Department of Electrical Engineering

Zakir Husain College of Engineering & Technology

Aligarh Muslim University

UNIT-II
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION-A

Course: Prepared By:

Renewable Energy Emad Jamil
Sources (EEE-421) Assistant Professor (BE)
B.E. IVth Year Civil/Mech. Engg. ZHCET, AMU
 IMPORTANT NOTE:
The aim of the PPT based teaching is to
make the students understand the
concepts, principles, working or
construction related to a particular topic
which wouldn’t be possible only with black
board teaching.

But it is ADVISED to please consult the

books when studying a particular topic, to
get the complete knowledge as well theory
for examination point of view.
2
 CONTENT
 Introduction to Solar Energy

 Solar energy Radiations and its propagation (Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Radiations)

 Beam, Diffused, Reflected and Global Radiations

 Spectral Energy Distribution of Solar Radiation

 Brief overview of Measuring Devices and Solar Radiation Data

 Definition and Calculations of Solar Geometry Terms

 Introduction to Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

 Performance Indices and Effect of various parameters on performance

 Classification and comparison of solar thermal collectors

 Applications of Solar Thermal Energy Conversion

 Solar Water Heater

 Solar Passive Space Heating and Cooling

 Solar Industrial Heating Systems

 Solar Refrigeration and Air Conditioning System

 Solar Furnace
SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF
SOLAR RADIATION
 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF MEASURING
DEVICES AND SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• The solar radiation data is required by the designer in order to
properly design the solar process equipment.
• There are three options by which the solar data radiation data
of a particular location can be obtained:
1. Make measurements at a particular location by means of some
measuring instruments
2. By taking the data of some other location where the climate is
known to be similar to location under consideration.
3. Using empirical predictive equations which link values of solar
data with other meteorological parameters like sunshine hours/
day, the precipitation , the cloud cover, etc. The values of the
parameters should be known for location under consideration.
RADIATION DATA CAN BE OBTAINED
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
Solar Radiation measurement can be done using three
instruments:
(a) Pyranometer

(b)Pyrheliometer

(c) Sunshine recorder

 SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(a) Pyranometer:
• It uses a thermopile and highly absorbing surface and the
output is voltage which can be calibrated in terms of solar
radiation (w/sq.m.)

Complete Assembly USB Connection CaCl crystals to maintain

humidity
 SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(a) Pyranometer:
Construction:
- Highly absorbing surface (black lacquer)
- Thermopile (combination of thermocouple)
- Glass dome prevent leakage of heat radiation from sensor, remove the problem
of convection currents and protect from rain and other disturbances.
- O/P in mV calibrated in Watt/sq.m
- Glass dome control spectral response of 300-2800nm while 180 degree field
of view.
- Level adjusting screws.
- Electrical Connections.
- CaCl crystals used to absorb moisture and maintain humidity inside the dome.
(need to be replaced after few weeks)
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(a) Pyranometer:
• It can be used for total radiation and diffused radiation as
well(if shading ring is used)
 SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(B) Pyrheliometer:
• A pyrheliometer is an instrument for
measurement of direct beam solar
irradiance.

• Sunlight enters the instrument through

a window and is directed onto a
thermopile which converts heat to an
electrical signal that can be recorded.
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(B) Pyrheliometer:

Complete Assembly
 SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(B) Sunshine Recorder:
• It measures sunshine hours in a day.
• It consist of a glass sphere (10cm dia.) mounted on axis parallel to
earth.
• It is held in a spherical section (bowl) and a card (bearing time scale)
in it.
• It sharply focus radiation on a card and burns path along scale.
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(B) Sunshine Recorder:

Complete Assembly
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
(B) Sunshine Recorder:

Cards for Sunshine recorder

 SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• Monthly average hourly global radiation is generally used
for a particular location.

Graphical Representation
 SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• Monthly average hourly global radiation is generally used
for a particular location.

