CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background
Urban Stormwater Management Manual of
Malaysia, 2000 (MSMA - Chapter 23) has
mentioned the provision for rainwater
harvesting system integration with on site
detention tank.
This Guidebook covers the design of
rainwater harvesting system for non –
potable water supply for Malaysian
applications.
General Principles
Rainwater Harvesting is the technique of
capturing the rainfall with particular emphasis
on residential and commercial applications.
The planning and development of rainwater
harvesting system should be executed by
following the principles and guidelines
recommended by the authority and
professionals. This is to ensure that the
system complies with the safety, water quality
and construction standard.
The rainwater harvesting system is a
supplementary source of water supply for
household, commercial, landscape, livestock,
and agriculture.
The product of the rainwater harvesting
system may be used either as a drinking water
or for non-drinking purposes. However, the
used of rainwater harvesting system for source
of drinking water and other direct human
purposes require a long-term commitment in
term of operation and maintenance. This is to
ensure that the system is continuously
operating in safe condition.
The non-drinking purpose of rainwater
harvesting system may include landscape
irrigation and for toilet flushing.
1
The system should be designed and developed
with innovative approaches for effective and
affordability. The complexity of the rainwater
harvesting system is closely related to the
function and needs of the owner.
Rainwater harvesting system provides a
source of soft, high quality water and the
system can range in size from a simple water
tank to a complicated designed and built
system.
The rainwater harvesting system is inherently
simple in design and easy to maintain. This
system should be planned and design to be
assembled with readily available materials by
the owner or builder with a basic
understanding of plumbing and construction
skills.
Environmental Advantages
The interest on rainwater harvesting system
has gained considerable attention in many
countries throughout the world. This is
attributed to the escalating environmental and
economic costs of providing centralized water
systems.
In developed countries, the majority of the
populations receive water via main network
and disposal of wastewater via pipe sewerage
system. These systems require tremendous
amount of investment by both public and
private sectors. They have been linked to
increase water demand, resources not located
in areas of high demand and increase surface
water runoff volumes and discharge rates due
to urbanization.
The sustainable strategy which is based on the
decentralised technologies such as the use of
green roofs and stormwater facilities such as
on site detentions may result in partial
retention and reduction in peak flow
discharge of the drainage system; yet at a
macro scale conserves energy.
The system which collects rainwater from
roofs can be used for non-portable
applications potentially reducing the
utilization of portable water. The application
of rainwater utilization for flushing and
garden watering will include the benefits of
conservation of water resources, relief of
demand on public water supplies and
potential attenuation of peak runoff into the
stormwater drainage system.
Rainwater harvesting may reduce the land
erosion and flooding caused by runoff from
impervious cover such as pavement and roofs.
This can be attributed to the some proportion
of rainfall being captured and stored.
industry or localized industrial emissions may
affect rainwater purity.
Rainwater falling in rural and non-
industrialised area can be superior to that in
area dominated by heavy industrial and
agricultural activities.
It is essential that the rainwater harvesting
system is planned, designed and constructed
conforming to this guideline to ensure the
discharged of the polluted first flush is taken
care of.
Rainwater is soft water compared to typical
municipal tap water and not utilizing it as a
supplementary water supply is a total waste of
natural resources.

The normal behavior of stormwater runoff

which picks up contaminants and degrades
the waterways and receiving waterbody is
bypassed by capturing the rainfall at source
for productive uses. This is an effective
measure to reduce the degradation of water
quality in waterway and receiving waterbody.

Qualitative Advantages

The rainwater captured at source is

considered as one of the purest water sources
available. Rainwater quality always exceeds the
surface water and comparable to that of
ground water.

The harvested rainwater does not come in

contact with soil and rocks where it can
dissolve salts and mineral which is harmful for
portable and non-portable uses and at the
same time not exposed to various pollutants
that often transported with surface water into
the river.

