A Complete Summery of Chemisrty

Chapter 12 (2nd Year Physics) Electrostatics
Chapter # 12: ELECTROSTATICS

The branch of Physics which deals with the properties of charges at rest is called electrostatics
ELECTRIC CHARGE (Definition)
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that
causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric
charges: positive and negative charges.
ELECTRIC FORCE (Definition)
Charges of the same signs repel each other and charges

of the opposite sign attract each other. These attractive
and repulsive forces among the charges are called
electrical forces.
Multiple Choice Questions Related to “ELECTRIC CHARGE”

1. Solid bodies are charged due to the transfer of:
(a) Protons (b) Electrons (c) Neutrons (d) All of these
2. The SI unit if elelctric charge is:
(a) Volt (b) Henry (c) Coulomb (d) Weber
3. Charge on an electron is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. How many electron will have a charge of one coulomb?
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (a)
12.1 COULOMB’S LAW

COULOMB’S LAW
Statement:
The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them.
Mathematical Expression: If two point charges and are
separated by a distance , then the electrostatic force ‘ ’ between
them is expressed as:
where is the constant of proportionality and is expressed as
where is the permittivity of free space and its value in SI unit is
VECTOR FORM OF COULOMB'S LAW

The electrostatic force ⃗ between two point charges ‘ ’ to ‘ ’ is expressed as:
⃗ ̂
Here ̂ is the unit vector directed from ‘ ’ to ‘ ’.
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COULOMB FORCE IS A MUTUAL FORCE

Coulomb’s force is a mutual force, it means that if a charge ‘ ’ exerts a force on charge ‘ ’, then ‘ ’ also
exerts an equal and opposite force on ‘ ’. If charge ‘ ’ exerts an electrostatic force ‘ ’ due to charge ‘ ’
and ‘ ’ exerts electrical force ‘ ’ on charge ‘ ’ and, then
Proof: If ̂ represents the direction of force from charge ‘ ’

to ‘ ’ and ̂ is the unit vector which represent the direction
of force from charge ‘ ’ to ‘ ’, then
As ̂ ̂ , so the eq. (1) becomes
( ̂ )
By eq. (2)
This expression shows that Coulomb force is a mutual force.
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM ON ELECTRICAL FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINT CHARGES

If the dielectric medium having relative permittivity ‘ ’ is placed between two point charges, then the
electrical force will reduced by -times. The expression of coulomb’s force between two point charges,
when the dielectric medium is placed between them, is expressed as:
DIELECTRIC (Definition):
An insulator, placed between two point charges, is referred as dielectric.
POINT CHARGES (Definition):
The charges whose sizes are very small as compared to the distance between them are called point charges.
Numerical Related to Article “12.1 COULOMB’s LAW”
12.1 Compare magnitudes of electrical and gravitational forces exerted on an object (mass = 10.0 g,
charge = 20.0 µC) by an identical object that is placed 10.0 cm from the first.
Given Data: Masses , Charges ,

Distance
( )
( )
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12.2 Calculate vectorially the net electrostatic force on q as shown in the figure.
Given Data: Charges , ,

To Determine: Total Force on
Calculations: From Fig. ( )
Force Exerted by Charge on :
Force Exerted by Charge on :
Now
And
Magnitude of Resultant Force √ √
Direction of Resultant Force ( ) (Resultant is along x-axis)
Resultant Force ⃗ ̂
Example12.1: Charges and are located in xy plane at positions
̂ and ̂ respectively, where the distances are measured in meters.
Calculate the force on .
Given Data: First Charge , Second Charge

Position Vector of First Charge ,̂ Position Vector of Second Charge ̂
To Determine: Force on due to :⃗
Calculations: Position Vector of relative to ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ̂ ̂
Distance between charges | | √ √ √

⃗ ̂ ̂
By Coulomb’s Law: ⃗ ̂ (|⃗ |
) ( ) ̂ ̂
Magnitude of ⃗ |⃗ | √
Direction of ⃗ ( )
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MCQs Related to the Article “12.1 COULOMB’S LAW”

1. Coulomb’s law is only applicable for
(a) Big charges (b) Small charges (c) Point charges (d) All charges
2. If the distance between two point charges is doubled, the force between them will become:
(a) Doubled (b) Half (c) Three Times (d) One forth
3. The constant k in Coulomb’s Law depends upon
(a) Nature of medium (b) System of units (c) Intensity of charge (d) Both a & b
4. The value of permitivity of free space is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The value of coulomb’s constant is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. Unit relative permitivity is
(a) (b) (c) (d) no unit
7. Presence of dielectric always:
(a) Increases the electrostatic force (b) Decreases the electrostatic force
(c) Does not effect the electrostatic force (d) Doubles the electrostatic force
8. The value of relative permitivity for all the dielectrics is always:
(a) Less than unity (b) Greater than unity (c) Equal to unity (d) Zero
9. Relative permitivity of air is:
(a) 1.06 (b) 1.006 (c) 1.0006 (d) 1.6
10. The force between two similar unit charges placed one meter apart in air is:
(a) Zero (b) One newton (c) (d)
11. If the magnitude of charges and distance between them is doubled, then the force will be:
(a) Doubled (b) Halved (c) Remain same (d) On forth
12. When an insulating medium is placed between two charges, the electrostatic force:
(a) Increases (b) decreases (c) zero (d) Remain Same
13. The electrostatic force between two charges is 42 N. If we place a dielectric of , between
the charges, then the force become equal to:
(a) 42N (b) 88.2 N (c) 2 N (d) 20 N
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (d) MCQ # 7: (b)
MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (c) MCQ # 11: (c) MCQ # 12: (b) MCQ # 13: (d)
ARTICLE “12.1 COULOMB’S LAW” IN PAST PAPERS

Short Questions: (2 Marks)
1. State coulomb’s law. Express its mathematical form.
2. What is the effect of medium between the charges upon coulomb’s force?
3. Define electrostatics and electric force.
Long Question (5 Marks)
1. State Coulomb’s law for electrostatic force. Discuss its vector form and show that ⃗ ⃗
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12.2 FIELDS OF FORCES

ELECTRIC FIELD (Definition)
The space or region around any charge, in which it exerts forces
of attraction or repulsion on other charges, is called its electric field.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

The electrostatic force per unit test charge, at a specific point in the
electric field, is called electric field intensity.
If ‘ ’ is the electrostatic force acting on a test charge ‘ ’ at a point
‘ ’, then electric field intensity ‘ ⃗ ’ is expressed as
Electric field intensity is a vector quantity and its direction is same as the
direction of the force.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO POINT CHARGE (Derivation of Expression)

Consider a test charge in the electric field point charge ‘ ’ as shown in the figure. If ‘ ’ is the electrostatic
force acting on a test charge ‘ ’ at a point ‘ ’, then electric field intensity ‘ ⃗ ’ is expressed as:
By Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force ‘ ’ between point charges ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ is expressed as:
Putting value of ‘ ’ in eq. (1), we get
( ̂)
⃗
⃗ ( )( ̂)
⃗ ̂
This is the expression of electric field intensity due to a point charge.
EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS RELATED TO “12.2 ELECTRIC FIELD”

Exercise Short Question # 4. Describe the force or forces on a positive point charge when placed
between parallel plates: (a) With similar and equal charges, (b) With opposite and equal charges
Ans.
 When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates with similar and equal charges, then
the electric force due to one plate is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to electric force
due to other plate. So the value of resultant electric force is zero and the charge will remain
stationary.
 When a positive point charge is placed between parallel plates with opposite but equal amount of
charge, then electric force due to one plate is equal in magnitude but in same direction to the
electric force due to other plate. So the value of resultant electric force is non-zero. Hence the point
charge will be accelerated towards negative plate.
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NUMERICALS RELATED TO “12.2 ELECTRIC FIELD”

12.3 A point charge is placed at the origin. Calculate electric field at a point 2.0
m from the origin on the z-axis.
Given Data: Charge , Distance , Direction: z-axis ̂ ̂
To Determine: Electric Field
⃗ ̂ ̂ ( ̂)
12.4 Determine the electric field at the position ̂ ̂ caused by a point charge
placed at origin.
Given Data: Position Vector ̂ ̂ , Charge
To Determine: Electric Field ⃗
Calculations: ⃗ ̂
̂ ̂
| | √ ̂
| |
Equation (1) becomes:
̂ ̂
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
12.5 Two point charges, and , are separated by a distance of 3.0

m. Find and justify the zero-field location.
Given Data: Charges , , Distance between Charges
To Determine: Zero Field Location
Calculations: Let P is zero field location, then at point P (distant x from ):
Electric Field due to Electric Field due to
Let Distance of P from | | and Distance of P from
| |
Now consider
So the correct answer is
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Example 12.2: Two positive point charges and

are separated by a distance of 3 m, as shown in the
figure. Find the spot on the line joining the two charges where
the electric field is zero.
Given Data: First Charge , Second Charge
Distance between charges
To Determine: Zero Field Location
Calculations: Let P is zero field location, then at point P (distant x from ):
Electric Field due to Electric Field due to
Let Distance of P from and Distance of P from
Now consider
Which gives . Here is not possible.

Hence
MCQs Related to the Article “12.2 FIELDS OF FORCE”

1. A charge at rest creates around it
(a) Electric field (b) Magnetic field (c) Gravitational field (d) Nuclear field
2. The force experience by a unit positive charge placed at a point in an electric field is called:
(a) Coulomb’s force (b) Faraday’s force (c) Lorentz’s force (d) Electric field intensity
3. is a unit of
(a) Force (b) Charge (c) Current (d) Electric Intensity
4. If we move away from a charge, the magnitude to electric intensity
(a) Remains constant (b) Increases (c) Decreases (d) Vanish
5. Of the following quantities, the one that is vector in character is an
(a) Electric Charge (b) Electric Field Intensity
(c) Electric Energy (d) Electric Potential Difference
6. A charge of experiences electrostatic force of , the electric field intensity at that point
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. The electric intensity at infinite distance from point charge is
(a) Infinite (b) zero (c) positive (d) negative
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (d) MCQ # 7: (b)
ARTICLE “12.2 FIELDS OF FORCES” IN PAST PAPERS
Short Questions
1. Define electric intensity and give its units.

2. Distinguish between electric field and field intensity.
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12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE
i) Electric field lines originate from positive charges and end on negative charges.
ii) The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field intensity at that point.
iii) The lines are closer where the field is strong, the lines are farther apart where the field is weak.
iv) No two lines cross each other.
EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS RELATED TO “12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES”

Exercise Short Question # 5. Electric lines of force never cross. Why?
Ans. Electric lines of force never cross each other. This is because of the reason that electric field intensity
has only one direction at any given pint. If the lines cross, electric intensity could have more than one
direction which is physically not correct.
Exercise Short Question # 6. If a point charge of mass m is released in a
non-uniform electric field with field lines in the same direction pointing,
will it make a rectilinear motion.
Ans. A non-uniform field of a positive point charge is shown in the figure:
If a point charge q of mass m is placed at any point in the field, it will
follow straight or rectilinear path along the field line due to repulsive force.
MCQs Related to the Article “12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES”
1. The lines which provide information about the electric force exerted on charged particles are:
(a) Magnetic field lines (b) Electric field lines (c) Tangent lines (d) Curved lines
2. Electric field lines are
(a) Actual Line (b) Imaginary Lines (c) Solid Lines (d) None of These
3. The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of
(a) Electric Intensity (b) Electric Flux (c) Vector Area (d) Electric Current
4. The electric field lines are closer where the field is:
(a) Strong (b) Weak (c) Uniform (d) Variable
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5. Electric field lines can never

(a) Attract each other (b) Repel each other (c) Intersect each other
6. The electric field produced due to negative charge is always:
(a) Radially outward (b) Radially inward (c) Circular (d) Zero
7. The electric field created by positive charge is:
(a) Radially outward (b) Zero (c) Circular (d) Radially inward
8. Electric lines of force are parallel and equally spaced, then the electric field is:
(a) Weak (b) Strong (c) Non-Uniform (d) Uniform
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (a)
MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b) MCQ # 7: (a) MCQ # 8: (d)
ARTICLE “12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES” IN PAST PAPERS

Short questions (2 Marks)
1. Write two properties of electric field lines.
2. Comment on the uni-direction of electric intensity on electric field line at specific field point.
12.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
XEROGRAPHY
The copying process is called xerography. The main component of photocopying machine is a drum
which is an aluminum cylinder coated with layer of selenium.
Aluminum is a good conductor but selenium is a photoconductor. The positive charge is spread
over the selenium. The charge will remain on the surface of drum as long as it remains in dark. When light
falls on the drum, the electrons from aluminum pass through the conducting selenium and neutralize the
positive charge.
The light from lamp
transfers an image of the
page to the drum. The dark
areas retain their positive
charge, but light area
becomes conducting, lose
their positive charge and
become neutral. The drum
collects negatively charged
dry ink from toner where it
sticks to the positive charged
areas. The ink from the drum
is transferred on to a sheet of paper on which the document is to be copied. Heated pressure rollers then
melt the ink on to the paper to produce the permanent print of the document.
INKJET PRINTER
The inkjet printer uses electric charge in its working. The ink
is forced out of a small nozzle and breaks up into extremely
small droplets. During their flight, the droplets pass thorough
two electrical components, which are the “charging electrode”
and “deflecting plates”
The charging electrodes are used to charge the ink droplets
that are not needed on the paper. The charged ink droplets are
deflected in to the gutter (closed surface) by the deflecting
plates.
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The uncharged ink droplets pass through deflecting plates and strike the paper. When the print head moves
over the paper which is to be inked, the charging control turns off the charging electrodes.
PHOTOCONDUCTOR (Definition)
A material which behaves as an insulator when it is in dark and becomes conductor when it is
exposed to light
MCQs Related to the Article “12.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS”
1. Photo-copier and inkjet printers are the applications of:
(a) Electronics (b) Magnetism (c) Electrostatics (d) Thermodynamics
2. The word “Xerography” means:
(a) Writing by left hand (b) Writing by children (c) Dry writing (d) Writing by water colors
3. Aluminum is an excellent
(a) Conductor (b) semi-conductor (c) Insulator (d) photoconductor
4. Selenium is a conductor material when exposed to ________
(a) Dark (b) Light (c) Magnetic field (d) None of these
5. Selenium is an
(a) Insulator (b) Conductor (c) Semiconductor (d) Photoconductor
6. Which part of photocopier is known as the heart of machine
(a) Drum (b) lamp (c) roller (d) toner
7. In ink-jet printer, the droplets are passed through
(a) Gutter (b) Charging electrode (c) Deflection plates (d) Both b & c
8. In an inkjet printer, the charged ink drops are diverted by the deflection plates
(a) Towards the charging electrodes (b) Towards the gutter
(c) Towards a blank paper (d) In inkjet printer, ink cannot be charged
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b)
MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (d) MCQ # 8: (b)
ARTICLE “12.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS” IN PAST PAPERS

Short Question (2 Marks)
1. What is photoconductor?
Long Question (5 Marks)
1. Define Electrostatics and explain how is it applied in Xerography.
2. Describe the working of Ink-Jet printer as an application of electrostatics.
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12.5 ELECTRIC FLUX

ELECTRIC FLUX
The number of the field lines passing through a certain area is known as
electric flux.
Or
The dot product of electric field intensity and
vector area element is called electric flux. It is a
scalar quantity and it is denoted by a Greek letter
. Mathematically, it can be expressed as
⃗ ⃗
where ⃗ is the Electric Field Intensity and ⃗ is Vector Area

Eq. (1) can be written as
where is the angle between ⃗ and ⃗ .
Case 1.
If the vector area ⃗ is taken parallel to the field lines ⃗ then the electric flux will be
(Since )
Thus the electric flux through an area element will be maximum, when the ⃗ is
parallel to ⃗ .
Case 2.
If the vector area ⃗ is taken perpendicular to the field lines ⃗ then the electric flux
passing through the body is given by
(Since )
Thus the electric flux through an area element will be zero, when the ⃗ and ⃗ are
perpendicular to each other.
MCQs Related to the Article “12.5 ELECTRIC FLUX”
1. Number of electric lines of force passing through a certain area is known as
(a) Electric field (b) Electric flux (c) Electric potential (d) Potential difference
2. Electric flux is defined as:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. For the computation of electric flux, the surface area should be:
(a) Parallel (b) Curved (c) Spherical (d) Flat
4. When vector area is held perpendicular to the field lines, then the magnitude of electric flux is:
(a) Negative (b) Maximum (c) Minimum (d) Zero
5. When vector area is held parallel to electric field lines, the the magnitude of electric flux is:
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c) Zero (d) Negative
6. The SI unit of electric flux is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. Which one of the following can be taken as measure of electric field intensity:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (b) MCQ # 7: (b)
ARTICLE “12.5 ELECTRIC FLUX” IN PAST PAPERS
Short Questions (2 Marks)
1. Define electric flux. Write its SI units.

