Philosophy is inescapable.

Your philosophy is your worldview, which is a backdrop for all thought and a context
for allknowledge. The decision about examining philosophy is between: 1) to make
your philosophy explicit, or 2) to be a slave to the subconscious notions, principles,
and other people's philosophies picked up throughout life. To ignore the topic of
philosophy is to be doomed to the second choice. Examining your philosophy will
allow you to discover and root out all errors and contradictions and allow you to more
easily acquire knowledge and to think in concepts rather than concretes.

A philosophic system is an integrated view of existence. As a human being, you have

no choice about the fact that you need a philosophy. Your only choice is whether you
define your philosophy by a conscious, rational, disciplined process of thought and
scrupulously logical deliberation -- or let your subconscious accumulate a junk heap
of unwarranted conclusions, false generalizations, undefined contradictions,
undigested slogans, unidentified wishes, doubts and fears, thrown together by chance,
but integrated by your subconscious into a kind of mongrel philosophy and fused into
a single, solid weight: self-doubt, like a ball and chain in the place where your mind's
wings should have grown. Ayn Rand, Philosophy: Who Needs It

This site explores the importance of philosophy and presents many of the important
concepts and questions that must be considered. It will tell you how to base your
philosophy on reasonrather than randomness, which will lead to clarity, certainty,
success, and happiness. The alternative to an explicit rational philosophy is an
indifference that leads to confusion and often failure.

Philosophy is not some arcane field important only to old men in ivory towers. It
explicitly asks and answers fundamental, inescapable questions such as "How can I
know something?" and "What should I do?" Without some answer to these questions,
no knowledge or action is possible. Again, the only choice is to explicitly examine the
underlying assumptions involved or to be at the mercy of the random flotsam picked
up throughout life.

You can start by learning the major ideas and how they're related by looking at
the Concept Chart and clicking on the various concepts, which index into the more
complete set of information contained in the Five Branches of Philosophy section.

Philosophy
A philosophy is a system of beliefs about reality. It is one's integrated view of the
world. It includes an understanding of the nature of existence, man, and his role in the
world. Philosophy is the foundation of knowledge. It is the standard by which ideas
are integrated and understood.

Philosophy is a necessary product of man's rational mind. To live, man must gain
knowledge of the world. To understand the world, man must form conclusions about
its very nature. For instance, to gain knowledge of particular objects, man must
recognize that objects have identity. He must recognize that conclusions are possible
because the world does exist, and exists in a particular way.

Philosophy provides the framework for which man can understand the world. It
provides the premises by which man can discover truth, and use his mind to support
his life. Every man has an understanding of the world. Every man must have a
philosophy, even if it is never made explicit.

Ethical Realism
Philosophy is Important

I think philosophy is important for two main reasons: (1) it can help improve critical thinking

skills and (2) it’s a good way to know certain things. Even so, much more can be said—especially

considering each specific thing philosophy can teach us. Many things it can teach us are

important for various other reasons.

There are many people who question the importance of philosophy (such as Lawrence Krauss),

and I suspect that the main reason that they are unconvinced is because they don’t think

philosophy can make progress or provide us with knowledge. Consider that at one
point Krauss said, “[Science progresses and philosophy doesn’t.” 1

What is philosophy? It is the attempt to reason well about certain traditional domains of study:

logic (the study of good reasoning), epistemology (the study of knowledge), metaphysics (the

study of reality), and ethics (the study of morality). Just like science, some philosophy is better

than others, and a lot of philosophy done by amateurs misses the mark so badly that it is often

better described as something else entirely. When science is done very badly, it’s often

appropriately called “pseudoscience;” and when philosophy is done very badly, it’s often
appropriately called “sophistry.” (However, sophistry is generally thought to be deliberately

manipulative rather than a sincere attempt to be reasonable.)

1. Philosophy can help improve critical thinking skills.

Most fields of study, such as physics, history, and economics, are mainly about providing us with

knowledge of some sort. However, some fields of study are more practical, such as computer

engineering, and they are mainly about providing us with skills. Practical fields are supposed to

help improve our abilities, so that we can do something using them. Philosophy is not necessarily

a primarily skill-oriented field of study, but it is the specialized field of study for critical thinking,

and it can help us improve our critical thinking skills.

Some people have thought that philosophy automatically helps improve critical thinking skills as

a byproduct, and no special attention is required for it to do so. There might be some truth to

this, but non-critical-thinking-oriented philosophy classes don’t seem to be so much better than

various other classes in the humanities. Perhaps writing argumentative essays in any field of

study can help improve critical thinking skills. According to a meta-analysis by Claudia María

Álvarez Ortiz, Does Philosophy Improve Critical Thinking Skills? (PDF), the most effective classes

at improving critical thinking skills are those devoted to critical thinking, and the analytic

philosophy tradition in particular is effective at teaching these classes. 2

Critical thinking skills are highly related to logic (a philosophical domain), which is the study of

proper reasoning. That shouldn’t be surprising because the main idea of critical thinking is to

reason well. The critical thinking classes taught by philosophers teach students about logic in

addition to providing practice problems that can improve their critical thinking skills.

Although philosophy can be used to improve critical thinking and most people want to reason

properly, it’s a hard sell because people who know the least about logic think they know just as

much as those who know quite a bit about it thanks to a cognitive bias known as the Dunning-

Kruger effect (PDF). How many people think they reason properly and understand logic? Very

few seem to realize that they need to improve their understanding of these things and one

relevant study showed that people who were tested in their competence in logic “overestimated

their logical reasoning ability relative to their peers. On average, participants placed themselves

in the 66th percentile among students from their class, which was significantly higher than the
actual [average score] …it was participants in the bottom quartile… who overestimated their

logical reasoning ability and test performance to the greatest extent.” 3

You might think, “Okay, some people know less about logic than they think, but maybe people

know all they need to know about logic anyway.” If you are optimistic, you might think people

are automatically logical for the most part and don’t need to learn more about it. However, Tim

Van Gelder has discussed some startling facts about critical thinking, such as the fact that “[a]

majority of people cannot, even when prompted, reliably exhibit basic skills of general reasoning

and argumentation.” 4

2. Philosophy is a good way to know certain things.

Philosophers have a type of expertise—they know a lot about various philosophical issues, the

history of various philosophical debates, and quite a bit about what it means to reason properly.

They tend know more about these things than those who aren’t philosophers (and getting a

degree is a step in the right direction to becoming a philosopher). For this reason we can learn a

lot from philosophers concerning their various specializations, and we can sometimes learn a lot

by doing philosophy on our own as well. We can all learn a little about what philosophy has to

offer by actually doing some philosophy on our own. After all, philosophers didn’t attain their

expertise just by twiddling their thumbs. It took a lot of hard work, and we can attain greater

philosophical expertise for ourselves.

Not everyone thinks we have anything to learn from philosophers. What makes us think

philosophers know more about logic, epistemology, metaphysics, or ethics than the rest of us? If

anyone can know anything about these things, then it’s philosophers considering the rich history

of ideas and the great deal of time they devote to studying various issues. Even so, I think

everyone knows something about these issues. For example, everyone knows at least one thing

about logic logic—the fact that it’s inappropriate to argue in the following way—“Rocks exist.

Therefore, whales are not fish.” It is also indisputable that philosophers do know quite a bit

about logic precisely due to the progress they have made. For example, there was a time before

we knew what argument form was, but now we know quite a bit about it. 5 Natural scientists

agree that we can reason properly, that we can know something about proper and improper

reasoning, and that logic as developed by philosophers restrains how natural science can be
done. (For example, two observations that contradict one another can’t both describe reality

properly.)

Moreover, we know that some people know more about logic than others (such as that shown by

the Dunning-Kruger effect), and we know that logic as developed by philosophers is very helpful

for improving critical thinking skills. According to the scientific studies examined by Tin Van

Gelder, “The lesson from cognitive science is that if we want students to substantially improve

their skills, we must at some point help them develop theoretical understanding as compliment

to the crucial hands-on know-how.” 6 The theoretical understanding he is talking about are logical

concepts (and how they are to be properly applied), such as premise identification 7 , argument

form, valid reasoning 8 , and informal errors in reasoning 9 .

One important question is what type of knowledge philosophy can offer us. For example, is it like

the knowledge natural scientists can give us or is it mainly knowledge of concepts and logical

implications? Or both? Let’s consider both of these options:

(a) Factual knowledge

Factual knowledge is the type of knowledge good natural science seems to give us: Knowledge

about laws of nature, causal relations, and things that exist in the world. These are the kinds of

things physicists, chemists, and biologists are interested in. However, it’s not entirely clear what

entities science gives us factual knowledge about. There’s a debate over which scientific entities

really exist (such as electrons), and philosophers debate over how we should answer this

question. Those who think invisible theoretical entities, such as electrons, exist are “scientific

realists” and those who don’t think so are “anti-realists.”

Moreover, some philosophers think that there’s also moral facts, facts about logic, or facts about

mathematics. Philosophers are then thought to be able to help us decide if we should believe

such facts exist (and therefore be realists of those things), and if so, what we should believe

about them. These are not the type of facts scientists study, but philosophers might still help us

attain factual knowledge about these things.

The view that there’s facts about logic and mathematics is especially promising because

scientists often have to presuppose that there are certain logical and mathematical facts—that
we can discover these facts and that scientific observation is mistaken when it contradicts these

facts. For example, logicians almost unanimously agree with the principle of noncontradiction,

which states that a statement can’t be true and false at the same time. If one statement is true,

then all statements that contradict it are false. Sometimes we have an observation that

contradicts a scientific theory we believe to be proven. At one point Mercury didn’t revolve

around the Sun as Newton’s theory of physics predicted. We could say that our understanding of

the observation is wrong or that the theory is wrong. There is a problem if someone says that

both the observation and the theory is true, and there’s a problem if a scientist says that

contradictory observations prove the principle of non-contradiction to be false.

