automotive transmis-
sion. The whining noise is related to two main excitations of
loaded gear pairs: transmission error and time-varying mesh
stiffness [81–83]. The transmission error is defined as the
deviation of the actual meshing position from the theoretical
position, which is strongly affected by gear manufacturing
errors, assembly errors and tooth deformations. The time-
varying mesh stiffness arises from the varying number of
engaging teeth. The rattling noise is induced by the backlash
of loose parts, such as the forward and backward vibrations
of unloaded gear pairs and synchronizers [84–86]. This type
of noise can be typically found in DCTs because of the cou-
pling of PGPs and synchronizers, especially at idling and
low speeds. The clunking noise arises at the moment that the
flanks of active components knock against each other [87].
A shifting noise occurs when the synchronizer or clutch is
not functioning correctly [88]. This type of noise depends
on tooth errors and the shift strategy and is an important
factor in evaluating the NVH quality of automotive trans-
mission. Bearing noise is always masked by other types of
noise unless damage occurs, and it increases in magnitude
rapidly as the level of damage increases. Damage can there-
fore be diagnosed according to noise characteristics in early
stages [89].
The noise in automotive transmissions is transmitted to
passengers as airborne noise and structure-borne noise [80,
83], as shown in Fig. 12. The airborne noise is directly trans-
mitted to passengers from the excitation source or radiated
through the gearbox. The structure-borne noise is generated
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology
Source Path Gearbox
Passenger
Car body
Airborne noise
Structure-borne noise
Fig. 12 Passage of airborne and structure-borne noise
by an excitation source and transmitted to passengers through
the shafts, bearings, mountings and car body.
Active and passive measures are often adopted to improve
the NVH quality of automotive transmissions. Active mea-
sures are mainly concentrated on addressing noise sources.
A high-contact ratio gear, helical gear, modified tooth profile
and high-quality tooth surface can reduce the gear whining
noise [83, 90]. Minimizing the backlash and the inertia of
loose parts, optimizing the synchronizer design and reduc-
ing torsional vibration from the ICE can help reduce the
rattling noise [91]. Furthermore, a torsional damper, dual
mass flywheel or pendulum absorber is often placed between
the engine and transmission to reduce vibration and fluc-
tuation from the ICE and thus effectively suppress the
rattling noise and vibration of the gearbox. Passive mea-
sures relate to transmission routes of structure-borne noise
from the noise source to the car body. Examples of pas-
sive measures include increasing the stiffness of gear bodies,
shafts, bearings and housings and separating the natural fre-
quencies of these components and tuning the transmission
mounting [92].
3.4 Shifting Strategy and Control Technology
The biggest complaint of customers relating to ATs and DCTs
relates to the shift quality. The control of the shifting process
is therefore important. Transmission manufacturers improve
shift quality through both hardware and software develop-
ment. In terms of hardware development, a directly operating
solenoid valve is used in novel ATs and DCTs to improve the
control accuracy. A torque converter with a flat and small-
diameter torus and a clutch hub with high-strength aluminum
are applied in the Aisin 10-speed longitudinal AT [53], which
reduces rotational inertia to realize a short shifting time. The
piston chamber volume of each SE is also reduced to prevent
197
a long shift response due to piston or cylinder movement in
clutch engagement.
In terms of software development, numerous studies have
investigated shifting strategies and control technologies. The
shifts in ATs and DCTs are clutch-to-clutch shifts with-
out power interruption. During torque transference from the
off-going clutch to the on-coming clutch and speed synchro-
nization from the current gear to the target gear, drivers expect
a fast and smooth transition without drivetrain jerking, result-
ing in a demand for a high-quality shift.
The two primary challenges for wet-clutch control are (i)
the intrinsically complex and nonlinear behavior [93] and (ii)
the diversification of the dynamics over time due to changes
in load, oil temperature and wear [94]. Studies [95–97] have
focused on developing dynamic models of automotive trans-
missions in the shifting process. Relevant studies have also
concentrated on different control approaches using a learn-
ing algorithm in the clutch control system. For instance, the
two-level nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) and
iterative learning controller (ILC) for wet-clutch control have
been compared [98]. Meanwhile, the potential of several
model-based (i.e., NMPC, ILC and iterative optimization)
and model-free (i.e., genetic-based machine learning and
reinforcement learning) learning strategies have been ana-
lyzed for the control of wet clutches [99].
There are generally three phases in clutch-to-clutch shifts:
the fill phase, torque phase and inertia phase [100–102]. The
clutch fill control is affected by many factors, such as char-
acteristics of the clutch actuation system, oil temperature
and engine speed [103]. Inaccurate clutch fill control can
result in either an under-fill or an over-fill [104, 105]. It is
necessary to implement methodologies in clutch fill control.
Clutch fill control was improved to some extent using a new
customized numerical dynamic programming method with
pressure sensors [106]. An adaptive sliding mode observer
has been implemented [107] to improve the online estima-
tion of the turbine torque and hence improve the accuracy of
the clutch pressure estimation in the fill phase.
In terms of control strategies for the torque phase, models
and algorithms have been proposed according to the dynamic
characteristics of the clutch-to-clutch shift. Control strategies
for upshifts and downshifts have been proposed, and a clutch
torque controller has been designed for the torque phase on
the basis of the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) con-
