IAC-06-C2.7.

MICRO HEAT SPREADERS BASED ON MICROCHANNELS FOR

CONCENTRATED HEAT FLUXES ON SPACECRAFT SUBSYSTEMS.

Mr. Rafael Rebolo Gómez

SENER Ingeniería y Sistemas, S.A.. Tres Cantos. Spain. e-mail: rafael.rebolo@sener.es
Mrs. Paula Alvarez Legazpi
SENER Ingeniería y Sistemas, S.A.. Tres Cantos. Spain. e-mail: paula.alvarez@sener.es
Dr. Johan Steelant
European Space Agency/ESTEC. Noordwijk. The Netherlands. e-mail: Johan.Steelant@esa.int
Dr. Ezequiel González Martínez
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Madrid. Spain. e-mail: egm@aero.upm.es
Dr. Benigno Lázaro Gómez
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. Madrid. Spain. e-mail: benigno.lazaro@upm.es

ABSTRACT

A micro heat spreader (MHS) is a micro-fluidic device designed for thermal management of
electronic components by means of controlled liquid convection in a closed loop. In contrast
to classical fluid loops, the design and the optimization of a micro heat spreader is complex. It
requires an adaptation and a good understanding of the fluid dynamic behaviour at this
subscale-level along with the fabrication process of micro electro-mechanical systems. Based
on analytical predictions, this new approach would increase the heat dissipation with an order
of magnitude compared to passive cooling strategies.
First, an overview will be given of what has been studied and developed so far on heat
exchangers and micro-heat spreaders for dense heat fluxes. Their applicability towards a
spacecraft environment will be assessed.
Secondly, under design/optimisation aspects, where massive numerical tools are not
applicable, engineering approximations based in simplified methods and engineering
correlations need to be developed. Classical engineering correlations do not always seem to
be applicable for micro-fluidic devices, and new ones from computational or experimental fluid
dynamics (CFD and EFD respectively) have been obtained. Simple models featuring the
physical behaviour of the MHS allow for sensitivity analysis of geometrical and operational
parameters, driving to an optimum design.
Finally, a MHS prototype based on microchannels, designed along the above mentioned
considerations as a test demonstrator and using single phase fluid, will be discussed.
Previously a less exigent design aimed to visualisation, rig calibration and priming process
studies have been tested.

failure rates, management of thermal loads is

1 INTRODUCTION
necessary to ensure proper and reliable
device performance. Elevated temperatures
In electronic cooling, the primary critical
can adversely affect the operation, reliability,
metrics that it must be met is the device
power handling capability, and achievable
junction temperature, close related to the
packaging density of the electronic devices.
heat dissipation and method used for allowing
Since the electronics are smaller and faster,
it. As temperature in electronics is closely
they produce more heat. This energy will be
associated with operating efficiency and

1
efficiently removed in order to maintain the
electronics temperature below a certain
value.
While the electronics improve their
capabilities, the heat dissipation systems
must also improve accordingly.
There are two aims on this technical note.
The first is to review the state-of-the-art of the
existing MHS, assessing their applicability
within a spacecraft environment. The second
aim is to present those thermal-fluids aspects
related to the problem (originated mainly by
the use of micro scale flow paths), thus as the
formulation and methods applicable in their
resolution. Finally a short description of the
MHS developed and their tested performance
is presented.
2 SPACE APPLICATION
Because the wide spectrum of possible
applications it is difficult to define a particular
optimum solution for the heat dissipation
subsystem. Therefore a general description
of the problem and the possible architecture
will be presented only as a guide,
understanding that many other solutions are
possible. Also, the system will incorporate
several subsystems not considered in this
study, which is focused on the thermo-
hydraulic design of the hot component. This
component, in the following the MHS, will be
in direct contact with the heat source (again,
because generality, referred as the hot spot:
CPU, sensor, power electronic, etc.)
2.1 Thermal Control System description
The heat generated by the components in a
satellite shall be effectively dissipated to the
deep space, in order to maintain an
acceptable temperature for these
components. The Thermal Control System
(TCS) consists of the following sub-systems:
Main Thermal Control System (MTCS):
Transfers the heat produced by macro
scale components, equipments and
assemblies to the radiators. The heat flux
produced by these elements is low in
comparison with their volume; therefore
the heat can be extracted globally from
them (cold plates, etc), transferred to the
radiators (heat pipes, etc), and dissipated
by them.
Secondary Thermal Control System
(STCS): Transfers the heat produced by a
discrete group of hot spots to the
radiators or intermediate heat sinks. The
heat produced by these elements is very
high and concentrated in comparison with
their volume. Therefore the heat shall be
extracted directly from their surfaces by
means of local spreaders, transferred to
the radiators or intermediate heat sinks
from the MTCS, and dissipated by them;
in order to maintain the component
temperature in the appropriate range.
2.2 Secondary Thermal Control System
description
Its mission is to ensure the dissipation of the
concentrated high heat flux from the hot spots
to an intermediate system from which heat is
dissipated by the MTCS to the deep space,
while maintaining the component temperature
below a given value. As consequence of this
intermediate heat sink with a relative high
temperature, one of the key parameters will
be the thermal resistance, defined as the ratio
of the temperature difference between
junction and fluid intake bulk temperature to
the dissipated heat. From literature survey,
there are not specific designs able to work
within the requirements of high fluxes and
relative long distances between hot and cold
points.
The selected STCS, according to next
paragraph is based on a working fluid
pumped in a closed loop from the spreaders
to the sink, and to the spreader again closing
the circuit. Each MHS is placed in contact
with the corresponding hot spot, in such way
that heat is transferred from the hot spot to
each MHS by conduction. The fluid inside the
MHS takes the heat by forced convection,
increasing its enthalpy (with or without
changing its phase, depending on the
design). The transmitter, thanks to a hydraulic
system (pump(s), valves, pipes), drives the
liquid from the spreader to the sink, where the
heat is transferred to it by forced convection.
The operating or no-operating mode of each
MHS can be commanded by a thermal
sensor, which monitors the hot spot
temperature. According to the thermal
sensors signals, the transmitter defines which
MHS shall be operative or no operative in
each moment.
2
Both philosophy and requirements of the Imposed by the spacecraft and the mission
MHS are dependent of the spacecraft/vehicle
where it is going to be installed thus the Operating temperature 40 to 80 C