Some people argue that philosophy is not meant to give us factual knowledge. It is often thought

that philosophy is inherently unresolvable—that philosophers debate endlessly without ever

expecting to give us a final answer. Sometimes it’s said that “there’s no right answer” (perhaps

in the sense that there are multiple different answers that could be rationally defended). Of

course, we might wonder if the same is really true of science. Perhaps science also will continue

to make progress endlessly and the answers it provides will continue to be refined without ever

giving us a “final answer.”

Although I am sympathetic to the view that philosophy can provide factual knowledge, I don’t

think philosophy has to give us a final answer to make progress or be informative. A great deal

of the factual knowledge philosophy seems to provide is knowledge about what’s not the case.

We can sometimes eliminate a belief or philosophical theory similar to how scientists can often

eliminate a failed hypothesis. For example, we can eliminate the belief that “all conclusions are

true.”

(b) Conceptual knowledge

Some people who don’t think philosophy is meant to give us factual knowledge still agree that

philosophy can be informative and that philosophers have a type of expertise, and they often say

that philosophy is really about clarifying concepts and finding logical implications. For example,

some philosophers are compatibilistswho think we could have free will, even if the world is

deterministic (which is the view that everything that happens has to happen exactly one way).

They don’t think there’s a logical implication that would make a world with both of these things
impossible based on their conceptions of free will and determinism. Compatibilism doesn’t state

that we actually have free will or that the world is actually deterministic. It is a view about what

could be the case in the world rather than what’s actually the case.

One important question is if conceptual knowledge is really so different from factual knowledge.

Some people think philosophers can’t tell us anything about the world, but that they could help

provide conceptual knowledge of the type described above. 10 They don’t think conceptual

knowledge is factual, and some people will hesitate to even call it “conceptual knowledge”

because they don’t think philosophy is about generating knowledge. Even so, I think it is clear

that even conceptual discussions can involve progress and they can be very informative, such as

when we developed the concept of argument form. If it’s not knowledge, then calling it

“conceptual understanding” might be more appropriate.

However, some people do think conceptual knowledge can be factual. For example, perhaps

understanding certain moral concepts is enough to know that causing pain just for fun is wrong.

(We can analyze what it means for actions to be morally wrong, the concept of pain, the concept

of doing something just for fun, etc.)

One purpose of conceptual knowledge is to make clarifications and avoid sloppy thinking, but

another purpose could be to help us know what beliefs should be rejected, which is quite similar

to how I suggested philosophy could provide us with factual knowledge. For example, if

compatibilism is true, then we should reject incompatibilism (the view that free will can never

exist in a deterministic world).

Specific philosophical issues

Even if philosophy can be informative and give us some type of knowledge, we might wonder if

philosophy is important in any sense. Some people criticize philosophers for doing research in an

armchair or being in an “ivory tower” (with everyday life far from their mind’s eye). One possible

answer is simply thatknowledge has value—that it’s always better to be knowledgeable. Even if

philosophy isn’t useful, it might still be worth doing. Mathematicians don’t always tell us what we

can do with their results, but most of us seem to accept that it has some sort of a value anyway.

However, there are many other answers as to why philosophy has value and I think philosophy
can be of the utmost importance to making our lives better. The reason I think this is the case is

because various philosophical issues have unique ways of helping people.

One philosophical domain in particular that I think we should all agree has practical importance

for everyday life is critical thinking (and logic by extension). For example, consider the research

that shows that people tend to lack in critical thinking skills, and the link between logic-oriented

critical thinking education and critical thinking skills. Of course, someone might say they see no

reason to think reasoning well is important. My reply would be that reasoning well helps us avoid

deception (such as the deception used by advertisers, political pundits, quacks, etc.), make

better decisions in general, and to increase the odds of persuading others to believe things that

they should agree with.

Finally, the reasons that logic education is important can also be refined based on all the specific

things it can teach us, such as logical form, logical validity, and informal fallacies. Each of these
things have unique lessons to teach us, as was discussed in Why Logic is Important.

Conclusion

Although many people are unconvinced that that philosophy is important, I think there are good

reasons to think it is important. Philosophy can not only help improve critical thinking skills, but

it can help provide us with knowledge of logic that can greatly help improve critical thinking.

Moreover, I do not find the view that philosophy makes no progress and provides us with no

knowledge to be plausible based on the fact that it seems clear that everyone knows something

about at least one philosophical domain (logic), and some people know more about that domain

than others.

The Importance of Philosophy in Human Life

Posted In: Information and Theories 9/17/04
By: Unknown
PHILOSOPHY is a study that seeks to understand the mysteries of
existence and reality. It tries to discover the nature of truth and knowledge and to find what is of
basic value and importance in life. It also examines the relationships between humanity and
nature and between the individual and society. Philosophy arises out of wonder, curiosity, and
the desire to know and understand. Philosophy is thus a form of inquiry--a process of analysis,
criticism, interpretation, and speculation.

The term philosophy cannot be defined precisely because the subject is so complex and
so controversial. Different philosophers have different views of the nature, methods, and
range of philosophy. The term philosophy itself comes from the Greek philosophia,
which means love of wisdom. In that sense, wisdom is the active use of intelligence, not
something passive that a person simply possesses.

The first known Western philosophers lived in the ancient Greek world during the early
500's B.C. These early philosophers tried to discover the basic makeup of things and
the nature of the world and of reality. For answers to questions about such subjects,
people had largely relied on magic, superstition, religion, tradition, or authority. But the
Greek philosophers considered those sources of knowledge unreliable. Instead, they
sought answers by thinking and by studying nature.

Philosophy has also had a long history in some non-Western cultures, especially in
China and India. But until about 200 years ago, there was little interchange between
those philosophies and Western philosophy, chiefly because of difficulties of travel and
communication. As a result, Western philosophy generally developed independently of
Eastern philosophy.

The Importance of Philosophy

Philosophic thought is an inescapable part of human existence. Almost everyone has

been puzzled from time to time by such essentially philosophic questions as "What does
life mean?" "Did I have any existence before I was born?" and "Is there life after death?"
Most people also have some kind of philosophy in the sense of a personal outlook on
life. Even a person who claims that considering philosophic questions is a waste of time
is expressing what is important, worthwhile, or valuable. A rejection of all philosophy is
in itself philosophy.

By studying philosophy, people can clarify what they believe, and they can be
stimulated to think about ultimate questions. A person can study philosophers of the
past to discover why they thought as they did and what value their thoughts may have in
one's own life. There are people who simply enjoy reading the great philosophers,
especially those who were also great writers.

Philosophy has had enormous influence on our everyday lives. The very language we
speak uses classifications derived from philosophy. For example, the classifications of
noun and verb involve the philosophic idea that there is a difference between things and
actions. If we ask what the difference is, we are starting a philosophic inquiry.

Every institution of society is based on philosophic ideas, whether that institution is the
law, government, religion, the family, marriage, industry, business, or education.
Philosophic differences have led to the overthrow of governments, drastic changes in
laws, and the transformation of entire economic systems. Such changes have occurred
because the people involved held certain beliefs about what is important, true, real, and
significant and about how life should be ordered.

Systems of education follow a society's philosophic ideas about what children should be
taught and for what purposes. Democratic societies stress that people learn to think and
make choices for themselves. Nondemocratic societies discourage such activities and
want their citizens to surrender their own interests to those of the state. The values and
skills taught by the educational system of a society thus reflect the society's philosophic
ideas of what is important.

The Branches of Philosophy

Philosophic inquiry can be made into any subject because philosophy deals with
everything in the world and all of knowledge. But traditionally, and for purposes of study,
philosophy is divided into five branches, each organized around certain distinctive
questions. The branches are (1) metaphysics, (2) epistemology, (3) logic, (4) ethics, and
(5) aesthetics. In addition, the philosophy of language has become so important during
the 1900's that it is often considered another branch of philosophy.

Metaphysics is the study of the fundamental nature of reality and existence and of the
essences of things. Metaphysics is itself often divided into two areas--ontology and
cosmology. Ontology is the study of being. Cosmology is the study of the physical
universe, or the cosmos, taken as a whole. Cosmology is also the name of the branch
of science that studies the organization, history, and future of the universe.

Metaphysics deals with such questions as "What is real?" "What is the distinction
between appearance and reality?" "What are the most general principles and concepts
by which our experiences can be interpreted and understood?" and "Do we possess
free will or are our actions determined by causes over which we have no control?"

Philosophers have developed a number of theories in metaphysics. These theories

include materialism, idealism, mechanism, and teleology. Materialism maintains that
only matter has real existence and that feelings, thoughts, and other mental phenomena
are produced by the activity of matter. Idealism states that every material thing is an
idea or a form of an idea. In idealism, mental phenomena are what is fundamentally
important and real. Mechanism maintains that all happenings result from purely
mechanical forces, not from purpose, and that it makes no sense to speak of the
universe itself as having a purpose. Teleology, on the other hand, states that the
universe and everything in it exists and occurs for some purpose.
Epistemology aims to determine the nature, basis, and extent of knowledge. It explores
the various ways of knowing, the nature of truth, and the relationships between
knowledge and belief. Epistemology asks such questions as "What are the features of
genuine knowledge as distinct from what appears to be knowledge?" "What is truth, and
how can we know what is true and what is false?" and "Are there different kinds of
knowledge, with different grounds and characteristics?"

Philosophers often distinguish between two kinds of knowledge, a priori and empirical.
We arrive at a priori knowledge by thinking, without independent appeal to
experience. For example, we know that there are 60 seconds in a minute by learning
the meanings of the terms. In the same way, we know that there are 60 minutes in an
hour. From these facts, we can deduce that there are 3,600 seconds in an hour, and we
arrive at this conclusion by the operation of thought alone. We acquire empirical
knowledge from observation and experience. For example, we know from observation
how many keys are on a typewriter and from experience which key will print what letter.

The nature of truth has baffled people since ancient times, partly because people so
often use the term true for ideas they find congenial and want to believe, and also
because people so often disagree about which ideas are true. Philosophers have
attempted to define criteria for distinguishing between truth and error. But they disagree
about what truth means and how to arrive at true ideas. The correspondence theory
holds that an idea is true if it corresponds to the facts or reality. The pragmatic theory
maintains that an idea is true if it works or settles the problem it deals with. The
coherence theory states that truth is a matter of degree and that an idea is true to the
extent to which it coheres (fits together) with other ideas that one holds. Skepticism
claims that knowledge is impossible to attain and that truth is unknowable.