The rainwater quality can be influenced by

geographic location and economic activity in
the area. The city dominated by heavy

2
 CHAPTER 2
Rainwater Harvesting System
Water and Environmental Management
The country is subjected to continuous
growth of population, expansion in
urbanization, industrialization and irrigated
agriculture. This phenomenon is imposing
growing demand and pressure on water
resources while contributing to water
pollution.
A new development of water resources such
as new water supply scheme results in rising
costs and significant impact to the
environment. The potential problems include
deforestation, rise in sea level, decreasing
crop yields, water conflicts, increase
severity/frequency of tropical storms and
declining fish population.
An integrated approach is essential to pursue
a more effective water management. A
multifunctional approach that can be adapted
widening the scope of water quantity and
quality controls in urban drainage system and
integrating it with the rainwater harvesting
system for non-consumptive uses.
The increase demand for clean water supply
is on the rise in parallel with the economic
growth of the country. The practicable limit
of surface water resources development has
already been reached in region of high
demand.
Current approaches towards water
management in cities are supply driven,
where a new resource will be developed to
manage a water shortage. As there will be an
ever increasing demand, there is a possibility
that the major cities will face a water crisis
situation. Hence, water demand management
that focuses on conservation measures
utilizing demand driven approaches will make
better use of our limited potential water
3
supply. Water demand management that
seeks to maximize the usage of water also
conserves water and thus limits the needs for
new water supply schemes.
An approach of rainwater harvesting
collected from the roof of a building
provides the practical and effective utilization
of rainwater. This is appropriate as more than
30% of domestic water use does not require
treated water quality.
Quantity Control Consideration
The rainwater harvesting system should be
integrated with on-site detention facilities to
serve a minor storm event. On-site detention
storage-cum-rainwater harvesting system may
be provided as above-ground storages,
below-ground storages, or a combination of
both.
The main advantages of above-ground
storages are, they can generally easily
incorporated into the site by slight
modification to the design and are relatively
inexpensive compared to below ground
storages.
Landscape areas such as lawns and garden
beds, impervious area such as car parks,
driveways, paved storage yards, and other
paved surfaces offer a wide range of
possibilities for providing surface storage for
on-site detention-cum-rainwater harvesting
storage and can enhance the aesthetic of a
site.
The below-ground storages can be concealed
and occupy less physical space as illustrated
in Figure 2.1
 Figure 2.1 Typical On-Site Detention
Storages
Stormwater can be detained on flat roof
provided that adequate protection against
leakage is provided in the structural design of
the building. This type of storage has limited
application in residential areas and is more
suited to commercial and industrial buildings
where flat roof are more common as shown
in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Typical Rainwater Harvesting for
Multi-Storey Building.
4
Figure 2.3 Typical Multi-Purpose
Surface Tank
Surface tanks are normally provided on
residential, commercial or industrial lots for
rainwater harvesting system. These tanks
collect rainwater from the rooftop of the
building and store it for intended domestic
use. Surface tanks may be integrated as on-
site detention and rainwater harvesting as
illustrated in Figure 2.3.
Typical below-ground storage tanks are either
circular or rectangular in plan and/or cross
section (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 Typical Below-Ground
Storage Tank
A pipe package is a below-ground rainwater
storage consisting of one or more parallel
rows of buried pipes connected by a
common inlet and outlet chamber (Figure
2.5). The size of a pipe-package is determined
by the storage volume requirements and the
physical availability of space on the site. The
pipe package shall be installed using
minimum 900mm diameter pipe size to
facilitate inspection and maintenance. Pipes
should be laid at a minimum longitudinal
grade of 2% to avoid standing pockets of
water which can occur due to lack of
precision during construction.
Figure 2.5 Typical layout of Pipe
Package Storage.
Designers have the option to combine either
above or underground system as illustrated in
Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Typical of Above
and Below-Ground Storage
5
Quality Control Consideration
The planning and design of rainwater
harvesting system not only provide the water
for various intended uses but it can also
provide the stormwater quality control aspect
in urban stormwater management i.e. first
flush system, thus capable of providing a
clean, safe and reliable water source.
First flush system remove and wash
accumulated contaminants such as bacteria,
molds, protozoa and heavy metals e.g. lead
and arsenic.
For portable usage, filtration and disinfection
systems are required. For non portable usage,
the first flush system is sufficient.
 CHAPTER 5
Plumbing for Rainwater Harvesting System

