Proc.

of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009

S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

Heat Transfer Through Windows: a Review

*
Anuranjan Sharda , Sudhir Kumar

National Institute of technology, Kurukshetra Haryana, India

*
Corresponding author (e-mail: anuranjansharda@gmail.com)

Traditionally in India, windows were designed with a sole aim of controlling the
indoor climate so as to provide comfort to the user. The prime objective was to
control the heat flow through the window: inside to outside in winters and outside
to inside in summer. With the coming up of Malls, Multiplexes etc., there is very
little concern shown for designing according to the climate, with indigenous
materials. The aim of the paper is to bring an insight into the field by presenting
out the research carried out by researchers on the process of heat flow through
windows and its control for reduction in energy use.

1. Introduction
Over the years, many studies have been performed that document the effect of
windows on residential energy use but the study is limited to the colder climates of Europe
and North America. The authors intend to review the research done in this area so that this
effort acts as a guideline for proper understanding of energy transfer process. To start with,
various models developed and recommended by researchers for predicting the incident solar
radiation on the vertical or tilted surfaces particularly for building energy use, are discussed.
Thereafter the basic physical phenomena governing heat transfer along with the thermal and
solar optical parameters viz. Shading coefficient, Solar heat gain Coefficient (SHGC), visible
transmittance and U-factors are presented and the related work done on their determination is
also reviewed The paper discusses the different modes of heat transfer occurring at various
surfaces of windows.

2. Incident Solar radiation or irradiance

The total solar radiation incident on any surface, Gt, comprises of three components:
beam radiation Gb, ground reflected diffuse radiation Gdg and diffuse radiation from sky Gds.
and is expressed as
Gt= Gb + Gds + Gdg
The three components can be evaluated individually as explained in the following sections.
2.1 Beam Radiation:
The beam solar radiation that reaches a surface is related to the various solar angles and
local latitude. According to Duffie and Beckman [1], for a tilted surface with β degree, the
angle of incidence of beam radiation, θ, is given by
cos   sin  sin  cos  - sin  cos  sin  cos   cos  cos  cos  cos  
(1)
cos  sin  sin  cos  cos   cos  sin  sin  sin 
where, φ is the local latitude, ω is the hour angle, γ is called surface azimuth, and δ is the
solar declination.
The beam solar radiation on a tilted surface can be obtained by multiplying a ratio Rb
developed by Hottel and Woertz 1942 [1], to the horizontal beam solar radiation. The ratio Rb
is defined as the ratio of beam radiation on a tilted surface, GbT to that on a horizontal surface,
Gbh and can be expressed as,
R b  G bT / G bh  (G bn cos  ) / (G bn cos  z )  cos  / cos  z (2)
where, Gbh is the horizontal beam radiation, Gbn is the direct normal radiation to the
surface. Thus beam radiation on a tilted surface can be evaluated by,
G bT  G bh .R b  G bh (cos  / cos  z ) (3)

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 Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

2.2 Ground Reflected radiation:

The inclined surface with β degree to the horizontal has a view factor to the ground of (1-cos
β)/2. If the ground has a reflectance of ρ for the total solar radiation, the reflected radiation
from the ground, GgT can be written as,
G gT  (G b  G dh ). . {(1 - cos  )/2} (4)
where Gdh is the horizontal diffuse radiation. The ground reflectance ρ is 0.2 where there is no
snow and 0.7 for a fresh snow cover.
2.3 Diffuse radiation:
Various isotropic and anisotropic models are available for estimating diffused radiations and
these models differ in the assumed diffuse radiance distribution at different states of
cloudiness.
2.3.1 Isotropic models:
These models considered diffused radiations to be isotropically distributed and thus include
three components: beam or direct, isotropic diffuse and diffusely reflected from the ground.
a) Hottel model: According to this model proposed by H.C. Hottel [2] the atmospheric
transmittance for beam radiation transmitted through clear atmosphere, Tb is Gbn/Gen (or
GbT/GeT) and is given in the form
Tb  a o  a 1 exp( - k / cos  z ) (5)
Hottel presented two visibility haze models for calculating the constants ao, a1, and k for the
standard atmosphere for altitudes less than 2.5 km from ao* a1* and k* as
23 km visibility haze model 5km visibility haze model
ao*= 0.4237 – 0.00821(6-A) 2
ao*= 0.2538 – 0.0063(6-A) 2
* 2 * 2
a1 = 0.5055 + 0.00595(6.5-A) a1 = 0.7678 + 0.0010(6.5-A)
* 2 * 2
k = 0.2711 + 0.01858 (2.5-A) k = 0.249 + 0.081 (2.5-A)
where, A is the altitude of the observer in kilometers.
* * *
Correction factors were applied to ao a1 and k to allow for changes in climate types. The
* * *
values for these correction factors ro= ao/ao , r1=a1/a1 and rk = k/k are also provided according
to different types of climate. The clear sky beam radiation is then given as
Gcnb= Gen Tb where Gen is obtained as under
G en  G sc {1  0.033 cos (360n / 365)} (6)
b) Liu and Jordan Model: Liu & Jordan [3] assumed the diffuse radiation to be made up of
two components; sky and ground diffuse solar radiation and assumed isotropic distribution of
diffuse radiation. The diffused irradiation from sky and ground is expressed as:
G d -sky  G en . Td . sin  . [(1  cos  ) / 2] (7)