Logic is the study of the principles and methods of reasoning. It explores how we
distinguish between good (or sound) reasoning and bad (or unsound) reasoning. An
instance of reasoning is called an argument or an inference. An argument consists of a
set of statements called premises together with a statement called the conclusion,
which is supposed to be supported by or derived from the premises. A good argument
provides support for its conclusion, and a bad argument does not. Two basic types of
reasoning are called deductive and inductive.

A good deductive argument is said to be valid--that is, the conclusion necessarily

follows from the premises. A deductive argument whose conclusion does not follow
necessarily from the premises is said to be invalid. The argument "All human beings are
mortal, all Greeks are human beings, therefore all Greeks are mortal" is a valid
deductive argument. But the argument "All human beings are mortal, all Greeks are
mortal, therefore all Greeks are human beings" is invalid, even though the conclusion is
true. On that line of reasoning, one could argue that all dogs, which are also mortal, are
human beings.

Deductive reasoning is used to explore the necessary consequences of certain

assumptions. Inductive reasoning is used to establish matters of fact and the laws of
nature and does not aim at being deductively valid. One who reasons that all squirrels
like nuts, on the basis that all squirrels so far observed like nuts, is reasoning
inductively. The conclusion could be false, even though the premise is
true. Nevertheless, the premise provides considerable support for the conclusion.

Ethics concerns human conduct, character, and values. It studies the nature of right and
wrong and the distinction between good and evil. Ethics explores the nature of justice
and of a just society, and also one's obligations to oneself, to others, and to society.

Ethics asks such questions as "What makes right actions right and wrong actions
wrong?" "What is good and what is bad?" and "What are the proper values of life?"
Problems arise in ethics because we often have difficulty knowing exactly what is the
right thing to do. In many cases, our obligations conflict or are vague. In addition, people
often disagree about whether a particular action or principle is morally right or wrong.

A view called relativism maintains that what is right or wrong depends on the particular
culture concerned. What is right in one society may be wrong in another, this view
argues, and so no basic standards exist by which a culture may be judged right or
wrong. Objectivism claims that there are objective standards of right and wrong which
can be discovered and which apply to everyone. Subjectivism states that all moral
standards are subjective matters of taste or opinion.

Aesthetics deals with the creation and principles of art and beauty. It also studies our
thoughts, feelings, and attitudes when we see, hear, or read something beautiful.
Something beautiful may be a work of art, such as a painting, symphony, or poem, or it
may be a sunset or other natural phenomenon. In addition, aesthetics investigates the
experience of engaging in such activities as painting, dancing, acting, and playing.

Aesthetics is sometimes identified with the philosophy of art, which deals with the nature
of art, the process of artistic creation, the nature of the aesthetic experience, and the
principles of criticism. But aesthetics has wider application. It involves both works of art
created by human beings and the beauty found in nature.

Aesthetics relates to ethics and political philosophy when we ask questions about what
role art and beauty should play in society and in the life of the individual. Such questions
include "How can people's taste in the arts be improved?" "How should the arts be
taught in the schools?" and "Do governments have the right to restrict artistic
expression?"

The Philosophy of Language has become especially important in recent times. Some
philosophers claim that all philosophic questions arise out of linguistic problems. Others
claim that all philosophic questions are really questions about language. One key
question is "What is language?" But there are also questions about the relationships
between language and thought and between language and the world, as well as
questions about the nature of meaning and of definition.
The question has been raised whether there can be a logically perfect language that
would reflect in its categories the essential characteristics of the world. This question
raises questions about the adequacy of ordinary language as a philosophic tool. All
such questions belong to the philosophy of language, which has essential connections
with other branches of philosophy.

Philosophy and Other Fields

One peculiarity of philosophy is that the question "What is philosophy?" is itself a

question of philosophy. But the question "What is art?" is not a question of art. The
question is philosophic. The same is true of such questions as "What is history?" and
"What is law?" Each is a question of philosophy. Such questions are basic to the
philosophy of education, the philosophy of history, the philosophy of law, and other
"philosophy of" fields. Each of these fields attempts to determine the foundations,
fundamental categories, and methods of a particular institution or area of study. A
strong relationship therefore exists between philosophy and other fields of human
activity. This relationship can be seen by examining two fields: (1) philosophy and
science and (2) philosophy and religion.

Philosophy and Science. Science studies natural phenomena and the phenomena of
society. It does not study itself. When science does reflect on itself, it becomes the
philosophy of science and examines a number of philosophic questions. These
questions include "What is science?" "What is scientific method?" "Does scientific truth
provide us with the truth about the universe and reality?" and "What is the value of
science?"

Philosophy has given birth to several major fields of scientific study. Until the 1700's, no
distinction was made between science and philosophy. For example, physics was called
natural philosophy. Psychology was part of what was called moral philosophy. In the
early 1800's, sociology and linguistics separated from philosophy and became distinct
areas of study. Logic has always been considered a branch of philosophy. However,
logic has now developed to the point where it is also a branch of mathematics, which is
a basic science.

Philosophy and science differ in many respects. For example, science has attained
definite and tested knowledge of many matters and has thus resolved disagreement
about those matters. Philosophy has not. As a result, controversy has always been
characteristic of philosophy. Science and philosophy do share one significant goal. Both
seek to discover the truth--to answer questions, solve problems, and satisfy curiosity. In
the process, both science and philosophy provoke further questions and problems, with
each solution bringing more questions and problems.

Philosophy and Religion. Historically, philosophy originated in religious questions.

These questions concerned the nature and purpose of life and death and the
relationship of humanity to superhuman powers or a divine creator. Every society has
some form of religion. Most people acquire their religion from their society as they
acquire their language. Philosophy inquires into the essence of things, and inquiry into
the essence of religion is a philosophic inquiry.

Religious ideas generated some of the earliest philosophic speculations about the
nature of life and the universe. The speculations often centered on the idea of a
supernatural or superpowerful being who created the universe and who governs it
according to unchangeable laws and gives it purpose. Western philosophic tradition has
paid much attention to the possibility of demonstrating the existence of God.

The chief goal of some philosophers is not understanding and knowledge.Instead, they
try to help people endure the pain, anxiety, and suffering of earthly existence. Such
philosophers attempt to make philosophic reflection on the nature and purpose of life
perform the function of religion.

Oriental Philosophy

There are two main traditions in Oriental philosophy, Chinese and Indian. Both
philosophies are basically religious and ethical in origin and character. They are
removed from any interest in science.

Traditionally, Chinese philosophy has been largely practical, humanistic, and social in
its aims. It developed as a means of bringing about improvements in society and
politics. Traditionally, philosophy in India has been chiefly mystical rather than political.
It has been dominated by reliance on certain sacred texts, called Vedas, which are
considered inspired and true and therefore subject only for commentary and not for
criticism. Much of Indian philosophy has emphasized withdrawal from everyday life into
the life of the spirit. Chinese philosophy typically called for efforts to participate in the life
of the state in order to improve worldly conditions.

Chinese philosophy as we know it started in the 500's B.C. with the philosopher
Confucius. His philosophy, called Confucianism, was the official philosophy of China for
centuries, though it was reinterpreted by different generations. Confucianism aimed to
help people live better and more rewarding lives by discipline and by instruction in the
proper goals of life.Candidates for government positions had to pass examinations on
Confucian thought, and Confucianism formed the basis for government decisions. No
other civilization has placed such emphasis on philosophy.

Other philosophic traditions in China were Taoism, Mohism, and realism. Beginning in
the 1100's, a movement known as Neo-Confucianism incorporated elements of all these
doctrines.

We do not know exactly when Indian philosophy began. In India, philosophic thought
was intermingled with religion, and most Indian philosophic thought has been religious
in character and aim. Philosophic commentaries on sacred texts emerge during the
500's B.C. The Indian word for these studies is darshana, which means vision or seeing.
It corresponds to what the ancient Greeks called philosophia.
In India, as in China, people conceived of philosophy as a way of life, not as a mere
intellectual activity. The main aim of Indian philosophy was freedom from the suffering
and tension caused by the body and the senses and by attachment to worldly things.
The main philosophies developed in India were Hinduism and Buddhism, which were
also religions. Yet some Indian philosophers did develop a complex system of logic and
carried on investigations in epistemology. Some Indian philosophic ideas have been
influential in the West. One such idea is reincarnation, the belief that the human soul is
successively reborn in new bodies.

The History of Western Philosophy

The history of Western philosophy is commonly divided into three periods--ancient,

medieval, and modern. The period of ancient philosophy extended from about 600 B.C.
to about the A.D. 400's. Medieval philosophy lasted from the 400's to the 1600's.
Modern philosophy covers the period from the 1600's to the present.

Ancient Philosophy was almost entirely Greek. The greatest philosophers of the ancient
world were three Greeks of the 400's and 300's B.C.--Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. Their philosophy influenced all later Western culture. Our ideas in the fields of
metaphysics, science, logic, and ethics originated from their thought. A number of
distinctive schools of philosophy also flourished in ancient Greece.

The Pre-Socratics were the first Greek philosophers. Their name comes from the fact
that most of them lived before the birth of Socrates, which was about 469 B.C. The pre-
Socratic philosophers were mainly interested in the nature and source of the universe
and the nature of reality. They wanted to identify the fundamental substance that they
thought underlay all phenomena, and in terms of which all phenomena could be
explained.

Unlike most other people of their time, the pre-Socratic philosophers did not believe that
gods or supernatural forces caused natural events. Instead, they sought a natural
explanation for natural phenomena. The philosophers saw the universe as a set of
connected and unified phenomena for which thought could find an explanation. They
gave many different and conflicting answers to basic philosophic questions. However,
the importance of the pre-Socratics lies not in the truth of their answers but in the fact
that they examined the questions in the first place. They had no philosophic tradition to
work from, but their ideas provided a tradition for all later philosophers.