mission to be fulfilled. Non-operating temperature (-30 to 90 C)

Aiming to maintain generality in the MHS Minimum power consumption

design, but limiting the possible scope of Operating at zero g
applications, a general scenario No leakage
representative for a wide spectrum of
applications is defined as:
Table Ic: MHS requirements
The STCS will use a heat sink, belonging
to the MTCS, as cold point for rejecting
heat. Therefore heat will not be 3 MHS REVIEW
transferred directly to radiators, but to an There exists an elevated number of devices
intermediate cold plate, in a distance and methods for cooling, some of them
range around half to one metre, being this proven and other at different states of
cold plate part of the MTCS and with a development. Some of them are: doublets,
higher temperature than the external phase change material, immersion cooling,
radiators. vapour chambers, heat pipes, jet
The electronic box to be refrigerated will impingement, liquid cooling loops, etc.
contain one or more components of high There exits several reviews were more
thermal flux (hot spots). detailed description can be found [1]. For the
purpose of this paper, only some of the above
systems are candidates because the high
2.3 Requirements heat fluxes involved. In particular will be
The requirements imposed in this study to the considered the heat pipes (HP) and its
system will be aimed to performance and derivatives (miniature HPs, loop HPs,
operation; neglecting such important aspects capillarity pumped HPs, etc.), the jet
as life, maintainability, mechanical/electrical impingement and the liquid cooling loops
environments, etc. This reduced set of based on microchannels. And investigation of
requirements imposed to the current design is the technical literature can provide some data
summarized in tables Ia to Ic. about the performance of these devices,
mainly at laboratory level. It is difficult to
compare one to other because the different
testing condition, sizes, geometries, etc.
Therefore it has been extracted from the
Imposed by the cooled component (hot spot) literature some merit figures such as heat
Thermal Geometric fluxes, hot spot area pressure drop, thermal
2
Heat flux up to 150 W/cm . Hot spot size 20 x 15 mm
2 resistance, etc [2 to 19]. These values no
always are clearly defined in the papers;
Junction temperature equal or
lower than 100 C. nevertheless any claims of an excellent merit
figure have been taken into account,
Maximum temperature
difference on interface 40 C considering the number as a record, even if it
could be discussible.
Table Ia: MHS requirements
This set of scarce data has been plotted in
the two following plots (figures 1 and 2), and
some application zones have been traced
Imposed by the spacecraft thermal control (these regions can change as the number of
Thermal Geometric
represented devices increase, and must be
only taken as a guideline). On the plots has
Sink temperature 60 C (equal Minimum mass and volume
to the cooling fluid inlet (target of < 0.06 kg and 40 x
been indicated a rectangular zone
temperature)
3
40 x 10 mm excluding corresponding to the interest area for space
inlet/outlet) application, and inside it there is a hollow
Table Ib: MHS requirements
circle showing the target of this study.

3
 1000
Precision in the temperature control of
mchannel mjet electronics/payload by micropump flow
Hot Spot Heat flux (W/cm 2)

mHP LHP
mLHP Target control
100
Ability to function in adverse and zero
gravity
10
Of course there also are some drawbacks as
to be an active system with the possible
1 increase on weight because additional
0 5 10
Hot spot area (cm 2)
15 20 equipment (pumps, piping, accumulators,
etc.). A final trade-off will depend of particular
Fig. 1: Different cooling concepts for small hot spots application and architecture.
refrigeration and dense heat fluxes. The data have
been extracted from technical literature and can be In this paper a microchannel is considered as
considered as the state of the art. Most of them do a duct (whatever cross section) with hydraulic
not fulfil any requirements, being experimental diameters between 10 microns and 0.5 mm.
devices. The lines try to identify application areas.