Plumbing Guideline

Rainwater tank installations may be designed, visitors, may be displayed advising that rainwater
installed and maintained so as to allow a cross is in use.
connection with the potable water supply. Where
a property has both a rainwater tank system and Identification tape marked ‘AIR HUJAN’ shall
a potable water supply from a reticulated system, be at least 75mm wide. The identification tape
the plumbing for rainwater tank should have a shall be installed on top of the rainwater pipeline
cross-connection control and backflow installed within the trench, running
prevention. longitudinally, and fastened to the pipe at not
more than three meter intervals.
The need for a secure water supply means that
many people want the ability to switch back to
the mains water supply if their pump fails;
electricity fails or the tank needs to be cleaned.

Suggested plumbing configuration for rainwater

tanks in urban areas with a reticulated supply –
direct connection with the potable supply is
shown in Figure 5.1.

Proximity to other services - Separation between

above ground rainwater services and any parallel
potable water supply must be a minimum of Figure 5.1: Typical Direct Connection
100mm, below ground rainwater services must Plumbing Configuration
be separated by a minimum of 300mm from any
parallel potable water supply pipe.

Marking and labeling – It is a common practice

in marking and labeling of the rainwater services
for identification and future maintenance
purposes.

Above and below ground rainwater pipes shall

be continuously marked ‘AIR HUJAN’.

Every rainwater tank outlet and all taps, valves

and rainwater tank apertures shall be identified as
‘AIR HUJAN’ with a sign complying with (refer
Figure 5.2) or a green colored indicator with the
letters ‘SPAH’. Alternatively, a permanent sign,
at the front of the premises and visible to all Figure 5.2: Typical Signage for rainwater
tanks and outlets

26
Plumbing Water Closet Cisterns

The interconnection of rainwater and reticulated

potable water for flushing purposes requires
separation of the potable supply by the
installation of a dual check valve (Figure 5.3).

Typical installation options are shown below

(Figure 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 & 5.7). A Dual Check Valve
should be fitted at the cross-connection point
between the two water sources.

A pump is shown at the rainwater tank outlet to

pressurize supply for satisfactory operation of Figure 5.5: Installation of Check Valve
the ball float valve in the cistern. for Water Cistern

Figure 5.3: Typical Installation of Dual Check Figure 5.6: Typical Schematic Layout for
Valve for Rainwater Tank. Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 5.4: Typical Connections Figure 5.7: Typical Schematic Layout

at or Near Cistern for Rainwater Tank on Stand.