Socrates left no writings, though he was constantly engaged in philosophic discussion.

Our knowledge of his ideas and methods comes mainly from dialogues written by his
pupil Plato. In most of the dialogues, Socrates appears as the main character, who
leads and develops the process of inquiry.

Socrates lived in Athens and taught in the streets, market place, and gymnasiums. He
taught by a question-and-answer method. Socrates tried to get a definition or precise
view of some abstract idea, such as knowledge, virtue, justice, or wisdom. He would
use close, sharp questioning, constantly asking "What do you mean?" and "How do you
know?" This procedure, called the Socratic method, became the model for philosophic
methods that emphasize debate and discussion.

Socrates wanted to replace vague opinions with clear ideas. He often questioned
important Athenians and exposed their empty claims to knowledge and wisdom. This
practice made him many enemies, and he was put to death as a danger to the state. He
thus became a symbol of the philosopher who pursued an argument wherever it led to
arrive at the truth, no matter what the cost.

Plato believed that we cannot gain knowledge of things through our senses because the
objects of sense perception are fleeting and constantly changing. Plato stated that we
can have genuine knowledge only of changeless things, such as truth, beauty, and
goodness, which are known by the mind. He called such things ideas or forms.

Plato taught that only ideas are real and that all other things only reflect ideas. This view
became known as idealism. According to Plato, the most important idea is the idea of
good. Knowledge of good is the object of all inquiry, a goal to which all other things are
subordinate. Plato stated that the best life is one of contemplation of eternal truths.
However, he believed people who have attained this state must return to the world of
everyday life and use their skills and knowledge to serve humanity. Plato also believed
that the soul is immortal and that only the body perishes at death. His ideas contributed
to views about the body, soul, and eternal things later developed in Christian theology.

Aristotle, Plato's greatest pupil, wrote about almost every known subject of his day. He
invented the idea of a science and of separate sciences, each having distinct principles
and dealing with different subject matter. He wrote on such topics as physics,
astronomy, psychology, biology, physiology, and anatomy. Aristotle also investigated
what he called "first philosophy," later known as metaphysics.

Aristotle created the earliest philosophic system. In his philosophy, all branches of
inquiry and knowledge are parts of some overall system and connected by the same
concepts and principles. Aristotle believed that all things in nature have some
purpose. According to his philosophy, the nature of each thing is determined by its
purpose, and all things seek to fulfill their natures by carrying out these purposes.

Aristotle's basic method of inquiry consisted of starting from what we know or think we
know and then asking how, what, and why. In his metaphysics, he developed the idea
of a first cause, which was not itself caused by anything, as the ultimate explanation of
existence. Christian theologians later adopted this idea as a basic argument for the
existence of God. Aristotle taught that everyone aims at some good. He said that
happiness does not lie in pleasure but in virtuous activity. By virtuous activity, he meant
behaving according to a mean between extremes. For example, courage is the mean
between the extremes of cowardice and foolhardiness. The highest happiness of all,
Aristotle believed, was the contemplative use of the mind.
Stoic Philosophy and Epicureanism were the two main schools of Greek philosophy that
emerged after the death of Aristotle in 322 B.C. Both schools taught that the purpose of
knowing is to enable a person to lead the best and most contented life.

Stoic philosophy was founded by Zeno of Citium. He taught that people should spend
their lives trying to cultivate virtue, the greatest good. The Stoics believed in strict
determinism--the idea that all things are fated to be.Therefore, they said, a wise and
virtuous person accepts and makes the best of what cannot be changed. Stoicism
spread to Rome. There, the chief Stoics included the statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero,
the emperor Marcus Aurelius, and the teacher Epictetus.

Epicureanism was founded by Epicurus. Epicurus based his philosophy on hedonism--

the idea that the only good in life is pleasure. However, Epicurus taught that not all
pleasures are good. The only good pleasures are calm and moderate ones because
extreme pleasures could lead to pain. The highest pleasures, Epicurus said, are
physical health and peace of mind, two kinds of freedom from pain.

Skepticism was a school of philosophy founded by Pyrrho of Elis about the same time
that Stoic philosophy and Epicureanism flourished. Pyrrho taught that we can know
nothing. Our senses, he said, deceive us and provide no accurate knowledge of the way
things are. Thus, all claims to knowledge are false. Because we can know nothing, in
this view, we should treat all things with indifference and make no judgments.

Neoplatonism was a revived version of some of Plato's ideas as adapted by Plotinus, a

philosopher who may have been born in Egypt in the A.D. 200's. Neoplatonism tried to
guide the individual toward a unity--a oneness--with God, which is a state of
blessedness. Plotinus believed that the human soul yearns for reunion with God, which
it can achieve only in mystical experience.Neoplatonism provided the bridge between
Greek philosophy and early Christian philosophy. It inspired the idea that important
truths can be learned only through faith and God's influence, not by reason.

Medieval Philosophy. During the Middle Ages, Western philosophy developed more as
a part of Christian theology than as an independent branch of inquiry. The philosophy of
Greece and Rome survived only in its influence on religious thought.

Saint Augustine was the greatest philosopher of the early Middle Ages. In a book titled
The City of God (early 400's), Augustine interpreted human history as a conflict between
faithful Christians living in the city of God and pagans and heretics living in the city of
the world. Augustine wrote that the people of the city of God will gain eternal salvation,
but the people in the city of the world will receive eternal punishment. The book
weakened the belief in the pagan religion of Rome and helped further the spread of
Christianity.

A system of thought called scholasticism dominated medieval philosophy from about the
1100's to the 1400's. The term scholasticism refers to the method of philosophic
investigation used by teachers of philosophy and theology in the newly developing
universities of western Europe. The teachers were called scholastics. The scholastic
method consisted in precise analysis of concepts with subtle distinctions between
different senses of these concepts. The scholastics used deductive reasoning from
principles established by their method to provide solutions to problems.

Scholasticism was basically generated by the translation of Aristotle's works into Latin,
the language of the medieval Christian church. These works presented medieval
thinkers with the problem of reconciling Aristotle's great body of philosophic thought with
the Bible and Christian doctrine. The most famous scholastic was Saint Thomas
Aquinas. His philosophy combined Aristotle's thought with theology, and it eventually
became the official philosophy of the Roman Catholic Church.

The great contributions of the scholastics to philosophy included major development of

the philosophy of language. The scholastics studied how features of language can
affect our understanding of the world. They also emphasized the importance of logic to
philosophic inquiry.

Modern Philosophy. A great cultural movement in Europe called the Renaissance

overlapped the end of the Middle Ages and formed a transition between medieval and
modern philosophy. The Renaissance began in Italy and lasted from about 1300 to
about 1600. It was a time of intellectual reawakening stemming from the rediscovery of
ancient Greek and Roman culture. During the Renaissance, major advances occurred
in such sciences as astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Scholars called humanists
stressed the importance of human beings and the study of classical literature as a guide
to understanding life. Emphasis on science and on humanism led to changes in the
aims and techniques of philosophic inquiry. Scholasticism declined, and philosophy was
freed of its ties to medieval theology.

One of the earliest philosophers to support the scientific method was Francis Bacon of
England. Most historians consider Bacon and Rene Descartes of France to be the
founders of modern philosophy. Bacon wrote two influential works, The Advancement of
Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620). He stated that knowledge was power and
that knowledge could be obtained only by the inductive method of investigation. Bacon
imagined a new world of culture and leisure that could be gained by inquiry into the laws
and processes of nature. In describing this world, he anticipated the effects of advances
in science, engineering, and technology.

Rationalism was a philosophic outlook that arose in the 1600's. The basic idea of
rationalism is that reason is superior to experience as a source of knowledge and that
the validity of sense perception must be proved from more certain principles. The
rationalists tried to determine the nature of the world and of reality by deduction from
premises themselves established as certain a priori. They also stressed the importance
of mathematical procedures. The leading rationalists were Rene Descartes, Baruch
Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.
Descartes was a mathematician as well as a philosopher. He invented analytic
geometry. Descartes's basic idea was to establish a secure foundation for the sciences,
a foundation of the sort he had found for mathematics. He was thus much concerned
with the foundations of knowledge, and he started philosophy on its persistent
consideration of epistemological problems. Descartes was a mechanist--that is, he
regarded all physical phenomena as connected mechanically by laws of cause and
effect. Descartes's philosophy generated the problem of how mind and matter are
related.

Spinoza constructed a system of philosophy on the model of geometry. He attempted to

derive philosophic conclusions from a few central axioms (supposedly self-evident
truths) and definitions. Spinoza did not view God as some superhuman being who
created the universe. He identified God with the universe. Spinoza was also a
mechanist, regarding everything in the universe as determined. Spinoza's main aim was
ethical. He wanted to show how people could be free, could lead reasonable and thus
satisfying lives, in a deterministic world.

Leibniz believed that the actual world is only one of many possible worlds. He tried to
show how the actual world is the best of all possible worlds in an effort to justify the
ways of God to humanity. Thus, he attempted to solve the problem of how a perfect and
all-powerful God could have created a world filled with so much suffering and evil.
Leibniz and Sir Isaac Newton, an English scientist, independently developed calculus.
Leibniz' work in mathematics anticipated the development of symbolic logic--the use of
mathematical symbols and operations to solve problems in logic.

Empiricism emphasizes the importance of experience and sense perception as the

source and basis of knowledge. The first great empiricist was John Locke of England in
the 1600's. George Berkeley of Ireland and David Hume of Scotland further developed
empiricism in the 1700's.

Locke tried to determine the origin, extent, and certainty of human knowledge in An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). Locke argued that there are no innate
ideas--that is, ideas people are born with. He believed that when a person is born, the
mind is like a blank piece of paper. Experience is therefore the source of all ideas and
all knowledge.

Berkeley dealt with the question "If whatever a human being knows is only an idea, how
can one be sure that there is anything in the world corresponding to that idea?"
Berkeley answered that "to be is to be perceived." No object exists, he said, unless it is
perceived by some mind. Material objects are ideas in the mind and have no
independent existence.