4 MHS DESIGN
1000
LHP mLHP mHP HP Today, the design of heat exchangers based
Host spot heat flux (W/cm 2)

on microchannels is not as straightforward as

100 in meso/macro scale. Main difficulties arise
because the classical engineering approach
based on correlations does not apply. During
10
some years many of the discrepancies
between macro and micro scale results were
1
attributed to particular fluid behaviours, which
0.01 0.1
Length (m)
1 10 put in doubt the applicability of the classical
Navier-Stokes equations, and the traditional
Fig. 2: Different cooling concepts for small hot spots non-slip and non-temperature jump boundary
refrigeration and dense heat fluxes. Comparison of conditions. Also, phenomena neglected in
MHS based on microchannels with HPs. Length is macro flow were proposed as explanation for
a measurement of the distance between hot source
and cold sink. For active systems, functionally there the discrepancies (non newtonian behaviour,
is not limitation for this length (nevertheless electric double layer, etc.)
constrain because mass, volume, etc. should be
considered in a practical application). After the analysis of the literature and some
CFD testing the conclusion, for the
aforementioned range of duct sizes (dh > 50
From the plots, in the interest area both microns), is that no strange behaviours are
microchannels cooling device and loop heat found in the flow (except perhaps the early
pipes (some experts considers these loop HP transition to turbulent). The origin of
values as questionable ones) could cover the discrepancies between usual predictions and
thermal performance. testing (after neglecting ill defined tests) is
that in microscale must be considered the
In this study has been selected as MHS following effects:
based on microchannel pumped liquid cooling
system with a single-phase working fluid. Fluid and thermal entry length are
Some of the more evident advantages are [2]: important
Increased effectiveness by integration of Effect of temperature in the fluid must be
cooling system with payload considered (increment of 40 C between
inlet and outlet is normal, being the pipe
Increased freedom in locating electronic length of the order of a centimetre).
or science payload
Neither heat flux nor temperature is
Removal of large heat fluxes over large constant along the pipe wall and around
distances the perimeter.

4
4.1 Heat transfer and pressure drops ⎛
⎜ ⎛
⎜
L ⎞ ⎞⎟
n ⎟
−0.8
( )
⎜ 0.0233⎜ Re ⎟
The approach followed in this work has been ⎜ ⎜ Dh ⎟⎟ ⎟
α n−d = λ ⋅ α = ⎜1 + ⎝ ⎠ ⋅α
to obtain correlations by using CFD and 0.426 ⎟
published results, which could be applicable ⎜ ⎛ L ⎞
⎜ 1 + 2.4⎜ Re n ⎟
⎟
⎟
( )
to simple engineering models. Per instance, ⎜ ⎜⎜ Dh ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
for the Nusselt number, Nu, was extracted
from CFD the following correlations, based on and
average channel bottom wall temperature, 2 3 4 5
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
average channel lateral walls heat flux and α = 96. * (1 - 1.3553⎜ ⎟ + 1.9467⎜ ⎟ - 1.7012⎜ ⎟ + 0.9564⎜ ⎟ - 0.2537⎜ ⎟ )
⎝H⎠ ⎝H⎠ ⎝H⎠ ⎝H⎠ ⎝H⎠
mean fluid bulk temperature and properties:
The pressure drop at inlet/outlet manifolds
Nu = (Nu ∞ + Nu op )⋅η fin must be computed by CFD and the data can
be correlated in a simple way in order to be
Where the Nusselt number is defined as applied in the models. These pressure drops
h ⋅ dh were written as:
Nu =
k fluid 1 2 ⎛ K ⎞
ΔPin / out = ρvin / out ⋅ ⎜⎜ K1in / out + 2in / out ⎟⎟
2 ⎝ Re in / out ⎠
being h the convection coefficient, dh the
hydraulic diameter and k the thermal with K1 and K2 from numerical analysis (or
conductivity; the sub index ∞ to ducts with handbook if the geometrical configuration is
dh/L → 0 and the op one to the operation not too much complex).
point (takes into account entry length).
Total pressure drop would be
The Nusselt number for thermally developed ΔPMHS = ΔPin + ΔPμch + ΔPout .
and laminar flow is a function of the channel
aspect ratio, H, equal to the ratio between Neglecting entry effect the expressions can
channel depth and width. be simplified and written in non dimensional
way as:
Nu∞ = 1.776 + 0.586*H – 0.0347*H2 + 0.0007*H3
ΔPμc a 3 α ⎡ (1 + H f )(1 + H ) ⎤
2

While the operation is a function of Reynolds = ⎢ ⎥

⎡ μ ⎤⎡ Q ⎤ L 8 ⎢⎣ H3 ⎥⎦
and Prandtl number and channel relative ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
length. ⎣⎢ ρc p ⎦⎥ ⎣ ΔT ⎦ W
0.8
for pressure and
0.2 ⋅ ⎛⎜ Re⋅ Pr⋅ h ⎞⎟
d
⎝ L⎠
Nu op = ∏ μc a 3 α ⎡ (1 + H f )(1 + H ) ⎤
2

=
0.467
⎢ ⎥
1 + 0.1⋅ ⎛⎜ Re⋅ Pr⋅ h ⎞⎟
d
⎡ μ ⎤⎡ Q ⎤ 2 L 8 ⎢⎣ H3 ⎦⎥
⎝ L⎠
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ (ρc p ) ⎦⎥ ⎣ ΔT ⎦ W
2 ⎢ ⎥
η fin is the fin efficiency, also maintains the
for pumping power. These expressions show
classical expression with slightly
the influence of the different parameters
modifications from CFD results (Hf refers to
involved in design: fluid properties, operating
the ratio between fin and channel width).
point and geometry. In previous expressions,
⎛⎛ k f ⎞ 1 + H ⎞⎟
0.5
L and W are the footprint size, a the channel
⎜
tgh ⎜⎜ Nu ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ kw width and Q the evacuated heat. ρ, μ and cp
⎠ H f ⎟⎠
0.5