27
 CHAPTER 6
Pump and Filter for Rainwater Harvesting System
General Principles
Pumps are mechanical devices that lift water
from lower to higher level by application of
some form of energy. There are several types of
pumps with different operating principles
suitable for various conditions of use.
It is important to understand these principles so
that the most efficient pumps are selected for
particular type of building or application. There
are positive displacement reciprocating pumps,
centrifugal pumps, centripetal pumps, and
centrifugal jet pumps.
The suction operation of the pump creates
vacuum in its inlet chamber and the atmospheric
pressure pushes the water up the pump inlet
chamber. It gains energy due to the reciprocating
or centrifugal action of the pump develops
pressure within and enables the water to flow to
higher elevations.
Suction lift is constrained by the available
atmospheric pressure, as the atmospheric
pressure reduces with altitude, so does the pump
suction capacity. The vapour pressure of the
liquid at its operating temperature also affects the
suction capacity of a pump. If the available
suction head is less than the vapour pressure,
water will evaporate, causing a condition known
as cavitation that may damage the pump due to
erosion or vibration associated with it. Vapour
pressure conditions arise largely in systems
handling hot water.
The net available suction pressure is known as
net positive suction head. It depends on various
factors such as atmospheric pressure; head loss
due to friction in pipe, pipe fittings and foot
valve, velocity head at suction face, and vapour
pressure at the operating temperature.
28
Pumping head is the pressure required for a
pump to transfer liquid from one level to
another. Total head required is computed based
on static head between the centre line of the
pump and the high water level, frictional losses
in pipes, fittings and valves, and velocity at entry
point.
Efficiency of a pump is the ratio of the network
done by the pump in lifting water, to the energy
applied to do the work. A pump has loss of
energy due to the motive power of its driving
mechanism, e.g an electric motor, engine, etc.
The net efficiency of the total set is given by the
efficiencies of the individual equipments.
Each pump impeller has its own operating
characteristics, which define its capability and
efficiency. These can either be calculated for
each individual pump and its impeller or the
pump characteristic read from graphs and
nomographs normally furnished by each pump
manufacture for their products.
Reciprocating Pumps
Reciprocating pumps are plungers or cylindrical
rams that are made to move to and fro by an
engine or motor crank mounted on a wheel of
the drive. The movement allows pressure to
build up with each stroke, which is then pushed
up to higher levels in subsequent strokes. A set
of valves on the suction and delivery prevents
back-flow and building up of pressure.
Reciprocating pumps give a fluctuating flow,
which is overcome by having two or more
cylinders acting together to provide uniform
flow. Reciprocating pumps generally have limited
discharge capacity but generate very higher
pressures.
Efficiency of the pump is quite low due to
several moving parts and valves. The pumps
have limited applications in building water supply
systems and high-pressure applications.
Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps (Figure 6.1) have circular
impellers mounted on a shaft inside a housing
known as volute. When rotated at high speed,
the impeller creates a vacuum and sucks the
water in the volute. The circular motion of the
impeller transfers the rotating dynamic energy to
water, which then develops pressure at the outlet
and the water can be transferred to a higher level.
Centrifugal pumps are more efficient than
reciprocating pumps as they have lesser rotating
parts.
Depending on the type of impellers used, the
pumps have a variety of pumping applications.
They are used extensively in water supply,
irrigation, sewage, heating air conditioning and in
domestic appliances such as air coolers, washing
machines, dish washer, etc.
They can pump large volumes of water and
generate high pressures up to 200m and above.
Centrifugal pumps can be installed in a variety of
ways and conditions as per site conditions.
Surface mounted pumps are universally used for
all applications under positive or negative suction
conditions.
Figure 6.1: Typical Centrifugal Pump
29
Vertical Submersible Pumps
Vertical wet or dry-pits submersible pumps are
those in which the pump is submerged in liquids
and driven by a vertically-mounted motor driven
by a long shaft. The motor is normally above the
high-flood level or above the maximum water-
level in the tanks to prevent the motor from
submerging in water.
In dry-pit pumps, pumps are installed in a
separate dry compartment and bearings of the
pump shaft lubricated by specialized mechanism
which pumps grease in the required positions.
Vertical pumps used for clear water and sewage
pumping are submerged or at some level as that
of the liquid and thus have positive suction. They
are ideal for automatic operations, difficult
suction conditions or where priming of the
pump is a problem. The vertical pump shaft
length is a limitation and is normally restricted to
5-6m.
Figure 6.2: Typical Submersible Pump
Fully Submersible Pumps
Fully submersible pumps (Figure 6.2) have a
monobloc-type pump couple to an electric
motor. The entire electrical pump and motor
combination is submerged in the water. The
water also acts as a coolant and the pumps have
no priming problems or any limitations of
suction lift.
Submersible pumps are commonly used in
tubewells, deep open-wells, canals, lakes, lift
irrigation and other water supply schemes.
Submersible pumps are easy to install and do not
required a separate pump house above or below
ground, thus saving considerably in terms of
costs.
Jet Pumps
To overcome the suction limitations of surface-
mounted pumps, a special suction device known
as jet assembly is used to lift water from depths
of 6-40m.
The jet assembly, in principle, applies additional
energy at the suction point in the form of a
properly designed jet in a venture tube.
The additional energy is derived from the pump
itself from its delivery side. The pressure of the
jet pump has to be high for the jet action, but
delivery pressure is controlled by a pressure
regulator.
Rainwater Pump
Pumps can be broken down into two major
categories consists of clear or gray water pumps
and solids handling pumps. Within these two
broad categories, they are further differentiated
by the type of impeller employed, the design of
the motor, and the expected duty cycle.
Clear or rainwater pumps are designed to pump
water that is free of trash, sewage and other large
solids. These pumps employ oil filled motors. Oil
transfers heat from the motor to the pump case
and also lubricate the bearings and mechanical
seals. Motors are rated for either intermittent or
continuous duty. Intermittent duty pumps are
the most common for rainwater harvesting
system.
30
They are designed for an average duty cycle of 20
min per hour. Although they can run for longer
periods, their life will be shortened. Continuous
duty pumps can run 24 hours per day as long as
they are located in a sump where incoming water
can flow over a motor. These pumps are often
found in water feature or pond where 24 hour
circulation is required.
The rainwater is caught in a collecting tank, from
which it is pumped into a pipe system. The
rainwater can then be taken from this in the
same way that drinking water can. If the tank
should ever run dry, it can be supplied with
drinking water.
The common demands on the control system for
a rainwater pump are as follows:
· The water must be available at all times.
· When the switch to drinking water takes
place, no rainwater must get into the
drinking water system.
· If there is not enough water in the
rainwater tank, the pump cannot be
switched on (run-dry protection).
Self-sucking pump with fixed flow control,
especially designed for use in rainwater
harvesting systems is shown in Figure 6.3. The
pump curve shown in Figure 6.3 can be used to
select an appropriate size of the pump which is
based on the lifting head and desired flow.
The typical equipment and accessories of the
pump is as follows:
§ Filter with hose connection for easy
cleaning
§ Sound absorptive rubber stands
§ Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides
§ Cable for electric connection.
Submersible pump designed for use in rainwater
systems is shown in Figure 6.4. The pump is
available in two different types:

§ Submersible pump with float and suction

pipe to be fitted into an underground
tank. Flow control and control unit are
mounted indoors.
§ Pump with mounted pressure control for
separate installation in a dry space.

The pump curve shown in Figure 6.4 can be

used to select an appropriate size of the pump
which is based on the lifting head and desired
flow. The typical equipment and accessories of
the pump is as follows:

§ Float valve with suction pipe

§ Sound absorptive rubber stands
§ Inlet plugs on pressure and suction sides
§ 20 m cable for electric connection.

The Configuration of the pumping system for

rainwater tank is shown in Figure 6.5. The details
Figure 6.4: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor
of various pump installations and rainwater tank
and Underground Installation
placement are shown in Figure 6.6, Figure 6.7,
Figure 6.8 and Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.3: Typical Rainwater Pump for Indoor

Installation

Figure 6.5: Typical Configuration of the

Pumping System for Rainwater Tank

31
Figure 6.6: Typical Storage Tank and Pump Figure 6.8: Typical Underground Storage Tank
Installed in the Basement. with Submersible Pump.

Figure 6.7: Typical Underground Tank and Figure 6.9: Typical Underground Storage Tank
Pump in the Basement. with Submersible Pump and Pump in the
Basement.

32
Rainwater Filters

Rainwater quantity varies and is affected by

environmental factors and commercial activities
in the area. The addition of the rainwater filter
will improve the quality of the water.

The rainwater filter can be part of the rainwater

downpipe, be separate from a tank or be
attached to a tank. The rainwater filter also can
be installed below ground. The size and volume
of rainwater filter are size as per following below;

Table 6.1 Guidelines for residential first flush Figure 6.11: Floating Ball Valve Fist Flush
quantities System
Rooftops of 100m2 or smaller 25 -50 liters
Rooftops of 100m2 or larger 50 liters per Maintenance of rainwater filter
100m2
The rainwater filter systems are to be maintained
Table 6.2 Guidelines for surface catchments or regularly and the maintenance are to be carried
for very large rooftops out as follows:
Rooftops or surface catchments 2500 liters 1. Contaminated water in the rainwater
of 4356m2 or larger filter should be drained on a regular basis
(5000liters if surface contains excessive soil, dust or debris) after each rainfall event.
Multiple first flush devices instead of a larger first flush 2. Remove debris whenever necessary.
may be required depending on slope of the catchments 3. Debris shields and vegetation traps
surface and time required for rainwater to reach the first
flush device. should be cleaned regularly to allow
unrestricted flows to filter storage.

