INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF A

HUMAN PERSON
CORE SUBJECT:

( GRADE 12 First Semester)

MODULE 1
What is Philosophy?

UNIT 1: PHILOSOPHY AND THE HUMAN PERSON

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 “Human reason has the peculiar fate in one species of its cognitions that is burdened with questions which it
cannot dismiss, since they are given to it as problems by the nature of reason itself, but which it also cannot answer, since
they transcend every capacity of human person.”
-Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason
The ability to inquire or ask questions is inherent among human beings. The act of asking is the person’s way of making sense of all the things around him or
her that he or she does not understand. Did you know that human beings were able to create a whole discipline involved in asking the most basic questions which are of
greatest importance to them?
PHILOSOPHY, among its definitions, is “the rational, methodical, and systematic consideration of topics that are of greatest importance to men”. The
modules in this unit are arranged in a way that will help you gradually grasp this understanding of philosophy. Through this unit, you will begin your journey toward
understanding the very nature of philosophy and its importance to you as a human person, learn why philosophy is the venue to ask these questions, and understand the
nature of the human person that motivates him or her to arrive at satisfactory answers through use of philosophy. Through these modules, you will understand how these
answers affect the actions of human beings toward others and toward their environment.
This unit will engage you to act of philosophizing and understanding yourself as an embodied spirit. It will also help you realize that you are part of
humanity and the environment.

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
 It is a term attributed to Pythagoras as he said to be the first to use it when he differentiated the three classes of people who attend the ancient Olympic
Games as:
1. lovers gain – they seek for profit
2. lovers of honor – they compete in the games for honor
3. lovers of knowledge and wisdom – the best kind who goes to games as they are spectators who seek to arrive the truth. He called this class of people
philosophers.
 The word philosophy is derived from philosophia which is a combination of the Greek terms philos ( love) and sophia ( wisdom). Thus philosophy means “
love of wisdom”

THE SUBJECT MATTER OF PHILOSOPHY

 Armando Bonifacio (Three Concepts of Philosophy)- he explained that characterizing philosophy can begin with the common conceptions about it.
 “People through unconsciously, have philosophy in life. The fundamental values or some basic assumptions about things, persons, institutions,
and others which form presuppositions that influence one’s beliefs, decisions, and actions.”
 “ The activity of reflecting on and analyzing one’s beliefs or reasons for actions and decisions could be a kind of philosophy as well”
 “ Philosophy could also be a reconstructed belief or a value system which shows a universal and comprehensive character as a result of
reflection and analysis in a more comprehensive character as a result of reflection and analysis in a more comprehensive and systematic
manner.
 The study of subjects which can be understood on how they are talked about. In other words, philosophical understanding is not making discovery about
the world but, deciding on how to talk.
o Talking about subjects means:
1. Investigating the meaning of concepts or proposal of a new term in order to advance some area of philosophical inquiry
2. Critiquing the use of these terms
3. Combination of both

o What subjects can be talked about?

 Philosophical subjects- what is considered are matters a reflective person believes in, counts as real and considers as good with
shapes his or her life.
 Nonphilosophical subjects- the lack of general agreement on how the subject may be talked about.
o Problems in philosophy are stills problems because there has never been one answer yet to questions on philosophical subjects such as the
following:
 What is knowledge?
 What is the nature of the self?
 Does God exist?
 What is the standard beauty?
 Is there a universal morality?

Since philosophers agree that there is a lack of general agreement to how philosophical subjects are defined, philosophy becomes an
ongoing activity because there may be many and varied answers to fundamental questions.

Activity 1: Reflect Upon

1. Why do you think it is important for human beings to reflect upon themselves and their actions?

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2. What do you think are the subjects of concern that matters to human beings? Why?

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3. Why is analysis a necessary tool in philosophizing?

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Activity 2: What I have learned so far?

1. From what Greek words did philosophy originate? What do they mean?

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2. Why are philosophers different from other people according to Pythagoras?

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3. What are the three conceptions of philosophy according to Armando Bonifacio?