trol algorithm [108]. A simple and robust controller design,
which is based on the actuator dynamics and the clutch slip
dynamics and has consistent performance under different ini-
tial conditions, has been presented [109].
In terms of control strategies for the inertia phase, a
combination of sliding mode control and adaptive feedback
linearization has been used to achieve the desired reference
tracking for the slip of the on-coming clutch [110]. A model-
based nonlinear gearshift controller was designed employing
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198
the back-stepping method to improve the shift quality of
vehicles with DCT during the inertia phase [111]. A new non-
linear control method, especially applied in the inertia phase,
was developed to deal directly with model parameter varia-
tion. It can be designed using a method involving three steps:
steady-state control, reference dynamics feedforward control
and PID feedback control [112]. The coordinated control of
the engine and transmission has greatly improved the shift
quality and clutch durability. This method is widely applied
for the inertia phase of clutch-to-clutch shifts.
To compensate for the effects of build-to-build and life-
cycle variations on shift quality, it is necessary to use adaptive
control methods in shift control strategies. An adaptive sys-
tem not only continuously monitors its own performance in
relation to a given optimal condition but also modifies its
own control parameters in a closed loop so as to approach the
optimized performance. It has been experimentally demon-
strated that clutch adaptive control strategies for the dry DCT
not only reduce the level of jerk and frictional energy loss but
also satisfy different starting intentions of the driver [113].
Kim [114] proposed an advanced shift controller that super-
vises the shift transients with adaptive compensation. The
control input is updated through a learning process to adjust
subsequent shifts on the basis of the continuous monitoring
of shift performance and environment variations. Shi [115]
proposed adaptive control strategies for the inertia phase
and torque phase. Shift quality is evaluated by monitoring
the speed deviation and time difference. Test results verify
that the proposed control strategies improve the shift quality
effectively.
DCT sets a benchmark for the shift time, giving the driver
a quick response to the acceleration requirement. Control
strategies have been developed for CVTs and ATs to com-
pete with DCTs in terms of a shorter shift time. Jatco [116]
used stepwise shift control to improve the acceleration feel-
ing of CVT. BMW proposed control strategies for complex
shift events to cover situations where the target gear is nor-
mally reached by passing through intermediate gear steps
[117]. Through simultaneous actuation of various SEs, two
sequential shifts are executed continuously. The overall shift
duration can thus be reduced to achieve a fast shift perfor-
mance. Aisin announced that its 10-speed longitudinal AT
has a faster shift than the benchmarked AT and DCT [53].
4 Electrified Transmission Technology
for HEVs/PHEVs/EVs
This section reviews the progress of automotive trans-
missions for HEVs/PHEVs/EVs. The configuration design,
energy management strategy, hybrid mode shifting control,
EV transmission and distributed-drive EV are discussed sep-
arately.
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X. Xu et al.
4.1 Configuration Design
HEVs and PHEVs generally have one ICE and one or two
EMs. Although the battery capacity differs between HEVs
and PHEVs, the structural requirements for the drive sys-
tem are the same. As previously described, HEV and PHEV
transmissions can be simply divided into two types, namely
add-on transmissions and DHTs [118], as shown in Fig. 13.
On the basis of conventional automotive transmissions,
many manufacturers have developed a variety of hybrid con-
figurations. ZF, Mercedes-Benz and Hyundai introduced P2
systems based on their own mature ATs. Jatco and Chery
developed P2 systems based on CVTs. VW proposed a P2
hybrid system based on its own DCT. BYD also proposed a
hybrid system based on DCT, but this is a P3 configuration.
Unlike the add-on solution, the DHT breaks the structural
constraints of conventional transmissions. As the earliest
DHT, the Toyota Hybrid System (THS) provided the direc-
tion for subsequent development in configuration design
[119]. As technology advanced, Toyota introduced a fourth-
generation hybrid system, as shown in Fig. 14, and this
system is now widely applied [120]. GM proposed two hybrid
systems, namely Voltec-I and Voltec-II [121]. The second-
generation system Voltec-II is shown in Fig. 14 and is used
for the Volt, Malibu and Cadillac CT6. Compared with the
THS, Voltec-II has more operating modes but more PGSs and
SEs. Corun developed a hybrid system with multiple modes
using an RGS and two SEs [122], as shown in Fig. 14. The
above schemes are based on PGSs. In addition, companies
such as Honda and SAIC have developed DHTs based on
PGPs as shown in Fig. 14 [123, 124].
4.2 Energy Management Strategy
Energy management strategies for HEVs and PHEVs have
been extensively discussed in the literature over the last
decade. Figure 15 shows that energy management strategies
can be generally classified into optimization-based control
strategies and rule-based control strategies [125].
Optimization-based control strategies use analytical or
numerical optimization algorithms to minimize the cost
function regarding fuel consumption, emissions or driving
performance. Optimization-based control strategies can be
divided into global optimization and real-time optimization.
If the optimization relies on knowledge of past or future
power demands over a fixed and known driving cycle, a
global optimal solution can be found. Because global opti-
mization cannot be implemented directly for real-time energy
management, it is referred to as non-causal. However, global
optimization is useful in providing a control benchmark for
designing rules or comparing with other control strategies.
The strategies categorized under global optimization include
linear programming, stochastic programming, dynamic pro-
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology 199

