1

COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

MAHARANA PRATAP UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
UDAIPUR(RAJ.)

NAME : SATYENDER YADAV

SUBJECT : REE 231(PCC) FUNDAMENTALS OF

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

YEAR : 2020-21

FILE NO. : 046

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REE 231(PCC) FUNDAMENTALS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Cr. Hrs. 3 (2+1)
PRACTICAL RECORD Session 2020-21, I Semester
Name of the Student: Satyender Yadav . w.e.f. 05.08.20

Exercise Title Page Date of Date of Teacher’s

No. No. allocation submission Signature
1. Study of solar radiation 3-14 14.08.20 21.08.20
characterization instruments and
measurement of different type of
radiation
2. Study and performance of a box 15-23 14.08.20 21.08.20
type solar cooker
3. Study and performance evaluation 35-41 04.09.20 11.09.20
of a solar water heater
4. Study and performance of 42-52 15.09.20 18.09.20
different types of driers

5. Characterization of biomass for

biogas production

6. Study of floating drum & fixed 24-34 21.08.20 28.08.20

dome type biogas plants and their
operations
7. Performance study of a biogas
stove and calculation of its thermal
efficiency
8. Performance study of a biogas
based dual fuel engine and
calculation of diesel replacement
9. Study of carbonization of biomass
system
10. Performance study of a gasifier–
engine pumpset
11. Performance study of a biomass
briquetting machine Study of
liquid fuel extraction from
biomass
12. Study of Soalr PV System 53-62 09.10.20 15.10.20

13. Study of wind measuring

devices
14. Study of Wind Turbine
15. Energy
integration and comparative
study of various methods
16. Visits to sites of renewable energy
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Exercise No. 1 Date: 14 /08/2020 .

Study of solar radiation characterization instrument and

measurement of different types of radiation

1.1. Radiation

Radiation is the mode of heat transfer by which the sun transfers energy to the earth.
Experimental determination of the energy transferred to a surface by solar radiation
requires instruments which will measure the heating effect of direct solar radiation and
diffuse solar radiation. A total radiation type of instrument may be used for measuring
diffuse radiation alone by shading the sensing element from the sun’s direct rays.

1.2. Classification

1.2.1 Pyrheliometer : A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring the intensity of

direct solar radiation of normal incidence, it can either be a primary standard instrument
or a secondary instrument scaled by reference to a primary instrument. The latter is
sometimes called actinometers.

Figure : Pyrheliometer
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Figure : Pyrheliometer

Pyrheliometer is a small telescope like device mounted on a drive mechanism that causes it
to follow the sun throughout the day . The energy measured by a pyrheliometer is that
energy which is available typical to a focusing solar energy collecton system. Three
pyrheliometers have been in wide-spread use to measure normal incident beam
radiation.

a. Angstrom pyrheliometer
b. Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
c. Eppley pyrheliometer

1.2.2 Pyranometer : A Pyranometer is an instrument which measures the solar

radiation received from the whole hemisphere. It is suitable for the measurement of global
or sky radiation usually on a horizontal surface. Some-times the term solarimeter is used
instead of pyranometer. If shaded from the beam radiation by a shade ring, it measures
diffuse radiation. The energy measured by the pyranometer is that energy which is
available to a flat plate collector system. Horizontally mounted pyranometer measures the
total amount of energy falling on the surface of the earth or on a horizontal surface.
Pyranometer consists of a “black” surface which heats up when exposed to solar
radiation. Its temperature increases until its rate of heat gain from solar radiation equals to
the rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and reradiation. The hot junctions of a
thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are located in such
a way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an emf is generated. This emf
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which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded or integrated over a

period of time and is a measure of the global radiation.

Figure : A schematic illustration of a pyranometer

The pyranometer (Fig 1.1) has its hot junctions arranged in the form of a circular disc
of diameter 25 mm and is coated with a special black lacquer having a very high
absorptivity in the solar wavelength region. Two concentric hemispheres, 30 and 50 mm in
diameter, respectively, made of optical glass having excellent transmission characteristics
are used to protect the disc surface from the weather. An accuracy of about +2 per cent
can be obtained with the instrument.

For measuring the diffuse radiation the pyranometer is mounted at the centre of a
semicircular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way that its plane is parallel to
the plane of the path of sun’s daily movement across the sky and it shades the thermopile
element and two glass domes of the pyranometer at all times from direct
sunshine. Consequently, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received
from the sky.

As shown in Fig 1.2 ABCD is a horizontal rectangular frame 3500 mm X 800 mm with its
long sides in an east–west direction. To the sides AB and CD of the frame are pivoted two
angle–iron arms EF and GH, 700 mm long with slots along their length, carrying sliders, SS,
on which is mounted the semicircular shaded ring R. The arms are pivoted about a
horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the rectangular frame and can be
adjusted at an angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude of the station. The
movement of the ring up and down the arms allows for changes in the sun’s
declination. The shading ring is of aluminium, 50 mm broad , and is bent to a radius of 450
mm. The inner surface of the ring is painted dull black, while the rest of the shading ring
arrangement is painted dull matt white. To the bottom of the frame ABCD is fixed a thick
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metal plate P with a circular slot so that the frame, when fixed on a masonry platform with
nuts and bolts, can be adjusted in its proper position by rotation about a vertical axis. To
the top of the frame is fitted another thick metal plate P’ on which the pyranometer is
mounted.

1.2.3 Pyrgeometer : A pyrgeometer is an instrument for the mesurement of terrestrial

radiation only.A pyrgeometer is an instrument for the measurement of terrestrial radiation
only. It measures near-surface radiation in the wavelength spectrum approximately from
4.5 μm to 100 μm.

It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy
transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings (which can be either in or
out). By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the nature
of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is
exchanging radiation.
A pyrgeometer consists of the
following major components:

● A thermophile sensor
which is sensitive to
radiation in a broad range
from 200 nm to 100 μm.
● A silicon dome or window
with a solar blind filter
coating. It has a
transmittance between 4.5
μm and 50 μm that
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eliminates solar shortwave radiation.

● A temperature sensor to measure the body temperature of the instrument.
● A sun shield to minimize heating of the instrument due to solar radiation.

1.2.4 Pyradiometer : A Pyradiometer is an instrument for the measurement of both

solar and terrestrial radiation, i.e. for net atmospheric radiation on a horizontal upward
facing black surface at the ambient air temperature.

1.3 Study Area:

Jaipur (26.92° N, 75.87° E) is the capital city of Rajasthan and having high annual average of
mean daily global solar radiation (19.42 MJ/m2/day) which is comparable to annual average of
mean daily global solar radiation at Jodhpur (19.97 MJ/m2/day). Jaipur is also an appropriate
place for implementation of solar energy devices. The aim/object of the present paper is to
validate and compare various correlations to predict monthly mean daily global solar radiation
on a Indian Journal of Science and Technology.
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Figure :Location of Study Area-Jaipur

1.4 Procedure : In PV system design it is essential to know the amount of sunlight available
at a particular location at a given time. The two common methods which characterise solar
radiation are the solar radiance (or radiation) and solar insolation. The solar radiance is an
instantaneous power density in units of kW/m2. The solar radiance varies throughout the day
from 0 kW/m2 at night to a maximum of about 1 kW/m2. The solar radiance is strongly
dependant on location and local weather. Solar radiance measurements consist of global
and/or direct radiation measurements taken periodically throughout the day. The
measurements are taken using either a pyranometer (measuring global radiation) and/or a
pyrheliometer (measuring direct radiation). In well established locations, this data has been
collected for more than twenty years.