Hume extended the theories of Locke and Berkeley to a consistent skepticism about
almost everything. He maintained that everything in the mind consists of impressions
and ideas, with ideas coming from impressions. Every idea can be traced to and tested
by some earlier impression. According to Hume, we must be able to determine from
what impression we derived an idea for that idea to have meaning. An apparent idea
that cannot be traced to an impression must be meaningless. Hume also raised the
question of how can we know that the future will be like the past--that the laws of nature
will continue to operate as they have. He claimed that we can only know that events
have followed certain patterns in the past. We cannot therefore be certain that events
will continue to follow those patterns.

The Age of Reason was a period of great intellectual activity that began in the 1600's
and lasted until the late 1700's. The period is also called the Enlightenment.
Philosophers of the Age of Reason stressed the use of reason, as opposed to the
reliance on authority and scriptural revelation. For them, reason provided means of
attaining the truth about the world and of ordering human society to assure human well-
being. The leading philosophers included Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. They
also included Jean Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, and other members of a
group of French philosophers called the philosophes.

Locke's philosophic ideas were characteristic of the Age of Reason. Locke sought to
determine the limits of human understanding and to discover what can be known within
those limits that will serve as a guide to life and conduct. He tried to show that people
should live by the principles of toleration, liberty, and natural rights. His Two Treatises of
Government (1690) provided the philosophic base for the Revolutionary War in America
and the French Revolution in the late 1700's.

The Philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a great German philosopher of the late 1700's,
became the foundation for nearly all later developments in philosophy. Kant's
philosophy is called critical philosophy or transcendental philosophy. Kant was
stimulated by the skeptical philosophy of Hume to try to bring about a synthesis of
rationalism and empiricism. In his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), Kant tried to provide
a critical account of the powers and limits of human reason, to determine what is
knowable and what is unknowable. Kant concluded that reason can provide knowledge
only of things as they appear to us, never of things as they are in themselves. Kant
believed that the mind plays an active role in knowing and is not a mere recorder of
facts presented by the senses. The mind does this through basic categories or forms of
understanding, which are independent of experience and without which our experience
would not make sense. Through such categories and the operations of the mind,
working on sense experience, we can have knowledge, but only of things that can be
experienced.

Kant criticized the traditional arguments for the existence of God. He argued that they
are all in error because they make claims that go beyond the possibility of experience
and thus go beyond the powers of human reason. In his Critique of Practical Reason
(1788), Kant argued that practical reason (reason applied to practice) can show us how
we ought to act and also provides a practical reason for believing in God, though not a
proof that God exists.
Philosophy in the 1800's. Kant's philosophy stimulated various systems of thought in the
1800's, such as those of G. W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx of Germany. Hegel developed a
theory of historical change called dialectic, in which the conflict of opposites results in
the creation of a new unity and then its opposite. Hegel's theory was transformed by
Marx into dialectical materialism. Marx believed that only material things are real. He
stated that all ideas are built on an economic base. He believed that the dialectic of
conflict between capitalists and industrial workers will lead to the establishment of
communism, which he called socialism, as an economic and political system.

Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher, was an atheist who proclaimed in Thus

Spake Zarathustra (1883-1885) that "God is dead." Nietzsche meant that the idea of
God had lost the power to motivate and discipline large masses of people. He believed
that people would have to look to some other idea to guide their lives. Nietzsche
predicted the evolution of the superman, who would be beyond the weakness of human
beings and beyond the merely human appeals to morality. He regarded such appeals
as appeals to weakness, not strength. He felt that all behavior is based on the will to
power--the desire of people to control others and their own passions. The superman
would develop a new kind of perfection and excellence through the capacity to realize
the will to power through strength, rather than weakness.

The dominant philosophy in England during the 1800's was utilitarianism, developed by
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The utilitarians maintained that the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people is the test of right and wrong. They argued
that all existing social institutions, especially law and government, must be transformed
to satisfy the test of greatest happiness. In The Subjection of Women (1869), Mill wrote
that the legal subordination of women to men ought to be replaced by "a principle of
perfect equality." That idea was revolutionary in Mill's time.

Philosophy in the 1900's has seen five main movements predominate. Two of these
movements, existentialism and phenomenology, have had their greatest influence in the
countries on the mainland of western Europe. The three other movements, pragmatism,
logical positivism, and philosophical analysis, have been influential chiefly in the United
States and Great Britain.

Existentialism became influential in the mid-1900's. World War II (1939-1945) gave rise
to widespread feelings of despair and of separation from the established order. These
feelings led to the idea that people have to create their own values in a world in which
traditional values no longer govern. Existentialism insists that choices have to be made
arbitrarily by individuals, who thus create themselves, because there are no objective
standards to determine choice. The most famous of the existentialist philosophers is the
French author Jean-Paul Sartre.

Phenomenology was developed by the German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Husserl

conceived the task of phenomenology, hence the task of philosophy, as describing
phenomena--the objects of experience--accurately and independently of all
 assumptions derived from science. He thought that this activity would provide
philosophic knowledge of reality.

Pragmatism, represented in the 1900's by William James and John Dewey of the United
States, maintains knowledge is subordinate to action. The meaning and truth of ideas
are determined by their relation to practice.

Logical positivism, developed in Vienna, Austria, in the 1920's, believes philosophy

should analyze the logic of the language of science. It regards science as the only
source of knowledge and claims metaphysics is meaningless. It bases this claim on the
principle of verifiability, by which a statement is meaningful only if it can be verified by
sense experience.

Philosophical analysis generally tries to solve philosophic problems through analysis of

language or concepts. Some versions of this philosophy attempt to show that traditional
philosophic problems dissolve--that is, disappear--on proper analysis of the terms in
which they are expressed. Other versions use linguistic analysis to throw light on, not
dissolve, traditional philosophic problems. The most influential philosophers practicing
philosophic analysis have been Bertrand Russell of England and Ludwig Wittgenstein,
who was born in Austria but studied and taught in England.

Why Study Philosophy?

“It is not enough to have a good mind. The main thing is to use it well.” - Rene Descartes

Here’s what some of our students have said about why they study philosophy:

 “It’s important to learn about genetics, but it is more important to learn to think. Philosophy makes me think!”
 “Philosophy courses give you more than just knowledge of the world; they give you a deep understanding of
how the world works, even how it should work.”
 “Majoring in philosophy makes me a better thinker and a more well-rounded person.”
 “My philosophy senior thesis was not only the best part of my Lehigh experience, but it has helped me
tremendously throughout law school and my life.”
 “Studying philosophy, I learned to analyze closely and critically, to question thoroughly, and to write and think
rigorously. My philosophy skills has made me more valuable to prospective employers and graduate schools.”

Top Five Reasons to Study Philosophy

1. Fascinating subject matter
2. Wide variety of interesting classes taught by outstanding professors
3. Skill development
 4. Great preparation for any career or graduate study
5. Personal development

1. Fascinating subject matter

Philosophy seeks not simply knowledge, but deep understanding and wisdom.

Philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand themselves, the world they lie in, and
the relations to the world and each other. Those who study philosophy are engaged in asking, answering,
evaluating, and reasoning about some of life’s most basic, meaningful, and difficult questions, such as:

 What is it to be a human?
 What is the human mind?
 Are we responsible for what we do, or are we just helpless victims of our genes, environment, and upbringing?
 Is there a God?
 What is the best sort of life to live?
 What is happiness? Can we hope to attain it? Is it what matters most in life? Can bad people be truly happy?
 How should we balance our own desires, needs, and rights against those of others individuals? against those of
future generations? animals?
 What kind of person is it good to be?
 What sorts of political institutions are best?
 What do we know and how do we know it?
 What is truth? Is anything true? How can we tell?
 What is art? What is beauty? Does art have to be beautiful to be good?
 Can we justify our judgments about the merits of a film, a book, a painting, a poem?
 What is it for one thing to cause another thing to happen?
 Is there a scientific method?
 How do words come to have meaning?
 Do mathematical objects exist?
 What is time? Is time really real?

In studying philosophy, you’ll have a chance to grapple with these questions yourself and to think about what
others—some of the greatest philosophers of the past and present, as well as your fellow students—think about
them.

2. A wide variety of interesting courses taught by outstanding professors.

There are philosophy courses that address moral issues, others that focus on the nature of science and
technology, many that explore some of the most important philosophical works written across the history of
Western civilization and others that introduce great thinkers of Eastern philosophy, courses for those who are
 interested in mathematics and logic or politics and societies or religion or knowledge or the human mind or the
nature of reality.

Some of the courses are broad survey courses, others are in-depth studies of particular issues, texts, or
philosophers. Most philosophy classes above the 0-level are small and involve lots of discussion and writing.

Philosophy professors are dedicated teachers who are experts in their fields and who are genuinely interested
in helping students to develop their understanding and skills. Our professors have won teaching awards and
consistently earn high ratings on student evaluations.

3. Skill development
Far from being an abstract and useless field, philosophy is among the most practical courses of study. Taking
philosophy courses imparts skills that will be useful not only in any career but also in your personal life. The
study of philosophy will enable you to think carefully, critically, and with clarity, take a logical approach to
addressing challenging questions and examining hard issues, reason well and evaluate the reasoning of others,
discuss sensibly, and write effectively.

In philosophy courses you can expect to

 enhance your problem-solving capacities, your ability to organize ideas and issues, and your ability to
distinguish what is essential from what is not;
 become better able to look at things from a variety of perspectives, to understand different viewpoints, and to
discover common ground among them;
 learn how to critically examine your own views as well as those of others;
 develop your ability to understand and explain difficult material;
 learn how to distinguish good reasoning from attempts to manipulate opinions, to construct sound complex
arguments, and to evaluate others’ reasoning;
 develop good interpretive, comparative, argumentative, analytical, and descriptive writing skills that will allow
you to communicate your ideas in a clear and powerful way.