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4. How are philosophical subjects different from non philosophical subjects?

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PERFORMANCE TASK 1:

Have you ever had an experience in which you wanted to ask a question but you were afraid to raise them? Why were you afraid? Or have you had an
experience wherein you asked a question but you were made to feel like you were stupid to ask that question? Do you think those people were right in reacting that
way?
Write a journal entry on this experience in one whole sheet of yellow paper.
THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

1. ETHICS
 Derived from the Greek term ethos meaning “moral philosophy” is concerned about human conduct.
 As a normative study, it deals with norms or standards of right and wrong applicable to human behavior.
 It is considered as prescriptive as it prescribes what people ought to do rather describe what people do.

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  A philosopher engaged in ethics is concerned in finding out what norms or standards of human behavior lead to ends or goals which are desirable or
undesirable. His or her evaluation and analysis are directed toward knowing whether there are higher human ends that may be considered as the chief end
man. What constitutes this end is analyzed through the nature of a human being and his or her moral and social virtues in relation with others.
 The systematic reflections in ethics will lead to an understanding of the concept of right and wrong and conceptions about morality which affects one’s
actions toward others. Thus ethics helps prioritize their values.

2. AESTHETICS

 Comes from the Greek word aisthetikos which means “sensitive” or “perceptive”.
 In this branch the philosopher is concerned with analysis of aesthetic experience and the idea of what is beautiful. The analysis is directed toward the
nature of aesthetic judgment, standards of beauty, and the objectivity of these standards in response to the questions raised about the meaning of
aesthetic experience.
 The philosophers analyze whether beauty is based on utility, experience, form, pleasure and expression. For example, if you look at a painting or any
kind of artwork, what are your bases of judgment to say what is beautiful? How does a panel of judges decide who wins a beauty pageant? How are
paintings priced?

3. EPISTEMOLOGY

 Comes from the Greek word “episteme” which means “knowledge”.

 Deals with various problems concerning knowledge.
 Among the major concerns are the origin of knowledge
 Empiricism – given by experience.
 Rationalism – given by the mind prior to experience
 Verification- confirmation of knowledge
 Other highly specialized problems include the distinction between belief and knowledge, the nature of truth, the problems of perception, the external world,
and the meaning and other minds.
 For example, determining whether there is an objective truth and investigating the bases of certainty are among the specific problems tackled in
epistemology. Thus, it can be helpful in making judgments such as in the courts of law.

4. LOGIC

 The branch of philosophy that looks into whether there are rules or principles that govern reasoning.
 It incorporates the analysis of the methods of deduction and induction to provide the rules on how people ought to think logically.
 Knowing the rules of logic gives the person the techniques to create sound arguments and avoid fallacious reasoning.
 It increases one’s ability to reason correctly and distinguish irrational reasoning.

5. METAPHYSICS

 Literally means “after physics”.

 Early Greek philosophers claimed that it is the study of the nature of reality.
 This branch of philosophy analyzes whether everything is material, and if life, energy, and mind are its different manifestations.
 Metaphysicians reflect on the subject of appearances (how something looks by how it appears) and reality (that which actually is).
 Some examples of specific questions that metaphysics reflect upon are the following:
 What is the meaning of life?
 What is the purpose of life?
 Does God exist?

Thus far, you are introduced to some of the areas that philosophy is concerned with. Each branch informs you on how reflection and analysis may be used in
the discourse of topics and issues which concerns humans. Your understanding of these concepts and philosophical inquiry and reflection will also allow you
to clarify what you believe in, value and recognize as the source or basis of your actions.

Activity 3: What I have learned so Far

Identify the branch of philosophy in which each given question is likely to be asked and answered.

__________________________________1. What is the nature of reasoning?

__________________________________2. What is the nature of induction and how it is similar to or different from scientific knowledge?

__________________________________3. What is the nature of God?

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__________________________________4. Does God exist?