Figures 6.12 and 6.13 indicate the installation of

the filters in the rain harvesting system. The
detail cross sectional views on the filters are
shown in figures 6.14 and 6.15.

Figure 6.10 : Typical Fist Flush System

Figure 6.12: Typical Configurations of Rainwater

Filters for Underground Rainwater Tank.

33
Figure 6.13: Typical Configurations of Rainwater
Filters for Rainwater Tank at Ground Level.

Figure 6.15: Typical Downpipe Vortex

Rainwater Filter.

Figure 6.14: Typical Downpipe Rainwater Filter.

34
 CHAPTER 7
Design Example for Rainwater Harvesting System

Case Study

The example of the rainwater tank sizing is based

on the proposed construction of 18 storey office
including 3 storey podium and one storey car
park for MITI (Ministry of International
Industrial for Malaysia).

The rainwater will be collected from the roof of

the (office and podium block) and from the
proposed building and directed to the downpipe
and rainwater tank located at ground level of the
building (Figure 7.1).

Part of the collection consists of the green roof

garden landscapes with the ornamental plant and
trees to meet the functional objective of the
building (see Appendix for the detail drawing).
The rainwater harvesting system is assumed to be
used as a bathroom cistern flushing for supply
up to 1,000 installation of cisterns.
Figure 7.1 Proposed Rainwater Harvesting
System
There are several mathematical models available
for determining the size of tank needed to
provide defined security of supply. In some
cases, the computer-based models are used to
prepare tables of calculated tank size.

Rainwater Tank The simplest way of checking a tank size

The sizing of rainwater tank is based on the
maximum volume of the water capture from the
roof area to the rainwater harvesting system. The
next step is to calculate the security of supply
that is the size of the tank needed to ensure the
volume of water collected and stored in the tank
will be sufficient to meet demand throughout the
year, including during the drier months or
through periods of low or no rainfall. This is
particularly important in the case where the tank
is to represent the sole source of water supply.
estimated to provide water throughout an
average year, is to use monthly rainfall data and
to assume that at the start of the wetter months
the tank is empty. The following formula should
then be used for each month:
Vt = Vt-1 + (Runoff – Demand)
Vt = theoretical volume of water
remaining in the tank at the end
of the month.
Vt-1 = volume of water left in the tank
from the previous month

35
Starting with the tank empty then Vt-1 = 0. If,
after any month, Vt exceeds the volume of the
tank, the water will lost to overflow. If Vt is ever
a negative figure then demand exceeds the
available water. Providing the calculated annual
runoff exceeds the annual water demand, Vt will
only be negative if periodic overflows reduce the
amount of water collected so it is less than the
demand.
Tank size is not necessarily based on collecting
total runoff (maximum volume of water
available) from the roof area. If the water
demand is less than the maximum volume of
water available then some overflow might occur
while demand is still met. If water demand is to
be met throughout the year, the tank should be
large enough so that Vt is never negative.
Calculations should be repeated using various
tank sizes until Vt is ≥ 0 at the end of every
month. The greater the values of Vt over the
whole year, the greater the security of meeting
water demand when rainfalls are below average
or when dry periods are longer than normal. The
greater the security, the larger the size and cost
of the tank shall be.
The maximum tank size and related data are
shown in Table 7.1, while the monthly
catchment calculation is shown in Table 7.2

