Unit 1

1. What is the essence of philosophy, often described as "seeking wisdom," and what wisdom do

philosophers seek?

The essence of philosophy is often described as the pursuit of wisdom. In philosophical terms,
wisdom is not merely about acquiring knowledge, but about understanding the fundamental nature
of reality and our place within it. This involves developing intellectual abilities that are important for
life as a whole, beyond the knowledge and skills required for any particular profession. It enhances
analytical, critical, and interpretive capacities that are applicable to any subject matter and in any
human context.
The wisdom that philosophers seek varies, but there are some common themes. Ancient Greek
philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle saw their intellectual activity – the search for wisdom
or philosophy – as both theoretical and practical in its aims. They believed that human knowledge (or
wisdom) is essential to a well-lived human life. From their perspective, human action rightly
conducted by reason would be considered as the key to happiness.
In contemporary philosophy, wisdom is often seen as a matter of knowing what is fundamental and
then living well in the light of that6. As philosopher Robert Nozick suggests, "Wisdom is an
understanding of what is important, where this understanding informs a (wise) person’s thought and
action"6.

In essence, the wisdom philosophers seek is about understanding the fundamental truths of
existence and using that understanding to guide our actions and decisions in a way that leads to a
meaningful and fulfilling life. It’s about asking the big questions, seeking answers, and applying those
answers to our lives. It’s a continuous journey of learning, questioning, and growing.

2. Can you provide a list of major features of philosophy and discuss their significance?

a. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often
held uncritically.
b. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held
conceptions and beliefs.
c. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
d. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.
e. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.

here are some of the major features of philosophy and their significance:
1. Universality: Philosophy does not focus on the study of a single branch of science, but embraces
them all1. It seeks the deeper ends of science and promotes a critique of them 1. The universality of
philosophy also refers to the global and general character of the management of it as a way of life
and way of thinking1. This feature allows philosophy to provide a comprehensive understanding of
the world and our place in it.
2. Depth: Philosophy seeks the truth of all things1. It questions all approaches until they are
demonstrable in all its aspects1. This depth of thought allows philosophy to reach as far back as
possible through rationality1, providing a profound understanding of reality.
3. Criticism: Philosophy has a critical attitude toward things because it does not accept presumptions
without demonstration1. It raises radical questions that are at the root of reality and
existence1. Through criticism, philosophy invites us to use reason to leave behind ignorance and be
free1.
4. Theoretical Philosophy (Metaphysics and Epistemology): Metaphysics examines the most general
features of reality, existence, objects, and properties 23. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and
how to acquire it23. These branches allow us to understand the nature of reality and knowledge.
5. Practical Philosophy (Ethics, Social and Political Philosophy, Aesthetics): Ethics investigates moral
principles and what constitutes right conduct 23. Social and political philosophy deals with questions
about social behavior and political institutions 4. Aesthetics is concerned with the nature of beauty
and taste23. These branches guide us in making moral decisions, understanding societal structures,
and appreciating beauty.
6. Logic: Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be
distinguished from bad ones23. This branch helps us to reason effectively and make sound
arguments.
7. History of Philosophy: This involves the study of philosophical ideas and concepts over time 4. It helps
us understand the evolution of philosophical thought and how past ideas influence contemporary
philosophical discussions.

3. Discuss the fundamental epistemological debates surrounding the origins of human

Knowledge

Epistemology, the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge, has
been a central focus of philosophical inquiry since ancient times 12. The origins of human knowledge
have been a subject of intense debate, with two primary schools of
thought: Rationalism and Empiricism3.

1. Rationalism: Rationalists believe that knowledge is acquired through the use of reason 3. They argue
that certain knowledge is innate or is capable of being deduced through reason alone 3. René
Descartes, a prominent rationalist, argued that our senses can be deceived and thus, cannot be a
reliable source of knowledge. Instead, he proposed that certain truths (e.g., mathematical truths) are
self-evident and can be discovered through introspection and logical reasoning.