η fin ≈ 1.1364 ⋅
tgh( N )
= 1.1364 ⋅ ⎝ are density, dynamic viscosity and specific
N ⎛⎛ k f 0.5
⎞
⎜ ⎜ Nu ⎞⎟ 1 + H ⎟ heat for the fluid.
⎜
⎜⎝ kw ⎟
⎠ H f ⎟⎠
0 . 5
⎝
In a similar way, for the pressure drop in the 4.2 MHS thermal resistance
channels has been taken the following
The thermal resistance definition is the
correlations:
classical one based on junction temperature,
1 2 L with α α μ fluid inlet temperature and evacuated heat.
ΔPμc = ρv c f c f = n−d = n−d
2 Dh Re Dh ρvDh This resistance can be split in three terms:

where

5
 T j − T inlet T j − Tw Tw − T exit T exit − T inlet Parameter Π ΔPμc θcond θconv θheat
θ MHS = = + + H↑ ↓ ↓ ⎯ ↓ ↓
Q Q Q Q Hf ↓ ↓ ↓ ⎯ ↓ ↓

Geometry
a↓ ↑↑ ↑↑ ⎯ ↓ ↑↑
θ MHS = θ cond + θ conv + θ heat e↓ ⎯ ⎯ ↓ ⎯ ⎯
L↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓
W↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
with some mathematical manipulation and a μ ↓ ↓ ↓ ⎯ ⎯ ↓
simple model where only transversal (ρc p ) ↑

Working
↓ ↓ ⎯ ⎯ ↓

Fluid
conduction is considered can be rewritten as: kf ↑ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ↓ ⎯
kw ↑ ⎯ ⎯ ↓ ↓ ⎯
Q↓ ↓↓ ↓ ⎯ ⎯ ↑
e 1

Operation
A. θ cond ≈ ΔT ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ⎯ ⎯ ↓

point
, that is a function of the ΔPμc ↑ ↑ ↑ ⎯ ⎯ ↓
k w LW Π↑ ↑ ↑ ⎯ ⎯ ↓

minimum thickness between MHS bottom

and channel lower wall and the material. Table II: Qualitative effect of the different geometrical,
Minimum thickness (compatible with working fluid and operation parameters in the MHS
performance. ↑ means a parameter increase. ↓ a
structural integrity and deformations) and decrease and a double arrow an increase/decrease
maximum thermal conductivity are with an exponent higher than 1.
desirable.
B. θ ≈ a 1 H (1 + H f ) −1 a 1 H (1 + H f ) −1 With the above equations is very easy to plot
η ≈ η
LW Nu ⋅ k f (1 + H ) LW Nu ∞ k f (1 + H )2
conv 2
the effect of the different parameters or write
or written in nondimensional way: some qualitative table as Table II.
θ conv L ⋅ W ⋅ k f 1 H (1 + H f ) −1 With the above analysis and the supposition
≈ η that both the heat to be dissipated and the
a Nu ∞ (1 + H )2 maximum increase in cooling fluid
where the entry length effect have been temperature are given, can be stated that:
neglected in order to simplify the Nussetl It is advantageous to select channel
expression, being only function of the aspect ratios as high as possible, though
channel aspect ratio. the benefices decrease at higher H. As a
guide the aspect ratio would be greater
ΔT fluid 1
C. θ heat ≈ ≈ than 3 or 4.
Q ρc pϕ
Low separation between channels
In the previous expressions the thermal improves the design (at least up to a
resistance can be changed with a variation in minimum in terms of θconv). As a guide,
the mass flow, but that implies a variation in the lower Hf needs to be selected.
pressure drop and pumping power. Assuming Structural or manufacturing
an allowable ΔP for the pressure drop considerations dictate this value (about
(inlet/outlet pressure drop neglected) this can 50 to 75 μm is considered a practicable
be rewritten as: value).

θ heat a 3 ΔP α (1 + H ) (1 + H f ) Distance between MHS’s interface and

2

= bottom side of the channel, e, is dictated

⎛ μ ⎞L 8 H3
⎜ ⎟ by structural considerations. Minimum
⎜ ρc ⎟W value is considered around 1 mm.
⎝ p ⎠
or L and W are dependent of the hot spot’s
size, and the target (requirements)
θ heat (a 3 ∏ ) ⎡α (1 + H )2 (1 + H f )⎤
1/ 2
1/ 2 imposes them. Pressure can be
1/ 2
=⎢ ⎥ minimized if the microchannel is split in
⎡⎛ μ ⎞ L ⎤ ⎢⎣ 8 H3 ⎥⎦ branches (branch length: L/n).
⎢⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜
⎢⎣⎝ (ρ c p )2 ⎟
⎠ W ⎥⎦ Microchannel width has a great impact on
pressure loss and pumping power. When
if the constraint is the pumping power. these parameters are fixed, there is a
value that minimized the total thermal
resistance. This value should be analyzed
in detail later, when restrictions to the
MHS (such as maximum junction

