Paper-1

SECTION-A (LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS)

Q.1 Investment and confluence theory of creativity?

Ans. Creativity is a goal directed thinking which is unusual, novel and useful. Sternberg (2006) has
proposed investment and confluence theory to understand creativity. The theory comprises 6 resources
for creativity- intellectual process, knowledge, intellectual style, personality, motivation and
environmental context. Creative performance results from a confluence of these elements. Although
levels of these resources are sources of individual differences, often the decision to use a resource is a
more important source of individual differences.

The theory holds that creativity is in large part a decision. In particular, it is a decision to buy low and sell
high in the world of ideas. Creative people like good investors, generate ideas that, at the time are
viewed as novel and perhaps slightly ridiculous. The creative individuals are metaphorically “buying
low”. Then, once their ideas have gained some acceptance, he creative individuals “sell high” reaping
the profits of their good idea and moving on to their next popular idea. Creativity is a decision in the
same way investing is. People are not born creative or uncreative. Rather, they develop a set of
attitudes toward life that characterize those who are willing to go their own way. Examples of such
attitudes towards life are willingness to

a.) redefine problem in novel ways

b.) take sensible risks
c.) “sell” ideas that others might not initially accept
d.) Persevere in the face of obstacles
e.) Examine whether their own preconceptions are interfering with their creative process.

A person can have the creative ability that would allow for creativity, for example, but without a
willingness to take sensible risks or an environment that provides at least minimal support for creativity,
that individuals potential creativity may be suppressed.

Intellectual skills: Three intellectual skills are particularly important: (a) the synthetic skill to see
problems in new ways and to escape the bounds of conventional thinking, (b) the analytic skill to
recognise which of one’s ideas are worth pursuing and which are not, and (c) the practical–contextual
skill to know how to persuade others of—to sell other people on—the value of one’s ideas. The
confluence of these three skills is also important. Analytic skills used in the absence of the other two
skills results in powerful critical, but not creative, thinking. Synthetic skill used in the absence of the
other two skills results in new ideas that are not subjected to the scrutiny required to improve them and
make them work. Practical–contextual skill in the absence of the other two skills may result in societal
acceptance of ideas not because the ideas are good, but rather, because the ideas have been well and
powerfully presented.
Knowledge: On the one hand, one needs to know enough about a field to move it forward. One cannot
move beyond where a field is if one does not know where it is. On the other hand, knowledge about a
field can result in a closed and entrenched perspective, resulting in a person’s not moving beyond the
way in which he or she has seen problems in the past. Knowledge thus can help, or it can hinder
creativity.

Thinking styles: Thinking styles are preferred ways of using one’s skills. In essence, they are decisions
about how to deploy the skills available to a person. With regard to thinking styles, a legislative style is
particularly important for creativity, that is, a preference for thinking and a decision to think in new
ways. This preference needs to be distinguished from the ability to think creatively: Someone may like to
think along new lines, but not think well, or vice versa. It also helps to become a major creative thinker,
if one is able to think globally as well as locally, distinguishing the forest from the trees and thereby
recognising which questions are important and which ones are not.

Personality: Numerous research investigations have supported the importance of certain personality
attributes for creative functioning. These attributes include, but are not limited to, willingness to
overcome obstacles, willingness to take sensible risks, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and self-
efficacy. In particular, buying low and selling high typically means defying the crowd, so that one has to
be willing to stand up to conventions if one wants to think and act in creative ways. Often creative
people seek opposition; that is, they decide to think in ways that countervail how others think. Note that
none of the attributes of creative thinking is fixed. One can decide to overcome obstacles, take sensible
risks, and so forth.

Motivation: Intrinsic, task-focused motivation is also essential to creativity. The research of Amabile
(1983) and others has shown the importance of such motivation for creative work and has suggested
that people rarely do truly creative work in an area unless they really love what they are doing and focus
on the work rather than the potential rewards. Motivation is not something inherent in a person: One
decides to be motivated by one thing or another. Often, people who need to work in a certain area that
does not particularly interest them will decide that, given the need to work in that area, they had better
find a way to make it interest them. They will then look for some angle on the work they need to do that
makes this work appeal to rather than bore them.

Environment: Finally, one needs an environment that is supportive and rewarding of creative ideas. One
could have all of the internal resources needed to think creatively, but without some environmental
support (such as a forum for proposing those ideas), the creativity that a person has within him or her
might never be displayed.