2. Empiricism: Empiricists assert that knowledge is gained through experience 3. They argue that we are
born as a “tabula rasa” (blank slate), and all our knowledge comes from our interactions with the
world3. John Locke, a leading empiricist, argued that while reason is important for processing the
data received from experience, it alone cannot yield any substantive knowledge about the world.
 These debates have significant implications for our understanding of knowledge and belief. They
shape how we approach questions about the nature of reality, the reliability of our senses, the limits
of reason, and the role of experience in forming our understanding of the world 4.
In addition to these, there are also debates about perspectivism, which traces some of its seminal
ideas back to Kant, Nietzsche, the American Pragmatists, and Putnam 5. Perspectivism suggests that
our knowledge is always from a particular perspective and there are multiple valid perspectives 5.
These debates continue to evolve and influence contemporary philosophical thought, shaping our
understanding of knowledge and belief, and informing a wide range of disciplines, including science,
law, and education4.

4. Why is the study of philosophy important, and what value does it bring to individuals and

society?

The study of philosophy is important for several reasons:

1. Critical Thinking: Philosophy teaches us how to think critically and logically 12. It helps us to analyze
and evaluate situations, ideas, and concepts 12. This skill is not only useful in academic and
professional settings but also in everyday life.
2. Understanding and Perspective: Philosophy helps us understand the world around us 12. It encourages
us to question our beliefs and assumptions, broadening our perspectives 12. This can lead to self-
discovery, expansion of consciousness, and self-renewal 3.
3. Ethical Reasoning: Philosophy provides tools for assessing ethical issues 12. It guides us in making
moral decisions and understanding societal structures 12.
4. Problem Solving: The study of philosophy enhances problem-solving capacities 12.

5. Briefly discuss the core branches of philosophy.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that investigates the nature and structure of reality.
It deals with questions such as: What is the ultimate substance of the world? Does God exist?
Do we have free will? What is the meaning of life? Metaphysics also includes sub-branches
such as ontology (the study of being), cosmology (the study of the origin and order of the
universe), and philosophy of mind (the study of the nature and relationship of the mind and
the body).

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature and scope of
knowledge. It addresses questions such as: What is knowledge? How do we acquire
knowledge? What are the sources and limits of knowledge? How do we justify our beliefs?
Epistemology also includes sub-branches such as skepticism (the challenge of doubting the
possibility of knowledge), rationalism (the view that knowledge is based on reason),
 empiricism (the view that knowledge is based on experience), and pragmatism (the view that
knowledge is based on practical consequences).

Axiology is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature and criteria of value. It
encompasses questions such as: What is good and evil? What is right and wrong? What is
beautiful and ugly? How do we evaluate and justify our values? Axiology also includes sub-
branches such as ethics (the study of moral principles and actions), aesthetics (the study of
beauty and art), and political philosophy (the study of the nature and justification of
government and society).

Logic is the branch of philosophy that studies the principles and methods of correct
reasoning. It deals with questions such as: What is a valid argument? How do we distinguish
between sound and fallacious reasoning? What are the rules and systems of logic? How do
we apply logic to various fields of inquiry? Logic also includes sub-branches such as formal
logic (the study of the abstract structure and symbols of logic), informal logic (the study of
the everyday use and evaluation of arguments), and philosophy of logic (the study of the
nature and foundations of logic).

These are the four core branches of philosophy, but there are also many other branches and sub-
branches that cover a wide range of topics and issues. Philosophy is a rich and diverse field that can
help us understand ourselves and the world better.

Unit 2
 1. Define the following terms: Logic, Argument, Premise, Conclusion.
Logic is generally be defined as a philosophical science that evaluates arguments. An argument
is a systematic combination of one or more than one statements, which are claimed to provide a
logical support or evidence (i.e., premise(s) to another single statement which is claimed to
follow logically from the alleged evidence (i.e., conclusion). An argument can be either good or
bad argument, depending on the logical ability of its premise(s) to support its conclusion.

 Logic is the branch of philosophy that studies the principles and methods of correct reasoning 1.
 Argument is a set of statements, called premises, together with a claim, called the conclusion, which
the premises are intended to support or establish 2.
 Premise is a proposition that provides evidence or reasons to form a conclusion 3.
 Conclusion is an argument’s main claim; it is what the argument seeks to establish 4.