6
 temperature and fluid entry temperature) 2. Low freezing point and burst point (in this
are imposed. case < -30 C)
For the fluid, low viscosity, high thermal 3. High atmospheric boiling point or low
capacity and high thermal conductivity are vapour pressure at the operating
advantageous for the MHS. temperature.
For the MHS material, high thermal 4. Good mechanical and thermal stability
conductivity is advantageous (in (specially under severe environments)
consideration with working fluid
5. High flash point and auto-ignition
compatibility).
temperature
The following plot shows the typical
6. Non-corrosive to materials of construction
behaviour of thermal resistance for fixed
pressure loss and geometry (fixed H and Hf) 7. No or minimal regulatory constraints
as a function of the channel width, a. Only the (environmentally friendly, non-toxic, and
convective and heat resistances have been possibly biodegradable)
presented because conduction one is a 8. Economical
constant value proportional to MHS bottom
thickness. 9. Electrical conductivity (it is important if the
fluid comes in direct contact with the
electronics, or if it leaks out of a cooling
0.20
loop or is spilled during maintenance).
0.18
0.16
From the above requirements some are more
conv
0.14
heat
critical than others for the considered
0.12
conv+heat application in this study. In particular
0.10
0.08
requirements 1, 2, 3, 4 y 6 are important,
0.06 while the others can be relaxed.
0.04
0.02 Though the working range is above 60 C
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
(temperature from the returning fluid from
a (microns) sink), the fluid needs to withstand without
freezing up to –30 C. This precludes the use
Fig. 3: Example of the existence of an optimum for of pure water (otherwise and excellent
thermal resistance (conduction thermal resistance election) and some other fluids must be
not plotted because dependence of channel considered.
geometry is almost negligible). θ conv is greater
Table III shows typical properties for the
than θ heat in the interest area (to the right of the liquids that have been selected for
minimum). Therefore, improvement in the first will comparison, including water as reference.
be more important in the final result (this reason Properties are given at the operating
justified the greater weight when selecting a fluid of
temperature (around 60 C) and they
the thermal conductivity, kfluid, that the thermal
capacity, ρcp). correspond to 1 Bar (else indicated); units are
in IS.

4.3 Working fluid H2O+ H2O+EG H2O+PG GALDEN XCELTM

Water Ammonia Acetone
NH3 (1) (2) (3) HT130 500
From the previous analysis can be deducted Tfreezing
(Tpouring), 0 -77 -46 -40 -40 -93.2 < -40 < -40
some requirements for the selection of the C
Tboiling 5
100 100 (4) 100 (5) 107.8 106.1 100 ( ) 130
working fluid, such as low viscosity and high C
Density
3 983 545 900 1057 1018 780 1650 766
kg/m
thermal capacity and conductivity. Cp
4185 5230 4300 3340 3600 2130 1212.2 2330
J/kg-K
Ther.
In general, the requirements may vary Cond. 0.65 0.39 0.59 0.38 0.35 0.16 0.1 0.13
W/m-K
depending on the type of application; Viscosity
Kg/m-s
4.7 10-4 0.94 10 -4
5.5 10 -4
1.52 10 -3
1.98 10 -3
4.15 10 -4
8.90 10 -4
2.8 10-3

following there is a list of some general

requirements for single phase flow [20]: ( ) 22 % ;( ) 54 % ; ( ) 54 % ; ( ) Pressure ∼ 100 Bar ; ( )
1 2 3 4 5

Pressure ∼ 4 to 5 Bar
1. Good thermo-physical properties (high
thermal conductivity and specific heat and Table III: Working fluid typical properties at 60 C.
low viscosity as already stated).

7
Using a simple model as described above, for (compatible with aluminium) and fluids based
equal channel geometry, can be estimated glycol (per instance TYFOCOR L50
the effect of the fluid in the pressure loss, compatible with both aluminium and copper).
pumping power and thermal resistance
While in macroscale heat exchanger, the
(Table IV).
product ρ ⋅ c p usually is one of the main
Inspection of the table shows that water and
criteria for fluid selection, in this particular
ammonia are the best fluids under the point
design is more important the fluid thermal
of view of performance. Nevertheless the first
conductivity. While the fluid heat capacity has
one cannot be used because the operating
temperature range imposed by the a direct effect on θ heat ; the thermal
requirements. The second one requires, in conductivity influences two aspects. On one
order avoiding boiling (this design is for single hand the θ conv is inversely proportional to
phase flow MHS) to be pressurized (around kfluid, and typically the sensibility is greater
100 Bar). This pressurization translates into
than the one of θ heat (mainly because θ heat is
potential leakage and more robust structural
design (and therefore a thicker MHS smaller than θ conv , see figure 3). On the other
increasing conduction thermal resistance) hand, with a single phase design, the
and at the end additional weight. temperature at the bottom channel wall must
be checked, because can be higher than the
corresponding saturation one, leading to
Water Ammonia H2O+NH3 H2O+EG H2O+PG Acetone
GALDEN XCELTM
HT130 500 boiling even if fluid bulk temperature is far
ΔPμc/( ΔPμc)water 1.00 0.29 1.24 3.77 4.73 2.18 3.89 13.73 from saturation, and this fact will depend
Π/( Π) water 1.00 0.42 1.32 4.39 5.31 5.40 8.01 31.65
θcond/(θcond)water 1.00 1.75 1.75 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
mainly of fluid thermal conductivity (i.e.
θheat/(θheat)water
(ΔP constant)
1.00 0.29 1.24 3.77 4.73 2.18 3.89 13.73 convection coefficient).
θheat/(θheat)water 1.00 0.65 1.15 2.10 2.30 2.32 2.83 5.63
(Π constant)
θconv/(θconv)water 1.00 1.67 1.10 1.71 1.86 4.06 6.50 5.00