An alternative method of measuring solar radiation, which is less accurate but also less
expensive, is using a sunshine recorder. These sunshine recorders (also known as Campbell-
Stokes recorders), measure the number of hours in the day during which the sunshine is above
a certain level (typically 200 mW/cm2). Data collected in this way can be used to determine the
solar insolation by comparing the measured number of sunshine hours to those based on
calculations and including several correction factors.
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A final method to estimate solar insolation is cloud cover data taken from existing satellite
images.

While solar irradiance is most commonly measured, a more common form of radiation data
used in system design is the solar insolation. The solar insolation is the total amount of solar
energy received at a particular location during a specified time period, often in units of
kWh/(m2 day). While the units of solar insolation and solar irradiance are both a power density
(for solar insolation the "hours" in the numerator are a time measurement as is the "day" in the
denominator), solar insolation is quite different than the solar irradiance as the solar insolation
is the instantaneous solar irradiance averaged over a given time period. Solar insolation data is
commonly used for simple PV system design while solar radiance is used in more complicated
PV system performance which calculates the system performance at each point in the day.
Solar insolation can also be expressed in units of MJ/m2 per year and other units and
conversions are given in the units page.

Solar radiation for a particular location can be given in several ways including:

• Typical mean year data for a particular location

• Average daily, monthly or yearly solar insolation for a given location
• Global isoflux contours either for a full year, a quarter year or a particular month
• Sunshine hours data
• Solar Insolation Based on Satellite Cloud-Cover Data
• Calculations of Solar Radiation

1.4 Observations :

Solar Intensity, Wind Speed, Relative Humidity

Hourly measurements of solar intensity, relative humidity and wind speed were also taken.
Solar intensity varied between 7114 W/m2 to 870 W/m2 during first spell (table 5) and wind
speed was about 0.95 m/s. Relative humidity of ambient air was high during the morning
hours due to foggy conditions and it increased after passing through the dryer due to
removal of moisture from the products but air gets heated up through air heater, hence
relative humidity of spent air coming out from chimney is 4 to 5% lesser than the inlet
ambient air. Daily average solar intensity varied between 262 – 670 W/m2 for winter season
of second spell (figure 3).
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Fig. 3.Solar intensity variation for second spell

Figure : Average Direct Normal Irradiance

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Figure : Average Global Horizontal Irradiance

Table : Solar radiation data for Jaipur (26.9260°N, 75.8235°E)

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1.4. Calculations : The Mann-Kendall statistic S is given as:

(1)

where, S is Mann-Kendall statistic and sgn is the signum function. The application of
trend test is done to a time series xi that is ranked from i = 1, 2,.........n-1 and xj, which
is ranked from j = i+1, 2,..........n. If n < 10, then value of |S| is compared directly to
the theoretical distribution of S derived by Mann and Kendall.

The variance statistic is given as

where, t is considered as the number of ties up to sample i.

The Z test statistics is given by

A positive value of Z indicates an increasing trend and negative value indicates

decreasing trend. It is normally distributed.
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True slope within the time series is estimated by the following formula laid by Sen
(1968). Slope is given by

where xj and xk are the data values at times j and k (j>k) respectively

Figure: Graph time vs radiation.

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1.5. Result : It is to be noted that all the values of radiation etc are average over a period of
time and so the actual values may differ from year to year but the average over a period will
hold. The performance in 2010 is poor due to more rains and partly due to technical
breakdowns.

Solar radiation data is available from several sources including satellite simulations. The data
collection and simulation is a complex procedure and can have inaccuracies varying from 3 to
20%. The most reliable data is ground measured with accurate instruments. The performance
(Capacity utilization factor ) CUF depends on several factors including the solar radiation,
temperature, air velocity apart from the module type and quality, angle of tilt(or tracking),
design parameters to avoid cable losses and efficiencies of inverters and transformers. There
are some inherent losses which can be reduced through proper designing but not completely
avoided.

The Annual Average : 5.68 kWh/m2/day

Conclusion:

Double shelf cabinet dryer was designed, fabricated and connected to flat plate solar air heater.
Indirect solar drying of potato chips and green chilly was carried out in two spells. Study in
winter (first spell) was performed on simple dryer (without cover and insulation) and during
second spell of experimentation seven cases for various combinations of glass and
polycarbonate sheet as glazing and thermocol as insulation were studied. Hourly temperatures
at fifteen different points along with solar intensity, wind speed were measured and moisture
loss from the products, drying time and dryer efficiency were estimated.
Following were the main observations: (i) temperature of absorber plate during 1st spell in
summer was lower even with higher solar intensity (i.e. 50° to 57°C) as compared to winter
(58 to 67ºC). (ii) temperature rise of air increased from 11°C to 18°C and without glazing
and insulation to 25 to 29°C with the use of glazing and insulation (iii) use of glass and
polycarbonate sheet as glazing cover improved dryer efficiency from 9 to 12% in case of
simple dryer to 23.7% with glass glazing and 18.5% with polycarbonate sheet and drying
time reduced.

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Exercise No. 2 Date: 14/ 08/2020 .

Study and performance Evaluation of a Box Type Solar Cooker

Principle

Figure 2.1:Working principle of Solar Cooker

The principle of operation of box type solar cooker is illustrated in Fig 2.1. The solar rays
penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by a blackened metal tray kept inside the solar
box . The solar rays entering the box are of short wave length. They degrade into thermal
radiation which are of higher wave length. The higher wave-length radiation is not able to pass
through the glass sheet. The upper cover of the cooker has two glass sheets in parallel and thus
heat loss through re-radiation is minimized from the blackened surface.The loss due to
convection is minimised by making the box air tight by providing a rubber strip all round
between the upper lid and the box. Insulating material like glasswool, paddy husk, sawdust or
any other material is filled in the space between blackened tray and outer cover of box. This
minimises heat loss due to conduction. When this type of cooker is placed in the sun, the
blackened surface starts absorbing sun rays and temperature inside the box starts rising. The
cooking pots, which are also blackened are placed inside with food material, get heat energy and
food will be cooked in a certain period of time depending upon the actual temperature attained
inside. The temperature attained depends upon the intensity of solar radiation and material of
insulation provided. The amount of solar radiation intensity can be increased by providing
mirror or mirrors.
1. Important parts of box type solar cooker
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a) Outerbox : The outer box of a solar cooker may be made of wood, iron sheet or
fibre reinforced plastic having suitable dimensions.

b) The inner box : The inner box can be made from galvanized iron or mild steel
or aluminum sheet. All the four sides and the bottom of the inner box which are exposed
to the sun are coated with black board paint which absorbs solar radiation.

c) Thermal insulation : The space between the outer box and the inner box is filled with
insulating material such as glasswool, thermocole etc. This prevents the heat loss due to
conduction from the cooker.

d) Double glass cover : These covers have length and breadth slightly more than the inner
box and can be fixed in a wooden frame with a small spacing between the two glasses.
This space contains air which acts as an insulator and prevents heat from escaping inside.
The wooden frame is attached to the outer box by
means of hinges. A neoprene rubber strip is fixed
all around on the edges of this frame to prevent
any heat leakage.

e) Mirror : Mirror is used in a solar cooker

to increase the radiation input on the absorbing
surface. Sunlight incident on the mirror gets
reflected from it and enters the box after passing
through the glass covers. This radiation is in
addition to the radiation entering the box directly
and helps to quicker the cooking process by
raising the inside temperature of the cooker. The
use of mirrors can enhance the solar radiation input to the cooker by 50%.

f) Cooking containers : The cooking containers (with covers) are generally made of
aluminium or stainless steel. The containers are painted dull black on the outer surface so
that they also absorb radiation directly.