DHT （Designed for

Add-on （Integrate EMs based on conventional automotive transmission ）
HEV/PHEV）
Configuration

Represented by
P0 P1 P2 P3 P4
Toyota THS system
Structure

The EM is arranged between

Features

The EM is arranged between The EM is arranged in the

The EM is connected to the disconnect clutch and the
the engine and the disconnect transmission or is EM is arranged on the Integration of PGSs, PGPs,
the crankshaft of the transmission and is
clutch and is connected to the connected to the rear axle. SEs and EMs.
engine through a belt. connected with the
engine crankshaft. transmission output shaft.
transmission input shaft.
Comparativean alysis

① Micro-hybrid system ① Mild-hybrid system ① Full-hybrid system ① Full-hybrid system ① Full-hybrid system ① Full-hybrid system
② Small modifications ② Small modifications ② Small modifications ② Large modifications ② Large modifications ② New design
③ Low fuel economy ③ Low fuel economy ③ High fuel economy ③ High fuel economy ③ High fuel economy ③ High fuel economy
④ Low voltage ④ Low/high voltage ④ High voltage ④ High voltage ④ High voltage ④ High voltage

Fig. 13 Different types of hybrid transmission

+ + + + +

+

THS III THS IV GM Voltec II

+ + + +

+ +

CORUN CHS Honda i-MMD SAIC MOTOR EDU

Fig. 14 DHTs of different companies

gramming, genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, game with an instantaneous cost function based on the system vari-
theory and optimal control theory. In contrast to global opti- able and measurement data. Real-time optimization consists
mization, real-time optimization can be implemented online of an equivalent fuel consumption minimization strategy,

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200 X. Xu et al.