2. What is the orientation of the surface in an electric field to get maximum flux through it.
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12.6 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING CHARGE

ELECTRIC FLUX PASSING THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE (Derivation of Expression)
Consider a closed surface in the form of a sphere of radius ‘ ’
which has a point charge ‘ ’ at its center, as shown in the figure below:
We want to find out the value of electric flux through this close
surface.
For this, we divide the total surface area of the sphere into n small area
elements ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ . The electric intensities corresponding
to the area elements ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ are ⃗ ,⃗ ,………. ⃗
respectively. Total flux passing through a closed surface of sphere is

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The direction of electric field intensity and the vector area is

same at each patch. Moreover, because of spherical symmetry, at the
surface of sphere,
|⃗ | |⃗ | |⃗ |
Equation (1) will become
This is expression of electric flux through a surface enclosing charge

DEPENDENCE OF SHAPE OF CLOSE SURFACE ON ELECTRIC FLUX
Consider an arbitrary shaped close surface enclosing a sphere which
contain ‘ ’ on its center, as shown in the figure.
It can be seen that the flux through arbitrary shaped close
surface is same as that through the sphere. Hence the total flux through a
close surface does not depend on the shape and geometry of closed
surface.
MCQs Related to the Article “12.6 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE”
1. The total electric flux through the surface of the sphere due to a charge q at its center is:
(a) (b) (c) (d) both a & b
2. Electric flux through a close surface does not depend upon:

(a) Shape (b) medium (c) charge (d) none of these
3. The direction of vector area is
(a) Parallel to flat surface (b) perpendicular to flat surface
4. Negative and positive charges in a hollow sphere are equal in magnitude, then the flux from the
surface will be:
(a) Zero (b) Positive (c) Negative (d) Both positive and negative
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (a)
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ARTICLE 12.6 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING CHARGE IN PAST PAPERS
1. Does the total flux depend upon the shape or geometry of the close surface?
Long Questions (5 Marks)
1. Define electric flux. Find electric flux through a surface enclosing charge.
2. Show that electric flux due to point charge ‘q’ placed at the center of a sphere is equal to
12.7 GAUSS’S LAW

GAUSS’S LAW
It states that the total electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the product of times the total
charge enclosed in it. Mathematically, it is described as:
where is the total electric flux through a surface and is the total charge enclosed.
Explanation: Consider point charges are spread in a closed surface as shown in figure:
Total flux passing through the closed surface is
where , is the total charge enclosed by the close surface. Equation (1) is the
mathematical form of Gauss’s law.
EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.7 GAUSS’S LAW”
Exercise Short Question # 8. Is it true that Gauss’s law states that the total number of lines of force
crossing any closed surface in the outward direction is proportional to the net positive charge
enclosed within surface?
Ans. Yes, the above statement is true.
Electric flux is defined as the measure of number of electric lines of force passing through a certain area.
Moreover, by Gauss’s law, the flux through any close surface is times the total charged enclosed in it.
Now, as the electric field lines are divergent for the case of a positive charge. Thus, if positive charge is
enclosed within a surface, then it will be directly proportional to net outward electric flux i.e.,
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MCQs RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.7 GAUSS’S LAW”

1. The total electric flux through any close surface is directly proportional to:
(a) Enclosed mass (b) Enclosed charge (c) Volume (d) Electric potential
2. According to Gauss’s law, electric flux through any close surface is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c)
ARTILE 12.7 GAUSS’S LAW IN PAST PAPERS

1. State Gauss’s law of electric flux. Write down its mathematical form.
12.8 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW TO DETERTERMINE ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE
SYMMETRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
In order to find out electric field intensity due to different charge distributions, a Gaussian surface
is considered which passes through the point at which the electric intensity is to be evaluated. Next the
charge enclosed by the close surface is calculated and finally the electric intensity is computed by applying
the Gauss’s law.
ELECTRIC FIELD INSIDE HOLLOW CHARGED SPHERE (Derivation of Expression)
Consider a hollow charged conducting sphere of radius ‘ ’ is given a positive charge ‘ ’, as shown in
the figure.
We want to find out electric field intensity at point ‘ ’ inside the hollow charged sphere.
For this, we consider a spherical Gaussian surface which passes through the point . It can be seen
that the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero. Then by applying
the Gauss’s law, we have
Also
⃗ ⃗
Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get
⃗ ⃗
As ⃗ , Therefore ⃗ . Thus the interior of a hollow charge sphere is a

field free region.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITE SHEET OF CHARGE (Derivation of Expression)
Ans. Consider an infinite sheet charges as shown in the figure below. Let
the uniform surface charge density is ‘ ’.
We want to find out electric field intensity at point ‘ ’ due to
this charge distribution. For this we consider a cylindrical Gaussian
surface.
We divide the cylindrical Gaussian surface into three parts i.e., , where
= Left cross sectional area of cylindrical Gaussian surface
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= Right cross sectional area of cylindrical Gaussian surface

= Area of curved of cylindrical Gaussian surface
Since E is parallel to the surface , so there is no contribution to the flux from the curved wall of
cylinder. While the flux through the two flat ends of the closed cylindrical surface is
where is the surface area of flat surface.

The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface ‘ ’ can be find out by using the expression:
Applying the Gauss’s law,
Comparing eq. (1) and (2)
This is the expression of electric field intensity due to infinite sheet of charge.
In vector form
⃗ ̂
where ‘ ̂’ is a unit vector normal to the sheet directed away from it.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED PLATES (Derivation)
Consider two oppositely charged plates ‘A’ and ‘B’ are placed at a very small distance as shown in the figure
below. Suppose is the magnitude of surface charge density on each plate.
We want to find out electric field intensity at point ‘ ’ due to oppositely charged plates.
For this we consider a Gaussian surface in the form of a hollow box represented as QRST.
 As the field lines are parallel to RS and TQ sides of Gaussian surface, so the flux
through these will be zero.
 the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is the flux passing through the
side QR, i.e.,
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface ‘ ’ can be find out by using the expression:
Applying the Gauss’s law,
Comparing eq. (1) and (2)
This is the expression of electric field intensity due to oppositely charged parallel plates.
In vector form ⃗ ̂
where ‘ ̂’ is a unit vector directed from positive to the negative plate.
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EXERCISE SHORT QUESTION RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.8 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW”
Exercise Short Question # 7. Is E necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if the balloon is
spherical. Assume that charge is distributed uniformly over the surface.
Ans. Yes, E is necessarily zero inside a charged rubber balloon if balloon is spherical. If the Gaussian surface
is imagined inside charged balloon, then it does not contain any charge i.e., q=0.
Applying Gausses law:
Also ⃗ ⃗
Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get
⃗ ⃗
As ⃗ , Therefore ⃗ . Hence electric field intensity will be zero inside a spherical balloon.
MCQs RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.8 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW”

1. Gauss’s law is more useful in the cases where the charge distributions:
(a) are made of discrete point charges (b) are finite in their special extent
(c) symmetrical charge distribution (d) gives rise to inverse square law distribution
2. The imaginary close surface which passes through the point at which electric intensity is to be
measured is called:
(a) Amperean loop (b) Gaussian surface (c) Vector area
3. Electric intensity inside hollow charged sphere is:
(a) ( ⁄ ) (b) ( ⁄ ) (c) ( ⁄ ) (d) zero
4. The magnitude of the electric field inside oppositely charged plates, having uniform surface
charge density , is:
(a) ( ⁄ ) (b) ( ⁄ ) (c) ( ⁄ ) (d) ( ⁄ )
5. The electric intensity near an infinite plate of positive charge will be:
(a) ( ⁄ ) (b) ( ⁄ ) (c) ( ⁄ ) (d) ( ⁄ )
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b)
ARTICLE “12.8 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW” IN PAST PAPERS

1. What is strength of electric field inside a hollow charge sphere and why?
1. State Gauss’s law and find electric intensity at a point near an infinite sheet of charge.
2. Find electric intensity between two oppositely charged parallel plates.
16
12.9 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (Definition)
The work done per unit charge in moving it from one point to another point in an electric field is called
electric potential difference. The SI unit of electric potential difference is joule/coulomb, called volt.
If is the work done in moving a test charge from point A to B in an electric field, then work
done per unit charge from point A to point B is described as:
ABSOLUTE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (Definition)

Work done per unit charge in moving it from infinity to a specific point in the field is known electric
potential or absolute electric potential. The SI unit of electric potential is joule/coulomb, called volt.
ELECTRIC FIELD IS THE NEGATIVE GRADIENT OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (Derivation)
Consider a positive charge is placed in a uniform electric field, between two oppositely charged plates.
The potential difference between A and B is expressed as:
Where is the work done in displacing a test charge from point B to point A, against the electric field.
where and is the displacement between point A and B.
The equation (1) will become
If the plates A & B are separated by infinitesimally small distance , then the equation (2) will become
The quantity gives the maximum rate of change of potential with respect to distance is called
the potential gradient. Hence, the electric field intensity is the negative gradient of electric potential. The
negative sign indicate that the direction of is along the decreasing potential. Equation (3) indicates that
the unit of electric field intensity is .
POTENTIAL GRADIENT (Definition)
The quantity gives the maximum rate of change of potential with respect to distance is called the
potential gradient. Its is measured in unit .
PROOF OF
17
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE (Derivation of Expression)

Consider two points A and B in the electric field of a point charge as shown in the figure below. The
distance of points A and B from point charge are and , respectively.
We want to find out electric field intensity at point P which is at the distance from point charge. The
magnitude of electric field intensity at point P is
Consider
As represents midpoint of interval between A and B, so
( )
As is very small so neglecting , we have
( )
Substituting the value of
Substituting values in equation (1)
As electric field intensity is the negative gradient of electric potential, therefore
Putting values of equation (2)
[ ]
This is the expression of electric potential difference between two points A and B. To calculate the
absolute electric potential due to a point charge at point B, the point A is assume to be at infinity (i.e.,
, and ). Thus, the equation (3) will become:
[ ]
The equation (4) gives the value of absolute electric potential at point B. The absolute electric potential at
point , which is at the distance from point charge will be:
18
Exercise Short Question Related to “12.9 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL”

Exercise Short Question # 1. The potential is constant throughout a given region of space. Is the
electric field zero or non zero in this region? Explain.
Ans. The electric field intensity is described by the relation:
According to the relation, the electric field is negative gradient of electric potential. If the electric potential
is constant throughout given region of space, then change in electric potential , hence .
Exercise Short Q # 2. Suppose that you follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge. Do
electric field and the potential increases or decreases.
Ans. If we follow an electric field line due to a positive point charge, then it means that we are moving await
from point charge. Thus the distance from the charge increases. Due to increase of distance from positive
charge, both electric field intensity and electric potential decreases as:
Exercise Short Question # 9. Do electrons tends to go to region of high potential or of low potential?
Ans. The electrons being negatively charge particle when released in electric field moves from a region of
lower potential (negative end) to a region of high potential (positive end).
NUMERICALS RELATED TO ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
12.9 A proton placed in a uniform electric field of 5000 NC-1 directed to right is allowed to go a
distance of 10.0 cm from A to B. Calculate
(a) Potential difference between the two points
(b) Work done by the field
(c) The change in P.E. of proton
(d) The change in K.E. of the proton
(e) Its velocity (mass of proton is )
Given Data: Electric Field , Distance covered ,
Charge on proton , Mass of proton
To Determine: (a) Potential Difference , (b) Work Done , (c) Change in P.E.
(d) Change in K.E. , (e) Velocity
Calculations: (a) As
(b) As
(c)
(d) By work-energy principle:
(e) As √ √ √
12.10 Using zero reference point at infinity, determine the amount by which a point charge of
alters the electric potential at a point 1.2 m away, when (a) Charge is positive (b)
Charge is negative
Given Data: Charge , Distance
To Determine: (a) Electric Potential when charge is positive ,
(b) Electric Potential when charge is negative ,
Calculations: (a)
( )
(b)
19
Example 12.3 Two opposite point charges, each of magnitude q are separated by a distance
2d. What is the electric potential at a point P mid-way between them?
Calculations: Electric Potential at point P due to positive point charge:
Electric Potential at point P due to negative point charge:
Total Electric Potential:
So potential at point P due to opposite charges is zero.
12.11 In Bohr's atomic model of hydrogen atom, the electron is in an orbit around the nuclear
proton at a distance of with a speed of .( , mass
of electron = ). Find
(a) The electric potential that a proton exerts at this distance
(b) Total energy of the atom in eV
(c) The ionization energy for the atom in eV
Given Data: Distance , Speed ,
Charge of Electron , Mass of Electron =
To Determine: (a) Electric Potential due to proton , (b) Total Energy of atom
(c) Ionization Energy of the atom
Calculations: (a)
(b) From theory of atomic spectra, the energy of electron in nth orbit:
( )
For present case , so equation (1) takes the form:
(c) As electron possess 13.6 eV energy in the ground state of a H-atom. So, if we want to ionize
such H-atom, we must supply 13.6 eV.
Hence, the ionization energy of H-atom in ground state is 13.6 eV
MCQs Related to the Article “12.9 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL”

1. If a charged body is moved agaist the electric field, it will gain:
(a) Potential energy (b) Kinetic energy (c) Mechanical energy (d) Gravitational energy
2. The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another while keeping the
charge in equilibrium is called:
(a) Potential energy (b) Kinetic energy (c) Mechanical energy (d) Potential Difference
3. Work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point in an electric field is
called:
(a) Potential Difference (b) Resistance Capacitance (d) Absolute electric potential
4. Absolute electric potential, due of point charge of 1C at a distance of 1m is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. One volt is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. Electric field intensity is also known as
(a) Electric potential (b) Electric flux (c) Potential gradient (d) None
7. The expression represent:
(a) Gauss’s law (b) Electric flux (c) Electric Intensity (d) Potential Difference
8. In a region where the electric field is zero, the electric potential is always:
(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Zero (d) Constant
20
9. In the expression , the negative sign show that the direction of E is along:
(a) Increasing potential (b) Decreasing potential
10. The electric intensity is expressed in unit of N/C or
(a) volts (b) watt (c) joules (d)
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (d) MCQ # 9: (b) MCQ # 10: (d)
ARTICLE “12.8 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Show that
2. Define electric potential and give its SI unit.
3. What is potential gradient? Give its unit.
1. Define electric potential. Calculate the electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
12.10 ELECTRON VOLT

ELECTRON VOLT (Definition)
The electron volt is the unit of energy which is defined as
“The amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron when it is displaced across two points having a
potential difference of one volt”. It is denoted by .
PROOF OF
If the charge is free to move along the direction of field, it will acquire kinetic energy. In the present case,
the loss of potential energy ( ) is equal to the gain in kinetic energy ( .
If and , therefore,
As the kinetic energy acquired by the electron will acquire the kinetic energy of one electron as it
move through a potential difference of one volt, is called electron volt. Therefore
Or
RELATED NUMERICALS
12.7 A particle having a charge of 20 electrons on it falls through a potential difference of 100 volts.
Calculate the energy acquired by it in electron volts (eV).
Given Data: Charge , Potential Difference
To Determine: Energy Acquired
Calculations: Energy Acquired
Example 12.4 A particle carrying a charge of 2e falls through a potential difference of 3 V.
Calculate the energy acquired by it.
Given Data: Magnitude of charge , Potential Difference

To Determine: Energy acquired by particle:
Calculations:
21
MCQs RELATED TO THE ARTICLE 12.10 ELECTRON VOLT

1. Electron volt is the unit of
(a) Electric Current (b) Electric Energy (c) Electric Potential (d) Electric Force
2. The amount of energy equal to is called
(a) 1 volt (b) 1 milli-volt (c) 1 electron volt (d) 1 mega electron volt
3. A particle having 2e charge falls through a potential difference of 5V. Energy acquired by it is:
(a) 2.5 eV (b) 20 eV (c) 0.4 eV (d) 10 eV
4. A charge of 0.01 C accelerated through a p.d of 1000 V acquires K.E
(a) 10 J (b) 100 J (c) 200 J (d) 400 eV
5. 1 joule =__________
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. One electron volt is equal to
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. If a positive charge particle moves against the electric field, it will gain:
(a) Kinetic Energy (b) Gravitational Energy (c) Electric Potential Energy
8. If a positive charge particle is allowed to moves from positive to negative plate, it will gain:
(a) Kinetic Energy (b) Gravitational Energy (c) Electric Potential Energy
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a)
MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (a)
ARTICLE “12.10 ELECTRON VOLT” IN PAST PAPERS
1. Define electron volt.
2. Show that
3. A particle carrying a charge of 2e falls through a potential difference of 3 V. Calculate the energy
acquired by it.
4. When an electron falls through a potential difference of 1 V, find its energy in electron volts.
5. Convert 1 joule into electron volts.
12.11 ELECTRIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES (A COMPARISON)
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
Electrical Force:
The electrical force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:
Gravitational Force:
The gravitational force between two masses is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:
Similarities among the Electrical and Gravitational Force

(i) Both forces are the conservative forces.
(ii) Both forces obey the inverse square law.
Differences among the Electrical and Gravitational Force
(i) Electrical force is might be attractive as well as repulsive while the gravitational force is only
attractive.
(ii) Electrostatic force is medium dependent and can be shielded while the gravitational force lack
this property.
(iii) The value of gravitational constant is very small while the electrical constant is very large. It is
because of the fact that gravitational force is very weak as compared to electrical force.
22
MCQs ELECTRIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES (A COMPARISON)

1. Electrostatic force as compared to the gravitational force is
(a) Very weak (b) Very strong (c) Infinite (d) None of these
2. Gravitational force between two objects does not depend on:
(a) Force (b) Masses (c) Distance (d) Medium
3. Gravitational force is an:
(a) Attractive force (b) Repulsive Force (c) Attractive as well as repulsive
4. Electrostatic force is:
(a) Attractive force (b) Repulsive Force (c) Attractive as well as repulsive
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c)
ARTICLE “12.11 ELECTRIC AND GRAVITATIONAL FORCES (A COMPARISON)” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Give similarity and difference between Coulomb and Gravitational force.
2. Write any two differences between electric and gravitational force.
12.12 CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN’S METHOD
DETERMINATION OF THE CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN’S METHOD
In 1909, R.A Millikan’s devised a technique that resulted in precise measurement of the charge on an
electron. The experimental set up of Millikan’s oil drop experiment is shown in figure below:
The setup consist of parallel plates separated by a distance . The upper plate has a small hole. A
voltage V is applied to the plates and so an electric field between the plates is set up. The magnitude of E is
given by
An atomizer is used for spraying oil drop through a nozzle. The oil drop gets charged due to
friction with the walls of atomizer. Some of these drops will pass through the hole in the upper plate. A
telescope is used to observe the path of motion of one of these charged droplets.
A given droplet between the two plates could be suspended in air if the gravitational force
acting on the drop is equal to the electrical force . The can be adjusted equal to by
adjusting the voltage. In this case we can write:
By using equation (1), we get
23
In order to determine the mass of the droplet, the electric field between the plates is switched off. The
droplet falls under the action of gravity through air. Its terminal velocity is determined by timing the fall
of droplet over measured distance. The drag force on the droplet can be find out using Stokes’s law:
where is the radius of the droplet and is the coefficient of viscosity of air.
If is the density of droplet, then
Hence the equation (3) will become,

( )
Knowing the value of , the mass can be calculated using equation (4). This value of is
substituted in equation (2) to get value of charge on the droplet.
Conclusion:
Millikan measured the charge on many drops and found that each charge was an integral multiple of
minimum value of charge equal to . He, therefore, concluded that this minimum value of
charge is the charge on electron.
RELATED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Example 12.5 In Millikan oil drop experiment, an oil drop of mass is

balanced and held stationary by the electric field between two parallel plates. If the
potential difference between the plates is 750 V and the spacing between them is 5 mm,
calculate the charge on the droplet. Assume .
Given Data: Mass of drop , Potential Difference ,

Spacing between plates
To Determine: Charge on Droplet:
Calculations: As
12.6 Find the electric field strength required to hold suspended a particle of mass
and charge between two plates 10.0 cm apart.
Given Data: Mass , Charge ,
Distance between Plates
To Determine: Electric Field Strength
Calculations: For present case:
12.8 In Millikan’s experiment, oil droplets are introduced into the space between two flat horizontal
plates, 5.00 mm apart. The plate voltage is adjusted to exactly 780 V so that the droplet is held
stationary. The plate voltage is switched off and the selected droplet is observed to fall a measured
distance of 1.50 mm in 11.2 s. Given that the density of the oil used is 900 kg m -3, and the viscosity of
air at laboratory temperature is , calculate: a) The mass, and b) The charge on
the droplet (Assuming g=9.8ms-2)
Given Data: Distance between Plates , Potential Difference
Distance Covered , Time , Density ,
Viscosity
24
To Determine: Mass of Droplet , Charge on Droplet
Calculations: (a) Mass of Droplet
Terminal Velocity
For a body moving with terminal velocity:
√ √
Equation (1) becomes:
(b) Charge
12.12 CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN’S METHOD

1. The charge on the electron was calculated by
(a) Faraday (b) J.J. Thomson (c) Millikan (d) Einstein
2. Millikan devised a technique for measurement of charge on an electron in
(a) 1889 (b) 1899 (c) 1909 (d) 1929
3. In Millikan’s experiment, the oil drop can be suspended between two plates when the
gravitational force is equal to
(a) Magnetic Force (b) Electric Force (c) Normal Force (d) Nuclear Force
4. An electric field that balance the weight of an oil droplet will act
(a) Downward (b) Upward (c) Along surface of sphere
5. The equation for the stokes law is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. The charge determined by the Millikan’s experiment is
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (a)
ARTICLE “12.12 CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY MILLIKAN’S METHOD” IN PAST PAPERS