__________________________________5. What is the mind? Does it really interact with the body?

__________________________________6. Is the self-possible?

__________________________________7. Can there be an absolute truth?

__________________________________8. Is the conception of beauty relative?

__________________________________9. Is morality relative?

__________________________________10. What can be known if the origin of knowledge is experience?

BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY

A. Pre-philosophical Period

Even before the birth of natural philosophy, people had already attempted to explain the origin of things and the events or occurrences in nature. Such
attempts are evident in the folklores, myths and legends that the ancient people- the ancient Babylonians, Chinese, Hindus, Egyptians, and the Greeks most notably-
believed in. However, these stories are characterized by religious elements of supernatural powers and not by natural or rational explanation.

B. Pre- Socratic Period

 Miletians
 THALES OF MILETUS –
 Through him philosophy is said to have begun in Ionic colonies of Asia Minor.
 Known as the first Greek philosopher and the Father of Philosophy.
 He is regarded as the first to engage in the inquiry of searching for the causes and principles of the natural world and various
phenomena without relying on supernatural explanation and divine components.
 By observing the nature, he believed that the earth floats on water, while it is considered as the first ultimate substance.
 ANAXIMANDER –
 Another Miletian philosopher who also wondered about the beginning of the universe and where it came from.
 More systematic than Thales, he claimed that the universe was form from boundless (Greek apeiron) which is both the first principle
(arche) and the substance (stoicheion) of the universe.
 He argued that air was the fundamental element. Through the process of rarefaction or compression, the air surrounds Earth in a more
or less compressed state.
 Heraclitus of Ephesus and Xenophanes of Colophon
They continued the Miletian claim of a single, proper substance. They also offered a cosmological account, but they expanded their focus on the human
subject and investigated the nature of inquiry itself in the physical explanations they provided.
 HERACLITUS
 Claimed the “unity of opposites” in characterizing the cosmos and went further as to express that to understand these characterizations
is to inquire of the logos ( an objective law-like principle) and be able to speak the language of the logos.
 XENOPHANES
 Claimed that there is a single God. He did not subscribe to the idea of an anthropomorphic god, whom many people believed in his
time.
 He suggested that if gods are “: human like” then horses, oxen and lions would have equine, bovine and leonine gods as well.

 Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans

 This group believes that the cosmos is a structured system ordered by numbers. For them, things become knowable because they are structured
this way; the structure can apparently be expressed in a numerical ratio. Hence, they believe that nature can be quantified.
 The pre-Socratics and their points of view expressed a tendency toward observation and analysis. Since these points of view are devoid of any
mythical notions they are already somewhat “scientific “.
 Their main concern is the nature of phenomena or what constitutes the cosmos, testimonia (reports from ancient authors about the thinkers’ life
and thoughts) and fragments (passages taken to be direct quotations) reveal that they are also concerned with religious and ethical thought, the
nature of understanding, mathematics and other areas of concerns.
 Their philosophies have influenced later philosophers and are said to extend to the whole of Western Philosophy.

C. Socrates and the Socratic Schools

The second period in the history of the Greek philosophy is comparatively short but it is considered the most flourishing. This period
was dominated by three famous philosophers. The philosophers in this period mainly had to answer the problem of how to save the intellectual
and moral life of the nation, which was threatened by materialism and skepticism.