2. Testing of a solar cooker by stagnation temperature test

The stagnation temperature test was conducted for the evaluation of first figure of merit
(𝐹1) of solar cooker. The quasi-steady state, the final steady cooker tray temperature, is achieved
when the stagnation temperature is attained. The procedure for determining stagnation
temperature is stated as follows.

(i) The box-type solar cooker was placed in the open sun without load with
the reflector being covered with black cloth.

(ii) Type “𝑘” calibrated thermocouples were connected to the solar cooker to
measure both the cooker tray and ambient temperatures simultaneously at a
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given interval till the stagnation condition was reached. These measurements
were recorded.

(iii) Intensity of total solar radiation on horizontal surface and wind speed at
the level of aperture of the box cooker were monitored, measured, and
recorded at regular intervals using digital radiation pyranometer and digital
anemometer, respectively.

Stagnation temperature (theoretical, practical)

Stagnation temperature test is an important parameter, because it depicts the
ability of a cooker to develop and retain maximum temperature, which in turn
reflects on the quality of design and performance. This would enable the
designer/manufacturer to use the right material to increase the performance of
the cooker.
Many authors have recommend use of empty vessel to conduct such a test, or
just the cooker without any vessels. Authors recommend use of a known weight
of steel or a piece of metal (as Black body) for such a test. Final verdict on this
aspect is left to the international experts.
The following equation enables calculation of Standardized Stagnation Temperature:
SST = 700 x (Ts –Two)
Io
Some researchers like Shaw [13], have suggested the insolation value at
850 W/m2 as in above equation for standardizing the values, but as suggested in
ASAE S580, 700 W/m2 can also be used.
If the insulation of a box cookers is not of good quality, or if the green house
enclosure of the panel cooker is too large in comparison to vessel/plate or if the
reflector in a parabolic cooker is not of the right shape or quality, then it would
get reflected in this test. For example, many inventors have developed square
shaped parabola, or split parabola (as in Pappilion cooker) Kundapur [1]. Which
design performs better? In other words, this test would ascertain the quality of
manufacture, in terms of design and performance.

1. Apparatus required

1.Box type solar cooker

2.Twelve point potentiometric temperature recorder

3.Thermocouples
4.Stop watch

2.2.2. Procedure

Attach the thermocouple to the black plate in hot box.

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1. Keep the solar cooker in sun facing south.

2.Adjust its reflector such that the solar radiation reflected from the reflector reach the front
edge of the glass cover. Timing of setting should be as per the design acceptance angle of the
reflector.

3.Note the temperature of hot box with the thermocouple.

4.Continue to measure hot box temperature periodically during the time period covered by
design acceptance angle.Higher stagnation temperature indicated efficient cooker.

2.2.3 Observations:

1) Stagnation temperature test (F1) :-

Time Ambient Plate temp. Insolation Wind

(hrs) temp. 𝑇𝑎 ( ∘ 𝑇𝑝 ( ∘ C) 𝐼𝑠 (W/m2 ) speed
C) (m/s)

10.00 29 68 623.81 2.5

10.30 29 79 652.12 2.5

11.00 31 81 698.34 2.4

11.30 32 90 701.08 2.0

12.00 33 95 729.11 2.2

12.30 35 103 737.03 2.0

13.00 35 119 740.12 2.0

13.30 34 112 728.45 2.1

14.00 32 110 725.56 2.0

2.2.4 Calculation : Plot a graph for heating and cooling of a cooker

for time vs temperature.

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[Graph for Table 1] Stagnation temperature test of solar cooker for first figure of merit (𝐹1)
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5.Result : Stagnation temperature test of solar cooker for first figure of merit (𝐹1)
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6. Conclusion : The experimental results obtained from the thermal performance tests carried
out show that the box-type solar cooker employing a non tracking solar concentrator could
provide improved heat collection and hence efficient cooking. The cooker offers advantages of
faster cooking and hence reducing the cooking time considerably. It can therefore be used in
Minna for fast and effective cooking of various types of foods.

7. Caution :

In order to minimize error in the results obtained the following precautionary steps were taken.

(i) The test was conducted in clear weather, and it was ensured that the solar radiation during
the test exceeded 600 W/m2 .

(ii) Water and ambient temperatures were measured with 𝑘-type thermocouples. Each
thermocouple junction was immersed in the water in the cooking vessel and secured 10 mm
above the bottom, at centre. Thermocouples leads were made to pass through the cooking vessel
lid inside a thermally non conductive sleeve to protect the thermocouple wires from bending and
temperature extremes. The sleeve was secured with 100% silicone caulk to reduce water vapour
loss.

Requirement of temperature:
The temperature range can be between 150F(66°c) to 400F(204°c) If you have a well made
solar cooker .(you need at least 180 degree Fahrenheit (82°c) to be able to cook things)

Applications and Uses of Solar Cooker:

• Water Distillation
• Solar Smelting
• Roasting coffee and peanut for commercial purposes.
• Separation of Beeswax and capping
• Wax melting
• Sterilization of Medical apparatus
• Grain Sterilization
• Ironing
• Water Purification
• Dehydration

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Exercise No. 6 Date: 21/08/2020

Study of floating drum and fixed dome type biogas plants

and their operation

Biogas plant

Biogas plant is a special type of structure consists in such a way that, if a solution
with some specific qualities is kept for a certain period of time will generate combustible
methane gas after anaerobic digestion.

1. Types of biogas plants

In general, bio-gas plants can be divided into two main types:

Continuous process type digesters in which material is added continuously and an
equivalent volume of the spentup residue (digested slurry ) is removed by gravity and
biogas production is uninterrupted. The general practice is to feed daily when equivalent
amount automatically comes out, which can be used for manuring purposes. Actually, it
is a semicontinuous system though it is called continuous.

Figure: Continuous process type digester

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Batch type digesters in which material is loaded in one single operation and left to
ferment until biogas production ceases. Continuous biogas supply is possible also with the
batch digesters if a gas storage is built into the system.

Figure: Schematic of the batch biogas fermentation

Commonly used family size biogas plants can be broadly be classified into two types on the
basis of principle of their working:

Semi–continuous (daily fed) system

a) Floating gas hlolder type bio-gas plant

1. Khadi and Village Industries Commission type (KVIC)

2. Pragati model
3. Ganesh model
4. Ferro-cement model

b) Fixed dome type biogas plant

1. Janata model
2. Deenbandhu model

Basically, a biogas plant system can be divided into three sub-systems.