Essay Questions (5 Marks)
1. Describe Millikan’s Oil Drop method for determination of charge on an electron.
25
12.13 CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that can store charge. It consists of two metal plates placed near one another
separated by air, vacuum or any other insulator. When plates of a capacitor are connected with a battery of
voltage V, the battery places a charge on the plate connected with its positive terminal and a charge –
on the other plate which is connected to its negative
terminal. It is found that amount of charge on one plate of
capacitor is directly proportional to the potential
difference
where is the constant of proportionality and is called

capacitance of the capacitor. Its value depends upon the
geometry and medium between them.
CAPACITANCE (Definition)
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called capacitance of a capacitor. It can also be defined as
“ The amount of charge on one plate necessary to raise the potential
of the plate by one volt with respect to the other”.
Mathematically it is described as:
Its SI unit is , which is called farad.
Exercise Short Question related to the article “12.13 CAPACITOR”

Exercise Short Question # 3. How can you identify that which plate of capacitor is positively
charged?
Ans. The presence of charge on a body is detected by a device called gold leaf electroscope. The leaves of
gold leaf electroscope are diverged by giving them negative charge.
 If the disc is touched with any plate of the charged capacitor and the divergence of the leaves
increases, the plate of capacitor is negatively charged
 If the divergence of leaves decreases, then that plate of capacitor is positively charged.
RELATED NUMERICALS
12.13 A capacitor has a capacitance of . In the charging process, electrons are removed
from one plate and placed on the other one. When the potential difference between the plates is 450
V, how many electrons have been transferred?( )
Given Data: Capacitance , Potential Difference ,
Charge
To Determine: Total Number of Electrons Transferred
Calculations: For a capacitor , From Quantization of Charges
Comparing (1) and (2):
26
MCQs RELATED TO THE CAPACITOR

1. Capacitors may be considered as a device for
(a) Storing energy (b) Increasing resistance (c) Decreasing resistance (d) None
2. The charge stored in a capacitor is directly proportional to
(a) Resistance (b) Resistivity (c) Amount of Current (d) Potential Difference
3. An expression for magnitude of charge on either of the plates of a capacitor is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. Farad is the S.I. unit of
(a) Charge (b) Current (c) Electric Flux (d) Capacitance
5. Farad is defined as:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. A capacitor of capacitance is fully charged from a D.C. source. What is the charge
stored by the capacitor:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (b)
12.14 CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR (Derivation of Expression)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor consists of two plane metal plates, each of area , separated by a
distance as shown in figure below:
We want to find out the expression of capacitance for a
parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are separated by air.
By definition, the capacitance is
where is the charge on the capacitor and is the potential

difference between the parallel plates. The magnitude of
electric intensity is given by
The electric intensity between two oppositely charged plates is given by
where is the surface charge density on each plate. Hence, equation (3) will become
By comparing (2) and (3), we get
Putting values in equation (1)

……………….. (5)
This is the expression of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are separated by vacuum.
27
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM ON THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL

PLATE CAPACITOR
The expression of capacitance of capacitor when a dielectric medium of
dielectric constant is placed between the plates of capacitor will be:
As , so capacitance of capacitor increases times when a dielectric

medium is placed between plates of a capacitor.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A SUBSTANCE (Definition)
The dielectric constant of a substance is defined as
“The ratio of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with an insulating
substance as medium between the plates to its capacitance with vacuum as
medium between them”
Mathematically, it is described as:
12.14 CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

1. If the medium between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is air or vacuum, then its
capacitance is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. The medium used between the plates of capacitor is called
(a) Polarization (b) Dielectric (c) Insulators (d) Medium
3. If some dielectric medium of dielectric constant is inserted between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor, then its capacitance is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. Inserting a dielectric between the plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor
(a) Decreases Capacitance (b) Increases capacitance
(c) Leaves the capacitance same (d) Encourages the breakdown between plates
5. The ratio of and is equal to
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. If ‘Q’ is the charge on either of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor of area A, the surface
charge density on the plate is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d)
ARTICLE “12.14 CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Why does capacitance of a capacitor increases when a dielectric material is inserted between its
plates.
2. How will capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor be affected if area of plates is doubled and
separation between them is halved?
1. Define capacitance. Derive the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and
without dielectric between its plates.
2. What is capacitor? Find the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
3. Derive the relation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor and hence define dielectric constant.
28
12.15 ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRICS

ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC (Definition)
The dielectric consists of atoms and molecules which are electrically neutral. The centers of positive and
negative charges coincide in the absence of an electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field
between the plates of a capacitor, the centers of positive and negative charges now no longer coincide with
each other. Thus the molecules of the dielectric under the action of electric field become dipoles and the
dielectric is said to be polarized.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE (Definition)
Two equal but opposite point charges separated by a small distance form an electric dipole. When a
dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, its molecules become dipoles under the effect of
electric field.
EFFECT OF ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR
The positively charged plate attracts the negative end of the molecular dipoles and negatively charged plate
attracts the positive end. Thus the surface of the dielectric which is in
contact with the positively charged plate places a layer of negative
charges on the plate. Similarly the surface of the dielectric in contact
with the negatively charged plate places a layer of positive charges. It
decreases the surface density of the charge on the plates, which result
in decrease in electric intensity . This decrease of potential
difference between the plates. As the capacitance is inversely

proportional to the potential difference between plates. Therefore, the capacitance of capacitor increased
due to electric polarization of a dielectric.
MCQs RELATED TO ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRICS
1. When a dielectric material s placed in an electric field, it:
(a) Conducts (b) Exhibit Charge (c) Undergoes Electrolysis (d) Become Polarized
2. Two equal and opposite charge separated by a small distance form:
(a) Electric dipole (b) Amperean current (c) Null charge (d) Neutral source
3. Dielectric is also called:
(a) Conductor (b) Insulator (c) Semi-Conductor
4. The increase in capacitance of a capacitor due to presence of dielectric is due to___________of
dielectric
(a) Electrification (b) Ionization (c) Electrolysis (d) Electric Polarization
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d)
ARTICLE “12.15 ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRICS” IN PAST PAPERS

1. What is dipole?
2. What is polarization and how dipoles are formed in dielectric.
3. What change take place when polarization of dielectric occur?
29
12.16 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

ENERGY STORED IN THE ELECTRIC FIELD OF A CAPACITOR (Derivation of Expression)
Consider a capacitor having capacitance C is connected with a battery having a terminal potential
difference V.
We want to find out the expression of energy stored in electric field of a charged capacitor.
The charge on the plate possesses electrical potential energy. So work is to be done to deposit the charge
on the plate. With each small increment of charge, the potential difference between the plates increases.
This is due to the fact that a larger amount of work is needed to bring up next increment of charge.
 Initially, when the capacitor is uncharged, the potential difference between the plates is zero
 Finally it becomes V when charge q is deposited on each plate. Thus average potential difference is
.
Therefore the energy stored in the capacitor is:
Substituting and , we get:
( ) ( )
Where is the volume between the plates.

Energy Density
Energy density can be find out by dividing the energy stored in the capacitor by volume of the capacitor:
NUMERICALS RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.16ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR”

12.12 The electronic flash attachment for a camera contains a capacitor for storing the energy used
to produce the flash. In one such unit, the potential difference between the plates of a 750 µF
capacitor is 330 V. Determine the energy that is used to produce the flash.
Given Data: Potential Difference , Capacitance
To Determine: Energy
Calculations: As
MCQs RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.16ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR”

1. The expression of energy stored in a capacitor is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. If the potential difference across the two plates of a parallel plate capacitor is double, then the
energy stored in it will be:
(a) 2 times (b) 8 times (c) 4 times (d) Remains constant
3. Energy density in case of a capacitor is always proportional to
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. Unit of energy density of electric field is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. A capacitor stores energy in the form of:
(a) Magnetic field (b) Heat energy (c) Electrical energy (d) Mechanical energy
30
6. The expression for the energy density is:

(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. Will a capacitor store more energy with a dielectric other than air?
(a) Yes (b) No
8. In a charged capacitor, the energy resides in:
(a) In the negative plate (b) in the positive plate (c) edges of plates in (d) field between plates
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b)
MCQ # 7: (a) MCQ # 8: (d)
ARTICLE “12.16ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Define capacitor and capacitance. Derive the formula for energy stored in a capacitor.
2. What s the capacitor? Show that energy density for a capacitor which has electric field strength E is
given by
12.17 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
RC CIRCUIT (Definition)
The electrical circuits consist of both capacitor and resistors are called RC circuit.
CHARGING OF CAPACITOR
When the RC circuit is connected to a battery, it starts charging the capacitor through resistor R.
The capacitor is not charged immediately, rather charges built up gradually to the equilibrium value
. The growth of charge with time is shown in the graph. According to the graph, at and
increases gradually with time till it reaches the equilibrium value .
Discharging of Capacitor
Graph shows the discharging of a capacitor through resistor. The graph shows that discharging
begins at when and decreases gradually to zero.
TIME CONSTANT
How fast or how slow the capacitor is charging or discharging, depends upon the product of the
resistance and the capacitance. As the unit of the product RC is that of time, so this product is known as the
time constant and is defined as
“the time required by the capacitor to deposit 0.63 times the equilibrium charge”.
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The charge reaches its equilibrium value sooner when the time constant is small. Similarly, smaller values
of time constant RC leads to a more rapid discharge.
Numerical Related to the article “12.17 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR”
Example 12.6: The time constant of a series RC circuit is . Verify that an ohm times farad is
equivalent to second.
Solution: Ohm’s law in terms of potential difference V, current I and resistance R can be written as:
( )
The charge stored in a capacitor can be find out by formula:
Multiplying equations (1) and (2), we get:
Hence
MCQs RELATED TO CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
1. The speed of charging or discharging a cpacitor depends upon product of resistance and ________
(a) Current (b) Voltage (c) Capacitance (d) Charge
2. The term “RC” has same unit as that of:
(a) Potential (b) Capacitance (c) Energy (d) Time
3. During charging of a capacitor, the ratio of instantaneous charge and maximum charge on plates
of capacitors at t = RC is
(a) 36.8% (b) 63.2% (c) 20% (d) 30%
4. If RC is small, then capacitor will be charged and discharged
(a) Slowly (b) Quickly (c) With Medium Speed (d) No Effect
5. In RC series circuit, the correct relation for the time constant is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. A resistor is connected with a capacitor. The time constant of the circuit is:
(a) 0.1 s (b) 1 s (c) 2.5 s (d) 10 s
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d)
ARTICLE “12.17 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Draw a graph between q-t for charging and discharging of a capacitor in case of RC circuit.
2. Verify that an ohm times farad is equivalent to second.
3. What is time constant?
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33
Chapter 13 (2nd Year Physics) Current Electricity
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

(Definition) ELECTRIC CURRENT
The amount of electric charge that flows through a cross section of
a conductor per unit time is known as electric current.
Mathematical Expression: If is the amount of charge flow through a
cross-section in time , then the electric current is described
mathematically as:
It is a base quantity and its unit is ampere.

(Definition) AMPERE
If one coulomb charge flows through a cross-section of a conductor in one second then the current
will be one ampere.
CURRENT DIRECTION
Earlier, it was thought that the current flow through a conductor is due to positive charges from
higher potential to lower potential in any external circuit. But later on, it was found that the flow of current
in metallic conductor is due to the flow of electrons from the point of lower potential to the point of higher
potential.
But still we also take the direction of flow of current along the flow of positive charges. The reason
is that it has been found experimentally that positive charge moving in one direction is equivalent in all
external effects to a negative charge moving in opposite direction. The current that flow due to of positive
charge is called conventional current.
(Definition) CONVENTIONAL CURRENT:
The current flow due to positive charges from a
point at higher potential to a point at lower potential
is called conventional current.
(Definition) ELECTRONIC CURRENT
The current flow due to electrons is called electronic current. It flow from point of lower potential to the
point of higher potential.
CURRENT THROUGH A METALLIC CONDUCTOR
 All atoms contain free electrons. In the absence of any external electric
field, the free electrons are in random motion just like the molecules of
gas in a container and the net current through wire is zero (Fig. a).
 If the ends of the wire are connected to a battery, an electric field (⃗ ) will
setup at every point with in the wire. Due to electric effect of the battery
the electrons will experience a force in the direction opposite to ⃗ .
1
Muhammad Ali Malik, Govt. Degree College, Naushera. Please Report errors at WhatsApp # +923016775811
(Definition) DRIFT VELOCITY:

When electric field is established across the ends of a conductor, the
free electrons modify their random motion and drift slowly with a
constant velocity in the direction opposite to ⃗ . This constant
velocity is known as drift velocity.
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT”
Exercise Short Q # 1. A potential difference is applied across the ends of a copper wire. What is the
effect on the drift velocity of free electrons by (i) Increasing the potential difference, (ii) Decreasing
the length and the temperature of the wire.
Ans. The drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is described by the formula:
where is the potential difference between the ends of conductor, is the length of conductor
and is the resistivity of wire. From equation, it is clear that
i. Drift velocity of electron increases with increase in potential difference
ii. Drift velocity of electron also increases by decreasing the length and temperature of wire.
Numerical Related to the Article “13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT”

13.2 A charge of 90 C passes through a wire in 1 hour and 15 minutes. What is the current in the wire?
Given Data: Charge , Time
To Determine: Current
Calculations: Current
13.1 How many electrons pass through an electric bulb in one minute if the 300 mA current is
passing through it?
Given Data: Current , Time
To Determine: No. of Electrons
Calculations: As Current
MCQs Related to the Article “13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT”

1. One coulomb per second is equal to
(a) Joule (b) Volt (c) Ampere (d) Watt
2. Conventional current flow from
(a) From higher potential to lower potential (b) From lower potential to higher potential
(c) From lower potential to lower potential (d) None
3. In the metallic conductor the current is due to flow of ___________
(a) Positron (b) Electrons (c) Proton (d) Neutrons
4. In liquids and gases, the current is due to the motion of :
(a) Negative charges (b) Positive charges (c) Neutral particles d) Both negative and positive charges
5. Charge carries in electrolytes are:
(a) Protons (b) electrons (c) holes (d) positive and negative ions
6. Dirft velocity of electrons in a conductor is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. A battery move a charge of 40 C around a circuit at constant rate in 20 s. The current will be:
(a) 2 A (b) 0.5 A (c) 80 A (d) 800 A
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (b) MCQ # 7: (a)
Article 13.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT IN PAST PAPERS
1. What is conventional current? How does it differ from electronic current?
2
13.2 SOURCES OF CURRENT

(Definition) SOURCES OF CURRENT
A source which maintains constant potential difference between the ends of the conductor is
called sources of current. Source of current converts some non-
electrical energy (chemical, mechanical, heat or solar energy) to
electrical energy.
Examples
i) Cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
ii) Electric generators convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
iii) Thermo-couples convert heat energy into electrical energy.
iv) Solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.2 SOURCES OF CURRENT”
1. In the thermocouple the heat energy is converted into
(a) Mechanical energy (b) Electric energy (c) Magnetic energy (d) None
2. An electric generator converts _________________ into electrical energy:
(a) Heat energy (b) Electric energy (c) Magnetic energy (d) Mechanical Energy
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (d)
Article “13. 2 SOURCES OF CURRENT” IN PAST PAPERS
1. Write down a note on the sources of current?
2. Name any four sources of current.
13.3 EFFECTS OF CURRENT

EFFECTS OF CURRENT
The presence of current produces various effects which can be detected. Its some effects are given below:
i) Heating effect
ii) Magnetic effect
iii) Chemical effect
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
Current flow through a metallic conductor due to the motion of free electrons. During their motion
they frequently collide with one another. On each collision they transfer some of their kinetic energy to the
atom with which they collide. And these collisions produce heating
effect in the wire.
It is found that the heat produced by the current in the
wire of resistance during time interval is given by the expression:
The heating effect of the current is utilized in electric heaters, kettle,

toaster and electric iron etc.
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT
The flow of current always carries magnetic field in surrounding space. The strength of magnetic
field depends upon the value of current and the distance from the element. The pattern of the field
produced by a current carrying straight wIre, a coil and a solenoid is shown in the figure.
Magnetic effect is used to detect the presence of current. Moreover, all the machines involving
electric motors also use the magnetic effect of current.
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CHEMICAL EFFECT OF CURRENT

Certain liquids (such as copper sulphate solution) conduct electricity due to some chemical reaction
takes place within them. The study of this process is known as electrolysis.
The chemical reaction produced during electrolysis of a liquid are due to chemical effects of
current. It depends upon the nature of the liquid and quantity of electricity passed through the liquid.
Example of CHEMICAL EFFECT OF CURRENT
When dissolved in water, it dissociates into and On passing the current, the following
reaction takes place due to chemical effect of electric current.
At cathode
The copper atoms thus formed are deposited at the cathode plate.
While copper is being deposited at the cathode, the ions

move towards the anode. Copper atoms from anode go into the
solution as copper atoms combine with sulphate ions to form
copper sulphate:
As the electrolysis proceeds, copper is continuously deposited on the cathode, while an equal amount of
copper dissolved into the solution and the density of copper sulphate solution remains unaltered.
(Definition) ELECTROPLATING
A process of coating a thin layer of some expensive metal (gold, silver etc) on an article of some
cheap metal is called electroplating.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.3 EFFECTS OF CURRENT”
1. The heating effect of current utilized in
(a) Iron (b) Tube light (c) Fan (d) Motor
2. The heat produced by passage of current through resistor (Joule’s Law) is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. Magnetic effect of current is utilized in:
(a) Heater (b) Iron (c) Electrolyte (d) Electric Motor
4. Current can be measured by using:
(a) Heating effect (b) Magnetic effect (c) Chemical effect (d) None of these
5. When electricity passes through the liquid, then process is called:
(a) Electro late (b) Electrolysis (c) Electro-fluid (d) None
6. The electrode connected with positive terminal of the battery is called:
(a) Anode (b) Cathode
4
7. Through an electrolyte, electric current is passed due to drift of

(a) Free electrons (b) Protons
(c) Free electrons and holes (d) Positive and negative ions
8. In electrolysis processes of , Cu is deposited on:
(a) Anode (b) Cathode
9. The process in which a thin layer of some expensive metal is deposited on the article of cheap
metal is called
(a) Metal Depositing (b) Overlapping (c) Electroplating (d) Coating
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (b)
MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (c)
Article “13.3 EFFECTS OF CURRENT” IN PAST PAPERS

1. What does the equation show?
2. Name some effects of current.
3. Define the term Electroplating.
4. Describe magnetic effect of current.
5. Write a note on Heating Effect of Current
13.4 OHM’S LAW

OHM’s LAW
“The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the applied potential difference if all physical states remain same”
Mathematically it is expressed as
Or
where is the constant of proportionality called resistance of conductor.