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  SOCRATES
 He left no writings at all and yet he has greatly influenced western philosophical tradition through Plato’s Dialogues.
 He is best known for the elenchus, or the Socratic Method. It is a method of question and answer which aims to provoke the one being
asked to think for himself or herself and to clarify his or her conceptions about what is asked.
 He is also regarded as the one who urged self-examination and claimed that “the unexamined life is not worth living”.
 PLATO
 His philosophy is a completion and extension of the philosophy of Socrates.
 Socrates taught that knowledge through concepts is the only true knowledge- to which Plato concluded that the concept, or the idea, is
the only true reality.
 For Plato, philosophy is the science of the idea, or, as we should say, of the unconditioned basis of phenomena.
 His philosophical ideas are found u his Dialogues which are accounts of what he is concerned with as influenced by his teacher,
Socrates.
 One of his most famous works is the Republic which discusses his social and political philosophy and his belief that the Greek city-
states to flourish, must led by the philosopher kings, and that justice is best manifested if persons would do what is suited to each of
his or her soul.
 His works also encourage humanity to seek what is good, what is true, and what is beautiful in the intellectual realm beyond the
appearances because the senses are often deceitful.
 He also urged that humans detach themselves to what is corporeal because the soul without limitation of the body can be better
recognizing the eternal form of truth, beauty and goodness.
 Such beliefs reveal on his views on ethics, epistemology, metaphysics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy.
 ARISTOTLE
 His philosophy is often described as an opposition to the Platonic philosophical tradition.
 He believes that the perceptual and cognitive faculties of people are dependable; such belief places humans in direct contact with the
world which is to be studied and therefore engaged in substantive philosophy.
 For him human beings philosophize because they wonder about the world, and as they do, more of things of their experience appear
puzzling.
 His method focuses on analyzing phenomena or experience and proving credible opinions about these experiences to arrive at
adequate proof.
 He believed that the aim of philosophy is truth, and the endowment of senses will lead a person in direct contact with the world, and
therefore allow him to analyze whether what appears upon close scrutiny and analysis is correct.
 Like Plato, his philosophy is extensive in its topics of concern such as human anatomy, biology, physics, knowledge and ethics.

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are considered the three of the greatest philosophers in history of western philosophic thought. You will notice
that their concerns are more concentrated on inquiring what man is and what he can become. Through the Socratic Method and Aristotle’s method of inquiry
(more like modern scientist), you realize that any and every perspective they have about the world is a result of reflection and analysis. Whether it is based
on physical or material evidence brought about by experience or redirecting the inquiry toward the real forms ( Platonic Style), understanding about the self
and the world will be revealed through painstaking analysis.

D. Medieval Period: Scholasticism

 It is described as the confluence of faith and reason in the history of philosophy.

 Philosophers in this period used philosophy as a handmaid of theology. Concerned with proving God’s existence and understanding, what is man
in relation to God, scholasticism directed its inquiry on how reason can be used to provide proofs that God exists.
 They also attempted to reconcile Greek philosophy and Christian theology.
 ST.ANSELM- who is known for his ontological argument for the existence of God in Proslogion
 ST. AUGUSTINE- who promoted “the argument by analogy” against solipsism or the philosophical idea that only one’s own existence is the
only thing that is real.
 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS- who is famous for his influential work Summa Theologica which explains his views on the creation and government
of the universe, the origin and nature of man, and human destiny, among others, through Catholic theology.
 The medieval philosophers’ attempt to reconcile faith and reason reveals that reflection and analysis may be used to clarify thought or provide
pieces of evidence as proofs for a topic important to human like religious beliefs. You need to realize as well that philosophy is beyond a
recognized authority because beliefs of the church are placed under reflection, criticism and analysis

E. Modern Period: Rationalism, Empiricism and Kant’s Philosophy

The modern tradition in the history of philosophy is recognized to be concerned about problems or issues on knowledge. It is often described as dominated
by two schools of thought- rationalism and empiricism- and ends with the synthesis made by Immannuel Kant. The reflections and analysis are directed toward
answering the questions on the nature of knowledge and the verification and types of knowledge claims to be known by humans.

 RATIONALISM

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 The rationalists Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz believe that reason is the sole source of knowledge. Verification of truth is
through the Correspondence Theory of Truth and types of knowledge are limited to analytic or formal knowledge of mathematics and logic.

 EMPIRICISM

Empiricists believe that aside from reason, experience is also a source of knowledge. The five senses connected to the world can be used to determine what can be
known; hence, truth is based on what corresponds to reality, and empirical claims about the world are also accepted as knowledge.

