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Slides5 PDF
Slides5 PDF
• We introduce three field operators which reveal interesting collective field properties, viz.
– the gradient of a scalar field,
– the divergence of a vector field, and
– the curl of a vector field.
• There are two points to get over about each:
– The mechanics of taking the grad, div or curl, for which you will need to brush up your calculus of several
variables.
– The underlying physical meaning — that is, why they are worth bothering about.
The gradient of a scalar field 6.2
• Recall the discussion of temperature distribution, where we wondered how a scalar would vary as we moved off in
an arbitrary direction ...
• If U(r) is a scalar field, its gradient is defined in Cartesians coords by
∂U ∂U ∂U
gradU = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ .
∂x ∂y ∂z
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
4
2 4
2
0
0
−2
−2
−4 −4
♣ Examples of gradient evaluation 6.4
1. U =hx 2 i
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ U = ı̂ ∂x + ̂ ∂y + k̂ ∂z x2
Only ∂/∂x exists so
∇ U = 2xı̂ .
2. U = r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2, so
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (x 2 + y 2 + z 2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 2xı̂ + 2ŷ + 2z k̂
= 2r
.
3. U = c · r, where c is constant.
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (c1x + c2y + c3 z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= c1 ı̂ + c2 ̂ + c3k̂ = c .
♣ Another Example ... 6.5
p
4. U = f (r ), where r = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
U is a function of r alone so df /dr exists. As U = f (x, y , z ) also,
∂f df ∂r ∂f df ∂r ∂f df ∂r
= = = .
∂x dr ∂x ∂y dr ∂y ∂z dr ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f df ∂r ∂r ∂r
⇒ ∇U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z dr ∂x ∂y ∂z
p
But r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2, so ∂r /∂x = x/r and similarly for y , z .
!
df xı̂ + ŷ + z k̂ df r
⇒ ∇U = = .
dr r dr r
Note that f (r ) is spherically symmetrical and the resultant vector field is radial out of a sphere.
The significance of grad 6.6
• Conclude that
gradU has the property that the rate of change of U wrt distance in any direction d̂ is the projection of
gradU onto that direction d̂
Directional derivatives 6.8
• That is
dU
(in direction of d̂) = ∇ U · d̂
ds
• The quantity dU/ds is called a directional derivative.
• In general, a directional derivative
– had a different value for each direction,
– has no meaning until you specify the direction.
• We could also say that
gradU
Conclusion is that:
gradU is NORMAL to a surface
of constant U
a diva
xı̂ 1
r(= xı̂ + ŷ + z k̂) 3
r/r 3 0
rc (r · c)/r where c is constant
Eg 3: div (r/r 3) = 0
The x component of r/r 3 is x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2
We need to find ∂/∂x of it ...
∂ −3 −3 −3 2 −5
x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 = 1.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2) 2 + x (x + y 2 + z 2) 2 .2x
∂x 2
−3 2 −2
= r 1 − 3x r
Adding this to similar terms for y and z gives
−3 −2
2 2 2
= r −3 (3 − 3) = 0
r 3 − 3(x + y + z )r
The significance of div 6.12
dz
• Consider vector field f(r) (eg water flow).
dS = dS =
This vector has magnitude equal to the mass of
water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the −dxdzj +dxdz j
direction of f per unit time.
• Take volume element dV and compute balance of
y
the flow of f in and out of dV .
dx
dy
x
• Look at the shaded face on the left
The contribution to OUTWARD flux from surface is
f(y ) · dS = [fx (y )ı̂ + fy (y )̂ + fz (y )k̂] · (−dx dz ̂) = − fy (y )dxdz .
Look at the shaded face on the right ... 6.13
z
• Repeat: Total efflux from these faces is
dz
∂fy ∂fy dS = dS =
dy dxdz = dV
∂y ∂y −dxdzj +dxdz j
• Summing the other faces gives a total outward flux
∂fx ∂fy ∂fz
y
+ + dV = (∇ ∇ · f) dV
∂x ∂y ∂z dx
dy
x
• Conclusion:
The divergence of a vector field represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of the field.
* Divergence because it is an efflux not an influx.
* We also saw that the total efflux from the infinitesimal volume was equal to the flux integrated over the surface
of the volume.