(Definition) RESISTANCE
The opposition against the flow of current is known as resistance. By Ohm’s law, resistance is described as:
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm and is denoted by symbol .
Note: It is clear from expression that
(Definition) NON-OHMIC DEVICES

Those devices which don’t the Ohm’s law are called non Ohmic devices. The current-voltage graph
of non-ohmic devices is not a straight line. The example of non-ohmic devices are filament bulb and semi-
conductor diodes. The VI graph of a filament bulb and semi-conductor diode are shown in figure below:
5
SERIES COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

In series combination of resistances, the
resistances are connected end to end. There is only
one way for current to flow in series circuit.
In this type of combination the voltage divides itself but current through each resistance remain
same. The equivalent resistance is given by:
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

In parallel combination of resistances, the ends of all
resistances are connected across each other and their ends joined
at two points. There are more than one ways for current to flow
in parallel circuit.
In this type of combination the voltage across each
resistance remain same but current divides itself. The equivalent
resistance can be find out by using expression:
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “13.4 OHM’S LAW”

Exercise Short Q # 5. What are the difficulties in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys
ohm’s law?
Ans. In case of a lighted bulb, the temperature of the filament increases with the passage of current through
it. Hence the Ohm’s law can’t be applied to filament bulb.
Thus the main difficulty in testing whether the filament of a lighted bulb obeys ohm’s law is the
change in temperature with the flow of current in it.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.4 OHM’S LAW”
1. The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential
difference across its ends provided that temperature remains constant is statement of:
(a) Boyle’s Law (b) Charles’s Law (c) Joule’s Law (d) Ohm’s Law
2. The VI-graph of Ohm’s law is:
(a) Hyperbola (b) Ellipse (c) Parabola (d) Straight
3. Mathematical form of ohm’s law is
(a) I = VR (b) I = V/R (c) I = R/V (d) R = IV
4. 1 Ohm is defined as:
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 1
5. A source of 10 volts is applied across a wire, the current is:
(a) 1 A (b) 2 A (c) 10 A (d) 15 A
6. Ohm’s law is valid for only current flowing in
(a) Conductors (b) Transistors (c) Diodes (d) Electric Areas
7. For non-ohmic devices, the graph between V & I is:
(a) Straight Line (b) Not a Straight Line
8. The proportionality constant between current and potential difference is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9. In series circuit the net resistance is
(a) Algebraic Sum of all resistance (b) Sum of reciprocals of all resistances in circuit
(c) Remain constant (d) None
10. A wire of resistance R is cut into two equal parts, its resistance becomes R/2. What happens to
resistivity?
(a) Double (b) Half (c) Remains same (d) One forth
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11. Equivalent resistance when two when two resistance are connected in parallel is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
12. The potential difference between the head to tail of an electric eel is:
(a) 600 V (b) 700 V (c) 800 V (d) 900 V
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (a)
MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (d) MCQ # 9: (a) MCQ # 10: (c) MCQ # 11: (a) MCQ # 12: (a)
Article “13.4 OHM’S LAW” IN PAST PAPERS

1. State Ohm’s law. Also define non-ohmic devices.
2. State Ohm’s law. Also define resistance.
3. What are non-ohmic devices? Give two examples.
4. Write down the value of equivalent resistance for three resistors , and when joined in
(a) series (b) parallel.
Essay Question (5 Marks)
1. State and explain Ohm’s law. Also explain the behavior of Ohmic and non-ohmic devices with the
help of graphs
13.5 RESISTIVITY AND ITS DEPENDANCE ON TEMPERATURE

(Definition) RESISTIVITY or SPECIFIC RESISTANCE
The resistance of a meter cube of material is called its resistivity or specific resistance. It is
denoted by the symbol . Its SI unit is ohm-meter ( )
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION FOR RESISTIVITY or SPECIFIC RESISTANCE
Consider a conducting wire having length L and
cross-sectional area A as shown in figure. It is found
experimentally that the resistance ( ) of the wire is
directly proportional to the length of the wire ( ) and
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area ( ).


Combining (1) & (2), we get:

where is constant of proportionality known as Resistivity. Solving

the above equation for , we have:
This is required expression of electrical resistivity. The SI unit of

electrical resistivity is Ohm-meter.
(Definition) TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
The fractional change in resistance per Kelvin is known as the
temperature coefficient of resistance. It is denoted by symbol and
is described mathematically as:
where is the resistance of the conductor at and is the resistance at .
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(Definition) Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity

The fractional change in resistivity per Kelvin is known as the
temperature coefficient of resistivity.
where = resistivity of conductor at and = resistivity of

conductor at
 All metals, e.g., Gold, Silver, Copper etc., have positive
temperature coefficient of resistivity.
 All semi-conductors, e.g., Silicon and Germanium etc., have
negative temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Exercise Short Q Related to Article “13.5 RESISTIVITY & ITS DEPENDANCE ON TEMPERATURE ”
Exercise Short Q # 2. Do bends in a wire affect its electrical resistance? Explain.
Ans. The resistance of the conductor is described by the formula:
It is clear from expression that the resistance of conductor depends upon the geometry and nature
of conductor. Hence the bends in conducting wires don’t affect its electrical resistance.
Exercise Short Q # 4. Why does the resistance of conductor rise with temperature?
Ans. The resistance offered by a conductor to the flow of electric current is due to collisions which the free
electrons encounter with atoms of the lattice. As the temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of
vibration of atoms increases and hence the probability of their collision with free electrons also increases
which result increase of resistance of conductor.
NUMERICAL Related to Article “13.5 RESISTIVITY & ITS DEPENDANCE ON TEMPERATURE ”
13.4 A rectangular bar of iron is 2.0 cm by 2.0 cm in cross section and 40 cm long. Calculate its
resistance if the resistivity of iron is 11 x 10-8 Ωm.
Given Data: Cross-Sectional Area ,
Length , Resistivity
To Determine: Resistance
Calculations: As
13.5 The resistance of an iron wire at 0 oC is 1x104 Ω. What is the resistance at 500 oC if the
temperature coefficient of resistance of iron is 5.2 x 10-3 K-1?
Given Data: Resistance at 0 , Temperature
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance ̅
To Determine: Resistance of Iron at 500 oC
Calculations: From definition of Temperature Coefficient of Resistance ̅
̅
̅
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MCQs Related to the Article “13.5 RESISTIVITY AND ITS DEPENDANCE ON TEMPERATURE”
1. The resistance offered by a cubic meter of a substance is called:
(a) Reactance (b) Conductance (c) Conductivity (d) Resistivity
2. The resistivity of a material in terms of its resistance R, cross-sectional area A and length L is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The reciprocal of resistivity is called
(a) Resistance (b) Conduction (c) Conductivity (d) None
4. The SI unit of resistivity (specific resistance) is:
(a) Ω. m (b) (Ω.m)-1 (c) Ω.m-1 (d) None
5. The unit of conductivity is
(a) Ω. m (b) (c) Ω.m-1 (d) None
6. When temperature increases, the resistance of conductor:
(a) Increases (b) Decreases (c) Remains constant (d) Vanishes
7. If the length and diameter of conductor is double, the resistance is
(a) Remain same (b) Double (c) Half (d) Four times
8. A wire of uniform cross-section A and length L is cut into two equal parts. The resistance of each
part becomes:
(a) Double (b) Half (c) 4 times (d) ¼ times
9. Specific resistance of a material depends upon:
(a) Length (b) Area (c) Temperature (d) Both a & b
10. Temperature coefficient of resistance is equal to:
11. The fractional change in resistivity per Kelvin
(a) Co-efficient in resistance (b) Co-efficient of resistivity (c) Resistance
12. Temperature coefficient of resistivity is measured in:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (a)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (c) MCQ # 11: (b) MCQ # 12: (c)
Article “13.5 RESISTIVITY AND ITS DEPENDANCE ON TEMPERATURE” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity.
2. Give two substances having negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Also define temperature
coefficient of resistance.
 Define resistivity and explain its dependence upon temperature. Also derive expression of
resistivity.
13.6 COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTANCES

CARBON RESISTORS
Carbons resistors consist of high grade ceramic rod, on which a thin resistive film of carbon is deposited.
The numerical value of their resistance is indicated by the color code which consists of bands of different
colors printed on the body of the conductor.
Usually, the code consists of four bands, which are interpreted as:
 The first band indicates the first digit in the numerical value of the
resistance.
 The second band gives the second digit of numerical value.
 The third band is decimal multiplier i.e., it gives the number of
zeros after the first two digits.
 The fourth band gives resistance tolerance.
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TOLERANCE (Definition)
Tolerance means the possible variation in the value of resistance from the marked value. A gold band has
tolerance, a silver band has tolerance. If the tolerance band is missing, then the carbon
resistance would have tolerance.
RHEOSTAT (Definition, Construction and Applications)

It is wire wounded variable resistor. It is consist of an
insulating cylinder on which a Manganin wire is wounded
over an insulating cylinder. The ends of the wire are
connected to two fixed terminals (A and B). The third terminal
C is attached to a sliding contact which can be moved over the
wire.
A rheostat can be used as a (i) Variable Resistor & (ii)
Potential Divider.
RHEOSTAT AS VARIABLE RESISTOR
Rheostat can be used as a variable resistor. For this
purpose, one of its fixed terminal A and the sliding terminal C
is inserted in the circuit. If sliding contact C move towards
terminal A then the resistance involved in the circuit
decreases, if it moves towards B then the resistance involved in the circuit increases.
RHEOSTAT AS POTENTIAL DIVIDER
To use rheostat as potential divider, potential difference is applied
across the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a battery. Let
Resistance of the wire between terminals A & B,
Resistance of the wire between terminals B & C
The current I passing through the circuit is given by:
Potential difference between the portion BC of the wire AB is given by:
The equation shows that this circuit can provide potential difference at output terminal varying from zero
to the full potential difference of the battery depending on the position of sliding contact.
 If the sliding contact moves towards the end B, the resistance of portion of the wire decreases
which result in decrease of output voltage .
 If the sliding contact C is moved towards the end A, the output voltage increases.
10
THERMISTORS (Definition, Composition and Applications)

Thermistors are heat sensitive resistors. These are made from mixture of metallic oxides of nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron etc. These are pressed into desired shapes
and then baked at high temperature.
Thermistors with positive temperature coefficient of
resistance as well as negative temperature of resistance are
available. The thermistors having high negative coefficient of
temperature are used for accurate measuring of temperature
up to 10K.
Thermistors are used for low temperature measurements up to 10 K. They are also used as
temperature sensors.
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “13.6 COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTANCES”
Exercise Short Q # 3. What are the resistances of the resistors given in the figure A and B. What is
the tolerance of each? Explain what is meant by the tolerance.
For figure A. The color codes for figure A are as follows: For figure B. The color codes for figure B are as follows:
Brown 1 (First Digit) Yellow 4 (First Digit)
Green 5 (Second Digit) White 9 (Second Digit)
Red 2 (Number of Zero) Orange 3 (Number of Zero)
Therefore Therefore
Resistance = 1500  Resistance = 49000 
And And
Tolerance = T = 5% Tolerance = T = 10%
Tolerance
Tolerance means the possible variation in the value of resistance from the marked value. For example, a
1000 Ω resistance with a tolerance of 10% can have an actual resistance between 900 Ω and 1100 Ω.
Exercise Short Q # 7. Describe a circuit which will give a continuously
varying potential.
Ans. To use rheostat as potential divider, potential difference is applied across
the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a battery. And the output is
obtained between B & C terminals.
 If the sliding contact C moves towards the end B, the resistance of portion of
the wire decreases which result in decrease of output voltage .
 If the sliding contact C is moved towards the end A, the output voltage
increases.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.6 COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTANCES”
1. In the carbon resistor, the value of resistance can be find out by their
(a) Wires (b) Terminals (c) Color Bands (d) Spots
2. The color code for carbon resistance usually consist of:
(a) 3 bands (b) 2 bands (c) 4 bands (d) 7 bands
3. The colors of strips on a certain carbon resistor from extreme left are yellow, black and red
respectively. Its resistance is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
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4. If the tolerance color is gold then it value is

(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. If forth band on a carbon resistor is of silver color, then its tolerance is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. If forth band is missing on resistance, its tolerance is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. The third band is written in the form of power of
(a) 2 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 10
8. The numerical value of black color is:
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 0
9. The color code for the color Grey is
(a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 5
10. A rheostat can be used as a
(a) Variable resistor (b) Potential divider (c) Both a and b (d) None of these
11. The wire used in Rheostat is made from
(a) Constantan (b) Nichrome (c) Manganin (d) Tungston
12. The number of terminals in a rheostat are:
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
13. Heat sensitive resistors are called
(a) Resistors (b) Capacitors (c) Thermisters (d) Inductors
14. Thermistor can be used for the accurate measurement of
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Temperature (d) Heat
15. Thermistors with high negative temperature coefficient of resistivity are used for accurate
measurement of low temperature till:
(a) 1 K (b) 5 K (c) 8 K (d) 10 K
16. Thermistors are composed of:
(a) Semiconductors (b) Metals (c) Metal Oxides (d) Superconductors
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (d)
MCQ # 7: (d) MCQ # 8: (d) MCQ # 9: (b) MCQ # 10: (c) MCQ # 11: (c) MCQ # 12: (b)
MCQ # 13: (c) MCQ # 14: (c) MCQ # 15: (d) MCQ # 16: (c)
Article “13.6 COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTANCES” in PAST PAPERS

1. What do you mean by tolerance of a resistor? How is it expressed by different colors.
2. What is thermistor? Give its two applications.
13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER AND POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS
ELECTRICAL POWER & POWER DISSPATION (Derivation of Expression)
“The rate at which battery is supplying electrical energy is called its electrical power.”
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery having potential difference V is
connected in series with resistance as shown in the figure.
Let a steady current flows through the circuit. Using the meaning of
potential difference, the work done in moving up through the potential
difference V is:
This is the energy supplied by the battery. The rate at which the battery
is supplying electrical energy is called the electrical power of the battery.
Since
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Power Dissipation
By the principal of conservation of energy, the electrical power of the battery is dissipated in the
resistor R. Therefore,
From Ohm’s law, substituting and in above equation, we get:
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER AND POWER DISSIPATION
IN RESISTORS”
Exercise Short Q # 6. Is the filament resistance lower or higher in a 500 W, 220 V bulb than in a 100
W, 220 V bulb?
Ans. We know that
 The resistance of filament of 500 W, 220 V bulb is:
 The resistance of filament of 100 W, 220 V bulb is:
It is clear that the filament resistance is lowered in a 500 W, 220 V bulb than 100 W, 220 V bulb.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER & POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS”
1. The expression for determining the power dissipation in an electric circuit:
(a) (b) (c) (d) All
2. A resistor is to be connected in series with a 12 V battery. Determine power dissipation:
(a) 0.5 W (b) 6 W (c) 12 W (d) 24 W
3. What is power expended in a resistor when a 5 A current is passing through it:
(a) 50 W (b) 80 W (c) 100 W (d) 500 W
4. A 1200W heater operate on a 120 V line for 1 hour. What is the current passing through it:
(a) 1 A (b) 5 A (c) 10 A (d) 120 A
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER & POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS” in PAST PAPERS
1. Determine the electric power dissipated in a resistor carrying current
13.8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
RELATION BETWEEN EMF & TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF THE BATTERY
Consider a battery of emf E having internal resistance r is
connected in series with external resistance R as shown in the
figure. The current I flowing through the circuit is given by:
Here is the terminal potential difference of the

battery in the presence of current I and is the voltage drop on
internal resistance of the battery.
Explanation
The left side of equation (1) is the emf of the battery,
which is equal to the energy gained by unit charge (electron) to
13
move from its negative to positive terminal. The right side of the equation gives an account of the
utilization of this energy. It states that, as a unit charge passes through a circuit, a part of its energy equal to
is dissipated into the cell and the rest of the energy is dissipated into the external resistance R. it is given
by the potential drop .
DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN EMF OF A BATTERY AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Electromotive Force Potential Difference

i. Energy supplied by the battery per unit charge i. Work done per unit charge in moving it from one
to move it in an electrical circuit circuit is point to another against the electric field is
called electromotive force (emf). called potential difference.
ii. emf is the cause ii. Potential difference is the effect of emf
iii. The emf is always present even when no iii. The potential difference across the conductor is
current is drawn through battery. zero when no current flows through it.
MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT DELIVERED BY THE BATTERY TO EXTERNAL CIRCUIT (Derivation)

Consider a battery of emf E having internal resistance r is connected in
series with external resistance R as shown in the figure.
As the current is flows through the of resistance , the
charges flow from a point of higher potential to a point of lower
potential and as such, they loose potential energy. Then power
delivered by the battery of resistance R will be:
As the current flowing through the circuit is , therefore
( )
When , the denominator of the expression of is least and so is then maximum.

Thus the maximum power is delivered to the resistance (load), when internal resistance of the
source equals the load resistance. For , the equation (1) becomes:
Exercise Short Question of “13.8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE”
Exercise Short Q # 8. Explain why the terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when
current drawn from it is increases.
Ans. The terminal potential difference of the battery of emf is described by the formula:
Where is the internal resistance of the battery and I is the current flowing through outer circuit.
It is clear from equation that when I is large, the factor becomes large and becomes small. Hence
terminal potential difference of a battery decreases when current drawn from it is increased.
14
MCQs Related to the Article“13.8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE”

1. The S.I unit of emf is same as:
(a) Work (b) Energy (c) Power (d) Potential Difference
2. The terminal potential difference of a battery of internal resistance “r” and emf “ ” is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. Electromotive force and potential difference, both are measured in:
(a) Coulomb (b) Ampere (c) Volt (d) Newton
4. The emf is always ___________, even when no current is drawn through the battery of the cell.
(a) Zero (b) present (c) maximum (d) minimum
5. Which electric bulb has the least resistance?
(a) 60 watts (b) 100 watts (c) 200 watts (d) 500 watts
6. An electric heater 220V, 440W has a resistance
(a) 2 Ω (b) 110 Ω (c) 0.5 Ω (d) 20 Ω
7. Power out is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d) All of these
8. The maximum power delivered by battery is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9. When the internal resistance r of a source is equal to the load resistance R, the power output is
given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
10. If a resistor of resistance R is connected across a battery of internal resistance r, then the output
power will be maximum when:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (d)
MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (a) MCQ # 9: (a) MCQ # 10: (b)
Article “13. 8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE” in PAST PAPERS
1. Distinguish between electromotive force and terminal potential difference.
13.9 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
KIRCHHOFF’S 1ST RULE
It states that
Or
It is described mathematically as:
Explanation
Consider a section where four wires meet at a point A. I1 and I2
are flowing towards the point where I3 and I4 flowing away from the
point A. Mathematically represented as
15
KIRCHHOFF’S 2ND RULE

It states that
Explanation
Consider a closed circuit shown in the figure below:
Suppose is greater than .
 When a positive charge passes through the cell from low ( ) to high potential ( ), it gained
energy because the work is done on it. The energy gained by
charge is .
 When the current passes through the cell , it loses energy
equal to because here the charge passes from high to
low potential.
 In going through the resistor , the charge loses energy
equal to where is potential difference across .
 Similarly the loss of energy while passing through the resistor
is .
Finally, the charge reaches the negative terminal of the cell from where we started.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total change in energy is zero. Therefore, we can write:
This is mathematical form of Kirchhoff’s rule.