2. Explain the criteria for distinguishing argumentative passages from non-argumentative ones.

here are some criteria to distinguish argumentative passages from non-argumentative ones:
1. Presence of a Claim or Thesis: Argumentative passages often have a clear claim or thesis that the
author is trying to prove. This claim is usually stated early in the passage and is supported
throughout.
2. Use of Evidence or Reasons: Argumentative passages typically use evidence or reasons to support
the claim. This can include facts, statistics, anecdotes, or expert opinions.
3. Counterarguments: In argumentative passages, the author often acknowledges counterarguments
or opposing views, and provides reasons why their claim still stands despite these counterarguments.
4. Persuasive Language: Argumentative passages often use persuasive language and rhetorical
devices to convince the reader of the author’s point of view.
5. Conclusion: Argumentative passages usually end with a conclusion that restates the claim and
summarizes the supporting evidence.

On the other hand, non-argumentative passages, such as descriptive or narrative passages, do not
try to convince the reader of a particular point of view. Instead, they aim to inform, explain, or tell a
story. They do not usually contain a clear claim, supporting evidence, counterarguments, or
persuasive language.
3. Elaborate on the meaning and functions of inferential and factual claims.

meanings and functions of inferential and factual claims:

1. Inferential Claims: An inferential claim is a statement that presents some facts after applying
reasoning to a certain passage123. It may state that something supports, implies, or follows
another123. Inferential claims are crucial in arguments as they describe the major goal hidden in any
dispute1. There are two types of inferential claims:
o Explicit Inferential Claim: These claims are usually attested with concluding words that indicate some
decision. These claims include indicator words like “Thus”, “Therefore”, “Since”, “Hence”, etc 2.
o Implicit Inferential Claim: These claims are used to determine an inferential relationship between the
statements of a passage. However, the passage does not include an indicator word 2.
2. Factual Claims: Factual claims refer to any statements that mention measurable effects that can be
proved right or wrong4567. The more categorical the statement, the better the proof of its correctness
that is required4567. Factual claims must be based on unbiased and reliable reviews, research reports,
statistics, tests, or measurements4567.

In essence, inferential claims are derived from the process of reasoning and often imply a certain
conclusion, while factual claims are based on verifiable and measurable facts. Both types of claims
play a significant role in constructing arguments and presenting information.
4. Provide a brief discussion of the commonalities and distinctions between deductive and
inductive arguments. Support your discussion with your own examples.

commonalities and distinctions between deductive and inductive arguments:

Commonalities:

 Both deductive and inductive arguments are forms of reasoning that are used to analyze
statements and draw conclusions.
 Both types of arguments involve making claims based on evidence.

Distinctions:
 Deductive Arguments: In a deductive argument, if the premises are true, then the conclusion
must be true. It’s a form of reasoning from the general to the specific. For example, consider the
following argument:
 All birds have feathers. (Premise)
 A sparrow is a bird. (Premise)
 Therefore, a sparrow has feathers. (Conclusion)
In this case, if it’s true that all birds have feathers and that a sparrow is a bird, then it must be
true that a sparrow has feathers.
 Inductive Arguments: In an inductive argument, the truth of the premises makes the conclusion
likely, but not certain. It’s a form of reasoning from the specific to the general. For example,
consider the following argument:
 The sun has risen every day for thousands of years. (Premise)
 Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow. (Conclusion)
In this case, while it’s highly likely that the sun will rise tomorrow based on past observations,
it’s not a guaranteed conclusion.
In essence, the key difference between deductive and inductive arguments lies in the degree of
certainty of the conclusion based on the premises: deductive arguments offer certainty, while
inductive arguments offer probability. Both types of arguments are fundamental to different
fields, such as mathematics, science, philosophy, and everyday reasoning.
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5. Briefly discuss the similarities and differences between valid and invalid arguments, as well

as sound and unsound arguments. Support your discussion with your own examples
 similarities and differences between valid and invalid arguments, as well as sound and unsound
arguments:

Valid vs Invalid Arguments:

 Valid Argument: An argument is valid if it is impossible for the premises to be true while the
conclusion is false1234. For example:
 All dogs are mammals. (Premise)
 Fido is a dog. (Premise)
 Therefore, Fido is a mammal. (Conclusion)
If it’s true that all dogs are mammals and that Fido is a dog, then it must be true that Fido is a
mammal.
 Invalid Argument: An argument is invalid if it is possible for the premises to be true while the
conclusion is false1234. For example:
 All dogs are mammals. (Premise)
 Fido is a mammal. (Premise)
 Therefore, Fido is a dog. (Conclusion)
Even though it’s true that all dogs are mammals and that Fido is a mammal, it’s not necessarily true
that Fido is a dog. Fido could be a cat or a human, both of which are also mammals.