1. Feed and slurry handling

2. Gas generation
3. Gas distribution
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A Bio-gas plant consists of the following parts

1. Foundation
2. Digester
3. Gas portion and dome /gas holder
4. Inlet
5. Outlet
6. Gas distribution pipe line

Figure: Bio-gas plant

Floating gas holder type bio-gas plant

Floating gas holder type bio-gas unit consists of:

1. Foundation
2. Digester
3. Gas holder
4. Inlet and outlet assembly
5. Gas pipe line and water removal device
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Figure : Floating gas holder type biogas plant

Floating gas holder type biogas plant

1. Khadi and Village Industries Commission type Bio-gas Plant

It is a floating gas holder (drum) type which is the oldest among all types of
bio-gas plant first developed in the year 1954. This was taken up for propogation in
the villages in the year 1962 by Khadi and Village Industries Commission,
Bombay. Therefore, it is also known as KVIC design. This plant can be made in
different sizes from 1 to 140 cum gas capacity. In this type of plant gas is stored in
mild steel drum under the pressure of nearly 100 mm of water column which is
sufficient to carry it upto a length of 60 to 100 m. KVIC type biogas plants are again
of two types : (1) Vertical and (2) Horizontal.

Figure : KVIC-biogas-plant-model
 28

Vertical plants are commonly constructed ones and suitable for places where
underground water is deep (greater than 3 m), whereas horizontal types are
constructed in stony areas or where water table is high ( less than 1.5 m) (Fig
5.1). Foundation of this type of plant is constructed in cement concrete on the base of
pit in such a way so as to bear the load of digester wall as well as whole slurry stored
inside the digester.

Digester is that part of the biogas plant system in which dung slurry remains for
a certain period of time for the generation of gas in absence of air and then digested
slurry automatically comes through the outlet, being light in weight. It has
cylindrical shape constructed under the ground with the help of bricks, cement and
sand. A partition wall is constructed in the digester for 3 cum and bigger sizes so as
to control the flow of slurry inside the digester. It divides digester into two
separate portions separating inlet and outlet pipes. But, at the time of initial
charging dung must be filled simultaneously on both the sides in case of partition
wall to prevent it from falling due
to uneven load.
Inlet and outlet pipes (100 mm
diameter a.c.) are placed while
constructing the digester wall. The
former is used for feeding slurry into
the digester and through later
the digester slurry comes out from the
plant. Guide frame consists of angle
iron and a central guide pipe,
embedded in the digester wall at a
particular height. Along this central
guide pipe inverted gas holder floats
up and down depending on the
quantity of gas inside the drum. Gas
holder is made of ms sheet and angle
iron in which gas is stored and it floats
alongwith the central guide pipe as and
when gas is consumed.
Advantages of KVIC Plant:-

1. High gas yield.

2. No problem of gas leakage.
3. Works under constant pressure naturally.
4. No problem of mixing of biogas wixt external air, thus no danger of explosion.
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2. Pragati biogas plant

This design has been developed by United Socio-Economic Development and

Research Programme Ltd (UNDARP), Pune in order to have a cheaper bio-gas plant. In
this type of plant the depth of pit is kept little bit less as compared to KVIC types so that
they can be constructed in hilly and high water table areas. Different parts of this plant are
foundation, digester assembly, central guide frame and gas-holder (Fig 5.2). Foundation of
this type of plant is laid in a conical shape giving a difference of 300 mm between outer
periphery and centre so as to reduce the digester wall work. It is constructed at the base of
the pit with the concrete keeping the site conditions in mind so as to bear whole load of
slurry inside the digester.

Figure : Pragati Model

Digester of Pragati design start from the foundation in dome shape thereby
reducing the constructional area keeping the volume same so as to reduce
the cost. Thickness of digester wall is kept 75 mm for 2 and 3 cum size and larger size
it is 100 mm. Dome shape construction takes place upto a particular height and then
central guide frame is laid over it. After placing guide frame, remaining digester wall is
constructed in cylindrical shape. Digester holds the whole slurry into it. While
constructing digester in dome shape, inlet cement pipe is fixed for feeding the
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material daily to the plant. Outlet pipe is also embedded in the digester wall for slurry to
come out after digestion. Partition wall is also constructed in this type of plants
like KVIC design.

Gas holder in this case is constructed out of ms sheet and ms bar. Use of ms bar
instead of angle iron, drum becomes lighter in weight thereby reducing the cost. Gas is
stored in drum which floats alongwith the central guide pipe depending on the quantity of
gas inside the drum.

3. Ganesh biogas plant

Ganesh model has been
developed in district Rampur,
Uttar Pradesh. It works on the
same principle and sizes as
that of KVIC type.
The only difference is that the
digester portion is made of an
angle iron frame (Fig 5.3).
Along the periphery of
this angle iron frame vertically
12.5 to 25 mm
diameter bamboos are tied
adjecent to one another and
thereafter all around this structure including the bare a polythene sheet is wrapped. By
this we do not have any need for masonry structure. The cost of installation of the
digester is about 30-40 per cent less than KVIC type biogas plant. It is easy to transport
materials required for fabrication of the digester and less time is taken to install it .

4. Ferro-cement digester biogas plant

Ferrocement is a highly versatile form of reinforced concrete made of wire

mesh, sand and cement. In this composite material layers of thin wire mesh are
impregnated with rich cement and sand mortar. This makes it highly resistant to
cracking and permeability of water. In the ferrocement digester plants, as per the
diameter of the digester periphery is cut into a particular required number of
sections and after knowing the curvature. Ferrocement segments are casted at a
central location on the prepared mould which may be either masonry or
wood. These precasted segments are then transported and erected to the plant
site. The design and dimensions for this type of plant are also the same
as that KVIC design. This type of digester is an ideal substitute for brickwork
digester in areas where good quality bricks are not available and also solves
problems of leakage through masonry joints (Fig).
 31

Figure : Ferro-cement digester biogas plant

Fixed dome type biogas plants

The fixed dome type biogas unit is entirely a masonry structure. It dispenses
with the use of steel gas holder. Both digester and gas holder form an
underground combined unit. The dimensions of the inlet and outlet are bigger
than those of the floating gas holder type biogas unit. This type of plant mainly
consists of following parts:

1. Foundation
2. Digester
3. Gas portion and dome
4. Inlet and outlet
5. Gas pipeline and water removal device.

Figure: Fixed dome type biogas plant

 32

In these type of plant dung slurry is allowed to ferment in the

digester. When gas is formed, it rises upwards and gets collected in the
dome. The pressure of the gas pushes the slurry down and causes its diffusion
into the inlet and outlet chambers where slurry levels go up. The displaced level
of slurry provides the necessary pressure so that the gas is lifted to the burner
in kitchen. The gas is liberated at a variable pressure ranging from 0 – 900 mm
water column. When gas is consumed, the slurry level in the inlet and outlet
chambers comes down to the initial level. The volume of gas stored in the plant
at any given time is equal to the total volume of slurry displaced in the inlet and
outlet chambers.