NUMERICALS RELATED TO SOLUTION OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
13.3 Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit (Fig.), total current drawn from the source
and the current through each resistor.
Given Data: emf , Resistances

To Determine: (a) Equivalent Resistance (b) Total Current Drawn from Source ,
(c) Current Through , (d) Current Through , (e) Current Through ,
Calculations: (a) (a) Let is Equivalent resistance of and , then
As and are connected in series, therefore:
(b) Total Current Drawn from Source
(c) Potential Difference across
Current Through
(d) Current Through
(e) Current Through
16
13.6 Calculate terminal potential difference of each of cells in circuit of Fig.
Given Data: emf of 1st battery , Internal Resistance of 1st Battery ,

emf of 2nd battery , Internal Resistance of 2nd Battery , External Resistance
To Determine: (a) Terminal Potential Difference of 1st Battery ,

(b) Terminal Potential Difference of 2nd Battery
Calculations: As , and are in series: Equivalent Resistance
Effective emf
Current in Circuit
(a)
(b)
13.7 Find the current which flows in all the resistances of the circuit of Fig.
Given Data: emf of 1st battery , emf of 2nd battery

Resistances ,
To Determine: (a) Current Through , (b) Current Through
Calculations: Let and are the current through Loop-1 and Loop-2 respectively
Applying KVR for Loop-1:

Putting value of from equation (1) in equation (2), we get:
Putting value of in equation (1):

(a) Current Through
(b) Current Through
17
13.8 Find the current and power dissipated in each resistance of the circuit shown in the
Fig.
Given Data: emf of 1st battery , emf of 2nd battery

Resistances , , ,
To Determine: (a) Current Through Resistances, (b) Power Dissipation in Resistances
Calculations: Let and are the current through Loop-1 and Loop-2 respectively
Putting value of from equation (1) in equation (2), we get:
Putting this value in equation (1), we get:

(a) Current Through :
Current Through :
Current Through :
Current Through :
Current Through :
Current Through :
(b) Power Dissipation in :
Power Dissipation in :
MCQs Related to the Article “13.9 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES”

1. Kirchhoff’s first rule is:
(a) ∑ (b) ∑ (c) ∑ (d) ∑
2. Kirchhoff’s first rule is based on conservation of:
(a) Energy (b) Voltage (c) Charge (d) Mass
3. Net current arriving a junction point in electric circuit is equal to the current leaving that point
is known as:
(a) Ampere’s Law (b) Kirchhoff’s 1st Law (c) Ohm’s Law (d) Kirchhoff’s 2nd Law
4. Kirchhoff’s first rule is also known as:
(a) Kirchhoff’s Point Rule (b) Kirchhoff’s Rule for Static Charges
(c) Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule (d) Kirchhoff’s Rule for Point Charges
18
5. The algebraic sum of all the current at junction is zero, is Kirchhoff’s

(a) 1st law (b) 2nd law (c) 3rd law (d) 4th law
6. Kirchhoff’s second rule is based on conservation of:
(a) Energy (b) Voltage (c) Charge (d) Mass
7. The algebraic sum of voltages changes around a closed circuit or loop is zero, is Kirchhoff’s
(a) 1st law (b) 2nd law (c) 3rd law (d) 4th law
8. Kirchhoff’s second rule is also known as:
(a) Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule (b) Kirchhoff’s Rule for Static Charges
(c) Kirchhoff’s Point Rule (d) Kirchhoff’s Rule for Point Charges
9. A complex electric circuit consisting of resistors can be solved by:
(a) Joule’s Law (b) Coulomb’s Law (c) Kirchhoff’s Law (d) Faraday’s Law
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (a)
MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (a) MCQ # 9: (c)
Article “13.9 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES” in PAST PAPERS
1. State and explain Kirchhoff’s 1st rule (current rule).
2. State and explain Kirchhoff’s 2nd rule (voltage rule).
13.10 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE (Definition)
Wheatstone Bridge is the combination of four resistances, arranged in the form of mesh, used to find out
unknown resistance.
DERIVING EXPRESSION FOR UNKOWN RESISTANCE FOR WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Consider four resistances , , , connected in such a way so as to form a mesh ABCDA. A
battery of emf is connected between points A and C. A sensitive galvanometer of resistance is connected
between points B and D.
Let the current , , flows through the loops ABDA, BCDB, ADCA
respectively.
The Kirchhoff’s 2nd Rule as applied to loop ABDA gives:
Similarly by applying the Kirchhoff’s 2nd Rule to the loop BCDB, we have:
The current through the galvanometer will be zero if or

. With this condition, the equation (1) and (2) reduces to:
( )
( )
Dividing equation (3) and (4), we get:
If we connect three resistance , , of known adjustable values and unknown resistance in such a
way that no current pass through galvanometer, then the unknown resistance can be find out easily by
equation (5).
19
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “13.10 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE”

Exercise Short Q # 9. What is Wheatstone bridge? How can it be used to
determine an unknown resistance?
Ans. It is an electrical circuit which can be used to find the unknown
resistance. The circuit of Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure.
It consist of four resistance connected in the form of a mesh, a
galvanometer, a battery and a switch. When the bridge is balanced, it satisfies
the following relation:
If the values of , , are known, then can be calculated, provided the

bridge is balanced.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.10 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE”
1. An instrument for accurately determining the value of an unknown resistance:
(a) Galvanometer (b) Voltmeter (c) Ammeter (d) Wheatstone Bridge
2. A Wheatstone bridge consists of:
(a) 2 Resistors (b) 4 Resistors (c) 2 Diodes (d) 4 Diodes
3. The condition for balanced Wheatstone Bridge is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a)
Article “13.10 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE” in PAST PAPERS
1. What is Wheatstone Bridge? How is it used to determine unknown resistance
13.11 POTENTIOMETER
POTENTIOMETER (Definition)
It is a device that is used to measure potential difference between two points of an electric circuit
without drawing any current from original circuit.
CONSTRUCTION OF POTENTIOMETER
It is consist of a wire which has resistance between its two fixed
terminals A and B while a sliding terminal C can slide over the wire. The
resistance between A & C can be varies from 0 to R by moving sliding
contact C from A to B.
WORKING OF POTENTIOMETER AS POTENTIAL DEVIDER
If a battery of emf is connected across .Then current I flowing through
the circuit is:
If we represent the resistance between A and C by . Then potential drop across will be:
Thus potential drop can be varied from 0 to V across A & C terminals by sliding the terminal C from A to B.
WORKING OF POTENTIOMETER FOR MEASURING EMF OF A CELL
A source of potential difference whose emf is is to be measured is connected A and sliding contact C
through a galvanometer G. The potential divider is connected at point A.
20
After adjusting the circuit, the sliding contact is so adjusted that

galvanometer show no deflection. At this condition the emf is
equal to potential difference , whose value is known, i.e.,
In case of a wire if uniform cross sectional area, the resistance is

proportional to length.
So  & 
Therefore, unknown emf is given by:
This is the expression to determine the emf of an unknown source.

WORKING OF POTENTIOMETER FOR COMPARING EMF OF DIFFERENT CELLS
We can compare different emfs & of two cells easily by finding the balancing condition.
If is the balancing length corresponding the , then:
Similarly, if is the balancing length corresponding the , then:
This expression tells that the ratio of two emfs is equal to ratio of their balancing lengths.
ADVANTAGE OF POTENTIOMETER OVER VOLTMETER
Potential difference is usually measured by an instrument called voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected
across the two points in a circuit between which the potential difference is to be measured. It is necessary
that the resistance of the voltmeter be large compared to the circuit resistance across which the voltmeter
is connected. Otherwise an appreciable current will flow through the voltmeter which will alter the circuit
current and the potential difference measured.
On the other hand, potentiometer is a very simple instrument which can measure and compare
potential difference accurately without drawing any circuit current.
MCQs Related to the Article “13.11 POTENTIOMETER”
1. An ideal voltmeter would have an infinite
(a) Current (b) Voltage (c) Resistance (d) None of these
2. Which of the following is not accurate measuring device?
(a) Digital Multimeter (b) CRO (c) Potentiometer (d) Voltmeter
3. An accurate measurement of emf of a cell is made by
(a) A voltmeter (b) An ammeter (c) A potentiometer (d) All of them
4. The emf of two cells can be compared by
(a) AVO meter (b) Voltmeter (c) Potentiometer (d) Galvanometer
5. The ratio of emf of two cells ⁄ , is equal to
(a) ⁄ (b) (c) ⁄ (d)
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (a)
Article “13.10 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is Potentiometer? How it can be used as (i) Potential Divider, (ii) Measuring emf of cell
21
22
Chapter 14 (2nd Year Physics) Electromagnetism
ELECTROMAGNETISM
14.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN LONG CONDUCTOR

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN A LONG STRAIGHT
CONDUCTOR
Ans. When the heavy current is passed through a straight conductor, a magnetic
field is set up in the region surrounding a current carrying wire.
i. The lines of force are circular and their direction depends upon the
direction of current.
ii. The magnetic field lasts only as long as the current is flowing through the
wire.
iii. The direction of magnetic lines of force can be find out by right hand rule
described below:
“If the wire is grasped in fist of right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
current, the finger of the hand will circle the wire in the direction of magnetic field.”
14.1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN LONG CONDUCTOR

1. Electric current produces magnetic field was suggested by
(a) Faraday (b) Oersted (c) Henry (d) Lenz
2. The shape of magnetic field around a long straight current carrying wire is
(a) Elliptical (b) Square (c) Rectangular (d) Circular
3. The direction of magnetic field due to current carrying conductor can be determined by
(a) Right Hand Rule (b) Left Hand Rule (c) Fleming Left Hand Rule
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (a)
Article “14. 1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO CURRENT IN LONG CONDUCTOR” in PAST PAPERS
1. Describe the properties of magnetic field around a current carrying straight conductor.
2. Describe the right hand rule to determine the direction of magnetic field lines around a current
carrying conductor.
14.2 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FORCE
If a current carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic field of conductor will
interact with the external magnetic field, as the result of which the conductor may experience a force.
Consider a rod of copper of length that is capable of moving on the pair of copper rails. The whole
arrangement is placed between the poles pieces of a horseshoe magnet so that the copper rod is subjected
to a magnetic field directed vertically upward.
1
Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
When a current is passed through the copper rod from battery, the
current carrying conductor will experience magnetic force and moves on the
rails. The magnitude of magnetic force depends upon the following factors:
i. The magnetic force is directly proportional to the current flowing
through conductor.
ii. The force is directly proportional to the length of the conductor inside
the magnetic field.
iii. The force is directly proportional to the strength of applied magnetic

field.
iv. The magnetic force on current carrying conductor is directly

proportional to , where is the angle between conductor and the field.
Combining all these factors,
where k is the constant of proportionality. If we follow SI units, the value of k is 1.

Thus in SI units
If L vector is in the direction f current flow, then in vector form:

⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗ )
This is expression of magnetic force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field.
MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Definition)
The force acting on one meter length of conductor placed at right angle to the magnetic field when 1
A current is passing through it. In SI units the unit of magnetic field strength is tesla ( ).
Exercise Short Question Related to Article “14.2 MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION”

Exercise Short Q # 2. A current in a conductor produce a magnetic field, which can be calculated
using Ampere’s Law. Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge. What can you conclude
about the magnetic field due to stationary charges? What about moving charges?
Ans. A stationary charges cannot produce any magnetic field. In case of stationary charges, the rate of flow
of charges is zero( i.e. current = 0), so there will be no magnetic field.
As the moving charges produce current, so the magnetic field produced around the path of its
motion similar to the magnetic field produced around a current carrying conductor.
Numerical Related to Article “14.2 MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION”
14.1 Find the value of the magnetic field that will cause a maximum force of on a 20.0
cm straight wire carrying a current of 10.0 A.
Given Data: Maximum Magnetic Force , Length ,
Current
To Determine: Magnetic Field Strength
Calculations: For maximum magnetic force:
2
14.2 How fast must a proton move in a magnetic field of such that the magnetic force is
equal to its weight?
Given Data: Magnetic Field , Charge of Proton ,
Mass of Proton
To Determine: Speed of Proton
Calculations: For present case:
14.3 A velocity selector has a magnetic field of 0.30 T. If a perpendicular electric field of 10,000 Vm-1
is applied, what will be the speed of the particle that will pass through the selector?
Given Data: Magnetic field , Electric Field
To Determine: Velocity
Calculations:
14.2 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

1. A current carrying conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field will experience:
(a) Electrical Force (b) Magnetic Force (c) Gravitational Force (d) Nuclear Force
2. Direction of ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ is same as:
(a) Magnetic field (b) Electric field (c) Magnetic force (d) Electric force
3. The units of magnetic field B, in system international is:
(a) Weber (b) Tesla (c) Gauss (d) Newton
4. One tesla (T) is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. Two parallel wires carrying current in the same direction:
(a) Attract each other (b) repel each other (c) cancel their effect (d) no effect on each other
6. If fingers of right hand show the direction of magnetic field and palm shows the direction of
force, then thumb points for:
(a) Torque (b) Voltage (c) Current (d) Induced emf
7. A dot represent the direction of a quantity:
(a) Into the page (b) Out of page (c) Tangent to page (d) Normal to page
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (b)
Article “14.2 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A UNICORM B” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define the term Magnetic Induction. Give its SI units.
1. Derive the expression for force on a current carrying conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field.
14.3 MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY

MAGNETIC FLUX (Definition)
The number of magnetic lines of force passing through certain area element is called magnetic flux.
Mathematical Expression:
The magnetic flux through the plane element of vector area ⃗⃗ in the uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗ is
given by the dot product of ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Where is the angle between the magnetic field strength ⃗⃗ and vector area ⃗⃗. Magnetic flux is a scalar
quantity and its SI unit is which is called weber (Wb).
3
SPECIAL CASES OF ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A FLAT SURFACE
Case 1. When the field is directed along the normal to the area, so is zero and the flux is maximum:
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Case 2. When the field is parallel to the plane of the area, the angle between the field and normal to the
area is , i.e., , so the flux through the area in this position is zero.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Case 3. For the case of curved surface placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the curved surface is divided
into small surface elements. Each element being assumed plane and the flux through the whole curved
surface is calculated by the sum of the contributions from all the elements of the surface.
FLUX DENSITY (Definition)

The magnetic induction B is the flux per unit area of a surface perpendicular to B, hence it is also
called as flux density. Its unit is .
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “14.3 MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY”
Exercise Short Q # 1. A plane conducting loop is located in a uniform magnetic field that is directed
along the x-axis. For what orientations of the loop, is the flux maximum? For what orientation, is the
flux minimum?
Ans. Case 1. When the field is directed along the normal to the area, so is zero and the flux is maximum:
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
Case 2. When the field is parallel t the plane of the area, the angle between the field and normal to the area
is , i.e., , so the flux through the area in this position is zero (minimum).
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
MCQs Related to the Article “14.3 MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY”
1. The magnetic flux “ ” through an area “ ” is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. The S.I. unit of magnetic flux is
(a) Tesla (b) Weber (c) Joule (d) Newton
3. One weber is equal to
(a) N.A2/A (b) N.m2/A (c) N.A/m (d) N.m/A
4. One Tesla is also equal to
(a) Wb m-2 (b) Wb m2 (c) Wb m (d) None
5. Magnetic flux will be maximum if the angle between magnetic field strength and vector area is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. Wb m is equal to:
-2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

7. If 0.5 T filled over an area of which lies at an angle of with the field. Then the resultant
flux will be:
(a) 0.25 T (b) 0.25 Wb (c) 0.5 T (d) 0.5 Wb
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (d)
Article “14.3 MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define magnetic flux and flux density.
4
14.4 AMPERE’S LAW AND DETERMINATION OF FLUX DENSITY
AMPERE’S LAW (Statement)
Consider a close circular path enclosing a current carrying conductor. This
closed path is referred as Amperean path. Divide this path into small
elements of length like . Let B be the value of flux density at the site of .
If is the angle between B and , then represents the component
of B along . Thus represents product of length of element and the
component of B along . Ampere’s law states that
Statement:
The sum of the quantities for all path elements into which the complete
loop has been divided equals times the total current enclosed by loop.
The Ampere’s law can be described mathematically as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∑( )
where ( ) is the value of along the r th element and N is the total number of elements into which
loop has been divided.
MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH DUE TO CURRENT CARRYING SOLENOID
When current passes through a solenoid, it behaves like bar magnet.
Suppose that the magnetic field inside a
long solenoid is uniform and much strong
whereas outside the solenoid.
We want to find out the magnetic
field strength B inside the solenoid by
applying Ampere circuital law. For this we consider a rectangular
Amperean loop. We divide the loop into four elements of lengths
, , and .
Applying Ampere’s law, we have:
∑( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ------- (1)
 The length element lies inside the solenoid, where the field is uniform and is
parallel to :
( )
 For the element , that lies outside the solenoid, the field B is zero, so
( )
 For elements and , B is perpendicular to length elements, so
( ) ( )
The equation (1) becomes:
If is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, the rectangular surface will intercept
turns, each carrying current . So the current enclosed by the loop is . Thus Ampere’s law gives
5
DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH INSIDE SOLENOID
The direction of magnetic field strength B can be find out by right hand rule which states:
Hold the solenoid in the right hand with figures curling in the direction of current, the thumb will point in the
direction of the field.
Exercise Short Q Related to Article “14. 4 AMPERE’S LAW & DETERMINATION OF FLUX DENSITY”
Exercise Short Q # 3. Describe the charge in the magnetic field inside a solenoid carrying steady
current I, if (a) the length of the solenoid is doubled but the number of turns remains the same and
(b) the number of turns are doubled, but the length remains the same.
Ans. The magnetic field strength B inside a current carrying conductor can be find out by the expression:
(a)
Thus on doubling the length of solenoid by keeping the turns constant, the magnetic field strength becomes
one half of its original value.
( )
(b)
Thus on doubling the number of turns of solenoid by keeping its length constant, the magnetic field
strength becomes doubled of its original value.
Numerical Related to Article “14. 4 AMPERE’S LAW & DETERMINATION OF FLUX DENSITY”
14.5 A power line 10.0 m high carries a current 200 A. Find the magnetic field of the wire at the
ground.
Given Data: Distance from Ground , Current
To Determine: Magnetic Field at Ground
Calculations: By Ampere’s Law: ( )
14.6 You are asked to design a solenoid that will give a magnetic field of 0.10 T, yet the current must
not exceed 10.0 A. Find the number of turns per unit length that the solenoid should have.
Given Data: Magnetic Field , Current ,
To Determine: Number of Turns per unit length
Calculations: For Solenoid
14.7 What current should pass through a solenoid that is 0.5 m long with 10000 turns of copper
wire so that it will have a magnetic field of 0.4 T?
Given Data: Length , Number of Turns , Magnetic Field
Calculations: For Solenoid
MCQs Related to Article “14.4 AMPERE’S LAW AND DETERMINATION OF FLUX DENSITY”
1. Magnetic induction at a point due to the current carrying conductor is determined by:
(a) Ampere’s law (b) Faraday’s law (c) Lenz’s Law (d) Newton’s law
2. ∑ is the relation for:
(a) Milikan’s law (b) Gauss’s law (c) Ampere’s law (d) Lenz’s law
3. The unit of permeability of free space is
(a) T.m/A (b) T.m2/A (c) T.m/A2 (d) None
4. The value of with SI units is:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
5. The magnetic induction inside current carrying solenoid is
6
6. When the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled without any change in the length of the
solenoid its self induction will be:
(a) Four times (b) Doubled (c) Halved (d) One forth
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b)
Article “14. 4 AMPERE’S LAW & DETERMINATION OF FLUX DENSITY” in PAST PAPERS
1. State Ampere’s law. Write down its formula.
1. State Ampere’s law. Calculate the magnetic field due to current flowing through a solenoid.
14.5 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (Derivation of expression)
Ans. Consider the portion of wire, carrying current , is placed in an external magnetic field of strength .
The magnetic force on the current carrying conductor is given by the expression:
⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗ ) ( )
The current through conductor is:
( )
Let
Number of free electrons per unit
Volume of the conductor
Number of free electrons in the conductor
Now if
Charge on a charge carrier
Then
Total charge in conductor
If the carrier entering the left face with speed , then the time taken by it to reach the right face will be:
⁄
Putting values in equation (2), we have:
( ⁄ )
The equation (1) takes the form:

⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗ )
⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ⃗⃗ ) ( ) ̂ ⃗ ̂
It is clear from the figure that the direction of the segment ⃗ is the same as the direction of the
velocity of the charge carriers ⃗⃗. If ̂ is a unit vector along the direction of segment ⃗ and ̂ is along the
velocity ⃗⃗, then
̂ ̂
Substituting the value in equation (3), we have:
⃗ ( ̂ ⃗⃗ )
⃗ ( ̂ ⃗⃗ )
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
As is the total number of charge carriers in the segment ⃗ , so the force ⃗ experienced by a single
charge carrier is:
7
⃗
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
Thus force experience by a single charge carrier moving with velocity v in the magnetic field strength B is:
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
This is the expression of magnetic force that a charge experiences while moving in a uniform magnetic
field.
Exercise Short Questions Related to “14.5 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD”
Exercise Short Q # 4. At a given instant, a proton moves in the positive x-direction in the region
where there is magnetic field in the negative z-direction. What is the direction of the magnetic
force? Will the proton continue to move in the positive x-direction? Explain.
Ans. As the proton is moving in the positive x-direction and magnetic field is directed into the plane of
paper, then the magnetic force on proton can be find out using expression:
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
According to right hand rule, the magnetic force is directed along y-axis.
No, the proton will not continue to move in the positive x-direction. Since the magnetic force is
acting at the right angle to motion of conductor, therefore it will move along a circular path in xy-plane.
Exercise Short Q # 5. Two charged particles are projected into a region where there is a magnetic
field perpendicular to their velocities. If the charge are deflected in opposite directions, what can
you say about them?
Ans. When a charge particle is projected in a magnetic field, it will experience the magnetic force given by:
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
The magnetic force is a deflecting force. Thus if the charged particles are deflected in opposite direction,
then particles are oppositely charged. i.e., one particle is positively charged and the other is negatively
charged.
Exercise Short Q # 7. If a charge particle moves in a straight line through some region of space, can
you say that the magnetic field in the region is zero.
Ans. The magnitude of magnetic force on a charge particle can be expressed as:
Where is the angle between B and v. So if the particle moves in a straight line through some region of
space then it means that the charge particle is not experiencing magnetic force which might be due to one
of the following reasons:
i. Magnetic field strength B in the region is zero
ii. Magnetic field is parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of motion.
MCQs Related to “14.5 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD”

1. If the angle between v and B is zero then magnetic force will be
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c) Zero (d) None
2. Force on a moving charge in a uniform magnetic field will be maximum, when angle between v
and B is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. A charged particles is projected at an angle into a uniform magnetic field. Which of the following
parameter of the charged particle will be affected by magnetic field:
(a) Energy (b) Charge (c) Speed (d) Velocity
4. The unit of ⃗⃗ is and that of ⃗⃗⃗ is , the unit is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. Magnetic force on a charge particle moving in magnetic field is perpendicular to:
(a) Velocity of particle (b) magnetic field (c) electric field (d) Both a & b
6. If the charge is at rest in magnetic field, then force on charge is:
(a) ( ⃗ ⃗⃗) (b) zero (c) (d)
8
7. If and are forces acting on an alpha particle and electron respectively, when moving
perpendicular to the magnetic field, then
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (b) MCQ # 7: (b)
Article “14.5 FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD” in PAST PAPERS

1. Can a charge at rest be set into motion by bringing a magnet close to it?
Answer: For an object at rest , so magnetic force on it . Therefore, a charge particle
at rest will remain stationary because magnetic force act on moving charged objects.
1. Derive the expression of force on a moving charge in magnetic field.
14.6 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD

LORENTZ FORCE (Definition)
When a charge particle is moving with velocity v in a region where there is electric field E and magnetic
field B, then the vector sum of electric force and magnetic force ( ) is called the Lorentz force .
( )
It is important to note that only the electric force does work, while no work is done by the magnetic force
which is simply a deflecting force.
Exercise Short Q “14.6 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD”
Exercise Short Q # 6. Suppose that a charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity v.
Why is there no work done by the magnetic force that acts on the charge?
Ans. The magnetic force on a charge particle will act normal to the direction of motion of the particle, so
the work done by the force is given by:
Thus we can say that magnetic force is a deflecting force and it cannot do any work.
MCQs Related to “14.6 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD”
1. The Lorentz force on a charged particle moving in electric field E and magnetic field B is gicen
by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. The magnetic force is simply a:
(a) Reflecting force (b) Deflecting force (c) Restoring force (d) Gravitational force
3. It is possible to set a charge at rest into motion with magnetic field
(a) Yes (b) No (c) Some Time (d) None
4. If a charge is free to move in an electric field, then acceleration will be:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9
5. Work done on a charge particle moving in a uniform magnetic field is:
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Minimum (d) Zero
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (d)
Article “14.6 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN AN ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC FIELD” in past papers
1. What is Lorentz’s Force? Give the role of electric and magnetic force in this regard.
14.7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN ELECTRON
⁄ OF AN ELECTRON (Derivation of Expression)
Let a narrow beam of electrons moving with a constant speed v be projected
at right angles to a known magnetic field B. The magnetic force experienced
by the beam of electron will be:
⃗ ( ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ )
The direction of the force will be perpendicular to both ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗. As

the electron is experiencing a force that acts at right angle to velocity, so it
will change the direction of velocity. Thus the electrons are subjected to a
constant force at the right angle to the direction of motion. Under
the action of this force, the electrons will move in the circle as shown in the
figure.
As the electron moves in the circle, the necessary magnetic force is provided by the magnetic force
. Thus we have:
( )
This equation shows that if the values of v and r is known, ⁄ of the electron is determined.
 To find out the value of r, a glass tube is filled with a gas such as hydrogen at low pressure. The glass
tube is placed in a region of uniform magnetic field of known value. As the electrons are shot into this
tube, they begin to move along a circle under the action of magnetic force. As the electron move, they
collide with the atoms of gas. This excites the atoms due to which they emit light and their path
becomes visible as a circular ring of light. The diameter of ring can be easily measured.
 In order to measure the velocity v of electrons, we should know the potential difference through which
the electrons are accelerated before entering into magnetic field. If V is this potential difference, the
energy gained by the electrons during their acceleration is Ve. This appears as kinetic energy of
electrons:
Substituting the value of v in equation (1), we get:
√ √
Squaring both sides:
This is the required expression to find the ⁄ of electron.

10
Exercise Short Questions Related to “14. 7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN ELECTRON”
Exercise Short Q # 11. How can you use a magnetic field to separate isotopes of chemical element?
Ans. If the ions of isotopes of an element are projected in a magnetic field of known strength B, the ions
move in circular path of radius r. The e/m of the ion is given by the expression:
If v, B and e of the ions are constant, then
So the ions of different mass will have different radii of curvature and hence they can be separated in
magnetic field.
MCQs Related to “14. 7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN ELECTRON”
1. When a charged particle is projected perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, its path:
(a) Spiral (b) Helix (c) Ellipse (d) Circular
2. The electrons of mass “m” and charge “e” is moving in a circle of radius “r” with speed “v” in a
uniform magnetic field of strength “B”. then
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. Charge to mass ratio of Neutron is:
(a) (b) (c) (d) zero
4. The of electron is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)

5. The value of is smallest for
(a) Proton (b) Electron (c) particle (d) Positron
6. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it suffers change in
(a) Charge (b) Mass (c) Energy (d) Direction of motion
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (d)
Article “14. 7 DETERMINATION OF e/m OF AN ELECTRON” in PAST PAPERS

1. Explain how (charge to mass ratio) for an electron is determined?
14.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (Definition, Construction, Working & Applications of CRO)
Cathode ray oscilloscope is a high speed graph
plotting device. It is called cathode ray
oscilloscope because it traces the desired
waveform with a beam of electrons which are also
called cathode rays.
Principle:
Its works by deflecting the beam of
electrons as they pass through uniform electric
field between the two sets of parallel plates. The
deflected beam then falls on fluorescent screen
where it makes a visible spot. It can display the
graphs of functions which rapidly vary with time.
11
Construction:
 The beam of electrons is provided by an electron gun which consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a
grid and anode.
 The filament heats the cathode C which emits electrons. The anode A which is at high positive potential
with respect to cathode, accelerate as well as focus the electronic beam to the fixed spot on the screen.
 Grid is at negative potential relative to cathode. It controls the number of electrons reaching the screen
and thus controls the brightness of spot on the screen.
 The two set of defecting plates are usually referred as horizontal and vertical deflection plates. A
voltage applied between the horizontal plates deflects the beam horizontally on the screen and the
voltage applied across vertical deflects the beam vertically on the screen.
 The deflected beam then falls on fluorescent screen where it makes a visible spot.
Working
The voltage that is provided across horizontal plates is usually provided
by a circuit that is built in the CRO. It is known as sweep or time base generator
whose output waveform is a saw tooth voltage of period T.
If a sinusoidal voltage is applied across the y plates when,
simultaneously, time base voltage is impressed across horizontal plates, will
now spread out and appear as sinusoidal trace on the screen.
Uses of CRO
The CRO is used for displaying the waveform of a given voltage. Once the waveform is displayed, we
can measure the voltage, its frequency and phase. Information about the phase difference between two
voltages can be obtained by simultaneously displaying their waveforms.
12
Exercise Short Questions Related to “14. 8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE”
Exercise Short Q # 8. Why does the picture on a TV screen become distorted when a magnet is
brought near the screen?
Ans. The picture on a TV is formed when moving electrons strike the florescent screen. As magnet is
brought close to the TV screen, the path of electrons is distorted due to the magnetic force on them. So the
picture on the screen of TV is distorted.
MCQs Related to the Article “14.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE”
1. Beam of electrons are also called:
(a) Positive rays (b) x-rays (c) cathode rays (d) cosmic rays
2. The high speed graph plotting device is:
(a) ERG (b) CRO (c) Galvanometer (d) Ammeter
3. The anode in the CRO is:
(a) Control number of electrons (b) Control the brightness of spot formed
(c) Accelerates and focus the beam (d) At negative potential with respect to cathode
4. The brightness of spot on CRO screen is controlled by:
(a) Anodes (b) Cathodes (c) Deflection Plates (d) Grid
5. In CRO, the number of electrons are controlled by operating :
(a) Anodes (b) Cathodes (c) Grid (d) Plates
6. The electron gun in CRO consists of:
(a) Grid (b) Three Anodes (c) Indirectly heated cathodes (d) All a, b & c
7. When beam of electrons falls on the screen of CRO, it makes a visible spot because the screen is:
(a) Polished (b) Dark (c) Clear (d) Fluorescent
8. The material used in fluorescent screen is
(a) Electric (b) Magnetic (c) Phosphors (d) None
9. In CRO, the output wave form of time base generator is:
(a) Circular (b) Square (c) Sinusoidal (d) Saw-Tooth
10. The waveform of sinusoidal voltage, its frequency and phase can be found by
(a) CRO (b) Diode (c) Transistor (d) Radio
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d) MCQ # 7: (d)
MCQ # 8: (c) MCQ # 9: (d) MCQ # 10: (a)
Article “14.8 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE” in PAST PAPERS

1. Briefly give the function of Filament, Cathode, Grid and plates in CRO.
2. Write any two uses of CRO.
3. What is the function of Grid in CRO.
4. What is sweep or time based generator.
1. What is Cathode Ray Oscilloscope? Explain the function of Cathode, Grid, Anode, Deflection Plates
and Sweep Generator.
14.9 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL

TORQUE ON CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD (Derivation of Expression)
Consider a rectangular coil carrying current I. The coil is capable of rotation
about an axis XX`. Suppose it is placed in uniform magnetic field B with its
plane along the field.
The force on current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field is
describe by the expression , where is the angle between
conductor and the field.
 In case of the sides AB and CD of the coil, the angle is zero or
, so the force on these sides will be zero.
 In case of sides DA and BC, the angle is and the force on
13
these sides will be:
Where L is the length of these sides, is the force on the side DA and
on BC.
Therefore, the forces and being equal and opposite form a couple which
tends to rotate it about an axis.
The torque of the couple is given by the expression:
( )( )
( )( ) ---------- (1)
where is the moment arm of the couple and is equal to the length of side AB or
CD. is the area of the coil. The equation (1) becomes:
---------- (2)
The equation (2) gives the value of torque when the field is in the plane of the
coil. However, if the field makes an angle with the plane of the coil, the
moment arm will become . So,
This is expression of torque on a current carrying coil in external magnetic field.

Exercise Short Questions Related to “14.9 TORQUE ON CURRENT CARRYING COIL”
Exercise Short Q # 9. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the
loop will not tend to rotate? Explain.
Ans. A current carrying loop when placed in magnetic field will experience a torque given by:
It is clear from expression that when plane of the coil makes and angle of with magnetic field,
the torque on the coil will be zero. In this condition, the coil will not tend to rotate.
Exercise Short Q # 10. How can a current loop be used to determine the presence of a magnetic field
in a given region of space?
Ans. When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field, a torque is produced in the loop is
given by:
If the loop is deflected in a given region, then it confirms the presence of magnetic field, otherwise not.
Exercise Short Q # 12. What should be the orientation of a current carrying coil in a magnetic field
so that torque acting upon the coil is (a) maximum (b) minimum?
Ans.
(a) When plane of the coil is parallel to magnetic field, and the torque acting on the coil will be
maximum given by:
(b) When plane of the coil is perpendicular to magnetic field, and the torque acting on the coil
will be minimum, given by: .
Exercise Short Q # 13. A loop of wire is suspended between the pools of a magnet with its plane
parallel to the pole faces. What happens if a direct current is put through the coil? What happens if
an alternating current is used instead?
Ans. As the plane of the coil is parallel to the pole faces, therefore, it is perpendicular to the magnetic field,
i.e., . Torque acting on coil . Therefore, for both A.C. and D.C., the coil will not
rotate.
14
Numerical Related to the Article “14.9 TORQUE ON CURRENT CARRYING COIL”
14.4 A coil of 0.1 m x 0.1 m and of 200 turns carrying a current of 1.0 mA is placed in a uniform
magnetic field of 0.1 T. Calculate the maximum torque that acts on the coil.
Given Data: Area of Coil , Number of Turns
Current , Magnetic Field
To Determine: Maximum Torque
Calculations:
MCQs Related to the Article “14.9 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL”

1. A current carrying loop, when placed in a uniform magnetic field will experience
(a) Electric flux (b) Torque (c) Magnetic flux (d) Force
2. Torque on a current carrying coil is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The toque in the coil can be increased by increasing
(a) Number of turns (b) Current & magnetic field
(c) Area of coil (d) All of above
4. The relation for maximum value of deflecting couple is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The torque acting on a current carrying coil is maximum, when plane of coil is:
(a) Perpendicular to B (b) Makes with B (c) Parallel to B (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c)
Article “14.9 TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL” in PAST PAPERS

Establish a relation for the torque experienced by a current carrying rectangular coil in a uniform magnetic
field.
14.10 GALVANOMETER
GALVANOMETER (Definition, Principle, construction and Working)
A galvanometer is an electrical instrument used to detect the passage of current.
Principle
Its working depends upon the fact that when a current carrying coil is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque which can be described by the
formula:
where N is the number of turns in the coil, A is its area, I is the current passing
through it, B is the magnetic field in which the coil is placed and is the angle
which the plane of the coil makes with B.
Due to action of the torque, the coil rotates and thus it detects the current.
Construction
A rectangular coil C is suspended between concaved shaped N and S
poles of horseshoe magnet with the help of a fine metallic suspension wire. The
suspension wire F is also used as one current lead to the coil. The other terminal
of the coil is connected to a loosely wound spiral E which serve as the second
current lead. The pole pieces of the magnet are made concave to make the field
radial and stronger.
Working
When the current is passed through the coil, it is acted upon by a couple which tends to rotate the
coil. This couple is known as deflecting couple and its corresponding torque is given by . As the
15
coil is placed in radial magnetic field in which the plane of the coil is
always parallel to the firld , so is always zero. This makes
and thus,
As the coil turns under the action of deflecting couple, the

suspension wire is twisted which gives rise to a torsional couple. It
tends to untwist the suspension and restore the coil to its original
position. This couple is known as restoring couple. The torque
corresponding to restoring couple on the suspension wire is proportional to the angle of deflection as
long as the suspension wire obeys Hook’s law. Thus
Where constant c is called torsional couple and is defined as the couple of untwist.
Under the effect of these two torques, coil comes to rest when
( )
Thus since .
Thus the current passing through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of deflection.
SENSITIVITY OF GALVANOMETER
The degree of deflection of galvanometer by unit current passing through it is referred as its sensitivity. It
is obvious from equation that a galvanometer can be made more sensitive if is made small.
Thus, to increase the sensitivity of galvanometer, c may be decreased or B, A and N may be increased.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SENSITIVE GALVANOMETER AND DEAD BEAT GALVANOMETER
Sensitive Galvanometer
A galvanometer which show a large deflection as a small quantity of current is passed through it is
called sensitive galvanometer.
Dead Beat Galvanometer
The galvanometer in which the coil comes to rest quickly after current passed through it or the
current is stopped from flowing through it, is called stable or a dead beat galvanometer.
MCQs Related to the Article“14.10 GALVANOMETER”
1. Instrument used for detection of current is called:
(a) Ohmmeter (b) Voltmeter (c) Ammeter (d) Galvanometer
2. The galvanometer constant in a moving coil galvanometer is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The galvanometer can be made sensitive if the value of the factor is:
(a) Made large (b) Made small (c) Remains constant (d) Infinite
4. The relation between current “ ” and deflection “ ” in a moving coil galvanometer is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The pole pieces of the magnet in galvanometer are made concave to make the field
(a) Radial (b) Stronger (c) Weaker (d) Both a & b
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (d)
Article“14.10 GALVANOMETER” in PAST PAPERS
1. What is meant by sensitivity of galvanometer? How can a galvanometer be made more sensitive?
2. Distinguish between sensitive and dead beat galvanometer.
1. What is galvanometer? Describe its principle, construction and working.
16
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER
AMMETER (Definition)
An ammeter is an electrical instrument which is used to measure the current in amperes. An ammeter can
be constructed by connecting a low value bypass resistance (called shunt) to a galvanometer.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF SHUNT RESISTANCE REQUIRED TO CONVERT A GALVANOMETER
INTO AMMETER
Consider a galvanometer of resistance which gives full scale deflection when current is passed
through it. Let a shunt resistor S having resistance is connected in parallel to galvanometer as shown in
fig. It is clear from figure that when current pass through galvanometer and the remaining current
( ) passes through shunt.
As the shunt resistance is parallel to the galvanometer, the
potential difference across the galvanometer is equal to the potential
difference across the shunt.
( )
This is the expression to determine the shunt resistance that is needed

convert galvanometer into ammeter of range I amperes.
Exercise Short Question Related to CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER
Exercise Short Q # 14. Why the resistance of an ammeter should be very low?
Ans. An ammeter is connected in series with a circuit to measure the current. It is connected in series so
that total current passing through the circuit should pass through it. Necessarily, the resistance of ammeter
should be low. It is because of the reason that if the resistance of the ammeter will be large, it will alter the
current of the circuit to great extent and the measurement of current will not be accurate.
Numerical Related to CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER
14.8 A galvanometer having an internal resistance Rg = 15.0 Ω gives full scale deflection with
current lg = 20.0 mA. It is to be converted into an ammeter of range 10.0 A. Find the value of shunt
resistance Rs.
Given Data: Internal Resistance of Galvanometer , Current Range
Current for Full Scale Deflection
To Determine: Shunt Resistance
Calculations: For Ammeter
14.10 The resistance of a galvanometer coil is 10.0 Ω and reads full scale with a current of 1.0 mA.
What should be the values of resistances R1, R2 and R3 to convert this galvanometer into a multi-
range ammeter of 100, 10.0 and 1.0 A.
Given Data: Internal Resistance of Galvanometer ,
Current for Full Scale Deflection , (a) Current Range ,
17
(b) Current Range , (c) Current Range
To Determine: (a) Shunt Resistance for 100 A Current Range
(b) Shunt Resistance for 10 A Current Range , (c) Shunt Resistance for 1A Current Range
Calculations: (a)
(b)
(c)
MCQs Related to “CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER”