4.4 Optimization
Table IV: Qualitative effect of the working fluid in some
merit figures. With the model described above, the MHS
geometry can be optimized, for a given fluid
From the table, perhaps the better option and hot spot size. The optimization criteria
would be the mixture ammonia/water. The can be based on minimum thermal resistance
for given allowable pressure drop (or
variation in the parameter θcond/(θcond)water for
pumping power) or minimum pressure drop
the ammonia and its solution is only due to
for a given thermal resistance.
material compatibility, that precludes the use
of copper, with better conductivity than Figures 4 to 7 show some examples of the
aluminium (this last compatible wit ammonia). optimization plots that can be obtained.
This ratio does not take into account the
From analysis can be selected an optimum
necessary increase in MHS bottom wall
geometry, but manufacturing method can limit
thickness in order to compensate the higher
the possible geometries.
pressurization.
In the fluid selection is very important the
aspect of compatibility between fluid and 0.12
MHS material. Normal criterion for 0.11
Thermal resistance (K/W)

compatibility defines it as excellent when 0.10

corrosion ratios are less than 2 mils per year. 0.09
Applied to a microchannel, this number 0.08
means that half a fin can be corrode in one 0.07
year. Therefore it is needed to perform 0.06
100 kPa (1 branch)
50 kPa (1 branch)
100 kPa (2 branch)
50 kPa (2 branch)
special analysis for corrosion inhibitors and to 0.05
25 kPa (1 branch) 25 kPa (2 branch)

study the long-term fluid stability in a hostile 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
a (microns)
environment (mainly radiation during ten or
fifteen years of expected life). For this work
Fig. 4: Example of possible optimization with a simple
two fluids are considered as appropriate for model. Effect of splitting the channels (1 or 2
the application, without a deep compatibility branches). Influence of the allowable pressure drop
analysis: the water/ammonia mixture (equivalent to mass flow).

8
Per instance in our first design was selected
electroerosion as the method for
microchannel manufacturing. Based in
previous experience with normal aluminium
alloys it was expected to obtain fin thickness
around 70 microns and depths about 400
microns. However tests showed that because
the high thermal properties of the selected
alloy (and lower mechanical ones) the
minimum thickness was around 110 microns
(figure 8). Also the channel width was driven
by available filament diameters. For the
second model with improved performance
was selected for manufacturing a micro
milling process. In this case the channel
depth was increased and the fins were
thinner; however the channel width increased Fig. 7: Example of possible optimization with simple
models. General plot showing thermal resistance
(because the milling tool thickness). isocontours as a function of the channel width and
aspect ratio, for a given fin thickness and pressure
drop. Hyperbolae correspond to manufacturing
constraints, such as limited fin aspect ratio (4 can
1000
be obtained by electroerosion in aluminium and 87
with micromilling).
Δ P (kPa)

100
H:3 (1 branch)
H:3 (2 branch)
H:4 (1 branch)
H:4 (2 branch)

10
0 50 100 150 200 250
a (microns)

Fig. 5: Example of possible optimization with simple

models. Effect of split the channels with varying
channel aspect ratio, for constant thermal
resistance of 0.08 K/W.
Fig. 8: Electroerosion method, filament of ∅0.1 mm. Fin
deformations as a function of its thickness, from left
to right 70, 90 and 100 microns (microphotographs
obtained by TEKNIKER).

5 MHS MODELS
Along the project were developed three
different models, named MHS-1, 2 and 3.
Follow a short description for each one.
Typical values for the spreaders are
summarized in the Table V.

Fig. 6: Example of possible optimization with simple

models. The shadowed area shows the interest
zone. It is at the right side of the minimum in order
to avoid the sharp thermal resistance increase on
the left. Final channel width will be a compromise
between performance and manufacturing.
5.1 MHS-1
The objective of this model was:
Visualized priming process and to
check flow uniformity and bubble
absence inside the MHS.
To test manufacturing procedures.

9
 To test hydraulic models
To test and tune the test bench
The model had a glass cover, and because it
the inlet/outlet was located in its bottom part,
increasing its thickness and worsening its
thermal resistance. The size was higher than
the requirements (Table V).
The union of the different parts was done by
gluing and by pressure fasteners (figure 9).

5.2 MHS-2
This was the first prototype aimed to thermal Fig. 10: MHS-2. Prototype of microchannel heat
performance. The microscale zone was spreader 2.
similar to MHS-1, with small differences in the
inlet and outlet sections. The microchannel
manufacturing was also made by
electroerosion and the union of the two
components (upper and lower cover) was
made with friction stir welding (figure 10).