Fig. 15 Classification of energy

management strategies Energy management
strategies

Optimization-
Rule based control
based
strategies
control strategies

Global Deterministic Fuzzy rule-based

Real-time
optimization rule-based control control strategies
optimization
strategies
Conventional
Linear
Equivalent fuel Thermostat (on/ fuzzy control
programming
consumption off) control strategy
minimisation strategy
Dynamic Adaptive fuzzy
strategy
programming Power follower control strategy
Decoupling strategy
Stochastic
control Predictive fuzzy
dynamic Modified power control strategy
programming
Robust control follower strategy
Genetic algorithm State machine-
Model predictive
control based strategy
Particle swarm
optimisation
Intelligent control
Simulated
annealing

Game theory

Optimal control
theory

decoupling control, robust control, model predictive control
and intelligent control.
Rule-based control strategies determine the control action
at each moment by predefining a set of rules, which are
designed in accordance with heuristics, intuition, human
expertise, and mathematical models and, usually, without
a priori knowledge of driving information. By means of
simulation or calibration, the strategies are then precisely
adjusted aiming at obtaining satisfactory fuel consumption
results. Although rule-based control strategies are generally
unable to guarantee optimality, their main advantage lies in
their simplicity and effectiveness, which makes them easy to
implement on actual HEVs and PHEVs. Rule-based control
strategies are subcategorized into deterministic rule-based
control strategies and fuzzy-rule-based control strategies. In
deterministic rule-based control strategies, rules are designed
via pre-computed look-up tables with the aid of engine-
brake-specific fuel consumption. Such strategies can be
further classified into thermostat (on/off) control strategies,
power follower strategies, modified power follower strate-
gies and state machine-based strategies. A fuzzy-rule-based
control strategy, the advantages of which are its robustness
to measurement noise and component variability along with
its adaptation, is an extension of the deterministic rule-based
control strategy. It is suitable for multi-domain, nonlinear,
time-varying systems, such as HEVs. Fuzzy-rule-based con-
trol strategies can be further categorized into conventional,
adaptive and predictive strategies.
Driving modes of HEVs and PHEVs depend on the trans-
mission scheme. A mode shift map, which decides the timing
and sequence of switching between modes, can be designed
according to the abovementioned energy management strate-
gies [126]. Unlike HEVs, PHEVs can be charged using
outlets of the power grid. Additionally, PHEVs have larger
battery capacity and a more powerful motor, which indicates
that they offer a longer driving distance and an improved