Table 7.1: Maximum Tank Size

Average monthly flushing
Total annual rainfall
Monthly average (mm)
- data from 1983-1997
Catchment area
Catchment efficiency
Runoff Formula
Tank size
456,000 liters (Assumes 1000 peoples, 3.8 liter from 6/3 cistern
4 flushes per day/person)
2520 mm
Jan 107, Feb 200, Mar 266, Apr 293, May 217, Jun 153, July
150, Aug 195, Sept 237, Oct 248, Nov 235 & Dec 219.
6000 m2
75%
Runoff (liters) = 0.75 (efficiency) × Rainfall × Roof Area
eg. Jan runoff = 0.75 ×107 × 6000 = 481 500 liters
750,000 liters

Table 7.2: Monthly Catchment Calculation

Month Monthly Rainfall (mm) Runoff (liter) Vt (liter)
Jan 107 481 500 25 500
Feb 200 900 000 469 500
March 266 1 197 000 1 210 500
April 293 1 318 500 2 073 000
May 217 976 500 2 593 500
June 153 688 500 2 826 000
July 150 675 000 3 045 000
Aug 195 877 500 3 466 500
Sept 237 1 066 500 4 077 000
Oct 248 1 116 000 4 737 000
Nov 235 1 057 500 5 338 500
Dec 219 985 500 5 868 000

36
Pipe Sizing for Rainwater Installation

The conveyance system of the rainwater
harvesting should be designed to ensure the
plumbing installation is economic, systematic,
can be maintained efficiently and safe by
following the standard guidelines and the
requirement of local authority
In building where high peak demands occur, a
loading unit rating for such appliances is not
applicable and 100% of the flow rate for these
appliances is required as shown in Table 7.4. The
same applies to automatic flushing cisterns for
urinals.

In designing for water supply installation, an The pipe sizing can be determined using a well
assessment must first be made of the probable known practical formula known as Thomas-Box
maximum water flow. In most buildings it equation given as follows:
seldom happens that the total numbers of
appliances installed are ever in use at the same d5 ´H
time, and therefore, for economic reasons, it is q=
usual for a system to be designed for a peak 25 ´ L ´ 10 5
usage which is less than the possible maximum
usage. where

The probable maximum demand can be assessed q = discharge through the pipe (liter/s)
based on the theory of probability. This method d = diameter of pipe (mm)
use a loading unit rating which is devised for each H = head of water (m)
type of appliance, based on its rate of water L = total length of pipe (m)
delivery, the time the taps are open during usage,
and the simultaneous demand for the particular
type of appliance.

Table 7.3 gives the loading unit rating for various

appliances.

37
 Table 7.3: Loading Unit Rating for Various Applications

Loading Unit Rating

Dwelling and flats

W.C. flushing cistern 2
Wash basin 1 1/2
Bath 10
Sink 3-5
Offices
W.C. flushing cistern 2
Wash basin (distributed use) 1 1/2
Wash basin (concentrated use) 3
School and industrial Buildings
W.C. flushing cistern 2
Wash basin 3
Shower (with nozzle) 3

Public bath 22

Table 7.4: Recommended Minimum Flow Rate at Various Appliances

Type of appliance Rate of flow (liter/s)

W.C. flushing cistern 0.12

Wash basin 0.15
Wash basin with spray 0.04
taps
Bath (private) 0.30
Bath (public) 0.60
Shower (with nozzle) 0.12
Sink with 13 mm taps 0.20
Sink with 19 mm taps 0.30

Sink with 25 mm taps 0.60

38
Effective Length of Pipe

The diameter of the pipe necessary to give a

required flow rate will depend upon the head of Table 7.5: Frictional Resistance of Fittings
water available, the smoothness of the internal Expressed in Equivalent Pipe Length
bore of the pipe and the effective length of the
pipe. Nominal Meter run of pipe
outside Elbow Bend Tee
An allowance for the frictional resistance set up diameter
by fittings such as elbows, tees, taps and valves (mm)
must be added to the actual length of the pipe. 15 0.5 0.4 1.2
Table 7.5 gives the allowance for fittings 20 0.6 0.5 1.4
expressed in equivalent pipe lengths. 25 0.7 0.6 1.8
32 1.0 0.7 2.3
In calculating the diameter of a pipe to supply 40 1.2 1.0 2.7
individual fittings, the loss of head through the 50 1.4 1.2 3.4
draw-off tap should also be taken into account. 65 1.7 1.3 4.2
Table 7.6 gives the allowances for draw-off taps 80 2.0 1.6 5.3
expressed in equivalent pipe lengths. 100 2.7 2.0 6.8