5.3 MHS-3
Based on the previous experience, was made
a new MHS aiming to improve pressure drop
and heat transfer characteristics.
Main differences with the previous ones was
the higher channel aspect ratio, obtained by Fig. 11: MHS-2 and MHS-3.
the change of the manufacturing procedure
from electroerosion to micromilling; and a
redesign of the inlet/outlet manifolds (figure
11).
MHS-1 MHS-2 MHS-3
Size (w/o
50x50x23.2 37x29x7.2 41x29x7.7
connectors)
Type split split split
a (microns) 130 130 145
H (b/a) 3.1 3.1 6.6
Hf (wf/a) 0.8 0.8 0.6
Table V: Geometrical definition for MHS 1 to 3.

6 TEST BENCH
For testing the MHS models was necessary
to develop a test bench. In this rig a key
component was the heater, this element
represents the hot component and must be
Fig. 9: MHS-1. Visualization model.
able to put a uniform heat flux on the MHS
greater than 150 W/cm2, equivalent to a
power of 450 W. Other aspect that required
special attention was the characterization of
the thermal interface material (TIM). These
topics are extended in the following
paragraphs.

10
6.1 General rig description
The test bench (figure 12) consists in:
A hydraulic loop that is composed by a
deionised water1 reservoir, a pump
discharging in a pressurized damping
tank, a filter, a tap, the flow rotameter,
then the inlet measurement section, the
MHS, the outlet section measurement
and the return to the water reservoir
closing the loop.
An electrical autotransformer, the
electrical power measurement zone, and
the heater.
Fig. 12: Test bench. General view.
The measurement module consists in:
Pressure: differential between inlet/outlet
and absolute at inlet.
Temperature: 2 thermocouples in the fluid
at inlet, 2 thermocouples at outlet, 8 (10
for TIM characterisation) thermocouples
in the heater.
Volumetric flow
Fig. 13: Test bench. The inlet and outlet sections where
enthalpy increase and pressure drop are measured
are shown in conjunction with the heater and MHS
(not visible because isolation layers and the fixing
structure)
1
Water was used during test because simplicity and
security.
6.2 Heater description
The heater consists in a copper block,
shaped in such way that a uniform heat flow
is obtained at the top, in the MHS contact
area (figure 14).
Inside the block there are three thermal
cartridges. Two heaters were built along the
project; the first one was used with MHS-1
and MHS-2 and it was fitted with 500 W
(1x300 W and 2x100 W cartridges); the
second one was used in MHS-3 and it was
able to deliver up to 700 W (1x300 W + 2x
200 W) in order to obtain the target of 450
watts evacuated in the MHS (heat losses
resulted in 30 % and 20 % of the electrical
power, depending of heater thermal
isolation).
The heater is fitted on a ceramic base with a
four columns structure, which presses the
MHS against the hot surface by means of a
plate and screws on the columns. The entire
heater is isolated aiming to reduce convective
heat losses.
Fig. 14: Numerical model of the heater. Can be seen
the three holes for the thermal cartridges and the
upper pedestal, where thermocouples will be
installed. On the top, the MHS will be fitted.
In the pedestal (the prismatic upper part), the
heater has eight 0.5 mm holes at two levels:
1.5 mm and 6.5 mm below the MHS
interface. These holes with a depth varying
from 6 to 10 mm allow the measurement of
temperature and its extrapolation to the
interface in order to estimate the junction
temperature. This value is corrected with a
heat flux dependent correlation, accounting
for the distortions in the temperature field
caused by the thermocouples. This correction
was obtained from numerical computation.
11
Also, the temperature gradient and therefore
estimation for the heat flux at the interface
surface can be extracted from the
thermocouple readings.

6.3 Thermal Interface Material (TIM)

In a real application, the MHS will be
mounted on the hot component with a TIM in
order to reduce the contact thermal
resistance. With the experimental set-up, the
value measure for the thermal resistance is: (a)
θ set −up = θ MHS + θ TIM . Then it is necessary to
know the θ TIM in order to make a realistic
estimation for the MHS thermal resistance.
For simplicity, as TIM material was chosen a
commercial thermal paste. The thermal paste
was applied manually on both interface
surfaces. The rig was mounted repeatedly in
order to characterize the variations induced in
the paste application by the manual
procedure. An aluminium adaptor with two
pieces was fitted to the heater, and the
thermal gradients in the upper and lower part (b)
were obtained and extrapolated to the
Fig. 15a & b: Aluminium blocks for TIM calibration. Can
interface, allowing plotting the ratio ΔT/Q be seen the holes for the thermocouples used for
( θ TIM ). Figures 15 to 17 show the aluminium obtaining the ΔT across the TIM.
blocks, the estimation of temperature jump
470
across the interface and the global results for 460
the TIM thermal resistance. 450
440
In figure 17 have been plotted two lines, the 430
lower one is the nominal value provided by 420

the TIM manufacturer and it corresponds to a 410

400
0.003 inch thickness. This value is based in 390
the long term operation, after several cycles 380
and more than 200 working hours. The upper -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20

line corresponds to the expected resistance

during the first working hours. The dots
correspond to experimental data obtained for
the different rig assemblies. As can be seen
the dispersion in the temperature range of
350 to 380 K goes from 0.04 to 0.10. After the
Fig. 16: Example of temperature variation across the
aluminium blocks. On the left the lower block, on
the right the upper one. ΔT in the TIM corresponds
to the temperature jump in ‘X’ equal to zero.
0.14
TIM Thermal Resistance (K/W)