123
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology
driving ability in electric-only mode than HEVs. This has
given a new dimension to the energy management strategies
as PHEVs can operate in both charge depleting (CD) and
charge sustaining (CS) modes [127, 128]. Correspondingly,
the transmission structure is modified for PHEV application;
for example, an OWC is added to the THS to enable the
vehicle to be driven using two motors [75].
4.3 Hybrid Mode Shifting Control
HEVs and PHEVs can run in different driving modes,
among which typical modes are electric only, engine only,
hybrid/electric assist, battery charging and regenerative brak-
ing. Shifts are made among these driving modes according
to the vehicle and road conditions. Similar to gear shifting in
conventional automotive transmissions, the mode transition
in hybrid transmissions may result in negative customer per-
ception of riding comfort and drivability if it is improperly
controlled.
Engine start during mode transition is a major challenge
for HEVs and PHEVs in terms of achieving good riding
comfort. Some add-on hybrid transmissions retain a torque
converter and improve their torsional damper to reduce
the engine torque fluctuation from electric driving mode
to hybrid driving mode. In control strategies, it is impor-
tant to coordinate the engine torque, EM torque and clutch
torque properly and precisely. Xu [129] proposed different
engine-start control strategies with respect to riding com-
fort or a quick response under different starting conditions.
To realize the smooth and fast engine start of a P2 PHEV,
Yang [130] proposed a hierarchical mode transition control
method based on a robust H ∞ controller. Chen [131] devel-
oped a model reference controller with which to coordinate
the engine, EM and clutch torque during mode transition
for a series–parallel HEV. Zhao [132] developed a multi-
stage optimal control strategy to determine the engine torque
and clutch torque during mode transition. Therein, a sliding
mode controller with anti-interference ability was designed
to control the engine speed following the reference trajec-
tory. Additionally, the model used to calculate feedforward
control and H ∞ robust feedback control was applied in the
clutch synchronization phase. Kum [133] investigated theo-
retical performance limits and corresponding optimal control
strategies that achieve a trade-off between drivability and
a quick engine start. The results indicate that the optimal
engine-start control strategy should choose a proper torque
reserve and a corresponding clutch pressure that balances
the engine-start time and torque responsiveness depending
on the vehicle state and driver input.
It is noted that the engine-start performance of P2 hybrid
transmission depends on the control of the disconnect clutch.
Because the EM can provide a rapid torque response, it is
precisely adjusted for both torque compensation and vehi-
201
(a) (b)
T D
D T M
M
(c) (d)
T M
M
M
T M
Fig. 16 Typical EV configurations: a central rear-wheel drive in the
longitudinal layout; b central front-wheel drive in the transverse layout;
c distributed front-wheel drive with transmission; d distributed front-
wheel drive without transmission
cle driving during mode transition. For hybrid transmissions,
such as THS and Voltec-II, there is no disconnect clutch.
The engine can be directly cranked using the EM. Factors
affecting the riding comfort of such transmissions have been
concluded [134]. Proposals have been made for improving
the riding comfort, e.g., varying the magnitude and frequency
of the EM torque set points, the fuel ignition control and the
intake air volume control. Wang [135] designed a coordi-
nated control strategy for a power-split hybrid transmission
and verified its effectiveness by simulation and experiment.
Active damping control based on reference output shaft speed
estimation and carrier torque estimation based on trans-
mission kinematics and dynamics were applied to mitigate
driveline oscillations and suppress torque fluctuation during
engine cranking. Zeng [136] proposed a dynamic coordina-
tion control strategy based on model predictive control for a
power-split hybrid electric bus, which is well suited to com-
plex driving cycles.
4.4 Single-Speed and Multi-speed EV Transmission
The EV configuration determines the structure of the electric
propulsion system and transmission. There are four typical
EV configurations considering variations of the powertrain
as seen in Fig. 16 [137], and any other EV configuration
can be evolved from them. This section introduces the latest
developments of EV transmission technologies in the central
drive layout.
4.4.1 Single-Speed Gearbox
In comparison with the ICE, as seen in Fig. 17, the EM can
emit maximum torque at low speeds, which eliminates the
move-off elements for EVs. In addition, because the EM has
a wider constant-power range and a vaster high-efficiency
region than the ICE, fewer transmission gears are needed
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202 X. Xu et al.

Fig. 17 Comparison of the (a) (b)

characteristics of the EM and Torque
Torque
ICE
Power
Power

Base Speed Speed Idle Speed Speed

Table 1 Mass-produced EVs

EV Company Curb weight Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Gear ratio
(kg) power (kW) torque (Nm) vehicle speed motor speed
(kph) (rpm)

Model S Tesla 2239 581 1250 249 16,000 (rear 9.73 (rear
(combined) (combined) motor) gearbox)
Bolt Chevrolet 1625 150 360 140 8810 7.05
Leaf Nissan 1557 110 320 140 10,390 7.937
i3 BMW 1298 125 250 150 11,400 9.7
Zoe Renault 1468 68 220 135 12,000 9.32
EC180 BJEV 1050 30 140 100 8000 6.71

to meet traction and energy-saving demands. Furthermore,

the torque ripple of various EMs is much smaller than that
of the ICE and the torsion damper can correspondingly be
abolished for EVs. To reduce the volume and costs of the
powertrain and to shorten the development cycle, consider-
ing the above advantages of the EM, most mass-produced
EVs use a single-speed gearbox to adapt the traction avail-
able to the power required as seen in Table 1. Obviously,
greater torque with a large gear ratio is required to satisfy
driving performance demands, and higher-speed EMs have
accordingly been developed to meet the maximum vehicle
Fig. 18 Structure of the Chevrolet Bolt EV powertrain. (Reproduced
speed. with permission from [138])
Figure 18 shows a typical structure of the EV power-
train with a single-speed gearbox [138], which uses two
PGPs to realize a total gear ratio of 7.05. Such an inte-
grated and coaxial configuration not only minimizes the
volume of the powertrain but also makes the most of the oil
pump to lubricate and cool both the EM and gearbox. Most
other mass-produced single-speed gearboxes have generally
adopted PGPs considering costs and efficiency; however,
PGSs provide a larger gear ratio to lower the maximum torque
of the EM. Figure 19 shows that combining a PGS with a
PGP, ZF’s EV drive 1 realizes a total gear ratio of 16, which
reduces the maximum EM torque to 125 Nm but raises the
maximum EM speed to 21,000 rpm [139].