G d -ground  G en ( Td  Tb )  g .sin  .[(1 - cos  )/2] (8)

where [(1+cosβ)/2] is the view factor from window to sky, [(1-cosβ)/2] is the view factor from
window to ground, β is the tilt angle between the surface and horizontal, α is the solar altitude,
ρg is the ground and Td is the diffused transmittance which can be determined as follows:
Td  0.271 - 0.294 Tb (9)
This model gives accurate results under a completely cloudy sky but becomes unreliable for a
clear sky, due to the presence of circumsolar and horizon brightening anisotropic effect.
2.3.2 Anisotropic models
In these models diffuse radiation is composed of three parts: isotropic, circumsolar diffuse
(concentrated in the sky near the sun) and horizon brightening (concentrated in the sky near
the horizon). Different anisotropic models are explained below.

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 Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

a) The Hay & Davies model: According to this model proposed by Hay & Davies (1980) [4], an
anisotropic index AI is used to weigh the circumsolar and the isotropic irradiance components.
The index is used to account for the circumsolar anisotropy under clear sky conditions at the
circumsolar area of the sky since that area is usually brighter than the sky on average. AI is
defined as follows,
A I  G b / G en (10)
The diffuse radiation on an inclined surface in the Hay & Davies model can be expressed as,
G dT  G d [ (1 - A I ).{(1  cos  ) / 2}  A I ( cos  / cos  z ) ] (11)
b) The Reindl model: Reindl et al. [5] added a horizon brightening diffuse term to the Hay &
Davies model to form their model. The magnitude of the horizon brightening is controlled by a
modulating function f, which is given by,
f  (G b / G tot ) ½ , where, Gtot is the total horizontal radiation.
Thus, the diffuse radiation on an inclined surface in the Reindl model can be evaluated
from the equation:
G dT  G d [(1 - A I ).{1  f sin 3 (  / 2)}.{(1  cos  ) / 2}  A I ( cos  / cos  z ) ] (12)
Dorota A. Chwieduk [6] presented a comparative analysis of different models and
recommended anisotropic model for modelling solar energy incident on a building envelope.
The author showed that the irradiation calculated using the isotropic sky model for such
surfaces in summer months is lower by 10–15% than irradiation calculated using the
anisotropic model and such underestimation of solar gains can lead to unsuitable design
concepts and construction of a building that result in poor indoor thermal comfort.

3. Heat Gain through windows

Windows with both good looks and desired controls for heat flow requires a thorough
understanding of mechanism of how glass responds to solar heat gain and thereafter
measures needs to be taken to control that heat transfer. Normal clear glass is almost
transparent to high frequency solar radiation, but is a barrier to low frequency or long wave
radiation. The solar heat energy passing through the glazing warms up the various internal
surfaces by absorption and these internal surfaces then become heat radiators of low
frequency re-emitted heat which is trapped inside causing the temperatures to rise.

Absorbed solar radiation

conducted through the frame

Directly transmitted solar radiation

Reflected solar
through the glazing (includes both
radiation
light and heat)
Glazing absorbed
solar radiant heat
Outward flowing fraction Inward flowing fraction of
of glazing absorbed glazing absorbed radiation
radiation Heat conducted through glass

Heat conducted through frame

Figure 1: Basics of heat transfer through windows (CII: Srinivas presentation on

Energy Efficiency through Green Building Concepts)
In the past, shading coefficient was used to represent the heat flowing through
windows and was defined as the solar gain through a given fenestration compared to what
the solar gain would have been through an unshaded opening of the same size and
orientation glazed with a standard single pane of 1/8" double strength clear window glass.
However complexity of modern glazing systems could not be adequately evaluated by the
single shading coefficient. Hence ASHRAE [7] devised an alternate method for determining
this heat. According to this method, the total instantaneous energy flowing through a window,

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 Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