Table 7.6: Frictional Resistance of Draw-off Taps Expressed as Equivalent Pipe Lengths

Fitting (BS 1010) Discharge Equivalent length of pipe of same

rate tap fully diameter as tap (m)
open Copper Galvanised steel
(liter/s)
15 mm diameter bib- 0.20 2.70 4.00
tap or pillar tap
20 mm diameter bib- 0.30 8.50 5.75
tap or pillar tap
25 mm diameter bib- 0.60 20.00 13.00
tap or pillar tap

39
 Figure 7.2: Loading Units

Figure 7.3: Head Loss through Stop Valve

40
 Figure 7.4: Pipe Sizing Chart

Pipe Sizing Example

The calculation of main pipe size for rainwater The calculation of loading rating per unit
tank serving a typical bathroom of a commercial appliance from Table 7.3.
building, the appliances in the bathroom consist
of 5 W.C. flushing cisterns, 10 wash basins and 5 W.C. flushing system (WC) = 5 units
showers with nozzle. The layout of the system is
Wash basin (WB) = 10 units
shown in Figure 7.5.
Shower (SR) = 5 units

The calculation of total loading.

5 WC × 2 = 10 units
10 WB × 1.5 = 15 units
5 SR × 3 = 15 units
Total = 40 units

41
 The head loss in 25 mm copper pipe due to
frictional resistance obtained from Figure 7.4 is
0.10. The head loss due to fitting of stop valve is
equivalent to 0.6 (Figure 7.3). Hence, the total
head loss can be calculated as follows:

Total head loss = (19.6 × 0.1) + 0.6

Total head loss = 2.56 meter

Figure 7.5: Example layout of the Plumbing The available head is 5 meter, therefore the
System Serving a Bathroom residual head at appliances distribution point is:

Residual head = 5 – 2.56

The flow rate for 40 units loading is 0.70 liter/s
= 2.44 meter – the system
using relationship between design flow rate and
is adequate.
loading unit shown in Figure 7.2.
The calculation of the pipe size using Thomas-
The calculation of head loss due to frictional
Box equation:
resistance for elbow and tee in equivalent pipe
length from Table 7.5.
Effective length = 19.6
Elbow = 0.7 meter run of pipe Design pipe flow = 0.70 liter/s
Tee = 1.8 meter run of pipe Head = 2.44 m

The calculation of the effective length of the

Therefore
main pipe serving the appliances in the
bathroom. Assuming the system used 25 mm
(O.D) galvanized steel pipe. 0.70 2 ´ 25 ´ 19.6 ´ 10 5
d =5 = 25.04mm
2.44
actual length of
the main pipe = 15 meters The pipe size used 25 mm is acceptable.
effective length = actual length +
equivalent length
equivalent length = 4 elbows + 1 tee
equivalent length = (0.7 × 4) + (1.8 ×1)
= 4.6 meters
effective length = 15 + 4.6
= 19.6 meter

42
 APPENDIX
Design Criteria - Minimum Standard

No. Design Depth/Size/ Gradient

Height/Length
1. Impervious Layer - 2%
(Sidewalks, Terrace, driveways,
parking)

2. Berm 300mm -

3. Extended Holding Area ( drip line to 2m -

edge of Basin)

4. Depression slope 500mm 1:4 (maximum)

(Maximum)

5. Tree height for rooftop 6m -

(Maximum)

6. Rainfall depth for rooftop garden 40mm -

(Maximum)

7. First Flush 50 liter per 100m2 of -

collection area

8. Downpipes 100mm 4%
(minimum)
9. Storage Tank 900 mm -
(minimum height)

10. Pipe Storage 900mm 2%

(Minimum dia)

11. Storage Volume 2 weeks -

(Minimum)

12. Proximity to water supply pipe line 100mm above ground -

300mm below ground