4.4.2 Multi-speed Transmission

To improve the dynamic performance and economy of an Fig. 19 Structure of ZF’s EV drive 1. (Reproduced with permission
EV or to reduce the maximum EM torque and the max- from [139])

123
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology
AMT DCT AT ECVT New Configurations
Complexity&Costs
Torque Capacity Efficiency
Shift Quality Volume&Mass
Fig. 20 Comparison of different multi-speed transmission configura-
tions for EVs
imum EM speed and thus reduce the size and cost of an
EM, much research has been conducted on the multi-speed
transmission for EVs [140–142]. Research shows that a two-
speed transmission with optimized gear ratios and shifting
map not only reduces energy consumption by about 5–16%
but also improves the dynamic performance by nearly 20%
and increases the maximum speed by nearly 30%. However, a
continued increase in transmission speeds will not reduce the
energy consumption appreciably for light passenger cars but
increase the costs. In addition, the CVT with a rational gear
ratio range can improve the efficiency of the EM maximally
Fig. 21 Typical structures of different multi-speed transmission configurations for EVs
203
but results in a complex structure. In summary, it is com-
monly recognized that two speeds and two–four speeds are,
respectively, the best choices for passenger cars and com-
mercial vehicles in terms of costs, transmission efficiency
and EM efficiency.
Most multi-speed transmission technologies for EVs have
been developed from the conventional transmission for ICE
vehicles. Their main configurations are the AMT [143,
144], DCT [145, 146], AT [147, 148], electric continuously
variable transmission (ECVT) [149] and other new config-
urations [150, 151]. Figure 20 shows that the AMT is the
most efficient and least expensive but has the poorest shift
quality. The ECVT and AT have the best shift quality but are
expensive and less efficient. Usually, to balance the trade-
off between costs and performance, new configurations are
designed. Figure 21 shows five typical structures of differ-
ent multi-speed transmission configurations for EVs. The
AMT uses an actuating motor and a synchronizer to shift
but has a power interruption [152]. The DCT and AT both
adopt a clutch-to-clutch shifting control strategy to realize
power shifts [146, 147]. Through the coordinated control of
the traction motor and speed motor, the ECVT can achieve
both differential control and torque vectoring control of two
shafts [149]. The new configuration uses a centrifugal clutch
and brake band to realize uninterrupted shifts [150].
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204
Fig. 22 Two typical types of distributed-drive EVs: a in-wheel motors;
b motors with gearboxes
4.5 Distributed Electric Drive
In a distributed electric drive, the wheels are directly driven
by electric motors. Figure 22 shows that, generally, there are
two typical types of distributed-drive EVs [153]. In the first
type, the motors are mounted in the wheel hubs. In the second
type, a gearbox is used between the electric motor and wheel.
In some practical cases, there are only two electric motors
instead of four, with the motors directly driving the front
wheels or rear wheels.
The powertrain of a traditional vehicle consists of an
engine, clutch, transmission, shaft or two shafts, and dif-
ferential. Compared with the traditional powertrain, the
distributed-drive electric powertrain has several advantages
[154, 155]:
1. Simpler vehicle architecture, vehicle design and packag-
ing;
2. Higher drive efficiency and less vehicle mass;
3. A more precise and faster response to the torque demand;
4. Higher regenerated brake energy and less energy con-
sumption.
Because there are no gearboxes, the in-wheel-motor-
drive EVs have the potential to save energy compared with
Fig. 23 Three commercial
in-wheel motors and motor-hub
wheels on the market: a
e-Traction; b Protean; c Elaphe
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X. Xu et al.
the counterpart of motor-gearbox-drive EVs. However, the
design of in-wheel motors is more challenging in terms of
the size control and thermal management. After decades
of development, there are several well-recognized in-wheel
motors and motor-hub wheels on the current market. Fig-
ure 23 depicts three examples, namely e-Traction, Protean
and Elaphe. We see that all of them are compact.
Owing to the benefits of well-developed in-wheel motors
and motor-hub wheels, the integration and dynamics con-