AMMETER
1. Ammeter is used to measure:
(a) Resistance (b) Voltage (c) Current (d) Capacitance
2. When a small resistance is connected parallel to galvanometer, the resulting circuit behaves as:
(a) Voltmeter (b)Ammeter (c) Potentiometer (d) Wheatstone bridge
3. A shunted galvanometer is called:
(a) Voltmeter (b) Ohmmeter (c) AVO meter (d) Ammeter
4. To measure the current in a circuit, ammeter is always connected in:
(a) Parallel (b) Series
(c) Sometimes parallel sometimes series (d) Neither series nor parallel
5. To find the shunt resistance, we used equation
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a)
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

VOLTMETER (Definition)
A voltmeter is an electrical device which measures the potential difference in volts between two
points in an electric circuit. To construct a voltmeter, a very high resistance is connected in series with
galvanometer.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF SERIES RESISTANCE REQUIRED TO CONVERT A GALVANOMETER
INTO VOLTMETER
Consider a galvanometer of resistance . In order to make a voltmeter of the range of V volts, the value of
resistance should be such that full scale deflection is obtained when it is connected across V volts. If the
current passes through the circuit, then by applying Ohm’s law:
( )
This is the expression to determine the series resistance that converts

galvanometer into voltmeter of range V volts.
18
Exercise Short Question Related to CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER
Exercise Short Q # 15. Why the voltmeter should have a very high resistance?
Ans. A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the resistor to measure potential difference across it.
Necessarily, the resistance of voltmeter should have very high resistance so that very small amount of
current should pass through it. Consequently, the current of the circuit remains almost constant which
enable us to determine the potential difference across a resistor accurately.
Numerical Related to CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER
14.9 The resistance of a galvanometer is 50.0 Ω and reads full scale deflection with a current of 2.0
mA. Show by a diagram how to convert this galvanometer into voltmeter reading 200 V full scale.
Given Data: Internal Resistance of Galvanometer , Voltage Range
Current for Full Scale Deflection
To Determine: Series High Resistance
Calculations: For voltmeter
MCQs Related to “CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER”

1. Voltmeter is used to measure:
(a) Current (b) Resistance (c) Temperature (d) Potential difference
2. To convert a Weston-type galvanometer into voltmeter, the series resistance is given by
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The resistance of a voltmeter should have a very high resistance
(a) It does not disturb the circuit (b) It draws some current
(c) It controls the galvanometer coil (d) None of these
4. A voltmeter is always connected in circuit to measure the potential difference in
(a) Parallel (b) Series (c) Perpendicular (d) Straight Line
5. An ideal voltmeter has
(a) Small resistance (b) High resistance (c) Infinite resistance (d) None
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (c)
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO OHMMETER

OHMMETER (Definition): It is a useful device for rapid measurement of resistance.
CALIBRATION OF SCALE OF GALVANOMETER TO CONVERT IT INTO OHMMETER
It consists of a galvanometer, and adjustable resistance of known value and a cell connected in series as
shown on the figure. To convert a galvanometer into ohmmeter, the scale of
galvanometer is calibrated using the following procedure:
 The series resistance is so adjusted that when the terminals c and d
are short circuited ( ), the galvanometer gives full scale deflection.
So the extreme graduation of the usual scale of the galvanometer is
marked 0 for resistance measurement.
 When the terminals c and d are not joined, no current passes through
galvanometer and its deflection is zero. Thus zero of the scale is marked
as infinity ohms.
 When R is not infinite, the galvanometer deflects to some intermediate
point depending on the value of R and hence the galvanometer scale can
he calibrated to read the resistance directly.
19
MCQs Related to “CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO OHMMETER”
1. When ohmmeter gives full scale deflection, it indicates:
(a) Zero Resistance (b) Small Resistance (c) Infinite Resistance (d) None of these
2. A battery is used in:
(a) Voltmeter (b) Ammeter (c) Galvanometer (d) Ohmmeter
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d)
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER, VOLTMETER & OHMMETER” in PAST PAPERS

1. How can we convert galvanometer into voltmeter and ammeter.
14.11 AVOMETER
AVO METER (Definition & Construction)
It is an instrument which can measure the current in amperes,
potential difference in volts and resistance in ohms. It actually employs a
single galvanometer which by the help of a switch is converted into
multi-ranged ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter according to the
requirement of the user.
Here X and Y are the main terminals of AVO meter which is
connected with the circuit in which the measurement is required. FS is
the function selector switch which connects the galvanometer with
relevant measuring circuit.
VOLTAGE MEASURING PART OF AVO METER
The voltage measuring part of AVO Meter is actually a multi-ranged
voltmeter. It consist of a number of resistances each of which can be connected in
series with the moving coil galvanometer with the help of a switch called the
range switch. The value of each resistance depends upon the range of the
voltmeter which it controls.
CURRENT MEASURING PART OF AVO METER

The current measuring part of AVO meter is actually is a multi-ranged
ammeter. It consist of a number of low resistance connected in parallel
with the galvanometer. The values to these resistances depend upon the
range of the ammeter.
The circuit also has a range selection switch SR which is used to select a
particular range of current.
RESISTANCE MEASURING PART OF AVO METER

The resistance measuring part of AVO meter is in fact a multi-range
ohmmeter. Circuit for each range of this meter consist of a battery of emf
and a variable resistance connected in series with galvanometer of
resistance .
Before measuring an unknown resistance by an ohmmeter, it is first
zeroed which means that we short circuit the terminals X, Y and adjust to
r, to produce full scale deflection.
20
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
Another useful device to measure resistance, current and voltage is an electronic instrument
called digital multimeter. It is a digital version of an AVO meter. It has become very popular
testing device because the digital values are displayed automatically with decimal point,
polarity and the unit for .
These meters are generally easier to use because they eliminate the human error that often
occur in reading the dial of an ordinary AVO meter.
MCQs Related to the Article “14.11 AVOMETER”

1. AVO-meter is used to find
(a) Current (b) Voltage (c) Resistance (d) All of above
2. In AVO meter, the current is measured when number of low resistances are connected with
galvanometer in:
(a) Perpendicular (b) series (c) parallel (d) both series and parallel
3. Useful device to measure resistance, current and potential difference is an electronic
instrument called:
(a) Voltmeter (b) Ohmmeter (c) Ammeter (d) Multimeter
4. Digital version of AVO meter is called:
(a) Digital ammeter (b) Digital Rectifier (c) Digital Multimeter (d) Digital Voltmeter
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “14.11 AVOMETER” in PAST PAPERS

1. Discuss briefly the digital multimeter.
2. Describe working to current measuring part of AVO meter.
21
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Chapter 15 (2nd Year Physics) Electromagnetic Induction
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
15.1 INDUCED EMF AND INDUCED CURRENT

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (Definition)
When a conductor that is moved through a magnetic field, the electric current flow through the circuit. The
emf produced in the conductor is called induced emf, and the current generated is called induced current.
This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (Different Techniques)
The changes in magnetic flux through the loop causes induce emf in it. There are some methods described
below, in which an emf is induced in the loop by producing a change of magnetic flux through it.
Case 1: Consider a straight piece of wire is placed in the magnetic field of
permanent magnet. The wire is connected to a sensitive galvanometer.
 Initially, when the conductor is at rest, no current is shown by
galvanometer.
 If we move the loop from left to right, a current flow through loop
which is indicated by galvanometer.
 As we stop moving the loop, current also stops.
 Now if we move the loop in opposite direction, current also reverses
direction which is indicated by deflection of the galvanometer in
opposite direction.
The induced current depends upon the speed with which conductor moves
and upon the resistance of the loop. If we change the resistance of the loop and move it in magnetic field
with same speed, then induced current decreases. But the product of induce current and resistance remains
constant i.e., . This constant is the induced emf.
Case 2:
Consider a bar magnet and a coil of wire connected to a galvanometer as
shown in figure.
 When there is no relative motion between the magnet and the coil, the
galvanometer indicates no current in the circuit.
 As the bar magnet is moved towards the coil, a current appear in it.
 When the bar magnet is moved away from coil, a current is again
induced but in opposite direction.
Motion of magnet causes change of magnetic flux through coil which causes
induced current in circuit.
Case 3:
The current can be induced in a coil by changing the
area of coil in uniform magnetic field.
 Figure a shows that no current is induced in
the coil of constant area placed in uniform
magnetic field.
 However, when the coil is being distorted so as
to reduce its area, an induced emf and hence
induce current appears as shown in figure b.
1
Case 4:
An induced current can also be generated when a coil of
constant area is rotated in a uniform magnetic field. This is basic
principle of AC generators.
Case 5:
Another method to induce current in a coil involves by producing
change in magnetic flux in a nearby coil. The coil P is connected
in series with a battery, a rheostat and a switch, while the other
coil S is connected to galvanometer only.
 If the switch of the coil P is suddenly closed, a momentary
current is induced in coil S. This is indicated by
galvanometer, when suddenly deflects and then returns
to zero.
 No induced current exist in coil S as long as the current
flows steadily in coil P
 An oppositely directed current is induced in the coil S at
the instant the switch of coil P is opened
Initially, when switch of coil P is closed, the current grows from
zero to its maximum value. Finally the current comes down to
zero when switch is opened.
Due to change in current, the magnetic flux associated with coil P changes momentarily. This
changing flux is linked with the coil S that causes the induced current in it.
Case 6:
Consider a coil is placed in the magnetic field of an electromagnet. Both, the coil
and the electromagnet are stationary. The magnetic flux through the coil is
changed by changing the current of the electromagnet, thus producing induced
current in the coil.
MCQs Related to the Article “15.1 INDUCED EMF AND INDUCED CURRENT”
1. The SI units of induced emf is
(a) Ohm (b) Volt (c) Henry (d) Tesla
2. The induced current is a circuit can be increased by:
(a) Using strong magnetic field (b) Moving loop faster
(c) Replacing the loop by the coil of many turns (d) All a, b & c
3. Identify the phenominon by which an induced emf can be generated:
(a) By moving magnet (b) By rotating a coil in it
(c) By moving a coil towards stationary magnet (d) All a, b & c
4. When a loop of wire is moved across a magnetic field, the current is produced in it is called
(a) Induced current (b) Photo electric current (c) Alternating current (d) Direct current
5. emf is induced due to change in:
a) Charge (b) Current (c) Magnetic Flux (d) Electric Flux
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (c)
2
Article “15.1 INDUCED EMF AND INDUCED CURRENT” in PAST PAPERS
1. Define electromagnetic induction.
2. Write down any one method used for production of induced emf.
3. Define induced emf and induced current.
15.2 MOTIONAL EMF

MOTIONAL EMF (Definition & Derivation of Expression)
The emf induced by the motion of a conductor across the magnetic field is called motional emf.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION
Consider a conducting rod of length L placed on two parallel metal rails separated by a distance L. A
galvanometer is connected between the ends c and d of
rails. This forms complete conducting loop abcd. A uniform
magnetic field B is applied directed into the paper.
 Initially, when the rod is stationary, galvanometer
indicates no current in the loop.
 If the rod is pulled to the right with constant
velocity v, the galvanometer indicates current
flowing through the loop.
Obviously, the current is induced due to the motion of the
conducting rod across the magnetic field. The rod is acting
as a source of emf .
When the rod moves, a charge q within the rod also moves with same velocity v in the magnetic
field B and experience a force that is given by:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗
The magnitude of force is
Since the angle between v and B is , so
Applying the right hand rule, we see that ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is directed from a to b of the rod. Under the action of
this force, the positive charge carriers inside rod accumulate on side b of the rod, due to which deficiency of
positive charges occurs at side a of rod and equivalent negative charge appear on this side. This results in
establishment of electric field ⃗ and an electric force act on charges inside the rod from b to a.
The system quickly reaches an equilibrium state in which these two forces on the charge are balanced i.e.,
As the electric field intensity is the negative gradient of electric potential, therefore
Where L is the length of the conductor and V is the potential difference, which is equal to induced
emf due to motion of conductor in magnetic field.
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get:
3
If the angle between ‘v’ and ‘B’ is , then
This is the expression of motional emf.

Exercise Short Question Related to “15.2 MOTIONAL EMF”
Exercise Short Q # 2. A square loop of wire is moving through a uniform magnetic field. The normal
to the loop is oriented parallel to the magnetic field. Is a emf induced in the loop? Give a reason for
your answer.
Ans. The induce emf in a wire is given by:
Where the angle between “ ” and “ ”.

When normal to the loop is parallel to the field, the velocity vector “ ” of side of loop is also parallel to field
“ ”, so . Therefore,
Thus, emf induced in the loop is zero.

Exercise Short Q # 9. In a certain region, the earth’s magnetic field point vertically down. When a
plane flies due north, which wing tip is positively charged?
Ans. The magnetic force on electrons in the wing is given by:
When the plane flies due north in the earth magnetic field directed
vertically downward, then electrons will experience force in east
direction.
Thus west wingtip of the plane is positively charged.
Numerical related to the Article “15.2 MOTIONAL EMF”
15.1 An emf of 0.45 V is induced between the ends of a metal bar moving through a magnetic field of
0.22 T. What field strength would be needed to produce an emf of 1.5 V between the ends of the bar,
assuming that all other factors remain the same?
Given Data: Case 1: Induced emf , Magnetic field strength
Case 2: Induced emf ,
To Determine: Magnetic field strength
Calculations: For case 1: , For case 2:
Dividing (1) and (2):
15.2 The flux density B in a region between the pole faces of a horse-shoe magnet is 0.5 Wbm-2
directed vertically downward. Find the emf induced in a straight wire 5.0 cm long, perpendicular to
B when it is moved in a direction at an angle of 60° with the horizontal with a speed of 100 cms-1.
Given Data: Flux Density , Length ,
Speed , Angle with Horizontal
To Determine: Induced emf
Calculations: Angle with B:
By expression of Motional emf
4
MCQs Related to the Article “15.2 MOTIONAL EMF”
1. The emf induced by motion of conductor across magnetic field is called
(a) Potential Difference (b) Electric potential (c) Variable emf (d) Motional emf
2. The relation of motional emf , when a conductor is move in perpendicular magnetic field, is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. If velocity of a conductor moving through a magnetic field B is made zero, then motional emf is:
(a) (b) (c) Zero (d)
4. Motional emf is directly proportional to:
(a) Velocity of conductor (b) Magnetic field strength
(c) Length of conductor (d) All a, b & c
5. The rod of unit length is moving at through a magnetic field of 1 T. If velocity of the rod is
, then induced emf in the rod will be given by:
(a) 1 V (b) 0.2 V (c) 0.5 V (d) 0.6 V
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (c)
Article “15.2 MOTIONAL EMF” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define motional emf and derive a relation for it.
15.3 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCED EMF

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (Statement & Proof)
STATEMENT
The average emf induced in a conducting coil of N loop is equal to the negative of the rate at which the
magnetic flux through the coil is changing with time.
PROOF
galvanometer is connected between the ends c and d of rails. This forms complete conducting loop abcd. A
uniform magnetic field B is applied directed into the paper.
Let the conducting rod L moves from position 1 to position 2 in small interval of time . The
distance traveled by the rod in time is . The motional emf induced in a rod moving
perpendicular to magnetic field is .
Since the rod is moving with constant velocity v, therefore
The expression of motional emf becomes:
( )
If there is a coil of N loops instead of a single loop, then induced emf will become N times, i.e.,
The minus sign indicates that the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the change in flux. This
expression tells that the emf induced in a conducting coil of N loop is equal to the negative of the rate at
which the magnetic flux through the coil is changing with time.
5
Exercise Short Questions Related to “15.3 FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION”
Exercise Short Q # 1. Does the inducted emf in circuit depend on the resistance of the circuit? Does
the induced current depend on the resistance of the circuit?
Ans. The expression for induced emf is given by
The relation shows that the induced emf in a coil only depend upon the rate of change of magnetic
flux and number of turns but does not depend upon the resistance of the coil.
As the induced current flowing through a coil is given by:
This expression shows that the value of current depends upon the resistance of the coil. The smaller
the value of the resistance of the coil, greater will he the value of current.
Exercise Short Q # 13. Is it possible to change both the area of the loop and the magnetic field
passing through the loop and still not have an induced emf in the loop?
Ans. If both area of the loop A and magnetic field strength B are changed such that change is magnetic flux
is zero i.e., . Then by Faraday’s law:
Hence no induced emf in the loop will be produced.
Exercise Short Q # 10. Show that and have the same units.
Ans. As we know that:


---------- (1)
As and
---------- (2)
Hence from (1) and (2), it is proved that both and have the same units.
Numerical Related to FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