Tabular Representation
 SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• Typical Daily Variation of Global and Diffused Radiation

Graphical Representation
SOLAR RADIATION DATA

Graphical Representation
 SOLAR RADIATION DATA
• An alternative unit for expressing solar radiation is Langley/ Unit
Time.
• 1 Langley = 1 cal./sq.cm.
• Solar radiation data can be expressed in three ways:
– Flow of energy per unit area per second.(kJ/sq.m.-s)
– Flow of energy per unit area per hour.(kJ/sq.m.-h)
– Flow of energy per unit area per day.(kJ/sq.m.-d)
 DEFINITION AND CALCULATIONS
OF SOLAR GEOMETRY TERMS
• It is needed in order to establish some empirical equations
for the estimation of radiation data in locations where no
measurement is available.

• Also, the beam energy falling on surface having any

orientation needs to be converted to the value of beam flux
coming from the direction of sun to an equivalent value
corresponding to the normal direction to the surface.

• Some terms, their definition and relationships will be

discussed.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Air Mass:
– The ratio of the path length through the atmosphere, which the
solar beam actually traverses up to the ground to the vertical path
length through the atmosphere.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Air Mass:
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Latitude angle (Φ):
– The angle made by radial line joining the location to the center of
the earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Declination angle (δ):
– The angle made by the line joining the centers of the sun and earth
with its projection on the equatorial plane. It varies from +23.45°
to -23.45 °.
– Declination is calculated with the following formula:
d = 23.45 * sin [360 / 365 * (284 + N)]
where:
d = declination
N = day number, January 1 = day 1
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Declination angle (δ):
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Declination angle (δ):
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Hour Angle (ω):
– It is an angular measure of time and its equivalent to 15° per hour.
It also varies from +180° to -180°. Being +ve in the morning and
–ve in evening.
– It can be calculated as:
ω = [Solar Time-12:00] hrs x 15 degrees
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Surface Azimuth Angle (γ):
– It is the angle made in horizontal surface between the line due
south and the projection of the normal to the surface on the
horizontal surface. It can vary from + 180°. +ve in east of the
south.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Slope (β):
– Angle made by tilted surface with the horizontal plane.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Solar Azimuth Angle (γs):
– is the angle made in horizontal plane between line due south and the
projection of the line of sight of sun. +ve in the east of the south.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Angle of inclination (α):
– The angle between the beam rays and the horizontal plane.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Angle of incidence (θ):
– It is the angle between the beam rays incident on the plane surface
(collector) and the normal to the surface.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Angle of incidence (θ):
– It is the angle between the beam rays incident on the plane surface
(collector) and the normal to the surface.
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Apparent Motion of the Sun:
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Apparent Motion of the Sun:
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Sunrise, Sunset and Day length:

For tilted surface at an angle beta

 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Local Apparent Time (Solar Time):
– Time used for calculating the hour angle omega is local apparent
time.
– This time can be obtained from standard time (st) by applying two
corrections as shown below.

– The first correction due to difference in longitude of location and

meridian on which standard time is based.
– The second one due to the fact that earth motion is subjected to
fluctuations.
– This E is called equation of time correction and is given as:
 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
• Local Apparent Time:
– “-4” if location in east to prime meridian and “+4” if in west.
 Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
• Heat-transfer fluids carry heat through solar collectors and
a heat exchanger to the heat storage tanks in solar water
heating systems.

Source:
https://energy.gov/energysaver/heat-transfer-
fluids-solar-water-heating-systems
 Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
When selecting a heat-transfer fluid, we should consider the
following criteria:
 Coefficient of expansion – the fractional change in length (or sometimes in
volume, when specified) of a material for a unit change in temperature
 Viscosity – resistance of a liquid to shear forces (and hence to flow)
 Thermal capacity – the ability of matter to store heat
 Freezing point – the temperature below which a liquid turns into a solid
 Boiling point – the temperature at which a liquid boils
 Flash point – the lowest temperature at which the vapor above a liquid can
be ignited in air.
 Corrosiveness and Stability.
 Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
Some heat exchange fluids are:
• AIR: Air will not freeze or boil, and is non-corrosive. However, it has a very low heat
capacity, and tends to leak out of collectors, ducts, and dampers.

• WATER: Water is nontoxic and inexpensive. With a high specific heat, and a very low
viscosity, it's easy to pump. Unfortunately, water has a relatively low boiling point and a
high freezing point.

• GLYCOL/WATER MIXTURES: Glycol/water mixtures (glycol) are "antifreezes." These

mixtures provide effective freeze protection as long as the proper antifreeze
concentration is maintained.