Q, consists of two terms. The first one being the thermal energy flow (due to the difference in
temperature of indoor and outdoor conditions) and the second one, the direct solar energy
flow (due to the transmitted irradiance)
Q  UA pf (t out - t in )  (SHGC) A pf G t (13)

where, U is overall coefficient of heat transfer (or U-factor defined as the rate of heat transfer
through the window per unit area and per unit temperature difference of the window), tin is the
interior air temperature, tout is the exterior air temperature, Apf is total projected area of
fenestration, SHGC is solar heat gain coefficient and Gt is the incident total irradiance.
3.1 Thermal Energy Flow
Dariush Arasteh et al [8] showed that complete window heat transfer can be considered as
the area weighted sum of three window component areas: the center of glass area, the edge
of glass area (that area within 2.5 in. of the sightline), and the frame area. The author also
presented algorithms for calculating heat transfer through each of these areas.
Q window  Q center  Q edge  Q frame  U window A window ( Toutdoors - Tindoors ) (14)

Ucenter Acenter  Uedge Aedge  Uframe Aframe

Uwindow  (15)
Awindow
where, Awindows is the window area, Acenter is the area of center section, Aedge is the area of
edge section and Aframe is the area of frame section.
3.2 Solar Energy Flow
Solar energy entering through a window has two components, first is the radiation entering
the fenestration directly i.e. solar transmittance of the glazing system, Ts and the second
component is the inward-flowing portion, Ni of the absorbed solar radiation where αs is solar
absorptance of a single pane of glass. SHGC is hence calculated as
Q window  Q center  Q edge  Q frame  U window A window ( Toutdoors - Tindoors ) (16)

(SHGC)  (Ts  N i s ) (17)

Michael Rubin [9] developed a complete set of calculation procedures for determining the
solar transmittance, reflectance and absorptance of a window composed of an arbitrary
number of partially transparent layers. Michael Rubin [10] also developed a general
procedure for calculating the net energy flux through the glazed area of the window
composed of an arbitrary number of solid layers. Dariush Arasteh [11] explored window
material and design parameters which influence edge heat transfer using 2D heat-transfer
modelling with ANSYS. Finlayson et a1 [12] revised the calculations procedures by Rubin and
presented the computer program for calculating the thermal and optical properties necessary
for heat transfer analysis of fenestration products. With the improvement of technology in this
area various fenestration products flooded the market. J Karlsson [13] et al presented a
simple model to compare various advanced windows in different geographical locations,
orientations and buildings using only the balance temperature as input.

4 Control of heat transfer through windows

Shading devices as well as coated or tinted glass can be used to control heat transfer
through windows. Gouri Datta [14] studied the thermal performance of buildings for four
different cities in Italy and concluded that external fixed horizontal louvers of proper design for
south windows were effective in not only reducing cooling loads of a building in summer but
also reduced overall annual primary energy loads of a building. Shading devices which are
used to control heat transfer may either be the integral parts of the building, i.e., architectural
solutions, or industrially manufactured devices, such as window treatments, or shading and
coating. The category of architectural solutions includes overhangs and vertical fins, window
set-back, light shelves etc. whereas window treatments include a variety of devices that are
attached to the exterior (awnings, italian awnings, exterior venetian blinds, overhangs, baffle

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 Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

screens) or interior (venetian blind, screen, roller blind,) of windows. Table 1 below presents
comparison of exterior and interior shading devices.
Table1: Comparison of exterior and interior shading devices
Exterior shading devices Interior shading devices
Usually of fixed type etc. Usually movable type- manually operated or motorized
More effective in reducing cooling loads by Less effective in reducing cooling loads since the solar gain has
blocking solar heat gain already been admitted into the work space.
Also blocks a significant amount of diffuse Exercise dynamic control, to minimize the energy consumption for
daylight but are not effective under cloudy lighting, heating and cooling while offering a comfortable indoor
skies environment under continuously changing outside conditions
More expensive Less expensive