 IMMANUEL KANT and SYNTHETIC a Priori KNOWLEDGE

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant examined the extent to which human reason is capable of priori (formed beforehand) knowledge. His goal is to criticize
reason by reason itself to establish a secure and consistent basis for science, religion, and morality

The rationalists, empiricists, and Immanuel Kant provided different perspectives on one specific concern- the nature of knowledge based on its origin which
gives knowledge seekers a wider perspective and increased understanding of an important area in the life of humans.

F. Contemporary Period: The Analytic and the Continental Tradition

The most difficult period to characterize is the philosophical tradition which dominated western thought in the 20th century. Because of various conceptions
and concerns, historians of philosophy would often distinguish between the analytic and the continental tradition in its broadest sense.

 ANALYTIC TRADITION
 This school of thought, which dominated English-speaking countries, is concentrated on logical analysis of language to solve the problems which
beset philosophy.
 The philosophers under this tradition espouse a method of verification which only accepts as meaningful and true those which can be investigated
by science. Among the philosophers who propose analysis in philosophy are Bertrand Russell, George Edward Moore, and Ludwig
Wittgenstein. However their conception differs from one another:

 BERTRAND RUSSELL’S CONCEPTION

Involves an analysis of meaningfulness of descriptions as opposed to names that designate or denote a subject
 GEORGE EDWARD MOORE CONCEPTION
Analysis is decomposing complex concepts into their simple constituents.
 LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN
He believes that the task of philosophy is to carefully analyze ordinary language use, known as linguistic analaysis.

G. Continental Tradition

 This philosophical tradition dominated English-speaking countries outside analytic tradition during the 19th and the later 20th centuries.
 German idealism, phenomenology and existentialism, hermeneutics, structuralism, post-structuralism, and French feminism are some of the movements
within this tradition. What is common among these movements is their belief that the scientific method is insufficient to provide an explanation to the world.
 In the analysis, this tradition takes into account the conceptions of the past and the views that any analysis is contextualized in history.
 The movements under the continental tradition focus on the centrality of human action as a constitutive part, and analysis under the continental tradition is
directed toward meta philosophy to seek a reconstruction of what philosophy is and its role in understanding knowledge, experience and reality.

The history of philosophy is an account of the different philosophical perspectives from different periods and for topics which were considered important to
humans. This history is gives emphasis that the beauty of the philosophic discipline understands the world from a variety of perspectives and reflection and
analysis. Thus, a person interested in philosophizing will scrutinize truths and explanations about the world via analysis, criticism, and deliberate reflection.

HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE AND PARTIAL POINT OF VIEW

At this point, you might be overwhelmed by the ideas already presented. What you were introduced to seems to be fragmented. You may also be asking,
”What’s in it for me? “ A beginner in philosophy like you will have an effective understanding only if you can make sense of the different perspectives, distinguish
them from a partial point of view, and develop a holistic perspective to see the whole or bigger picture. This manner will give you the value of philosophizing.

What you experienced in the previous discussions gives you a perspective of what philosophy is based on how it is done by the different philosophers and
the common notions or characterizations of it. The discussion, on each philosopher and the specific concerns each inquired about gave you partial points of views on the
nature of philosophy. On the other hand, the synthesis of these partial points of views gave you a holistic perspective of philosophy.

The etymology of philosophy (i.e., “love of wisdom” ) gives you a clue on how to philosophize. When you love, you try to know everything about that
which your love is directed to. At first, you might be interested in knowing the material or physical manifestations of that thing, but as your love for it grows deeper,
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you would want to know more about it. Like being a lover, a philosopher takes into account every detail- the partial points of views- in order to make a synthesis and
develop a holistic perspective. Hence, to philosophize is to take part in activities which do not only give you a partial point of view but a holistic perspective emanating
from reflections and analysis.

Activity 4 Applications

1. Based on what you learned on the holistic approach of philosophy, why are a panel discussants or presenters usually invited to share their views on a burning issue?
Is it enough to listen just one discussant or presenter? What is the wisdom behind panel discussions?

2. How does a teacher help the class arrive at a holistic view of an issue? Is involving the students by interacting with them helpful in arriving at a holistic view of
things?

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