0.12
dilemma of which value must be selected for
0.10
TIM, it was decided to take the minimum one,
that subtracted from θ set −up will provide a 0.08

0.06
conservative approach giving a greater value 0.04
for θ MHS . 0.02

In the following, θ TIM = 0.03 K/W is selected,

0.00
300 350 400 450
TIM Temperature (K)
therefore when MHS thermal resistance is
presented, it corresponds to the set-up value Fig. 17: TIM characterization.
minus 0.03.

12
The selected value for the TIM agrees with 0.6
standard material used in space industry, MHS-1

Total Pressure drop (Bar)

0.5
such as HiThermTM005 (∼0.028 K/W). MHS-2
0.4 MHS-3
MHS-1 th.
0.3
MHS-2 th.
7 EXPERIMENTAL RESUTS 0.2 MHS-3 th.

0.1
The principal results from MHS-1 were the
checking of the hydraulic design and the 0.0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
manufacturing techniques (figure 18). Mas flow (kg/s)

Fig. 20: Pressure drop in the prototypes. As in 19 but

with the associated rig pressure drop subtracted.

0.14
MHS-2

0.12

Thermal resistance (no TIM),

0.10

0.08

(K/W)
0.06
Test-1
0.04 Test-2
Theoretical
0.02
Target
0.00
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
Mass Flow (kg/s)

Fig. 21: MHS-2 Thermal resistance (after subtracting

0.03 K/W for the TIM).
Fig. 18: Visualization result from MHS. The picture
shows the instant when channels are just filled.
MHS-3, as expected from the improvement in
the design, reduced the thermal resistance
MHS-2 provided the expected thermal and pressure drop to very low levels. Values
performance, obtaining thermal resistances of of 0.04 K/W with a pressure drop of 0.09 Bar
0.06 K/W, with a water flow of 0.018 kg/s and and 0.02 kg/s were obtained with heat fluxes
a pressure drop of 0.42 Bar. The test were up to 180 W/cm2 (figures 19, 20 and 22).
done up to a heat flux of 120 W/cm2 (figures
19 to 21).

0.14 MHS-3. Test 1

0.12

0.10
Thermal resistance (w/o

0.7
MHS-1
TIM), (K/W)
Total Pressure drop (+rig) (Bar)

0.6 0.08
MHS-2
0.5 MHS-3 0.06
0.4 MHS-1 th. Test 1. 190 W
MHS-2 th. 0.04
0.3 Test 1. 350 W
MHS-3 th. Theoretical
0.02
0.2
Target
0.1 0.00
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
0.0 Mass Flow (kg/s)
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
Mas flow (kg/s)
Fig. 22: MHS-3 Thermal resistance (after subtracting
0.03 K/W for the TIM). Comparing with figure 21,
Fig. 19: Pressure drop in the prototypes. The values the modifications incorporated to the design leaded
include the additional pressure drop due to inlet to a considerable improvement.
and outlet measurement sections.

Table VI resumes the main results. They

present the junction temperature for the
nominal heat flux and fluid temperature inlet;
and the maximum heat flux that it is possible

13
to evacuate without overpass the maximum
junction temperature.

The authors want to express their gratitude to

Mass Mr. Alberto José Herrero and Mr. Sabino
flow
DP
(kPa)
θ MHS Tinlet
(C)
Q
(W)
q
(W/cm2)
Tj
(C) Azcarate from the Fundación TEKNIKER,
(kg/s)
responsible of the manufacturing of the MHSs
MHS-2 0.019 50 0.06 60 450 150 87
and the people from LOKTER, responsible for
MHS-2 0.019 50 0.06 60 650 225 100 the welding process. We are in debt with the
MHS-3 0.020 10 0.04 60 450 150 78 people from the Laboratorio de Mecánica de
MHS-3 0.020 10 0.04 60 1000 325 100 Fluidos (LAMF) from the E.T.S. de Ingenieros
Table VIa. MHS performance without TIM Aeronáuticos, Universidad Politécnica de
Madrid.

Mass
DP
θ MHS Tinlet Q q Tj
flow
(W/cm2) This work has been partly funded by the
(kg/s)
(kPa)
+ θ TIM (C) (W) (C)
Spanish Ministry of Industry through PROFIT.
MHS-2 0.019 50 0.09 60 450 150 101

MHS-3 0.020 10 0.07 60 450 150 92

MHS-3 0.020 10 0.07 60 575 175 100
Table VIb. MHS performance with TIM (0.03 K/W) 9 REFERENCES

8 CONCLUSIONS 1. Clemens J.M. Lasance, Robert E.

In relation with the possibility to evacuate the
high heat fluxes in space, the study has
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Referring to the design methodology, though
CFD codes can be used for design, they are
time consuming. It is better to use them in:
Getting correlations as a virtual test
bench
For the detailed analysis of particular
configurations
And of course, for final performance
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Also some manufacturing techniques have
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15