5. Conclusions

A complete study of heat transfer right from solar radiation incident on windows to
those entering through them has been thoroughly reviewed. After discussing various models
for solar radiations incident on a surface it is concluded that anisotropic models gives more
accurate results over isotropic models. Through a comprehensive understanding of basic
physics involved in the heat transfer through windows, manufacturers can design more
energy efficient window combined with good modern looks. However much needs to be done
in India for controlling heat transfer through windows as optimum shading system depends on
the location and weather considerations in which it is to be used.
References
[1] Duffie J.A., Beckman W.A. Solar engineering of thermal processes. John Wiley & Sons
Inc. New York, 1980
[2] Hottel, H.C. A simple model for estimating the transmittance of direct solar radiation
through clear atmospheres. Solar Energy 18, 1976, 129–134.
[3] Liu, B. and Jordan, R.The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct,
diffuse and total solar irradiance. Solar Energy, Vol 4, No. 3, 1960, 1-19.
[4] Fung Yu Yan. Energy Performance of Semi-transparent PV Modules for Applications in
Buildings. PhD. thesis at Hong Kong Polytechnic University in May, 2006, 48-49.
[5] Reindl, D. T., Beckman, W. A. Duffie, J. A., Evaluation of hourly tilted surface radiation
models. Solar Energy, Vol. 45, no. 1, 1990, 9-17.
[6] Dorota A. Chwieduk., Recommendation on modeling of solar energy incident on a
building envelope. Renewable Energy 34, 2009, 736-741.
[7] ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (SI), SI edition, American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air-Condition Engineers Inc., Atlanta GA, 2005, Chapter 31,
Fenestrations.
[8] Dariush Arasteh, Susan Reilly, and Mike Rubin. A versatile procedure for calculating
heat transfer through windows. ASHRAE Transactions, 1989, Vol 95, Pt. 2(2).
[9] Michael Rubin, Solar optical Properties of windows. Journal of Energy Research, Vol 6,
1982, 123-133.
[10] Rubin, M.D. Calculating heat transfer through windows International Journal of Energy
Research, Vol 6, 1982, 341-349.
[11] Dariush Arasteh. An Analysis of Edge Heat Transfer in Residential Windows. Journal of
Building Physics, 14, 1991, 295-310
[12] E.U. Finlayson, D.K. Arasteh, C. Huizenga, M.D. Rubin and M.S. Reilly. WINDOW 4.0:
Documentation of Calculation Procedures- A Report supported by the Assistant
Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Division of the U.S.
Department of Energy under Contract No. DEAC03-76SF00098. 1993.
[13] J. Karlsson, B. Karlsson, A. Ross. A simple model for assesing the energy performance
of windows Energy and buildings 33, 2001, 641-651
[14] Gouri Datta. Effect of fixed horizontal louver shading devices on thermal performance of
building by TRNSYS Simulation. Renewable Energy, 23, 2001, 497-507.

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 Proc. of the International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering, August 3-5, 2009
S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat – 395 007, Gujarat, India

Photovoltaic-Battery System Design Space for a Remote

Indian Location
Arun P
S V National Institute of Technology Surat, 395007, Gujarat, India
Corresponding author (email: arun.p@med.svnit.ac.in)

Photovoltaic-battery systems are a sustainable option for meeting the electrical

energy requirements of isolated locations. Design space approach for sizing
photovoltaic-battery systems is illustrated in this paper for a remote Indian island
(Sagardeep, 22.65oN, 88.45oE). Design space corresponds to the set of all
feasible system configurations capable of meeting the site demand, represented
by plotting a sizing curve. Sizing curve connects the combinations of the
photovoltaic array ratings and the corresponding minimum battery capacities
capable of meeting the specified load, plotted on photovoltaic array rating vs.
battery capacity diagram. The sizing methodology relies on time series
simulation of the overall system based on energy balance. System design
depends on the solar resource and demand profiles of the site and the
equipment characteristics. In the present work, sets of sizing curves are
generated based on the insolation profile corresponding to an averaged day,
averaged day of the month receiving minimum solar insolation and by using
hourly solar insolation for a complete year. Since measured data for the entire
year is not available for the location, hourly data is generated based on Graham
algorithm. Systematic comparison of the sizing obtained for each of these cases
is presented. Existing photovoltaic-battery system present in the site is identified
in the generated design space. Any system configuration on the sizing curve and
the design space is expected to meet the site demand. Detailed simulation of a
representative configuration from the design space is carried out with Hybrid2
code for assessing the system performance.

1. Introduction

Photovoltaic-battery systems are a sustainable option for meeting the electrical

energy requirements of isolated locations. Sizing of a photovoltaic-battery system involves the
determination of the array rating (in terms of the peak power (Wp) required and the capacity of
the battery bank. The existing sizing methods range from simple correlations relating the
array rating and battery capacity to detailed mathematical model based procedures. Sandia
labs have provided simple calculations to obtain an independent design of the photovoltaic
array and battery bank [1]. Mathematical modeling procedures have been found quite useful
in the design of the overall system. It has been observed that simulation time step, input and
output power profiles have a major effect on the system sizing [2]. Optimum techno -
economic analysis of photovoltaic systems for remote electrification has also been carried out
for various remote locations [3].Software tools like RETScreen [4], HOMER [5], Hybrid2 [6]
etc. are also available for the design of photovoltaic-battery systems. However it is beneficial
for the designer to adopt methods which enable the set of all feasible system configurations
or the design space to be explored. Design space approach aims at identifying the set of all
feasible system configurations of photovoltaic-battery bank configurations capable of meeting
a specified demand. The system sizing based on design space approach has been illustrated
for various options of isolated power generation like battery integrated diesel generator
systems [7], photovoltaic-battery systems [8], wind-battery systems [9] etc. In this paper,
design space approach for sizing photovoltaic-battery systems is illustrated for a remote
Indian island (Sagardeep, 22.65oN, 88.45oE). Comparison of system sizing based on various
input solar insolation profiles for the site is presented. The detailed simulation of a
representative configuration from the design space is carried out using Hybrid2 code. The
usefulness of the simulation tool for assessing the system performance is illustrated. It is

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