Confluence: Concerning the confluence of these six components, creativity is hypothesized to involve
more than a simple sum of a person’s level on each component. First, there may be thresholds for some
components (e.g., knowledge) below which creativity is not possible regardless of the levels on other
components. Second, partial compensation may occur in which strength on one component (e.g.,
motivation) counteracts a weakness on another component (e.g., environment). Third, interactions may
occur between components, such as intelligence and motivation, in which high levels on both
components could multiplicatively enhance creativity.

Q.2 problem solving

Ans. The term problem solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze
and solve problems. This involves all the steps in the problem process, including the discovery of the
problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the problem, researching the available options
and taking actions to achieve goals. There are a number of mental processes at work during problem
solving. These include:

a.) Perceptually recognizing a problem

b.) Representing the problem in memory
c.) Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem
d.) Identify different aspects of the problem
e.) Labeling and describing the problem.

Approaches to problem solving:

Depending on the kind of dilemma or problem, there are a number of models that can help people to
think through their approaches to decision-making.

a.) Haynes’ model : This suggests a 3-step approach in the form of reflective questions, for dealing
with ethical decision-making dilemmas and problems

When working out a solution to the problem, there are a few questions one should pose to oneself and
these are for instance, “If this particular solution is considered what will be the consequences and would
there be more benefits vis a vis harmful effects?”

b.) Hall’s model (2001): Alan Hall offers a set of questions that educators can use to help consider
all things before deciding what they ought to do when confronted with an ethical problem, and
how they will do it:

What is the basic issue concerned with the problem? What principle is at risk? Who will benefit? Will
benefits be more than harm?

c.) Einstellung: It is the term used by the Gestaltists to describe the tendency to set the mind into a
routine approach to problem solving. The experiments of Luchins are among the most
interesting demonstrations of the way in which repeating a particular problem solving method
can make a person blind to alternative ways of solving the problem. Luchins found that problem
solvers adopt a set in solving the problems. Langer (1989) saw that Einstellung effects are one
type of mindlessness that characterises human behaviour, particularly in our dealings with other
people. All too often we act from a single perspective or rule that has worked in the past.
 Instead of exploring our environment carefully to seek out alternative courses of action, we
sample just enough features to recognise that our set approach seems to be on track.

Perceptual blocks in problem solving:

Perceptual blocks exist when we are unable to clearly perceive a problem or the information needed
to solve it effectively .

They include: a) Seeing only what you expect to see Obscures the “true nature of a problem, either
because we exclude relevant information or include information simply because we assume it is
there.

b) Stereotyping

Often we don’t look beyond the obvious and tend to label. For example, if someone isn’t working as
hard as we would like and we apply the label ‘lazy’ to that person, we might overlook the possibility
that boredom with monotonous work is the problem, and not laziness

c) Not recognising problems Problems go unnoticed until the effects have become severe and
emergency action is required.

d) Not seeing the problem in perspective This results from taking too narrow a view of the situation,
so that we recognise only part of the problem or the information required to solve it. Sometimes
people fail to recognise how different parts of the problem are related, rather they look at the
problem more superficially and hence the solution also becomes inadequate.

e) Mistaking cause and effect: If cause and effect are confused then we are unlikely to find an
effective solution. For example, if goods do not arrive and we assume that the supplier is late in
dispatching them when in fact our ordering department has failed to send out the order, then our
search for solutions will be misdirected. In this situation the late dispatch of the goods is an effect of
the problem and not a cause.

Emotional Blocks in problem solving:

Emotional blocks exist when we perceive a threat to our emotional needs. These needs differ in
type and strength from person to person but include needs for achievement, recognition, order,
belonging and self-esteem. The emotional blocks include:

a) Fear of making mistakes or looking foolish: This is the most significant emotional block because it
affects most of us and is difficult to overcome. As a result of traditional schooling, the expected
reaction when we make a mistake or suggest radically different ideas is laughter and ridicule. This
block becomes more severe in the presence of colleagues of a different rank to our own. With those
who are more senior we imagine that we will be thought inexperienced or immature. With those
more junior we want to protect our image as being knowledgeable and experienced.
 b) Impatience Being impatient to solve a problem may be due either to a desire to succeed quickly
or to end the discomfort or loss caused by the problem. This has two major consequences. We tend
to grab the first solution which comes along, without adequate analysis of the problem, and we
evaluate ideas. too fast, almost instinctively rejecting unusual ideas. Either way, our solution is
unlikely to be the most effective available.

c) Avoiding anxiety This is another common block. Some of- us are more susceptible to anxiety and
also find it more unpleasant than others. Many factors can cause anxiety, including high risk,
disorder and ambiguity, long-term stress, and fear for our security. The effects on problem solving
include avoiding risks, indecision in situations which are not ‘black and white’, excessive reliance on
others’ judgement, and avoiding challenging the status quo. .