trol of distributed-drive EVs have attracted attention from
researchers over the past two decades. Table 2 shows that
different prototypes of distributed-drive EVs have been
developed in Japan, the USA, China, Europe and Canada.
It has been reported that distributed-drive EVs can be rep-
resented by an over-actuator system [156, 157]. The motion
control of longitudinal and lateral directions is then relatively
difficult but flexible. Considerable methodologies have been
applied to motion control for the purpose of improving safety,
agility, handling and fuel economy [158–165]. Another hot
research topic of distributed-drive EVs is how to reduce the
effect of the unsprung mass on the vehicle dynamics and con-
trol [166, 167]. Research and improvements of the technique
are ongoing for the industrialization of distributed-drive EVs.
Distributed-drive EVs will be widely used on the road in the
near future.
5 Summary and Outlook
Over the past two decades, automotive transmissions have
evolved with greater speed numbers, an expanded ratio
spread and improved efficiency and shift quality. DCTs were
launched onto the market in 2003, offering both high effi-
ciency and a fast shift and thus promoting the development
of ATs and CVTs. Novel ATs with four or five DOFs were
released continuously with higher efficiency and better shift
quality. The torque capacity and efficiency of CVTs have
also been improved. It is clear that ATs, DCTs and CVTs
will coexist in the passenger car market in the future. In
the commercial vehicle market, AMTs and ATs will be
dominant. The increase in the speed number of conven-
Progress in Automotive Transmission Technology
Table 2 Worldwide research groups with prototypes of distributed-
drive EVs
Group and university
Yoichi Hori ‘s group from
University of Tokyo, Japan
[168, 169]
Junmin Wang’s group from
The Ohio State University,
USA [170, 171]
European Union FP7 project
E-VECTOORC [172, 173]
Hiroshi Fujimoto’s group
from University of Tokyo,
Japan [174, 175]
Jibin Hu’s group from Beijing
Institute of Technology, China
[176, 177]
Zhuoping Yu’s group from
Tongji University, China [178,
179]
Amir Khajepour’s group from
University of Waterloo,
Canada [180, 181]
Prototype and platform
205
tional automotive transmissions has almost come to an end.
In the future, the focus will remain on the optimization
of the transmission’s mechanical and hydraulic systems in
terms of efficiency, NVH in terms of driving comfort and
shifting strategy and control technology in terms of shift
quality.
It is evident that the development trend of automotive
transmissions is electrification. For hybrid transmissions,
add-on solutions and DHT solutions coexist on the market.
However, it is believed that DHT has a bright future with the
increasing volume of hybrid vehicles. The energy manage-
ment strategy is the key for realizing fuel savings of HEVs
and PHEVs. With the development of electronics and com-
putation capability, the energy management strategy will be
optimized in real time according to the route information
accessed via the Global Positioning System. Mode shifting
control will be improved to make the shift event impercepti-
ble to the driver.
The single-speed gearbox currently dominates the EV
market. In the future, two- or three-speed transmission will
occupy a certain EV market share, lowering the torque
and speed requirements of the EM. Meanwhile, EV trans-
mission will be integrated with the EM and power elec-
tronics step by step from a modular design to a semi-
integrated design, an integrated design and finally a fully
integrated design. The distributed electric drive will first
enter the market of commercial vehicles (e.g., buses and mil-
itary vehicles) before penetrating the market of passenger
cars.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the support of Beijing
Key Laboratory for High-efficient Power Transmission and System
Control of New Energy Resource Vehicle. This work is financially sup-
ported by the National Key R&D Program of China “Development and
Vehicle Integration of Cost-effective Commercial Vehicle Hybrid Sys-
tem” (Grant No. 2018YFB0105900). The authors are grateful for the
contributions of Dr. Yunjiang Cheng and postgraduate students Hanqiao
Sun, Xiaoxiao Wu, Junbin Lai, Songlin Li, Lei Shi and Huize Ding.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecomm
ons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
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