• HYDROCARBON OILS: Hydrocarbon oils have a higher viscosity and lower specific heat
than water. They require more energy to pump. These oils are relatively inexpensive
and have a low freezing point.

• REFRIGERANTS/PHASE CHANGE FLUIDS: Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants,

such as Freon, were the primary fluids used by refrigerator, air-conditioner, and heat
pump manufacturers because they are nonflammable, low in toxicity, stable,
noncorrosive, and do not freeze.
 Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
Performance indices:
Collector Efficiency:

• It is defined as the ratio of the energy actually absorbed and

transferred to the heat transport fluid by the collector (useful energy)
to the energy incident.

Concentration Ratio:

• Ratio of the area of aperture of the system to the area of the receiver.

Temperature Ranges

• The range of the temperature to which the heat-transport fluid is

heated up by the collector.
 Types of Solar Collectors
(A)Flat-plate collectors:
– The absorbing surface is approximately as large as the overall collector area
that intercepts the sun rays .

(B)Concentrating collectors:
– Large areas of mirrors or lenses focus the sun light onto a smaller absorber.

Cross section of typical liquid flat plate Concentrating solar collector

collector
Types of Solar Collectors
 Flat Plate/Non-concentrating Collectors
The basic elements of these collectors are:
 Transparent Cover: May be layers of glass or plastics.

 Blackened Absorber Plate: (refer table-I)

 Tubes, Channel or Passages: Copper tubes, steel, plastic

 Weather tight, insulated container: Glass wool across wall

 Flat Plate/Non-concentrating Collectors

Table about matters that absorber plate may be made from:

Table-I

Emittance Break down

Absorptance
Material temparature
() () (°C)
Black silicon
0.86-0.94 0.83-0.89 350
paint

Black Copper
0.85-0.9 0.08-0.12 450
over Copper

Black chorome
0.92-0.94 0.07-0.12 450
over nickel
Flat Collector Performance and Efficiency
Effects of various parameters on performance:
 Selective surface: Absorber plate surface which have high absorptivity
to incoming radiations and low emissivity. These characteristics are
required.
 Number of covers: With increase in the number, the ατ decreases and
thus the flux reaching absorber surface reduces. But almost 2 are
required for high efficiency.
 Spacing: Spacing in between two cover or cover and absorber should be
such that the losses are minimum. Usually 4-8cm.
 Collector tilt: Tracking the sun is important. Therefore tilting the
surface is required.
 Dust on top of cover: The deposition of dust reduces the transmission
of flux through cover to absorber. Therefore, it is needed to be cleaned
once in few days. A correction factor is taken 0.92-0.99.
 Concentrating Type Collectors
 Non-Focus Type
a) Modified Flat-Plate Collector
b) Compound Parabolic Concentrating (CPC) Collectors

 Focus Type
a) Cylindrical Parabolic concentrator
b) Fixed mirror solar concentrator One axis tracking

c) Linear Fresnel Lens collector

d) Paraboloidal dish collector
e) Hemispherical bowl mirror conc.
Two axis tracking
f) Circular Fresnel Lens conc.
g) Central Tower Receiver
Concentrating Type Collectors
Concentrating Type Collectors
Concentrating Type Collectors
 Comparison of Flat-Concentrating Types
Collectors
• In Concentrating type solar collectors, solar radiations are converged from a
large area into smaller area using optical means.
• Direct radiation moving in a straight line can be reflected/refracted while
diffused radiation doesn’t follow optical rule.
• Diffuse component can’t be concentrated.
• Concentrating type absorbs only beam while non-CT absorbs both (adv.)
• Flat plat collector simple in construction and doesn’t require sun tracking
and can be installed on rigid platform.
• Therefore less maintenance and withstand harsh outdoor conditions
compared to CT collectors.
• Absence of optical concentration in flat plate collectors is a principal
advantage. Large area means large heat loss.
• High temperatures can’t be obtained.
• Main advantage of CT type is development of high temperatures.
 REFERENCES
• S. P. Sukhatme, J. K. Nayak, “Solar Energy,” TMH, 3rd Ed, 2008.
• B. H. Khan, “Renewable Energy Resources,” TMH, 2nd Ed, 2009.