Sound vs Unsound Arguments:

 Sound Argument: An argument is sound if it is valid and all its premises are true 56. For example:
 All dogs are mammals. (Premise)
 Fido is a dog. (Premise)
 Therefore, Fido is a mammal. (Conclusion)
This argument is sound because it is valid and all its premises are true.
 Unsound Argument: An argument is unsound if it is either invalid or has at least one false premise 56.
For example:
 All cats are dogs. (False Premise)
 Fido is a cat. (False Premise)
 Therefore, Fido is a dog. (Conclusion)
This argument is unsound because it has false premises, even though it is valid.

In essence, the validity of an argument pertains to its logical structure, while the soundness of an
argument pertains to its logical structure and the truth of its premises. Both valid and sound
arguments are crucial in logical reasoning and critical thinking.
6. Briefly discuss the similarities and differences between strong and weak arguments, and cogent
and uncogent arguments. Support your discussion with your own examples.

similarities and differences between strong and weak arguments, as well as cogent and uncogent
arguments:

Strong vs Weak Arguments:

 Strong Argument: A strong argument is one where, if the premises were true, the conclusion would
be very likely to be true12. For example:
 90% of humans are right-handed. (Premise)
 Pat is human. (Premise)
 Therefore, Pat is right-handed. (Conclusion)
In this case, the premises make it very likely — 90% likely — that the conclusion is true 1.
 Weak Argument: A weak argument is one where the conclusion does not follow from the premises
(i.e., even if the premises were true, there would still be a good chance that the conclusion could be
false)12. For example:
 50% of humans are female. (Premise)
 Pat is human. (Premise)
 Therefore, Pat is female. (Conclusion)
In this case, knowing that Pat is human doesn’t give any good reason to think that Pat is female 1.

Cogent vs Uncogent Arguments:

 Cogent Argument: A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is both strong and all of its
premises are true345. For example:
 Most apples from New Zealand are delicious. (True Premise)
 This apple is from New Zealand. (True Premise)
 Therefore, this apple is delicious. (Conclusion)
This argument is cogent because it is strong and all its premises are true.
 Uncogent Argument: An uncogent argument is an inductive argument that is either weak or has at
least one false premise345. For example:
 Most oranges from Canada are delicious. (False Premise)
 This orange is from Canada. (True Premise)
 Therefore, this orange is delicious. (Conclusion)
This argument is uncogent because it has a false premise, even though it is strong.

In essence, the strength of an argument pertains to the likelihood of the conclusion based on the
premises, while the cogency of an argument pertains to the strength of the argument and the truth
of its premises. Both strong and cogent arguments are crucial in logical reasoning and critical
thinking.

Unit 3

1. Explain the relationship between logic and language.

Logic and language are inherently and implicitly related to each other 1. Here’s how:
1. Logic as a Tool for Language: Logic is the means of thinking right2. It assists in producing rational
and valid thoughts1. The study of logic is necessary and important because it improves human
beings’ rational and critical thinking about worldly affairs 1. Logic helps in deriving the conclusion
from the premises and finding out the validity and invalidity of the argument 1.
2. Language as a Vehicle for Logic: Language is the dress of thought2. It is essentially thought that
shapes the language2. Language is the vehicle of our thoughts, as thinking is not possible without
language1. Even in soliloquy, a person cannot speak to himself or herself without a
language1. Human beings use language to communicate their thoughts to others 1.
3. Interrelation between Logic and Language : The possibility of elaborating coherent and ordered ideas
is thanks to reasoning itself3. Reasoning, as we can remember, is the formal object of logic, since this
is the channel to arrive at the coherent and rational relationship of the elements 3. Language helps us
to think about a fact or an event, but logic helps us to arrange our thoughts about a fact or an event
in a sequence1. The sequence of thoughts about a fact assists in comprehending the fact concisely,
precisely, and clearly1.
In essence, the subject matter of logic cannot be explained without language, and language bereft of
logic does not convey meaning in a context 1. Therefore, the relationship between logic and language
is fundamental to our understanding and communication of ideas.