d) Fear of taking risks This leads to the avoidance of situations where the outcome is uncertain or
could be unpleasant. A major cause is our desire for security. The consequences include setting
objectives within easy reach, so that there is no risk of failure, and accepting known solutions in
preference to the unusual because their value is certain. A liking for taking risks and over-confidence
in being able to avoid unpleasant, consequences are more dangerous blocks.

e) Need for order This is related to avoiding anxiety. It can lead to an inability to cope with the
frustration of situations which are not clear cut or where ambiguities exist.

f) Lack of challenge This may arise when the problem is routine or the benefits/losses are not
significant to us. The result is that either we don’t tackle the problem or we take the easiest,
quickest route to solution.

Q.3 types of problem solving?

Ans. Problem solving is the application of ideas, skills or factual information to achieve the solution to a
problem or to reach a desired outcome. There are following types of problems:

a.) Well- defined problem- a well defined problem is one that has a clear goal or solution, and
problem solving strategies are easily developed.
b.) Poorly defined problem- a poorly defined problem is one that is unclear, abstract or confusing,
and that does not have a clear problem solving strategy.
c.) Routine problems- A routine problem is one that is typical and has a simple solution.
d.) Non-routine problem- a non-routine problem is more abstract or subjective and requires a
strategy to solve.

Strategies of problem solving:

1. Anagram

This strategy is most commonly used while solving routine problems. Algorithms are step by step
strategies or processes for how to solve a problem or achieve a goal.
An algorithm may be defined as a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. It invariably leads to
the solution if it is used properly, that is. It is a procedure of steps that does guarantee a solution if one
follows the steps correctly. The rules of multiplication constitute an algorithm because a correct answer
is guaranteed if one follows the rules.

Example: anagram problems- the problems in which we try to reorganize groups of letters into words.
Examples of algorithms are systematic and unsystematic random search techniques. Unsystematic
random search means that we try out all kinds of possible answers but make no attempt to be orderly in
our search and keep no record of our previous attempts. As a consequence we may repeat a response
that has already proved to be wrong. In systematic random search we try out all possible answers using
a specified system. This method is somewhat more efficient than unsystematic random search, but it is
highly time consuming when there are many alternative answers. If you are given a 3 letter anagram,
YBO, with instructions to unscramble it, proceed with a systematic random search: YOB, BYO, BOY, !
However, notice how time consuming it would be to use a systematic random search to solve a longer
anagram, such as LSSTNEUIAMYOUL.

2. Heuristics

These are general strategies used to make quick, short-cut solutions to problems that sometimes lead to
solutions but sometimes leads to errors. Heuristics are sometimes referred to as mental short cuts, and
we often form them based on past experiences.

In this strategy an individual does not go for all the alternatives to solve problems but choose some most
relevant alternatives. This is kind of short cut rule which takes lesser time but does not guarantee
success. Heuristics are rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems.

Heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem but when they work, they permit more rapid
solutions. A heuristic device for solving the anagram problem would be to look for familiar letter
combinations. For e.g. how many words can you make from the pool of letters DWARG? In this anagram
we can find the familiar combinations dr and gr. We may then quickly find draw, drag, and grad. The
drawback to this method, however, is that we might miss some words.

SECTION-B

Q.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the
recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development
of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive and processes, starting from
simplest to the most complex. The categories are as follows:
 1.) Knowledge
2.) Comprehension
3.) Application
4.) Analysis
5.) Synthesis
6.) Evaluation

The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must normally be
mastered before the next one can take place.

1.) Knowledge: it simply requires a learner to repeat back what was heard or seen. This requires
very little elaboration.

Examples: recite a policy, recite the safety rules etc.

2.) Comprehension: It requires some rudimentary levels of understanding. Again, this requires only
modest levels of elaboration.
Examples: explain in one’s own words the steps for performing a complex task, rewrite the
principles of test writing.

3.) Application: It involves using the concepts or principles to solve a problem. It involves more
elaboration and show a significant impact on long-term learning when they are used during the
learning process.
Example: Use a manual to calculate an employee’s vacation time, apply law of statistics to
evaluate the reliability of a written test.

4.) Analyzing: It involves understanding the relationship among the parts and how they are
organised into a whole. It involves more elaboration and show a significant impact on long-term
learning when they are used during the learning process.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction, Recognize logical
fallacies in reasoning.

5.) Evaluating: It is the process of making judgments based on comparison to a standard. It requires
highest levels of elaboration.
Examples: Select the most effective solution, Hire the most qualified candidate.