Philosophy develops intellectual abilities important for life as a whole, beyond the knowledge and skills
required for any particular profession…It enhances analytical, critical, and interpretive capacities that are
applicable to any subject matter and in any human context”
- The American Philosophical Association

4. Great preparation for any career or graduate study

Most students of philosophy don’t go on to become philosophy professors. But they do go on to get good jobs
in a wide range of fields, including law, medicine, business, education, journalism, public policy, government,
religion, communication fields, public relations, retail management, social service, and many more.

Heading for a career in the business world? The skills you can develop though the study of philosophy are just
those that employers are looking for. And philosophy majors earn high mid-career salaries. Don’t take our
word for here; check out these news stories:

What is the practical value of studying philosophy?

Perhaps the chief practical reason to study philosophy is to acquire a very valuable set of
skills. Philosophy is not just learning what other philosophers have thought. In philosophy the student
becomes the active inquirer, thinker, and solver of problems and not just a passive learner who
memorizes ideas. Philosophy develops skills of critical and moral thinking, argumentation, information
management, research, communication, abstract reasoning, and analytic and synthetic thinking.

Students of philosophy also learn to identify important fundamental questions about themselves and their
world through the process of clear, critical thinking and argumentation.

The Importance of Philosophy or

“Why Should I Take Philosophy?”
Dave Yount, Ph.D.
Once someone who does not know me well comes to find out that I am a
philosopher, the next question that he or she inevitably asks is, “What can you do with
philosophy besides teach?” My answer is and has been, “You can think, and
hopefully better.” Part of philosophy is critical thinking, which is the ability to
question your (or anyone else’s) assumptions, discover and hopefully articulate good
reasons for your position, no matter what your position is. Everyone has a position on
every issue, even if it is, “I don’t know.” One can then ask this person, “Why do you
not know? Should you have a view on this issue?” Even if your view is that some
issue does not matter, you must defend that view against the person who does think
that that issue matters. And defending your view requires the ability to use your
reason (which of course is thinking) in order to discover what good or bad reasons are
and the best support for your position.
Philosophy can be used to help convince people that you are right, and
(sometimes, when it’s done correctly, and depending on your opponent’s view) that
they are wrong. For example, if you want a raise from your boss, if you know what
good reasons are, such as increasing the sales of the company, the quality of the
product, the efficiency of the company, etc., and how to show the way in which these
elements are vital to the company’s well-being, you would stand a better chance of
getting a raise than if you were to argue with your boss using bad reasons, such
as: “My poor family cannot live on my salary alone, and I really need to have more
money” or “If you don’t give me a raise, I’m going to quit and take my friends with
me.” The reason the first appeal (about your poor family) is a bad one, is that it is an
appeal to pity or emotion, and if you haven’t benefited the company lately, then it
doesn’t really matter if your family is going hungry – it is not the company’s
responsibility to feed your family (it’s yours). The second appeal (“I’m quitting”) is
an appeal to force. The company should not give you a raise out of fear because
you’re threatening it; the company should give you a raise because your work merits
it. In short, if you have a job (are looking for one, or even if you do not), philosophy
can help you argue well for your position. And in order to be able to argue well for
your position, you need to think.
As just one of its many specializations, philosophy contains the study of
ethics, which is the study of happiness and how best to attain it (or indeed if and how
that is possible). The main questions of ethics are “What is happiness?” and “How
should I live?” There are, as you might guess, many and varied answers to these
questions. I would guess that every single person is, and should be, interested in
whether we can be happy, what happiness is, and how we can act so as to obtain
happiness (assuming it exists). Everyone should be interested to know what the
philosophers of the West and East have said about happiness and how best to attain
it. The answers range from “true happiness is not attainable in this lifetime” to
“happiness is a state of mind” or “happiness is an activity” and so on. You may not
think that any or all of these views of happiness are correct, but you might be able to
put another theory together using your favorite parts of some of the extant ones. It is
worth finding out if someone has already articulated the right theory, or whether you
can improve on an existing theory, since nothing less than your current and future
happiness may be riding on your view of happiness.
Someone might say that philosophy is only concerned with questions that no
one can answer, and that the sciences and other disciplines have more answers that are
provable and concrete. Why beat your head against a wall that will never come down,
as it were? My response is threefold:
First, in ancient times, as Bertrand Russell has pointed out in “The Value of
Philosophy,” philosophy included the study of mathematics, geometry, physics,
biology, cosmology, astronomy, political science, sociology, and psychology, in
addition to the traditional sub-philosophic disciplines of logic, axiology (such as
ethics), aesthetics, philosophy of language, metaphysics and epistemology. With
regard to this point, Russell argues, as the disciplines of mathematics and biology
discovered provable facts, these disciplines were cleaved off from the purview of
philosophy and made to stand on their own as separate disciplines, while philosophy
was left with the seemingly unanswerable questions (p. 26 of Louis Pojman's Introduction
to Philosophy, 3rd ed., Oxford UP, 2004). So the first response is that philosophy would
have had some more answers, if it were not for these divisions that were made
throughout history (for example, psychology was relatively recently separated from
philosophy around 1900).
Second (and this is my point), has every other discipline solved all the
questions and problems in their respective areas of expertise? If every answer was
available in every discipline other than philosophy, we should expect to find no
research going on at any universities or private companies. But there are myriad
research projects going on in medicine, physics, psychology, astronomy, etc. Here is
a smattering of questions that remain to be answered or are still debated these days in
disciplines other than philosophy: (1) Medicine: The cures for the common cold,
cancer, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease, AIDS, and thousands of other diseases; (2)
Physics: What light exactly is (both a wave and a photon) and the essence of gravity;
(3) Biology: How the brain works, and how a cat purrs; (4) Psychology: How does
the experience of consciousness arise from biochemical reactions? (5)
Sociology: What makes a group of people want to follow someone like Osama bin
Laden or Hitler? You get the idea. What’s my point? Every other discipline other
than philosophy, though it has some answers, does not have all the answers relevant to
its study. Philosophy may have fewer answers, but it asks tougher questions, in
general. Philosophy can help us eliminate some bad explanations, by examining the
possible answers for solid reasoning, and helping us to cut through and reject bad
assumptions. These lifelong skills are helpful no matter what one does for a living.
Third, there are many answers that have already been proposed to philosophical
questions such as, “Is there a God” “What is real?” “What can we know?” In fact, if
you study the answers, you will get the impression that almost every general answer
has been proposed. For example, we either have a soul or we do not have a soul and
both positions have been supported. So it is theoretically possible, that some
philosopher(s) has obtained or expressed the correct answers, but that we are too
argumentative, close-minded, or something else not to accept his or her answer. So it
is possible that the “answer” to some philosophical questions has already been given
but we’re not able to see or understand that for ourselves. An intriguing possibility,
no?
On the assumption that you cannot have all the answers in philosophy, what
are you left with (or as academics would say, ‘with what are you left’)? You are left
with your reason, your ability to think, and the challenge to come up with answers to
ethical, metaphysical, and/or epistemological questions where such answers are
consistent, convincing, and rational. For example, if someone holds that the death
penalty is morally permissible because he based his view on a coin flip or because that
is simply how he was raised, and another person holds that the death penalty is
morally permissible after having researched both sides, and discussing her position
with others and answering objections against her position, the latter person has a much
more supportable and plausible position (which is not to say that her view is
necessarily correct) than the former.
 Where practitioners of other disciplines have the comfort (as I would put it) of
being able to carry on their work while making plenty of assumptions without having
to even acknowledge that these assumptions exist, let alone to prove their correctness,
philosophers must both recognize and justify their assumptions in order to be worthy
of the name. This is arguably what makes philosophy more challenging than other
disciplines. The more you ask the question, “Why?” in any discipline, say in business
or astronomy, the more you are asking philosophical questions and the more you will
be directed to the study of philosophy. Dr. Barry Vaughan of Mesa Community
College claims that traditionally there have only been three higher degrees
given: Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Law, and Doctor of Philosophy. Even
physicists are awarded a Doctorate of Philosophy (specializing) in physics, for
instance. So philosophy seems to be the basis of all academic pursuits (where
medicine and law are non-academic practices, aimed at a specific practical purpose of
maintaining or preserving health, and administering justice, respectively).
It is well-documented (and true) that majoring in philosophy can prepare
someone well for law school, business school, or graduate school in general, since
philosophy majors as a group score in the highest percentiles on the GRE, LSAT and
GMAT. Besides providing excellent preparation for a career in law and business, a
philosophy major is also helpful for careers in journalism, other areas of publishing,
government, academic appointments in universities, colleges, and high schools,
professional and clinical ethics consulting in hospitals and in businesses, and
consulting positions in government with respect to ethical and political issues and the
development of public policy. [Please see this link for a long list of non-philosophy
careers and explanations as to how the PHI major helps one succeed in that
career.] I, for instance, found my philosophical skills invaluable in solving quality
problems while working as a quality manager, and in developing a quality system for
my father’s company. [Also, see "I Think, Therefore I Earn" for why philosophy grads
are sought by employers in general, and "Why Future Business Leaders Need
Philosophy".]
I will close with two quotations, the first of which comes from the American
Philosophical Association’s 1992 publication entitled, “The Philosophy Major:”

The study of philosophy serves to develop intellectual abilities important for

life as a whole, beyond the knowledge and skills required for any particular
profession. Properly pursued, it enhances analytical, critical, and interpretive
capacities that are applicable to any subject-matter, and in any human
context. It cultivates the capacities and appetite for self-expression and
reflection, for exchange and debate of ideas, for life-long learning, and for
dealing with problems for which there are no easy answers. It also helps to
prepare one for the tasks of citizenship. Participation in political and
community affairs today is all too often insufficiently
 informed, manipulable and vulnerable to demagoguery. A good philosophical
education enhances the capacity to participate responsibly and intelligently in
public life. (http://www.philosophy.umn.edu/undergrad/ugfaq.html)

Second, Dr. George James, from the University of North Texas, warns that philosophy
is not for everyone:

It’s not for persons who have no interest in asking deeper questions. At the end
of a lifetime of philosophizing one great philosopher made the claim that the
unexamined life is not worth living [Socrates]. Many people don’t believe
that. Some people don’t even care to raise the question. Philosophy very
simply is not for them. Philosophy is not for followers. If all you want is to get
a job and a paycheck, if all you want is to spend as little time and effort at that
job as you can and still get paid for it, then philosophy is not for
you. Philosophy is not training. It’s education! It’s for persons who want to
understand, who want not just to live, but to live well [Socrates]. It is for
persons who simply could never be happy without asking why. (Adapted from
Dr. George James’ text, originally from http://www.phil.unt.edu/philtalk.htm, now
defunct.)