1. Janata biogas plant

This was first developed by the State Planning Institute, Lucknow, in 1978. It is
an improved version of the Chinese fixed-dome biogas plant(Fig 5.5). Foundation is
laid at the base of the pit on a levelled ground which bear the load of slurry as well
as digester walls. Digester is cylindrical in shape constructed with bricks which holds
the dung slurry for a certain period so that whole of the gas is generated from the
dung. Two window openings of given size are also left, while constructing digester
wall, facing each other for the movement of incoming and outgoing slurry. It should
be noted that the diameter and height ratio of the digester is fixed at 1.75 : 1.
Gas portion, is that part of digester in which actual usable gas is stored. It starts
just after the openings. The height of this portion above the inlet and outlet
openings is so fixed that the volume of it is equal to the total maximum volume of
gas to be stored in the plant and volume of slurry to be discharged everyday.
Dome, is constructed just after the gas portion and its volume is kept 60 per
cent of the plant capacity. It must be constructed very carefully leaving not a single
leakage point for escaping the gas. At the top of the dome gas outlet pipe is fixed to
get combustible gas. Inlet and outlet portions are constructed for loading the fresh
slurry to the plant and to take the digested slurry out. The volume of these
portions is kept in such a way so as to generate sufficient gas pressure for pushing it
to the use point. Over the inlet portion, an inlet tank is also constructed to feed
the dung and water mixture into the plant.
 33

2. Deenbandhu biogas plant

This is a fixed dome type biogas plant developed by Action for Food
Production (AFPRO), New Delhi in 1984, in order to have low cost biogas
model. The principle of working is same as that of Janata model.
The foundation in these type of plants is constructed in conical
shape which is section of a sphere. On the outer periphery of this foundation,
work of dome shape digester is started of which base diameter is kept same as
that of top diameter of foundation (Fig 5.6). In this way construction of digester,
gas portion and dome is completed which works as a single unit. At the top of
foundation a window opening is kept ( outlet portion) for the movement of
digested slurry through it. While constructing digester an inlet pipe is embeded
in the digester wall at a given position. Just opposite to outlet opening to
avoid short circuiting of fresh slurry and digested slurry. In this case for inlet only
asbestos cement pipe of 150 mm diameter is used instead of separate opening
and the volume of the inlet has been shifted to outlet portion. At the top of the
dome gas outlet pipe is fixed in the same fashion as of Janata type designs.
 34

---------------------x----------------------------x-------------------------x------------------
 35

Exercise No. 3 Date: 4 /09/2020

Study and performance evaluation of a Solar Water Heater

3.1. Apparatus required

1. Solar water heater

2. Digital temperature recorder with copper constantan termocouples

3. Stop watch

4. Measuring cylinder

3.2. Materials required

1. Supply of water

2. Suitable piping

3.3. A Solar Water Heater

A natural circulation solar water (pressurized) system, comprised of a separate collector that is
connected to a hot water storage tank via a piping system. The storage tank being a separated
unit, can easily be insulated to store the hot water over night.

Figure 3.1:Solar Water Heater

 36

In a thermosiphon system the tank’s base is positioned above the top of the collector
and water from the tank is circulated through the collector and back to the tank by means of
the natural circulation caused by heating water in the collector.

Diagram

Figure :Thermosiphon based solar water heater

 37

Cold water fed to the bottom inlet of the collector from the base of the tank heats up and
as it does so, becomes lighter thus rising through the collector and back to the tank. It is
admitted to the the tank through an inlet in the upper section of the tank and once returned,
forms a layer of hot water above the cold water which has yet to pass through the
collector. Once the water in the tank has been heated by natural thermosiphon circulation,
through the collector, it can be drawn off for use. For efficient circulation, the tank’s base
should be atleast 300 mm above the collector’s top, but a separation height of 600 mm is
often preferable in order to avoide reverse flow from the tank to the collector which can occur
during cold nights when the collector is not functioning. In situations where the storage tank
cannot be sited above the collectors, it is necessary to employ water pump to force water
through the collector.

3.4. Procedure
1. Assemble the apparatus on the roof of a building (Fig 3.1) in the morning of a clear
day. Cover the collector with the shading material.Keep the collector tilted towards the sun,so
that it is unshaded for the major part of the day.

2. Measure the area of the absorber plate/surface.

3. Keep the collector shaded until its tubing is filled with water.

4. Mount the tank to the north and a little higher than the collector.

5. Connect the tubing to form a close loop with the collector and storage tank, so that water
will flow from the bottom of the tank to the bottom of the collector and from the top of the
collector to the top of the tank.

1. Note the capacity of the tank. Adjust a gravity flow rate from a constant head in the header
tank with the help of rotameter.

2. Measure initial temperature of cold water in the tank and replace the tank cover.

3. Remove the shading material so that the collector is in full sunlight.

4. Determine and record the following temperatures at the start of the experiment and every
half-hour thereafter.
a. Outdoor air
b. Air above absorber sheet in collector and glass cover
c) Water near top of tank and

d) Water at the bottom of tank

 38

5. Determine input heat energy ( kcal/ m2 h) required to heat water to 60 oC or to the highest
water temperature.

3.5. Observations
Daily hot water requirement of a hostel in a college is 5000 litres.
Solar radiation available on the location is 600 Wm-2

1. Capacity of storage tank (B), kg = 5000 lpd

2. Area of the absorber surface(A), m2 = 50 m2

3. Time of start, h = 9 AM

4. Ambient air temperature (Ta ), oC = 30°C

5.Temperature of cold water (Tc), oC =300C

(collector inlet temp)

6. Time of finishing the test, h = 5PM(17:00)

7.Temperature of hot water (Th ), oC = 60°C

8.Duration of the test (t) , h = 8 hours

9.Rise in temperature (Th – Tc ), oC = (60-30)o C = 300C

3.6. Calculation :
Useful solar heat energy available

Daily available solar radiation, SD, kJ d-1 = S X Ac X 8 X 3600

1000

Assuming 8 hours of daily operation. = 600 X 75 X 8 X 3600

1000

= 1296000 kJ d-1
 39

Heat energy required to heat the water

Specific heat of water, Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg °C

Rise in temperature of hot water, ∆T = Th - Ta,°C

= 60 -30

Daily heat energy required to heat the water, Qu = Q × Cp × ∆T, kJ d-1

= 5000 x 4.18 x 30

= 627000 kJ d-1

System performance

Thermal efficiency of solar water heater, % = Output/Input *100

QU

= --------- X 100

SD

627000

= ----------- X 100

1296000

= 48.38%

The input heat (H ) is given by the equation

H = B (Th– Tc )
A.t
H= 5000(60-30)
50 * 8
H= 375 kcal/ m2 h
40
 41

3.7. Result : The readings were taken on the day when the intensity of sunlight is high to get
more efficiency and heat gain. We can see from the graphs that regarding the efficiency and
heat gain from the morning to evening. In the morning, due to low intensity, the efficiency is
very low and nearly same in both cases i.e. with fins and without fins. But in the afternoon,
there is a great difference in the efficiency, radiation and heat gain. We can see that the solar
water heater with fins is more efficient than the solar water heater without fins. Initially the set
up was made and the readings were taken. With the help of graphs and tabulated values the
following inferences are drawn:

1. The radiation, heat gain and efficiency of the solar water heater are more when fin is used. In
the morning, it is nearly same but in the afternoon, the graph goes high.

2. In general view, during 11am to 2pm, at this place, the solar intensity is high. Also, the solar
water heater performed well in this condition and received almost all heat. This is the reason
behind the increase in the efficiency..

3. Solar water heaters with fins have better efficiency than that of without fins.

We have implemented the circular fins and rectangular fins among which the circular fins have
more efficiency than that of rectangular fins. Normally the found temperature difference
between the solar water heater with fins and without fins is (7-8) degree Celsius in normal
conditions.

