Hydr0 electric power plants

ANALYSIS
Hydro potential in india
India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30 April 2017, India's installed
utility-scale hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5% of its total utility power generation capacity.[1]
Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380 MW (1.3% of its total utility
power generation capacity) have been installed.[2][3] India's hydroelectric power potential is estimated at
148,700 MW at 60% load factor.[4] In the fiscal year 2016-17, the total hydroelectric power generated in
India was 122.31 TWh (excluding small hydro) with an average capacity factor of 33%.
The hydro-electric power plants at Darjeeling and Shivanasamudram were established in 1898 and 1902,
respectively. They were among the first in Asia and India has been a dominant player in global
hydroelectric power development.[5] India also imports surplus hydroelectric power from Bhutan.
India's economically exploitable and viable hydroelectric potential is estimated to be 148,701 MW.[6][7] An
additional 6,780 MW from smaller hydro schemes (with capacities of less than 25 MW) is estimated as
exploitable.[8] 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW
have also been identified. In central India, the hydroelectric power potential from the Godavari, Mahanadi,
Nagavali, Vamsadhara and Narmada river basins has not been developed on a major scale due to
potential opposition from the tribal population.[9]
The public sector accounts for 92.5% of India's hydroelectric power production. The National Hydroelectric
Power Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam
(SJVNL), THDC, and NTPC-Hydro are some of the public sector companies producing hydroelectric
power in India. The private sector is also expected to grow with the development of hydroelectric energy in
the Himalayan mountain ranges and in the northeast of India.[10][4] Indian companies have also constructed
hydropower projects in Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, and other countries.[4]
Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), a state-owned enterprise in north India, has an installed
capacity of 2.9 GW.[11] The generation cost after four decades of operation is about 27 paise (0.40¢ US)
per kWh.[12] BBMB is a major source of peaking power and black start capability to the northern grid in
India and it's large reservoirs provide wide operational flexibility. BBMB reservoirs also supply water for the
irrigation of 12.5 million acres (51,000 km2; 19,500 sq mi) of agricultural land in partner states, enabling
the green revolution in the northern India.
Advantages & disADVANTAGES OF HEPP
ADVANTAGES

Flexibility

Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to
adapt to changing energy demands.[2] Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of a few minutes.[22]
It takes around 60 to 90 seconds to bring a unit from cold start-up to full load; this is much shorter than for
gas turbines or steam plants.[23] Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus
power generation.[24] Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units is not generally used to produce base
power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs.[25] Instead, it serves as backup for
non-hydro generators.[24]
Low cost/high value power

The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at
low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro
station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[2] When used as peak power to
meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than base power and a much higher value compared to
intermittent energy sources

Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years.[26]
Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during
normal operation.

Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low
construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation.
Suitability for industrial applications
While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific
industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of
electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to
support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington, United States for American World War II airplanes
before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the
war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoaaluminium
industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium
smelter at Tiwai Point.

Reduced CO2 emissions

Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide. While
carbon dioxide is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off
annually by reservoirs, hydro in specific nordic cases, has the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions
for power generation.[29] Compared to fossil fuels generating an equivalent amount of electricity, hydro
displaced three billion tonnes of CO2 emissions in 2011.
Water loss by evaporation

A 2011 study by the United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory concluded that hydroelectric
plants in the U.S. consumed between 1,425 and 18,000 gallons of water per megawatt-hour (gal/MWh) of
electricity generated, through evaporation losses in the reservoir. The median loss was 4,491 gal/MWh,
which is higher than the loss for generation technologies that use cooling towers, including concentrating
solar power (865 gal/MWh for CSP trough, 786 gal/MWh for CSP tower), coal (687 gal/MWh), nuclear
(672 gal/MWh), and natural gas (198 gal/MWh). Where there are multiple uses of reservoirs such as water
supply, recreation, and flood control, all reservoir evaporation is attributed to power production.[37]

Siltation and flow shortage

When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a
negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within
catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods
along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some
reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.[38][39]
DISADVANTAGES

Ecosystem damage and loss of land

Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive
areas upstream of the dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine
valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local
ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.[2] The
loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir.[35]
Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and
downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river
environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to
scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks.[36] Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid
or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.
Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower
river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that
can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that
depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate
change.[40] One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes,
such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might
reduce river run-off by up to 40%.[40] Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on
hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could
reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century.[40]
Methane emissions (from reservoirs)
Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions, as it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants in
tropical regions produce substantial amounts of methane. This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying
in an anaerobic environment, and forming methane, a greenhouse gas. According to the World Commission on
Dams report,[41] where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square
metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the
reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired
thermal generation plant.[42]
Relocation

Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs
are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced
40-80 million people worldwide.[44]

Failure risks
Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to
poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and
infrastructure.

Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being
decommissioned.
HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the water cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.

Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology (hydrogeology), and marine
hydrology. Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology,
drainage-basin management and water quality, where water plays the central role.
BRANCHES OF HYDROLOGY
● Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.
● Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.
● Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of groundwater.
● Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources
applications.
● Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body
surfaces and the lower atmosphere.
● Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.
● Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near Earth's surface.
● Drainage basin management covers water storage, in the form of reservoirs, and floods
protection.
● Water quality includes the chemistry of water in rivers and lakes, both of pollutants and natural
solutes.
APPLICATIONS
● Calculation of rainfall.
● Calculating surface runoff and precipitation.
● Determining the water balance of a region.
● Determining the agricultural water balance.
● Designing riparian restoration projects.
● Mitigating and predicting flood, landslide and drought risk.
● Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.
● Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity.
● Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling.
● Providing drinking water.
● Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation.
● Designing bridges.
● Designing sewers and urban drainage system.
● Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems.
● Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation.
● Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources.
● Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines.
● Estimating the water resource potential of river basins.
HYDROGRAPHS
By definition, a hydrograph is a plot of the variation of discharge with
respect to time (it can also be the variation of stage or other water property
with respect to time). Discharge is the volume of water flowing past a
location per unit time (usually in cubic feet per second (cfs)).

It can also refer to a graph showing the volume of water reaching a particular outfall, or location in
a sewerage network. Graphs are commonly used in the design of sewerage, more specifically, the
design of surface water sewerage systems and combined sewers.
Terminology
● Discharge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a
specific location in a river, or other channel. The discharge is
measured at a specific point in a river and is typically time variant.
● Rising limb: The rising limb of the hydrograph, also known as
concentration curve, reflects a prolonged increase in discharge
from a catchment area, typically in response to a rainfall event.
● Peak discharge: the highest point on the hydrograph when the
rate of discharge is greatest.
● Recession (or falling) limb: The recession limb extends from
the peak flow rate onward. The end of stormflow (a.k.a. quickflow
or direct runoff) and the return to groundwater-derived flow (base
flow) is often taken as the point of inflection of the recession limb.
The recession limb represents the withdrawal of water from the
storage built up in the basin during the earlier phases of the
hydrograph.
● Lag time: the time interval from the center of mass of rainfall
excess to the peak of the resulting hydrograph.
● Time to peak: time interval from the start of the resulting
hydrograph.
Types of hydrographs
● Storm hydrographs
● Flood hydrographs
● Annual hydrographs a.k.a. Regimes
● Direct Runoff Hydrograph
● Effective Runoff Hydrograph
● Raster Hydrograph
● Storage opportunities in the drainage network (e.g., lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, channel and
bank storage capacity
Baseflow separation

A stream hydrograph is commonly conceptualized to include a baseflow component and a runoff component. The
former represents the relatively steady contribution to stream discharge from groundwater return flow, while the
latter represents the additional streamflow contributed by shallow subsurface flow and surface flow/runoff.
The separation of baseflow from direct runoff in a hydrograph is often of interest to hydrologists, planners, and
engineers, as it aids in determining the influence of different hydrologic processes on discharge from the subject
catchment. Because the timing, magnitude, and duration of groundwater return flow differs so greatly from that of
direct runoff, separating and understanding the influence of these distinct processes is key to analyzing and
simulating the likely hydrologic effects of various land use, water use, weather, and climate conditions and
changes.
However, the process of separating “baseflow” from “direct runoff” is an inexact science. In part this is because
these two concepts are not, themselves, entirely distinct and unrelated. Return flow from groundwater increases
along with overland flow from saturated or impermeable areas during and after a storm event; moreover, a
particular water molecule can easily move through both pathways en route to the watershed outlet. Therefore,
separation of a purely “baseflow component” in a hydrograph is a somewhat arbitrary exercise. Nevertheless,
various graphical and empirical techniques have been developed to perform these hydrograph separations. The
separation of base flow from direct runoff can be an important first step in developing rainfall-runoff models for a
watershed of interest—for example, in developing and applying unit hydrographs as described below.
Unit hydrograph

A unit hydrograph (UH) is the hypothetical unit response of a watershed (in terms of runoff volume and
timing) to a unit input of rainfall. It can be defined as the direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) resulting from one
unit (e.g., one cm or one inch) of effective rainfall occurring uniformly over that watershed at a uniform rate
over a unit period of time. As a UH is applicable only to the direct runoff component of a hydrograph (i.e.,
surface runoff), a separate determination of the baseflow component is required.
A UH is specific to a particular watershed, and specific to a particular length of time corresponding to the
duration of the effective rainfall. That is, the UH is specified as being the 1-hour, 6-hour, or 24-hour UH, or
any other length of time up to the time of concentration of direct runoff at the watershed outlet. Thus, for a
given watershed, there can be many unit hydrographs, each one corresponding to a different duration of
effective rainfall.