So take some philosophy courses, ask “Why?” and attempt to figure out what life is
all about, while examining “life, the universe, and everything” ( From Douglas
Adams’ Life, the Universe, and Everything, Ch. 32).

There is but one coward on earth, and that is the coward that dare not know.
~ W.E.B. DuBois

Why Every Student Should Study Philosophy

Many students (or parents) ask the practical question: What can you do with philosophy? Our answer here at UNC Charlotte is
that you can do anything with philosophy that you can do without it, but with philosophy you can do anything better. Here's why.

A philosophy major is perfect by itself because you can learn critical thinking skills and also reflect on big questions in life - in
ethics, religion, aesthetics, politics and other valuble subjects.The history of philosophy is a record of people's attempts to
combine these skills and questions in hopes of obtaining some answers. Majoring in philosophy is a chance to enter into
conversations with these philosophers and your fellow students with shared interests in philosophy's relevance to today's global
world.

This combined critical/value course of study is also an invaluable addition to any other field, which is why so many philosophy
students are double majors. Which other fields? Almost any other. If you look at the testimonials at the bottom of this page, for
example you'll see how dozens of UNC Charlotte faculty in all sorts of disciplines studied philosophy earlier in their lives and
now think that philosophy was vital to their successes. They come from biology, psychology, physics, English and many other
subjects and what they all have in common is an appreciation for the value of philosophy.

Another, more professional reason why you should all study philosophy is that it provides perfect preparation for the entrance
exams required for law, medicine, business, computer science, or engineering schools, or graduate school in the humanities.
Proof of this is that philosophy majors perform among the top 10, often top 5, on most of the exams such as LSAT, MCAT, GRE
and the like. So you don't have to become a doctor of philosophy (a Ph.D) but you can become an ethical lawyer, or an engineer
or computer scientist who has better understanding of the world. The combinations are limited only by your imagination.

But why do philosophy majors perform so well on these tests? Well, most if not all have the basic breakdown between math and
verbal skills. You'll certainly do well in math if you're a math major or well in English if that is your field. But philosophy offers
math skills through logic and critical thinking, plus verbal skills because writing and discussing are vital to the study of
philosophy. In short, philosophy offers you a unique combination of critical thinking and writing skills useful in almost any
profession, starting with the entrance exams.

So, whether you want to read classic or contemporary philosophers because you've moved by value questions or recognize the
importance of critical thinking regardless of you other major, you should still consider becoming a philosophy major. You have
the option of having a traditional or applied concentration, depending upon whether you are interested in more historical or
applied issues- its philosophy either way.

Please come to visit us in WINNINGHAM 103, if you are interested in becoming a philosophy major or minor. It'll change your
life--academic and personal.

Michael Kelly, Professor of Philosophy

Department of Philosophy
University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Testimonials about Philosophy

By Department or Schools of Respondents

We asked the faculty and staff at UNC Charlotte to answer two questions about the value of philosophy in their careers:

1) Did you study philosophy as an undergraduate (major or minor) or graduate student?

2) If your experience was positive, how did your study of philosophy contribute to subsequent success in your current field,
whether you’re a Librarian or a Biologist or a Dean or an Artist, or, as they say, whatever?

So far, we have received responses from individuals in the following departments and schools:

Art History
"I avoided Philosophy classes as an undergraduate at Kenyon College because I heard they were difficult and I was afraid. The
very few Philosophy students I knew also seemed irritatingly analytical and rather humorless, which didn’t help the situation.
However, I have regretted this decision ever since because philosophy has been a constant refrain in my subsequent life as
worker, parent, art historian, and general citizen. I have worked hard to learn some necessary philosophical issues and histories
on my own and in graduate school, but wish I had taken at least a couple of classes as an undergraduate to ground me and
acquaint me more deeply with theories that still reverberate in our lives today. Problem is, until you actually study philosophy,
you often “don’t get” just how applicable it is to current life."

--Lili Corbus Bezner, Former Associate Professor of Art History

Business

"Actually, [studying philosophy] has become very important because I often have to delve into issues such as ontology and
epistemology to discuss issues of information and knowledge in strategic management. My work seeks to inform managers about
how to assess their external environment, and how to deal with the information overload around them. As it turns out, you have
to get back to basics, i.e, "What is reality? What is important about reality? How can I know these things? " I doubt there is any
study in the social sciences that does not take for granted that the researcher has adopted a particular philosophical platform, but
it is vital that the researcher knows what that platform is."

--Frances Fabian, Belk College of Business

Criminal Justice

"My exposure to Philosophy throughout my education was quite positive. It has helped me enormously in my practical and
intellectual pursuits. Perhaps most especially, it enabled me to understand the importance of critical thinking, systematic
reasoning, and sound argumentation. This includes examining such human social issues/problems as crime, homelessness, mental
illness, the death penalty, chemical dependency, and poverty."

--Bruce Arrigo, Department of Criminal Justice

Education

"I am an associate professor in the Department of Education Leadership in the College of Education. I have a juris doctorate and
have practiced law for over ten years before joining UNC Charlotte. I was a political science major as an undergraduate at UNC
Chapel Hill and took philosophy courses.These courses have been invaluable in thinking about laws as one element of society
and the possibilities and limits of laws in expressing core beliefs. I also am a mother. I thought about Kant yesterday when my
child shared with me his school's fundraising campaign that lures students into participating, not because of the good of the
charity, but in order to win prizes."

--Ann McColl, Department of Education

Information Technology

"I’ve often thought that one of the very best justifications for going to college is not that it makes you smarter, but it teaches you
to think. Think critically, think outside the box, think about the process of thinking. I don’t think college will really make
someone smarter, but it may help a smart person take better advantage of their intellectual gifts, and philosophy is one of the
better disciplines at helping people make that transition."

--Jeff Rabon, UNC Charlotte College of Information Technology

Finance (Business)

"Many academic majors equip students with a particular set of skills that can be applied in particular types of professions. For
instance, engineering programs produce engineers; business disciplines produce managers, financial analysts, and accountants;
education departments produce teachers. In contrast, philosophy is a more of a “meta-discipline.” The student of philosophy
learns how to think about complicated issues, to understand enigmatic problems, and to formulate and articulate cogent
arguments. In short, the end product of studying philosophy is wisdom, which is applicable in any field.

I am a financial economist. Economics is generally considered a mathematical science since economic issues are examined using
quantitative techniques. Yet economic models ultimately describe social phenomena. Abstraction from the social system to the
mathematical model, as well as interpretation of the model’s results in terms of the underlying social system, are both usually
explained and justified rhetorically. The ability to construct persuasive verbal arguments is just one of the dividends from
studying philosophy."

--Steven P. Clark, Ph.D., Department of Finance and Business Law

Management

"I studied ethics as an undergraduate; the writing and debating I did in that course sharpened my analytic skills generally that
have served me well for the past 30 plus years. And though I had never anticipated I'd be so doing, before my leave of absence, I
was teaching Ethics in the Business School. I continue to draw on philosophy in that course and attempt to demonstrate to
students that certain business positions are based on certain philosophical principles that often contradict one another and that
understanding the underlying philosophies of different business practices help shape behavior within organizations. There is a
certain intellectual discipline that comes from studying philosophy that I did not appreciate as an undergraduate but certainly
have come to appreciate. I actually wish I'd studied it more than I did. I was, however, seduced by the apparent power of data and
the scientific method."

--Beth A. Rubin, Professor, Depts. of Management and Sociology

Psychology

"My education in philosophy serves as an important foundation for almost everything I do in my profession. The roots of science
and more specifically in my case, psychology, are in philosophy. As a health psychologist, decisions about health practices beg
for philosophical discourse. And now I am teaching a course on professional ethics to our clinical psychology students, which I
could not do without understanding philosophy. In the complicated world where health and human behavior interact, having the
ability to engage in philosophical reflection is essential to conducting excellent scientific inquiry and effective clinical practice."

--Arthur W. Blume, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Director, Health Psychology Program

Why is philosophy important?

Many people today would say that philosophy is useless in our scientific world, yet nothing can
be further from the truth. If anything, we need philosophy now more than ever.
We are awash in an ever growing sea of knowledge, but what does it all mean? Is there an
underlying order or meaning? Science is very good about finding out the “how,” but it is not
equipped to explain the “why.” There is a void–a gaping chasm that religion traditionally fills but
which a significant number of people reject. Is there no alternative? Philosophy can bridge the
gap. Science provides the instruments, but philosophy is the symphony. Because I cannot
improve upon his words, here again is my good friend, Will Durant:

“Science tells us how to heal and how to kill; it reduces the death rate in retail and then kills us
wholesale in war; but only wisdom…can tell us when to heal and when to kill…[B]ecause in
these days our means and instruments have multiplied beyond our interpretation and synthesis of
ideals and ends, our life is full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. Science gives us
knowledge, but only philosophy can give us wisdom.” The Story of Philosophy, p xxvii
Philosophy can also help people makes important decisions about the use of new technology
such as bioengineering, stem cells, etc. Many people turn to religion seeking guidance, but there
may come a time when religion can no longer provide adequate answers since religious texts
were never meant to be tech guides. Philosophy may prove to be a more helpful guide since
philosophy grows organically with new knowledge while religion tends to be more tied to the
past.

Philosophy is also a strong foundation on which to build important personal things such as
career, faith, and relationships.
Alain de Botton produced a wonderful video series, based on his book, which explores how the
lives of six prominent philosophers to show philosophy can help people live more purposeful and
fulfilled lives. If you have time, check out the first video below about Socrates.