3.8. Caution : If water entering the top of tank is near the boiling point, do not touch the tank.

--------------x----------------------------x--------------------------x------------
 42

Exercise No. 4 Date: 15 /09/2020

Study and performance of different types of driers

Solar Drier Technologies
The wide variety of solar driers developed over the years can be generally divided into:

4.1 Natural open–air driers

These are very simple in construction (Fig 4.1).The material to be dried is placed
outdoor on a tray, a rack or the floor, and is dried by ambient sunshine and wind.Some of
these driers can have a fixed or movable roof to protect the crop against rain.

Figure 4.1 Natural open-air dryer

Open air coffee drying is employed worldwide mainly on small–scale holdings since
it is generally regarded as the cheapest method of drying coffee beans. During the day the
beans are exposed to the sun whereas at night, and during rainy season, the trays containing
the beans are covered over. In this method, no insulation is used and all construction
materials are locally-available.

4.2 Direct solar driers

In these driers the material to be dried is placed in a transparent enclosure of glass or
plastic.The material to be dried is heated by the sun and heat is built up inside the
enclosure due to ‘green house effect’.Sometimes ventilation through the enclosure is
introduced via vents or chimneys.
 43

Figure: Direct Solar Dryer

• Solar tent drier ( Fig 4.2)

Consist of rack on which the product to be dried is placed, and transparent plastic tent which is
placed over the rack. This simple drier does not decrease drying time significantly but protects the
crop from rain, birds and rodents. Plastic tent driers are used to dry fish.

Figure 4.2

• See–saw drier
See–saw drier consists of a rectangular wooden frame divided lengthwise into parallel channels
of equal width, and crosswise by means of retaining bars (Fig 4.3). The bottom of the drier
frame is made of black painted bamboo matting and receives the material to be dried. The
frame is covered by a film of transparent polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This simple drier is
suitable for small-scale drying operations and is easy to operate. During operation the drying
tray is moved along an east – west plane. This permits the material to be dried to face the sun
 44

more directly during both morning and afternoon. This increases the effectiveness of unit
and leads to a more evenly dried product. By this means, under good conditions the drying
time can be reduced by two days, but when the climatic conditions are unfavourable for drying
this temperature difference is non significant. It is used to dry coffee and cocoa beans.

Figure 4.3

• Solar chamber drier

Solar chamber drier (Fig 4.4) for grain incorporates a drying chamber on poles raising the system 0.5
m off the ground so as to prevent rodent attack. Air is allowed to permeate the grain from below
through the steel mesh mounted on a rectangular wooden frame. To increase the chamber internal
temperature of the chamber, and to prevent rain entering the chamber, the structure is covered with
a transparent PVC foil. The drier also incorporates a chimney positioned so as to enhance the air
pressure difference within the chamber, and a black PVC sheet facing the sun which acts as a solar
energy absorber heating air which rises up the solar chimney. This set up achieves the higher drying
rates , reducing the grain moisture to 17 – 18 per cent which can be further reduced to about 10 per
cent by frequently stirring the grain in the drying chamber.

Figure 4.4
 45

4.3. Indirect solar driers

In these driers ( Fig 4.5) the sun does not act directly on the material to be
dried, thus making it useful in the preparation of those products whose vitamin content
can be severely diminished by the action of sunlight (e.g. vitamin A in carrots). Air is
heated in a special solar collector and is then ducted through to the drying chamber
where the material to be dried is situated, and released. A chimney is usually introduced
in order to improve air flow.
The indirect solar drier concept is flexible in that it can be incorporated into any
crop storage building e.g. a bin or a barn. A wall or roof can be converted into a solar
collector and can heat air to be ducted through the product to be dried.
Alternatively, it is possible to connect a separate solar collector to the crop storage
building. This solar collector can be permanent or, like the inflatable ‘ air mattress’ solar
collector, only be installed during the time of drying .

Figure 4.5

• Solar drying barn:

It is aligned longitudinally on an east–west axis, with the solar collector on the south facing
side of the roof. The roof surface is painted black to absorb the solar energy. A
transparent plastic material is supported 80 mm above the roof on a frame (Fig 4.6). The air
drawn by a fan, enters the top of the roof and moves through the collector roof down the
south wall in the outside air duct. From here, the fan pushes the warmed air in the inside air
duct and through the grain and a perforated floor.
 46

Figure 4.6

4.4. Mixed mode driers

In these driers the combined action of solar radiation incident on the material to be
dried and the air preheated in a solar collector provides the heat required for the drying
operation.
The solar rice drier (Fig 4.7) comprises of three important parts. The solar collector
is the heart of the drier. It consists of a collector, a matt black substance ( e.g. burnt rice
husk) spread on the ground with a clear, low-cost plastic cover. The collector covers an
area, (approximately 30 m2 which is about three times that of the drying cabinet’s floor
area. The clear cover slopes up from a 100 mm air inlet towards the drying cabinet in
order to direct the heated air through the grain.

Figure 4.7
 47

The drying cabinet is positioned at about waist height. Its floor must be made of a
perforated material which allows the air to pass through easily , but prevents the grain
from falling through. The sides of the cabinet should be strong enough to resist the grain
pressure and a door allows the loading and unloading of the grain at the back. To hold
one ton of rice, the drying cabinet area needs to be 11.5 m2 with a rice bed depth of 150
mm.
The ventilation chimney consists of a light, strong frame covered with matt black
plastic and a cover above the chinmney keeps out the rain. The chimney material must
have high durability and be weather resistant. The base of the chimney is at the highest
part of the roof. Chimney height is 2 m with a cross sectional area of 0.5 m2. For a one
ton capacity drier two chimneys are sufficient. The drying period is two days and the
temperature of warm air should not exceed 40 oC to prevent the rice cracking. Stirring is
necessary at least once or twice during the day time to obtain uniform drying.

• Chamber type solar drier

Fruit and vegetables can also be dried in chamber–type solar driers. These work in
both direct and indirect modes (Fig 4.8) and consist of a solar collector to heat the air, the
chamber itself containing racks on which the produce is dried, and a chimney to induce
natural ventilation by convection. In this system, air, pre-heated by the collector located
at the bottom of the drier, is admitted at the base of the chamber and rises through the
grain. The moisture – laden air is released through vents in the rear wall or through the
chimney. The chamber itself can be made of a black material to prevent solar radiation
reaching the product directly, or of transparent material to enhance the direct drying
process.

Figure 4.8
 48

• Solar timber driers

Solar timber drying kilns (Fig 4.9) usually consists of a wooden frame with a sloping roof
facing the sun with an angle of inclination equal to the latitude in
which the drier is located. The wall facing the sun is made of black–
painetd plywood in order to enhance solar radiation absorption, and all other faces consist of
a double layer of transparent, usually polyethylene, sheeting. Between the roof and the
timber stack there is a blackened metal heat absorber which is about 600 mm below the roof
and parallel to it. Fans are placed in the upper rear part of the drier. These blow the air over
and under the black absorber sheet, and thus warm the air as much as possible. Baffles force
the air flow to circulate through the lumber pile. Vents to control air flow into and out of
the drier are installed in the walls. Two modes of ventilation are possible. In the early stages
fresh air is passed through the drier, but in the last days of seasoning, air is recirculated inside
the drier to increase the temperature. The rate of drying depends, to a large extent, on the
control of air circulating in the drier .