6.) Synthesis: It involves putting the parts or components together in an original manner. It is most
complex and requires highest levels of elaboration.
Examples: Write a company operations or process manual, design a machine to perform a
specific task.

Q. 5 short term and long term memory

Ans. Memory is defined as the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information.
The stage theory model given by Atkinson and Shiffrin, recognizes three types or stages of memory:
sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory.

Short-term memory:

Information that is attended to and recognised in the sensory register is then passed on to second stage
of information processing, i.e. short-term memory (STM) or working memory, where it is held for
perhaps 20 or 30 seconds. STM is often viewed as active or conscious memory because it is the part of
memory that is being actively processed while new information is being taken in. Some of the
information reaching short-term memory is processed by being rehearsed – that is, by having attention
focused on it, perhaps by being repeated over and over (maintenance rehearsal), or perhaps by being
processed in some other way that will link it up with other information already stored in memory
(elaborate rehearsal). Generally 5 + 2 number of units can be processed at any given time in STM. STM is
characterized by trace dependent forgetting-meaning that if info is not rehearsed or processed
immediately, then the memory transformed by the info fades rapidly and the item is permanently lost.
STM is primarily a function of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. STM is most often stored as
sounds, especially in recalling words, but may be stored as images

Example: repeating the phone number until dialing number on the phone, repeating someone’s name
when meeting for the first time.

Long-term memory:

When items of information are placed in long-term memory, they are organised into categories, where
they may reside for days, months, years, or for a lifetime. When something is remembered, a
representation of the item is withdrawn, or retrieved, from long-term memory. The duration and
capacity of LTM is theoretically unlimited. LTM is passive in nature and is not easily disturbed on
interruption. LTM is characterized by cue dependent forgetting- i.e. the info is permanently recorded
but our ability to retrieve it depends upon having the appropriate cues. Info stored in LTM is first held in
hippocampus and then transferred to the areas of the cerebral cortex. In LTM info is primarily stored in
terms of its meaning or semantic codes.

Example: Remembering your first phone number, remembering names of your friends. Etc.

Q.6 Principles of info processing:

Ans. Information processing is the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an
observer.

The basic principles of info processing system are as follows:

The first is the assumption of a limited capacity of the mental system. This means that the amount of
information that can be processed by the system is constrained in some very important ways.
Bottlenecks, or restrictions in the flow and processing of information, occur at very specific points.
A second principle is that a control mechanism is required to oversee the encoding, transformation,
processing, storage, retrieval and utilisation of information. That is, not all of the processing capacity of
the system is available; an executive function that oversees this process will use up some of this
capability. When one is learning a new task or is confronted with a new environment, the executive
function requires more processing power than when one is doing a routine task or is in a familiar
environment.

A third principle is that there is a two-way flow of information as we try to make sense of the world
around us. We constantly use information that we gather through the senses and information we have
stored in memory in a dynamic process as we construct meaning about our environment and our
relations to it. This is somewhat analogous to the difference between inductive reasoning (going from
specific instances to a general conclusion) and deductive reasoning (going from a general principle to
specific examples.).

A fourth principle generally accepted by cognitive psychologists is that the human organism has been
genetically prepared to process and organise information in specific ways. For example, a human infant
is more likely to look at a human face than any other stimulus. Other research has discovered additional
biological predispositions to process information. For example, language development is similar in all
human infants regardless of language spoken by adults or the area in which they live (e.g., rural versus
urban, Asia versus Europe.) All human infants with normal hearing babble and coo, generate first words,
begin the use of telegraphic speech (example, ball gone), and overgeneralise (e.g., using “goed to the
store” when they learn the verbs) at approximately the same ages.

Q.7 Stages of creativity.

Ans. Creativity can be defined as a goal directed thinking which is unusual, novel and useful. Graham
Wallas(1926) suggested that creative thinking follows four successive steps:

1.) Stage of preparation: The subject begins to gather information about the problem to be solved
and attempts some solutions. This stage is characterised by a state of trial-and-error in learning.
Therefore, the subject is advised to learn as much as possible about the problem area. In
preparation the thinker begins recalling personal experiences and investigating in all different
directions to gather information about the problem to be solved. Since the goal from this
procedure is to generate the largest possible list, the thinker should not worry about
redundancy, relative importance, or relationships at this point.

2.) Stage of incubation: In the second stage the solution exists but is not clear. The subject must not
intentionally work on the problem. Instead it is allowed to sink into the unconscious. The thinker
is advised to relax and reflect on his/her focus question which might lead him/her to
modification of the focus question.