2. Discuss the important functions of language that are relevant to logic.

Language plays a crucial role in logic, serving several important functions 123:
1. Descriptive Use of Language: Language is often used to describe something or to give information
about something1. This is also called the informative use of language 1. For example, the statement
“Logic is the study of correct reasoning” is a descriptive use of language 1.
2. Emotive Use of Language: Language can be used to express emotions or feelings 1. While this use
doesn’t convey any information, it does serve an important function in everyday life 2.
3. Directive Use of Language: Language can be used to cause or to prevent some overt action by a
human agent12. For example, when I say “Read the textbook,” I am using language directively 2.
In the context of logic, the descriptive use of language is particularly relevant. Logic deals with the
analysis and evaluation of arguments, which are expressed in language 3. Therefore, the study of
arguments requires careful attention to the language in which arguments are expressed 3. When
language functions informatively, we can sensibly ask whether what is asserted is true or false 1. In
other words, the question “Is it true?” can be meaningfully asked of all such instances 1. When
language is used to affirm or deny any proposition, its function is informative 1.

In essence, the functions of language are integral to the study and application of logic. They allow us
to construct, analyze, and evaluate arguments in a structured and meaningful way.

3. Explain the meaning and function of a value claim in arguments.

 A value claim is an argumentative thesis that makes a qualitative assertion 123. In other words,
it’s an argument about a moral, aesthetic, or philosophical topic 13. If you construct a position
claiming that something is good or bad, or one thing is better than another, you’ve made a
value claim1.
 The function of a value claim in an argument is to assert qualitative judgments along a good-
to-bad continuum relating to persons, events, and things in one’s environment 1. The center
of argument in a value claim is over the criteria used in making the judgment 1. Value claims
 call into question a standard of comparison: bad as compared to what, good as compared to
what, superior as compared to what1.
 For example, if you say “The Wizard of Oz is the greatest movie of all time,” you’ve made a
value claim1. Here, the argument would revolve around the criteria used to judge the
greatness of a movie.
 In essence, value claims play a crucial role in arguments by providing a basis for debate and
discussion on subjective matters of value and worth. They help us express our evaluations
and judgments in a structured and meaningful way.

4. Explain the differences between vagueness and ambiguity, and between verbal and factual
disputes.

differences between vagueness and ambiguity, and between verbal and factual disputes:
1. Vagueness vs Ambiguity:
o Vagueness: A term is vague if it lacks specificity or if it’s unclear whether the term applies in a
particular context1234. For example, the word “soon” is vague because it doesn’t specify an exact time
frame2.
o Ambiguity: A term is ambiguous if it has more than one distinct meaning 1234. For example, the word
“bat” can refer to an animal or a piece of sports equipment 1.
o In essence, vagueness relates to a lack of clarity or precision, while ambiguity relates to the presence
of multiple possible meanings1234.
2. Verbal Disputes vs Factual Disputes:
o Verbal Disputes: These are disagreements that arise from different understandings of the meaning of
certain terms567. For example, two people might argue about whether a whale is a fish, but this is a
verbal dispute that hinges on the definition of "fish" 5.
o Factual Disputes: These are disagreements that arise from different beliefs about facts 567. For
example, if one person believes that Sydney is the capital of Australia and another person disagrees,
this is a factual dispute6.
o In essence, verbal disputes are about meanings of words, while factual disputes are about matters of
fact567.

5. . Explain the differences between intentional meaning and extensional meaning.

the terms “intensional” and “extensional” are used in logic to indicate the reference of a term or
concept:
1. Intensional Meaning: This refers to the internal content of a term or concept that constitutes its
formal definition1. It gives meaning to a term by specifying necessary and sufficient conditions for
when the term should be used1. For example, an intensional definition of the word “bachelor” is
“unmarried man”. This definition is valid because being an unmarried man is both a necessary
condition and a sufficient condition for being a bachelor 1.
2. Extensional Meaning: This indicates its range of applicability by naming the particular objects that it
denotes1. An extensional definition defines by listing everything that falls under that definition 1. For
instance, an extensional definition of “bachelor” would be a listing of all the unmarried men in the
world1.