Why Philosophy Is Important

Maarten Maartensz

· 1. Introduction

· 2. Reasons why philosophy is important

· 3. Philosophical problems

· 4. Ideology, religion and philosophy

· 5. The study of philosophy

1. Introduction:

Why should a human being be interested in philosophy? Isn't philosophy fit for fools only, or
isn't it a merely academic trifling and hairsplitting in search of unobtainable knowledge?

Or isn't philosophy mostly a set of false illusions from the past - sophistries designed to
comfort one's desires by wishful thinking and presumption - that these days have been
replaced by science and mathematics?

I can be fairly brief about why philosophy ought to be studied in some sense and why the
opinion that it is useless trifling, hair-splitting or in search of unobtainable knowledge is
inappropriate. TOP

2. Reasons why philosophy is important:

1. All human beings orient their lives around ideas about what reality is like, that
they believe explain their experiences, and ideas about what reality and
human beings should be like, that they use to guide their behaviour. The first
of these kinds of ideas is a metaphysical theory, the second an ethical or
moral theory.
2. Human beings seem to need metaphysical and moral ideas because they are
not born with instincts that determine for them what they should think and
want, and are born with the capacities to make up their own minds and to
question any belief they have or meet.
3. It is evident that most of the ideas in history that people have used to explain
human experiences have been false or unfounded in many respects, and it is
also evident that most of the ideas in history or direct human behaviour have
been harmful to other human beings or to themselves.
4. On the other hand, it is also evident that whatever adequate understanding
people have of themselves, of others, and of their environments and
possibilities, is based on the asking and answering of the type of general
questions that are philosophical and scientific, and that there seems to be no
way of being human without trying to ask and answer such questions.
5. All ideas about philosophy or science, including those that ridicule or condemn
philosophy or science, are themselves philosophical ideas, and such as
declare all philosophy useless, trifling, or impossible are little better than a
refusal to do any serious philosophical or scientific reasoning.
6. The ideas people live and die for, go to war for and kill each other for, or let
themselves be inspired to the making of great art or science, are all
philosophical ideas.

The lives people lead and the choices they make are the result of the philosophies they
hold, whether they are conscious of this fact or not.

Much of the history of the 20th century - "The Century of Total War", in Raymond Aron's apt
phrase, which is the title of one of his books - is the more or less direct product of a small
number of philosophical ideas and the philosophers who made them up: Marxism ruled the
lives of more than a 1000 million people; Fascism destroyed the lives of millions of people
and caused a World War; both Marxism and Fascism were opposed by men in the name of
Liberalism, Democracy, Catholicism, Protestantism, or Science, each of which are
themselves either specific philosophies or derived from more comprehensive philosophical
systems.

While men like Marx and Nietzsche in their own lives may be regarded as unsuccessful, their
ideas and values, or rather what was made of these by their self-proclaimed followers, have
in the 20th century created and destroyed civilizations and the lives of millions of human
beings. TOP

3. Philosophical problems:

More specifically, philosophy is concerned with such problems as raised by:

 logic: what are the foundations and principles of sound reasoning

 science: what are the foundations of our scientific and technological
knowledge
 language: what does language have to do with human thought
 meaning: what is meaning and how do we succeed in representing one thing
by another
 ethics: what are the foundations of the judgments that acts or the men who
commit them are good or bad, and in what sense are such judgments true or
different from mere matters of taste
 aesthetics: what makes beautiful things appear beautiful or ugly, and what
is the use of having an aesthetical capacity
 self: whether there is a self, and if so, what it is and what is its foundation,
or, if not, what is the reason for this popular delusion
 free will: whether human beings are in any sense free to act as they please
and responsible for the consequences, or only determined to falsely believe
they are free to believe as they please
 death: whether death indeed is final, what is the point of fearing something
one will never experience, and whether there is anything else than self-
contradiction in the belief in a life or a judgment after death
 happiness: what is happiness; how does one find it; and why should one
look for it, especially if everyone seems naturally to know what feels good and
what does not feel good
 the good life: what a human individual should and should not do, believe
and desire to lead a good life
 the good society: what relations between human individuals contribute to
the good life

That many of the questions properly raised within philosophy so-called in earlier days are
now raised and answered by special sciences is true - and changes nothing about the fact
that human beings are such as to lead themselves by general ideas and values, and that
one of the tasks that remains philosophical, however many of earlier philosophical questions
have now turned into problems of some specific science, is to try to integrate whatever
specialized knowledge different sciences produce into one comprehensive view of reality and
humanity. TOP
4. Ideology, religion and philosophy:

Philosophy, or more precisely, philosophy's everyday appearance, which is a political or

religious ideology, guides and misguides the lives of human beings, and every human being
meets daily with many philosophical ideas, and makes or avoids many of his daily choices
by appealing to and relying on philosophical considerations.

Literally millions of people have been murdered in this century and other millions of people
have been sent to concentration camps for what were, in the end, crude philosophical ideas
(of the Marxist or Fascist variety, often).

All supposedly 'practical' men, whether they did the killing in the name of a philosophy or
were the victims of men acting out a philosophy or stood at the side gawking while
declaring all philosophy useless or nonsense, were as philosophical - in the sense of being
moved by general arguments about what the world is and should be and how human beings
should behave - as any man, except that these supposedly 'practical' men were less
conscious of that fact.

In any case, it is an illusion to believe that philosophy only pertains to the goods of the
mind or only is of importance to a few intellectually gifted and curious individuals:

 whatever happens in society and whatever human beings consciously do and

do not do to others and for themselves is based on general ideas and values
that are very properly speaking philosophical, and this has been so since
human beings started to think.

And part of the reason is that all men need to answer the questions what there really is,
what they should and should not do, and why they believe they know things. These
questions cannot be answered by any special science, and must be somehow answered by
all human beings.

Also, it is important to recognize that the philosophies that influenced much of the history of
the 20th Century, Socialism and Fascism, were - at least in practice - dangerous delusions,
and that indeed the same holds for religions, that tend to be beliefs that are held in
irrational and fanatical ways, and tend to be very dangerous for those of a different belief.
(This last fact should give people pause who believe in an all powerful and benevolent deity.
It seems to me that the most a believer in God is entitled to claim, within reason, if this is
possible, is that he believes in something that is totally beyond human understanding.)

TOP

5. The study of philosophy:

In general terms, philosophy aims at a way of life, namely one based on reason based on
natural and moral knowledge.
The value of philosophy is the scope and clarity of mind it provides, especially as regards
the fundamental general questions every human being somehow must answer, if only by
tacit and blind consent to previous answers. (Likewise, the value of any specific science is
the scope and clarity of mind it provides as regards the special questions the science aims
to answer.)

Although the foundation of all things human is the individual human mind, human beings
live, develop and die in cultures and civilizations: 'the human mind' is the coordinated
product of the ideas human minds have produced in the past, and many of the questions no
human individual can reasonably hope to solve himself can be solved by the efforts of many
individuals through the course of time.

My case for philosophical contemplation is simply that it aims at answering the questions
that lie at the foundation of all societies and all human communication and interaction, and
that all human beings must answer in some fashion, if only by unthinkingly following
someone else's philosophy of life.

If all men and women must philosophize, simply because they are human beings, who need
to make up their own minds on all manner of questions of belief, desire and action simpler
animals have instincts for, should one study philosophy academically and seriously?

I would not recommend its academic study to anyone (other than as an adjunct to a serious
scientific study) for by and large academic philosophy is related to philosophy as is literary
criticism to literature: as the oldest professionals are to real love.

Real philosophers have rarely been of the type of a modern academic, and doing real
philosophy is difficult and normally unrewarding: philosophers are apt to find fault in many
human endeavors, and to get into trouble with others for that reason.

Indeed, many of the persons known to later times as great philosophers, were, in their own
time, persecuted, discriminated, killed, or removed from society. This applies i.a. to
Heraclite, Buddha, Socrates, Aristotle, Epicure, Lucretius, Abelard, Bacon, Ockham, Galileo,
Descartes, Spinoza, Hume, Rousseau, Marx, Nietzsche, Peirce and Russell, to name some.

The great philosophers have been the creators of the ideas and values many people
oriented their lives around, but during their own lives they were generally silent or in
trouble, for they dared to say what their contemporaries did not want to hear, to discuss
what they did not want to face, and to study and write what very few took interest in or
understood. TOP

Link to: Natural Philosophy and Natural Realism

Colophon: This is a somewhat rewritten version of my remarks to Russell's chapter 15 of his

Problems of Philosophy.
It has been last revised on Jan 28, 2014. The original version, that differs little, is from
1998.
 This is a good question. It is best to start with a definition of philosophy. The word
philosophy comes from the Greek, which literally means the love of wisdom. So, true
philosophy is to love wisdom, grow in wisdom, and apply this wisdom in the context of
school (your case), and work. When you do this, you will become a better person. There are
two reasons for this. When you love wisdom, then you tend to use your mind more. When
you do this, you will be able to make better decisions, rational decisions, rather than
decisions based on fear, anger or pain. Secondly, wisdom will enable you to see through
the many false things in our world, such as materialism, sexism, and a whole host of other
lies. Based on these points, philosophy will even help you in the area of occupational
therapy, because it will teach you to work hard and be fair.

1.

2.

6:21 PM

The Importance of Philosophy for Education

www.birmingham.ac.uk

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What is the importance of philosophy in your life and how do you apply it at work, such as in occupational... -

Homework Help - eNotes.com

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THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY: AN INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS TO STUDENTS, EDUCATORS, AND

PRACTITIONERS

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Why philosophy is important

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Why is philosophy important? | philoscifi

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Why Every Student Should Study Philosophy | Department of Philosophy | UNC Charlotte

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The Importance of Philosophy

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Why Study Philosophy? : Department of Philosophy : Texas State University

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Why Study Philosophy? | Department of Philosophy

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Philosophy is Important | Ethical Realism

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The Importance of Philosophy in Human Life

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Philosophy

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Importance Of Philosophy

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THE 1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES – ARTICLE VIII | Official Gazette of the Republic of

the Philippines

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