3.) Stage of illumination: In the third stage the subject suddenly experiences insight into the
problem when a new solution, idea, or relationship emerges. In other words, the subject
 attempts to reformulate his/her ideas or to formulate new ones. The subject is more active and
more conscious work is needed in this stage. In the stage of illumination the thinker experiences
insight into the problem when a new solution, idea, or relationship emerges.

4.) Stage of verification: Finally, the subject tries and checks the solution. In this stage some
modification may also occur to ideas reached in the previous stages. In the stage of verification
the thinker tests, tries and checks the solution he/she created. In this stage thinker should
rework the structure of his/her map to represent his/her collective understanding of the
interrelationships and connections among groupings, which may include adding, subtracting, or
changing super-ordinate concepts, thus, he/she may need to review his/her concept map as
he/she gains new knowledge or new insights.

In some situations, the above stages may appear in a different order, or combined into two or three
stages. They also do not occur regularly. For example, sometimes the subject’s knowledge of the
problem area allows him/her to pass over the first stage (preparation) and move on to the next stage
(incubation) or even to the third stage.

Q8. Vernon’s hierarchical theory of intelligence.

Ans. Vernon’s theory is a compromise formula, between Spearman’s two factors and Thurstone’s
multifactor theory. It retains G factor, and relegates Thurstone’s and Guilford’s structure of intellect to
sub-ordinate level. At the top of the hierarchy, Vernon placed that G factor, or the General cognitive
factor. At the next level he placed two broad group factors, corresponding to verbal-educational (v:ed)
and practical-mechanical(k:m) aptitudes. These major factors may be further sub-divided.

The verbal-educational factor may be sub-divided into verbal and numerical sub factoe and the
practical-mechanical factor into mechanical info, spatial, and psychomotor ability. At the lowest level of
the hierarchy are the special factors. Such a hierarchical structure thus resembles an inverted
genealogical tree, with ‘g’ at the top, ‘s’ factors at the bottom, and progressively narrower group factors
in between.

Vernon concluded that individual difference in intelligence are approximately 60 percent attributable to
genetic factors, and that there is some evidence implicating genes in racial group differences in average
levels of mental ability.

Q.9. Miller’s magic number.

Ans. Miller’s Magic Number - George Miller’s study found that the amount of information which can be
remembered on one exposure is between five and nine items, depending on the information. Applying a
range of +2 or -2, the number 7 became known as Miller’s Magic Number, the number of items which
can be held in Short-Term Memory at any one time.

Q.10 nature vs nurture debate.

Ans. Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other
biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, ex.
The product of exposure, experience etc.

The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behavior are a
product of either inherited or acquired characteristics.

Q.11 Psychobiological research

Ans. The research which studies the relationship between cognition and the brain’s structures and
activities is known as psychobiological research. It is rather difficult to probe the brains of living people,
so the alternative is to use animals. Example: postmortem studies, animal studies, studies in vivo (PET,
EEG).

Q.12 Problem space

Ans. Initial state, goal state and operator combine to form the problem space. The problem space
includes a number of elements in it that are required to be organized in a particular manner. A
successful understanding of the problem space would require: coherence, correspondence and
relationship to background knowledge.

Q.13 culture free tests.

Ans. It is a test that is designed to be culture-neutral so that no one cultural or ethnic group will have an
unfair advantage over another. Using culture-free tests can help eliminate bias in testing and result in
more valid test results.

Q14. Deviation IQ

Ans. It is a way of measuring an individual’s generalized intelligence. It uses statistics to analyze a

person’s intelligence relative to their age. It is scored based on how an individual deviates from the
average IQ of 100. It measures IQ as a normal distribution with the average IQ being a 100 with a
standard deviation of +/- 15.

Q15. Spatial intelligence

Ans. It is the ability to comprehend three-dimensional images and shapes. This is a primary function of
the right side of the brain and is used when solving puzzles, figuring out maps and taking part in any type
of construction or engineering project.

Q16. Dysprosody

Ans. It refers to the loss of normal rhythm or melody of speech. It is usually the result of neurological
damage such as brain trauma, severe head injury, stroke, and brain vascular damage or brain tumors.
This relates to individuals with verbal apraxia because they often have difficulty changing the pitch of
their spoken messages and using appropriate word stress.
Q17. Additive and subtractive bilingualism.

Ans. In additive bilingualism, a second language is acquired in addition to a relatively well developed first
language. In subtractive bilingualism, elements of a second language replace elements of the first
language.

Q.18 Articulation disorders

Ans. It is a type of speech disorder involving difficulties in articulating specific types of sounds. They
often involve substitution of one sound for another, slurring of speech, or indistinct speech. It is treated
using speech therapy.