The Laplacian: div(gradU) of a scalar field 6.15
• gradU of any scalar field U is a vector field. We can take the div of any vector field. ⇒we can certainly compute
div(gradU)
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇U) = ı̂ + ̂
∇ · (∇ + k̂ · ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ U
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ · ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ U
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2
∂ U ∂ U ∂ U
= + + 2
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z
U ∇2 U
r 2(= x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 6
xy 2z 3 2xz 3 + 6xy 2z
1/r 0
Let’s prove the last example
1
1/r = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2)− 2 and so
∂2 2 2 2 − 12 ∂ 2 2 2 −3/2
(x + y + z ) = − x.(x + y + z )
∂x 2 ∂x
= −(x 2 + y 2 + z 2)−3/2 + 3x.x.(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−5/2
x2
1
= 3 −1 + 3 2
r r
Adding up similar terms for y and z
(x 2 + y 2 + x 2)
1 1
∇2 = 3 −3 + 3 =0
r r r2
The curl of a vector field 6.17
a ∇×a
−yı̂ + x̂ 2k̂
x 2y 2 k̂ 2x 2yı̂ − 2xy 2 ̂
2nd example:
ı̂ ̂ k̂
∇ × (x 2 y 2k̂) = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z
0 0 x 2y 2
= ı̂x 22y − ̂2xy 2
= 2x 2yı̂ − 2xy 2 ̂
The signficance of curl 6.19
• First example gives a clue ... the field a = −yı̂ + x̂ is sketched below.
• This field has a curl of 2k̂, which is in the r-h screw direction out of the page.
H
• You can also see that a field like this must give a finite value to the line integral around the complete loop C a · dr.
y y
x x
The signficance of curl 6.20
y + dy
a(x + dx, y , z)
a(x, y , z) x
x + dx
The signficance of curl, ctd 6.23
y
dr = [−dx, 0, 0]
y + dy
x
dr = [dx, 0, 0] x + dx
y a(x, y + dy , z )
[−dx, 0, 0]
y + dy
a(x, y , z ) [dx, 0, 0] x
x + dx
I
a · dr = a(x, y , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x + dx, y , z ). 0 dy 0
C
+a(x, y + dy , z ). −dx 0 0 + a(x, y , z ). 0 −dy 0
The signficance of curl, ctd 6.25
I
a · dr = a(x, y , z ). dx 0 0 + a(x + dx, y , z ). 0 dy 0
C
+a(x, y + dy , z ). −dx 0 0 + a(x, y , z ). 0 −dy 0
= ax (x, y , z )dx + ay (x + dx, y , z )
−ax (x, y + dy , z )dx − ay (x, y , z )dy
∂ay
= ax dx + ay dy + dxdy
∂x
∂ax
−ax dx − dy dx − ay dy
∂y
∂ay ∂ax
= − dxdy
∂x ∂y
∇ × a) · dxdy k̂
= (∇
∇ × a) · dS
= (∇
The signficance of curl, ctd 6.26
y
ax (y+dy)
y+dy
• The fields in the x-direction at bottom and top are
∂ax
ay (x+dx)
ax (y ) and ax (y + dy ) = ax (y ) + dy
∂y dy
ay (x)
• The fields in the y -direction at left and right are
∂ay dx
ay (x) and ay (x + dx) = ay (x) + dx
∂x y x+dx
x
ax (y)
• Summing around from the bottom in anticlockwise order
dC = + [ax (y ) dx] + [ay (x + dx) dy ] − [ax (y + dy ) dx] − [ay (x) dy ]
∂ay ∂ax
= − dx dy = (∇ ∇ × a) · dxdy k̂ = (∇ ∇ × a) · dS
∂x ∂y
Some definitions involving div, curl and grad 6.27
solenoidal.
• A vector field with zero curl is said to be
irrotational.
• A scalar field with zero gradient is said to be
constant.
Summary 6.28
• We’ve described the grunt of working these out in Cartesian coordinates ...
If your partial differentiation is flaky, sort it.
• We’ve given some insight into what “physical” aspects of fields they relate too.
Worth spending time thinking about these. Vector calculus is the natural language of engineering in 3 vector spaces..