Figure 4.9

4.5. Hybrid systems

These are solar driers in which another energy source such as a fossil or biomass fuel or
electricity is used to supplement solar energy in the drying process, e.g. for additional air
heating during cloudy period or for increased ventilation using fans (Fig 4.10). Hybrid driers
combine solar energy absorption systems with heat from combustion - a combination most
appropriate to areas of low-to-moderate insolation, where solar power cannot be used
continuously or when the scale of operation and precise drying requirements make solar
drying usable only as a complementary source of energy. In any hybrid driers, however, dried
product quality can often be affected by the gases and smoke emitted from the burning of the
combustible substance used to raise heat, and a heat exchanger needs to be incorporated
into the drier’s design.
 49

Figure 4.10

4.6. Performance of a solar cabinet drier

4.6.1 Apparatus required

1.Solar cabinet drier

2.Pyranometer
3.Balance
4.Digital temperature recorder

4.6.2. Materials required

1.Product to be dried

4.6.3. Solar cabinet drier

The solar cabinet drier consists of a drying chamber with a transparent cover
glass. The material to be dried is placed on perforated trays . Solar radiation entering
through the transparent cover in the drying chamber is absorbed by the product to be
dried and surrounding blackened internal surfaces of it . This increases the cabinet
temperature. As a result, moisture is removed from the product. The moisture (water
vapour) liberated escaping through holes on the top sides of the drying chambers, while
 50

fresh air enters at the bottom in the drier by natural circulation. The air flow, thus,
started continuously removes moisture from the product.
4.6.4 Procedure

1. Arrange the solar cabinet drier under test in sun facing south.
2. Measure the aperture area of the collector.
3. Weigh the product to be dried and load it on perforated tray. Determine the specified
loading rate per unit aperture area.
4. Determine the moisture content of the product loaded by oven method.
5. Determine and record the following temperatures at the start of the experiment and
every half-hour interval thereafter .

i.incident solar radiation on aperture,

ii.ambient air temperature,
iii.air temperature in bottom tray,
iv.air temperature in middle tray and,
v.air temperature in top tray.

6. In evening remove the dried product, weight it and determine the moisture content.
7. Plot the collected data as shown in Fig 4.2.1.
8. Calculate the values of daily energy consumption index.

The lower value of overall energy index is better.

4.6.5 Observations

1. Aperture area of collector, m 2 = 1.50 m2

2. Weight of product loaded initially, kg = 3 kg (of grapes)

3. Loading rate per unit operture area, kg/m2 = 2kg/m2

4. Initial mosture content of loaded product, % (d.b.)... = 81.4%

5. Weight of unloaded product after drying , kg = 2.2kg

6. Moisture content of unloaded product , % (d.b.) =18.6%

 51

Observation Table:

Time Solar irradiations on Ambient air Air Air temp. In

hr temperature temperature middle tray
aperature kw/m2 o In bottom o
C
C
tray
o
C

9:30 5.4 27 44 42

10:00 5.7 27 46 44

10:30 6.0 28 48 45

11:00 6.4 29 51 46

11:30 6.9 32 53 48

12:00 7.5 33 55 49

12:30 7.45 35 57 52

13:00 7.2 36 62 55

13:30 6.9 35 65 58

14:00 6.5 34 68 60

14:30 6 32 69.5 61

15:00 5.7 31 69 63

15:30 5.2 30 64 61

16:00 4.9 29 60 58
 52

16:30 4.7 31 57 55

17:00 4.5 30 55 54

17:30 4.4 29 52 51

4.6.6. Calculation

1. Daily energy consumption = Solar energy input on given day = 11.57 kWh kg-1

Moisture removed on given day

2. Overall energy = Solar energy input for total drying period =11.57 kWh kg-1

consumption index Total moisture removed during drying

AS the whole observation was conducted on same day So,daily and total energy consumption
index will be same.

4.6.7. Result : The lower value of overall energy consumption Index 11.57 kWh kg-1 was
found better.

Conclusions : The use of solar dryers for preservation of various crops is an area of growing
interest for the agricultural sector and is especially useful for small holder farmers in locations of
high solar insolation like North Central and Northern Nigeria. The quality of produce obtain via
this method provides longer shelf life and greater sale value. In this experiment with 3Kg grapes
of scotch bonnet peppers, an average of 81.4% w.b. moisture content was removed from the
grapes on same day. Similar to other dryers in literature, the temperature of drying chamber was
higher than the ambient temperature during most hours of the day. The efficiency of the dryer
has an average of 28.4% for galvanized steel solar collector.

----------------x------------------x--------------x-----------------
 53

Exercise No. 6 Date: 09/10/ 2020

Study of Solar PV System
SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTAICS
What is Solar Energy?
Solar energy available on the earth is spread over a wide spectrum of electro magnetic radiation. The
earth’s surface receives direct solar radiation in the form of electro-magnetic rays. Photovoltaic converters
harness this energy and solar cells generate electrical energy directly from sun light. On each sunny and
clear day we receive 4000 trillion kWh of energy which is about 100 times the total energy consumption of
the world every year.
What is Solar Photo-voltaic?
The direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy by means of the photovoltaic effect, that is,
the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) into electricity.
The “photovoltaic effect” is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result of the
absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight to
electricity by the use of the photovoltaic effect are called “solar cells”.
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. PV modules often have a
sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers
from the elements (rain, hail, etc.).
Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Connecting
cells in parallel will yield a higher current. Modules are then interconnected, in series or parallel, or both,
to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and current.

Figure: Solar Cell

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from light, which can be used to power equipment or to
recharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and
other spacecraft and pocket calculators, but today the majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid
connected power generation. In this case an inverter is required to convert the DC to AC.
The power output of a solar array is measured in watts or kilowatts. In order to calculate the typical
energy needs of the application, a measurement in watt-hours, kilowatt-hours or kilowatt-hours per day is
often used. A rule of thumb commonly used is that peak power time’s 20% gives average power, equating
to one kW peak producing 4.8 kWh per day.
Photovoltaic devices use semi conducting materials to convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar
radiation, which is nearly constant outside the Earth's atmosphere, varies with changing atmospheric
conditions (clouds and dust) and the changing position of the Earth relative to the sun.
 54

Simple explanation
1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as
silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through
the material to produce electricity. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like
bubbles) are called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar
panel.
3. An array of solar panels converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.
Optionally:
1. The DC current enters an inverter.
2. The inverter turns DC electricity into 120 or 240-volt AC (alternating current) electricity needed for
home appliances.
3. The AC power enters the utility panel in the house.
4. The electricity is then distributed to appliances or lights in the house.
5. The electricity that is not used will be recycled and reused in other facilities.
Watts peak
Since solar cell output power depends on multiple factors, such as the sun's incidence angle, for
comparison purposes between different cells and panels, the measure of watts peak (Wp) is used. It is
the output power under these conditions known as STC:
1. insolation (solar irradiance) 1000 W/m²
2. solar reference spectrum AM (airmass) 1.5
3. cell temperature 25°C
P-V system Advantages:
1. It's highly reliable and needs little maintenance.
2. It costs little to build and operate.
3. It has virtually no environmental impact.
4. It's produced domestically, strengthening our economy and reducing our trade deficit.
 55

5. Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid state device.
6. It's modular and thus flexible in terms of size and applications. Desired current, voltages and
power levels can be achieved by mere integration.
7. It meets the demand and capacity challenges facing energy service providers.
8. It helps energy service providers manage uncertainty and mitigate risk.
9. It serves both form and function in a building.
10. Stand alone systems.
11. No fuel required.
12. Long Life.
P-V system Disadvantages/ Constraints/ Limitations:
1. High capital cost of electricity generation.
2. Intermittent nature of solar energy.
3. Storage which is again costly matter.
4. Less output from single cell, so large area is required.
Applications:
1. Electricity generation
2. Water pumping for micro irrigation and drinking water supply
3. Street lighting/ community lighting
4. Solar lantern
5. Community radio and television sets
6. Railway/ traffic signaling
7. Battery charging
8. Weather monitoring
9. Telecommunication
10. Satellites space mission
11. Health care systems
12. Cattle drinking troughs
13. Fencing
14. Garden lights
15. Buoys/ beacons for ship navigations at ports
16. Light houses
17. Military/ security
18. Cathodic protection of oil pipelines
19. Off-shore oil platforms

Write details on below mentioned points:

Semiconductor
 56

What are Semiconductors?

Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and
non-conductors or insulators (such ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide
or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories, properties and mathematical
approach governing semiconductors.
Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is
used in electronic circuit fabrication, and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but
opposite in polarity.

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because of their
different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an electric field is
applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movent. The elevation of electrons
from their inner shells to higher shells results in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes
experience stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.
The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

• Effective mass of particles is lesser

• Time between scattering events is more
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility of holes is 475
cm2 (V∙s)-1.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free electrons (blue
dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created takes the opposite charge
of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in the lattice.

Concept of Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

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Band Theory of Semiconductors

The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution in science. Walter Heitler and Fritz
London discovered the energy bands.
We know that the electrons in an atom are present in different energy level. When we try to assemble a lattice
of a solid with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N levels in the solid. This splitting up of
sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy Bands. The gap between adjacent bands representing a
range of energies that possess no electron is called a Band Gap.

Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators

Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence band. It is the
highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors is smaller. It
allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving any external energy.

Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive (holes) or negative (free electrons)
charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current. The conduction band possess high
energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band in semiconductors accepts the electrons from the
valence band.

Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique property
makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external energy (thermal
agitation). It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the
conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to electrons
and holes are equally important.

• Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

• Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
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• Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative

• Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor

Classification of Semiconductors

Applications of Semiconductors
Let us now understand the uses of semiconductors in daily life. Semiconductors are used in almost all
electronic devices. Without them, our life would be much different.
Their reliability, compactness, low cost and controlled conduction of electricity make them ideal to be used for
various purposes in a wide range of components and devices. transistors, diodes, photosensors,
microcontrollers, integrated chips and much more are made up of semiconductors.

Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday life

• Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.

• They are used in 3D printing machines
• Used in microchips and self-driving cars
• Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.
• Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in Electrical Circuits are manufactured using the
semiconductors.
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Industrial Uses of Semiconductors

The physical and chemical properties of semiconductors make them capable of designing technological
wonders like microchips, transistors, LEDs, solar cells, etc.
The microprocessor used for controlling the operation of space vehicles, trains, robots, etc is made up of
transistors and other controlling devices which are manufactured by semiconductor materials.

Importance of Semiconductors
Here we have discussed some advantages of semiconductors which makes them highly useful everywhere.

• They are highly portable due to the smaller size

• They require less input power
• Semiconductor devices are shockproof
• They have a longer lifespan
• They are noise-free while operating

Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) system consists of-

• Solar cell array
• Load leveler
• Storage system
• Tracking system (if required)
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Figure:Components of Solar PV System

1.Solar cell array: Consists of two or more solar cell modules formed by encapsulating solar cells. At present,
single crystalline or polycrystalline silicon solar cells are used, which are made of waterproof glass on the front
contact and soft material on the back contact. It is the most fundamental component of a PV power system for
conversion of solar energy to electricity.

2.Inverter
Inverter is the brain of a solar power system and serves primarily two purposes:
• To convert the DC power generated from Solar Panels into AC power that is used by our electrical appliances.
• To ensure that solar power generated is used at priority over grid supply.
Solar inverters are essentially Grid-tied or Off-Grid/Hybrid.

• The Grid-tied inverters are directly connected to the grid supply. With net metering, excess power can be
exported and used later when required. There is no limitation to the size and type of equipment than can be run
with this type of inverters. These are suitable where the power supply is reliable.
• Off-grid or Hybrid inverters are connected to the specific loads to be run. Their size is based upon connected
loads and their surge requirement. These are suitable for areas with load shedding problem.
The inverters require very little space and can be easily mounted on a convenient location. They can
have a working life of around 10 years or more.
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String inverter (left), generation meter, and AC disconnect (right).

3.Battery
Batteries are required to make the power available in the absence of sun.

Charging of battery is done by solar power or grid power. Typically the inverter allows you to choose priority
between the two sources based on application. They also help in smoothing power delivery during daytime.

Of all solar panel parts and components, battery is optional for grid-tied installation type.
4.Utility Meter
Regardless of your solar PV system, your household has a power meter that measures the electricity
consumption per house or apartment.

The utility meter is connected to the PV system and measures how much electricity you are using in your home. The
electricity that you have generated from the photovoltaic panels that and is not stored or used will be fed back into
the electric grid

5.Charge Controller
Charge controllers regulate the DC from the solar panels to make sure that the batteries don’t overcharge. A
charge controller can measure whether the batteries are fully charged, and can stop the current from flowing in order
to prevent the batteries from permanent damage.

Charge controllers can be divided into two types: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT). The PWN is a standard type and is suitable for smaller photovoltaic systems and battery banks, as
they vary between 4 and 60 amperes.

On the other hand, the MPPT charge controllers are more suitable for photovoltaic systems with a high voltage of —
in most cases — up to 160 volts DC.
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Since not every photovoltaic system has a solar battery bank, it is not always necessary to include a charge
controller into your system. In other words, you only need a charge controller if you have a battery bank.
Additionally, from a more technical aspect, you might not need a charge controller if your PV array puts out about 2
watts or less for each 50 battery ampere hours.
.

6.Tracker
A solar tracking system tilts a solar panel throughout the day. Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel
is either aimed directly at the sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky. Trackers greatly enhance early
morning and late afternoon performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a system by about
20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude. Trackers are
effective in regions that receive a large portion of sunlight directly. In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking
has little or no value. Because most concentrated photovoltaics systems are very sensitive to the sunlight's angle,
tracking systems allow them to produce useful power for more than a brief period each day. Tracking systems
improve performance for two main reasons. First, when a solar panel is perpendicular to the sunlight, it receives
more light on its surface than if it were angled. Second, direct light is used more efficiently than angled
light.Special Anti-reflective coatings can improve solar panel efficiency for direct and angled light, somewhat
reducing the benefit of tracking.

7.Electrical & Safety equipment

Solar panel parts and components are connected by cables on DC and AC side. It is also important to install safety
equipment since PV systems are designed for long life use. Electrical surges or short circuit can damage the
equipment. Proper earthing and equipment like RCBB, Surge protectors, lightening arrestors, etc. are required.

RCBB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker) will protect the system against current leaks, which may lead to shock or
fire. And SPD (Surge Protection Device) protects the equipment from surge voltages created during lightening and
grid fluctuations

These components of solar power system are same anywhere in the world. However, based on the region of your
residence, the type of these components used may vary. Solar power systems have a long life. Therefore, it is
important to emphasize on quality and safety for durable performance.

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