15.3 A coil of wire has 10 loops. Each loop has an area of 1.5 x 10-3 m2. A magnetic field is
perpendicular to the surface of each loop at all times. If the magnetic field is changed from 0.05T to
0.06 T in 0.1 s, find the average emf induced in the coil during this time.
Given Data: Number of Loops , Area of Loop , Time
Initial Magnetic Field , Final Magnetic Field , Angle with normal
Calculations: Change in Magnetic Field
By Faraday’s Law
6
15.4 A circular coil has 15 turns of radius 2 cm each. The plane of the coil lies at 40° to a uniform
magnetic field of 0.2 T. If the field is increased by 0.5 T in 0.2 s, find the magnitude of the induced
emf.
Given Data: Number of Loops , Radius of Circular Loop , Time
Initial Magnetic Field , Final Magnetic Field , Angle of plane with B:
Calculations: Change in Magnetic Field ,
Angle of normal to plane with B ,
Area of Loop
By Faraday’s Law
15.16 A copper ring has a radius of 4.0 cm and resistance of 1.0 mΩ. A magnetic field is applied over
the ring, perpendicular to its plane. If the magnetic field increases from 0.2 T to 0.4 T in a time
interval of 5 x 10-3 s, what is the current in the ring during this interval?
Given Data: Radius of Ring , Resistance , Loops
Initial Magnetic Field , Final Magnetic Field , Time
To Determine: Current in the Loop
Calculations: Change in Magnetic Field , Area of Loop
By Faraday’s Law, Induced emf
Induced Current
15.17 A coil of 10 turns and 35 cm2 area is in a perpendicular magnetic field of 0.5 T. The coil is
pulled out of the field in 1.0 s. Find the induced emf in the coil as it is pulled out of the field.
Given Data: Number of Turns , Area of Coil
Initial Magnetic Field , Final Magnetic Field , Time
Calculations: Change in Magnetic Field
By Faraday’s Law,
MCQs Related to the Article “15.3 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCED EMF”
1. The relation is known as:

(a) Kirchoff’s Rule (b) Ampere’s Law (c) Faraday’s Law (d) Coulomb’s Law
2. The negative sign with induced emf is due to
(a) Faraday’s law (b) Lenz’s law (c) Ampere law (d) None
3. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced emf is directly proportional
to:
(a) Magnetic Flux (b) Induced Current
(c) Resistance of coil (d) Rate of change of magnetic flux
4. If we increase the resistance of the circuit containing a coil, the induced emf will be
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Remain same (d) None
5. The product of induced current and resistance of the wire through which current is passing is equal
to:
(a) Mutual Inductance (b) Induced emf (c) Self Inductance (d) Eddy Currents
6. The term has the same dimension as:
(a) Time (b) Current (c) Magnetic Flux (d) Resistance
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (c)
7
Article “15.3 FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCED EMF” in PAST PAPERS
1. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Write its mathematical form.
1. State and prove the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
15.4 LENZ’S LAW AND DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

LENZ’S LAW (Statement)
The direction of the induced current is always so as to oppose the change which causes the current.
Explanation
The mathematical expression of the
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction is:
The minus sign in the expression is very

important. It has to do with the direction
of induced emf.
Consider a coil in which the current is induce by the movement of a bar
magnet.
a) When the magnet is moved toward the stationary conducting loop, a
current is induced in the direction shown. The magnetic field lines
shown are those due to the bar magnet.
b) This induced current produces its own magnetic field directed to the
left that counteracts the increasing external flux. The magnetic field
lines shown are those due to the induced current in the ring.
According to Lenz’s law, the push of the magnet is the “change” that produces
the induced current and current acts to oppose the push.
LENZ’S LAW AS A STATEMENT OF LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY IN INDUCED CURRENT
CIRCUITS
galvanometer is connected between the ends of rails. This forms complete
conducting loop. A uniform magnetic field B is applied directed into the paper.
 When the rod moves towards right, emf is induced in it and current
flows through loop in anti-clockwise direction.
 Since the current carrying current is moving in magnetic field, it
experiences a magnetic force F having magnitude:
By the right hand rule, the direction of magnetic force is opposite to

that of v, so it tends to stop the rod. An external dragging force equal to in
magnitude but opposite in direction must be applied to keep the rod moving
with constant velocity.
The dragging force provides the energy for the induce current to flow.
This energy is the source of induced current. Thus electromagnetic induction is
exactly according to low of conservation of energy.
8
Exercise Short Questions Related to “15.4 LENZ’S LAW AND DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT”
Exercise Short Q # 3. A light metallic ring is released from above into a vertical
bar magnet as shown in the figure. Viewed from above, does the current flow
clockwise or anti-clockwise in the ring?
Ans. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced current is opposite to the
cause which produces it. So, the side of the ring facing north pole of magnet must be
north pole of the induced magnetic field.
When viewed from above, the current in the ring is clockwise.
Exercise Short Q # 4. What is the direction of the current through resistor R as
shown in the figure? As the switch S is (a) closed (b) open.
Ans. When switch S is closed, then the current in the primary coil increases from
zero to maximum. During this time interval, magnetic flux through the secondary coil
increases from zero to maximum and induced current
produce in it. According to Lenz’s law, the current through
the secondary should flow in anti-clockwise direction. And
current through resistor will be from left to right.
(b) However, if the switch is opened, the induced current through secondary should flow in clockwise
direction. So the current through resistor R will flow from right to left.
Exercise Short Q # 5. Does the induced emf always act to decrease the magnetic flux through a
circuit?
Ans. The induced emf always opposes the cause that produces it.
 If the magnetic flux through the circuit through the circuit is increasing, then induced emf acts to
decrease the magnetic flux.
 If the magnetic flux through the circuit through the circuit is decreasing, then induced emf acts to
increase the magnetic flux.
Hence, the induced emf does not always act to decrease the magnetic flux through the circuit.
Exercise Short Q # 6. When the switch in the circuit is closed, a current is established in the coil and
the metal ring jumps upward. Why? Describe what would happen to the ring if the battery polarity
were reversed?
Ans. When the switch in the circuit is closed, the current is set up in the coil
which establish magnetic field in it.
This result in change of magnetic flux through the metallic ring and hence an
induced emf is produced in it.
The induced magnetic field in the ring opposes the magnetic field of the
coil (according to Lenz’s law). Therefore the ring experience a force of repulsion
and jumps up.
The same event occurs even if the polarity of the battery is reversed.
Exercise Short Q # 7. Figure shows a coil of wire in the xy-plane with
a magnetic field directed along the y-axis. Around which of the
three coordinate axes should the coil be rotated in order to
generate an emf and a current in the coil?
Ans.
 The coil must be rotated along x-axis to get change of magnetic
flux and an induced current through it.
9
 If the coil is rotated about y-axis, the flux passing through the coil zero because plane of the coil
remains parallel to magnetic field B all the times.
 If the coil is rotated about z-axis then no change of magnetic flux takes place through coil.
Hence if the coil is rotated about x-axis, then there is a change of magnetic flux passing through a coil.
So only in this case, an emf is induced in the coil.
Exercise Short Q # 15. A suspended magnet is oscillating freely in a horizontal plane. The
oscillations are strongly damped when a metal plate is placed under the magnet. Explain why this
occurs?
Ans. The oscillating magnet produces change of magnetic flux close to it. The metal plate placed below it
experiences the change of magnetic flux. As the result, induced current are produced inside metal.
According to Lenz’s law, these induced current oppose the cause which produce it. So, the oscillations of
magnet are strongly damped.
MCQs Related to the Article “15.4 LENZ’S LAW AND DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT”
1. The direction of induced current is always so as to oppose the change which causes the current
is called:
(a) Faraday’s law (b) Lenz’s law (c) Ohm’s law (d) Kirchhoff’s rule
2. Lenz’s law is consistent with the law of conservation of:
(a)Angular Momentum (b) Momentum (c) Energy (d) Charge
3. Lenz’s law deals with:
(a) Magnitude of emf (b) Direction of emf
(c) Resistance (d) Direction of induced current
4. If the magnetic flux through the circuit through the circuit is increasing, then induced emf acts
to ________ the magnetic flux
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Zero (d) None of these
5. If the magnetic flux through the circuit through the circuit is decreasing, then induced emf acts
to ___________________ the magnetic flux.
(a) Increase (b) Decrease (c) Zero (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a)
Article “15.4 LENZ’S LAW AND DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT” in PAST PAPERS
1. How does Lenz’s law explain law of conservation of energy phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction.
1. State Lenz’s law. Explain how this la explains conservation of energy during electromagnetic
induction.
15.5 MUTUAL INDUCTION

MUTUAL INDUCTION (Definition)
The phenomenon in which the changing current in one coil induces an emf in another coil
is called the mutual induction.
It is denoted by the symbol M and the SI unit of the
mutual inductance is VsA-1, which is called henry.
DERIVATION OF THE EXPRESSION OF MUTUAL
INDUCTION
Consider two coils placed close to each other.
One coil is connected with a current source is called
“primary” and the other one connected to the
galvanometer is called the “secondary”. If the current
in the primary is changed by varying the resistance of
10
the rheostat, the magnetic flux in the surrounding regions changes. Since the secondary coil is magnetically
linked with primary, the changing flux in primary also changes flux through secondary.
According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in secondary is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux through it and is given by the expression:
As the flux through secondary coil is directly proportional to the current in primary coil, therefore
where M is the constant of proportionality and is called the mutual inductance of two coils.
( )
The negative sign indicates the fact that the induced emf is in such a direction that it opposes the
change of current in the primary coil. The equation (3) can be written as:
( )
This is expression of mutual induction which may also be described as the ratio of average emf induced in
the secondary coil to the time rate of change of current in the primary.
Numerical Related to the Article “15.5 MUTUAL INDUCTION”
15.5 Two coils are placed side by side. An emf of 0.8 V is observed in one coil when the current is
changing at the rate of 200 As-1 in the other coil. What is the mutual inductance of the coils?
Given Data: Induced emf , Rate of Change of current
To Determine: Mutual Inductance
Calculations: From definition of Mutual Inductance

( )
15.6 A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 0.75 H. If the current in the primary changes
from 0 to 10 A in 0.025 s, what is the average induced emf in the secondary? What is the change in
flux in it if the secondary has 500 turns?
Given Data: Mutual Inductance , Change of current in Primary Coil
Time , Number of Turns of Secondary Coil
To Determine: (a) Average Induced emf , (b) Change in Flux in Secondary Coil
Calculations:(a) From definition of Mutual Inductance ( )

( )
(b) By Faraday’s Law:
11
MCQs Related to the Article “15.5 MUTUAL INDUCTION”
1. The phenominon in which changing current in one coil induces emf in other coil is called:
(a) Self Induction (b) Mutual Induction (c) Motional emf (d) Magnetic Flux
2. The mutual inductance b/w two coil is
( )
(a) (b) (c) (d)
( ) ( )
3. Inductance is measure in:
(a) Volt (b) Ampere (c) Ohms (d) Henry
4. 1 henry is equal to:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The application of mutual induction is a
(a) Television (b) Radio (c) Transformer (d) D.C. motor
6. The mutual induction between two coils depends upon:
(a) area of the coils (b) distance b/w the coils (c) number of turns (d) all of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d)
Article “15.5 MUTUAL INDUCTION” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define mutual inductance. Write its SI unit.
2. On what factors, the mutual inductance of two coils depends?
1. Define and explain mutual induction. Also derive relation for mutual inductance.
15.6 SELF INDUCTION

SELF-INDUCTION (Definition)
The phenomenon in which the changing current in a coil induces an emf in itself is called the self-induction.
It is denoted by the symbol L and the SI unit of the self inductance is VsA-1, which is called henry.
DERIVATION OF THE EXPRESSION OF SELF-INDUCTION
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. A coil is
connected in series with a battery and a rheostat. Magnetic
flux is produced through the coil due to the current it. If the
current is changed by varying the rheostat quickly, magnetic
flux through the coil changes that causes an induced emf in the
coil. Such an emf is called self-induced emf.
According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in a coil is
directly proportional to the rate of change of flux through it
and is given by the expression:
If the flux through one loop of the coil is , then the total flux through the coil of N loops would be . As
is proportional to magnetic field which is in turn proportional to the current I, therefore:
Where L is the constant of proportionality and is called the self inductance of the coil.
12
The negative sign indicates the fact that the self induced emf must oppose the change that produced it.
That’s why the self induced emf is sometimes called back emf. The equation (3) can be written as:
( )
This is expression of self induction which may also be described as the ratio of induced emf to the
time rate of change of current in the coil.
Numerical Related to the Article “15.5 SELF INDUCTION”

15.7 A solenoid has 250 turns and its self-inductance is 2.4 mH. What is the flux through each turn
when the current is 2 A? What is the induced emf when the current changes at 20 As-1?
Given Data: Number of Turns , Self Inductance , Current ,
Rate of Chang of current
To Determine: (a) Flux (b) Induced emf
Calculations: (a) For the case of a coil:
(b) As Self Inductance ( )

( )
15.8 A solenoid of length 8.0 cm and cross sectional area 0.5 cm2 has 520 turns. Find the self-
inductance of the solenoid when the core is air. If the current in the solenoid increases through1.5A
in 0.2 s, find the magnitude of induced emf in it. (µo= 4π x 10-7 WbA-1m-1)
Given Data: Length of Solenoid , Number of Turns
Cross-Sectional Area , Change in Current , Time
To Determine: (a) Self Inductance , (b) Induced emf
Calculations: (a) For the case of a coil: ( )
(b) As Self Inductance ( ) ( )

( )
MCQs Related to the Article “15.6 SELF INDUCTION”

1. The phenomenon in which changing current in a coil induces an emf in itself is called:
(a) Self Induction (b) Mutual Induction (c) Motional emf (d) Magnetic Flux
2. The self-inductance may be defined by
( )
(a) (b) (c) (d)
( )
3. The ratio of average induced emf to the rate of change of current in the coil is called:
(a) Self inductance (b) Mutual inductance (c) Electric Flux (d) Current
4. The notation for henry is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The inductance is more in self induction in:
(a) Air cored coil (b) Iron cored coil (c) Plastic cored coil (d) None of these
6. Inductance of the coil can be increased by using ___________________ core:
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Ferromagnetic (d) None of these
7. Self-inductance of a coil depends upon:
(a) Number of turns of coil (b) Area of coil (c) Core material (d) All a, b & c
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (d)
13
Article “15.6 SELF INDUCTION” in PAST PAPERS
1. Define self-inductance. Write its SI unit.
2. What is meant by back emf? Write its SI units.
3. Name the factors upon which the self-inductance depends.
1. Define and explain self induction. Also derive relation for self-inductance.
15.7 ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

ENERGY STORED IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF INDUCTOR (Derivation of Expression)
Energy can be stored in the electric field between the plates of capacitor. In a similar manner, energy can be
stored in the magnetic field of an inductor.
Consider a coil connected to a battery and a switch in series. When the switch is turned on voltage V
is applied across the ends of the coil and current through it rises from
zero to its maximum value I. Due to change of current, an emf is
induced, which is opposite to that of battery. Work is done by the
battery top move charges against the induced emf.
Work done by the battery in moving a small charged is:
Where is the magnitude of induced emf, given by:
Putting the value of in equation (1), we get:
Total work done in establishing the current from 0 to I is found by inserting for , the average current, and
the value of .
Change in current
The equation (2) will become:
( )
This work is stored as potential energy in the inductor. Hence the energy stored in an inductor is:
This equation can be expressed in terms of the magnetic field strength B of a solenoid.
If the flux through one loop of the coil is , then the total flux through the coil of N loops would be
. As the magnetic flux is proportional to magnetic field which is in turn proportional to the
current I, therefore:
The magnetic field strength inside solenoid is . Therefore the equation (4) becomes:
14
If is the length of solenoid, then putting in the above equation, we get:
Thus the equation (3) becomes:
Since for a solenoid is . Substituting for I, the above equation becomes:
( )
Now the energy density can be defined as the energy stored per unit volume insider the solenoid, so
dividing equation (5) by volume , we get energy density:
Numerical Related to ENERGY STORED IN MAGNETIC FIELD TO INDUCTOR

15.9 When current through a coil changes from 100 mA to 200 mA in 0.005 s, an induced emf of 40
mV is produced in the coil. (a) What is the self-inductance of the coil? (b) Find the increase in the
energy stored in the coil.
Given Data: Initial Current , Final Current ,
Time , Induced emf ,
To Determine: (a) Self Inductance , (b) Increase in Energy Stored
Calculations: Change in Current
(a) As Self Inductance

( ) ( )
(b) ( ) [ ]
15.10 Like any field, the earth's magnetic field stores energy. Find the magnetic energy stored in a
space where strength of earth's field is 7 x 10-5 T, if the space occupies an area of 10x108 m2 and has
a height of 750 m.
Given Data: Magnetic Field Strength , Area , Height
To Determine: Magnetic Energy
( )
Calculations:
MCQs Related to the Article “15.7 ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR”

1. An inductor is a circuit element that can store energy in
(a) Magnetic field (b) Electric flux (c) Electric field (d) None
2. Magnetic potential energy stored in an inductor depends upon:
(a) Square root of the value of current (b) Cube root of the value of current
(c) Square of the value of current (d) None of these
3. Energy stored in an inductor is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. The energy stored per unit volume inside a solenoid is calculated by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. If an inductor has N turns and is magnetic flux through its each turn when current I is flowing,
then self-inductance L is given by formula:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
15
6. Self inductance of solenoid is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (c)
Article “15.7 ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is an inductor? Derive the relation for energy stored in an inductor.
2. Define self-induction. Explain how energy is stored in magnetic field. Also find energy density.
15.8 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR

ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR (Definition, Principle, Construction and Working)
Definition
A current generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle
The principle of an electric generator is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. When
a coil is rotated in a magnetic field by some mechanical means, magnetic flux through the coil changes, and
consequently an emf is induced in the coil.
Construction
A rectangular loop of wire of area A be placed in uniform magnetic field B. the loop is rotated about
an axis through its center with constant angular velocity . One end
of the loop is attached to a metal ring R and the other end to the
ring R' . These rings, called slip rings are concentric with the axis of
the loop and rotate with it. Rings RR' slide against stationary
carbon brushes to which external circuit is connected.
Working
To calculate the induced emf in the loop, consider its
position while it is moving in anticlockwise. The vertical side ab of
the loop is moving with velocity v in the magnetic field B. if the
angle between v and B is θ, the motional emf induced in the side ab
has the magnitude,
The same amount of emf is induced in the side cd. Therefore,
The net contribution to emf by the side bc and da is zero because the force acting on the charges inside bc
and da is not along the wire. Thus
The total emf is the loop is:
If the coil is replaced by a coil of N turns, the total emf in the coil
will be:
The linear speed v of the vertical wire is related to the angular speed ω by the relation:
where is the distance of the vertical wires from the center of the coil. Substituting this value in equation
(1), we get:
16
As the angular displacement , so the equation (2) becomes:
The equation (3) shows that the induced emf varies sinusoidally with time. It has
the maximum value  0 when is equal to 1. Thus
Thus the equation (3) can be written as:
If R is the resistance of the coil, then by Ohm’s law, induced current in the coil will be:
Variation of Current as a Function of θ

 When the angle between v and B is , the current is zero.
 As increases, current also increases. At , the maximum current flows through the coil,
directed along abcda.
 On further increase in , the current decreases. At , the current becomes zero.
 For , current increases but in reverses the direction i.e., dcbad. At , the
maximum current flows through the coil.
 At , one rotation is completed and the current decrease to zero. After one rotation, the
cycle repeats itself.
The current alternates in direction once in one cycle. Therefore, such a current is called alternating current.
It reverses its direction f times per second.
Exercise Short Question Related to “15.8 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR”

Exercise Short Q # 8. How would you position a flat loop of wire in a changing magnetic field so that
there is no emf induced in the loop?
Ans. If the plane of loop of wire is placed parallel to changing magnetic field i.e., , then no flux through
it will change. Hence no emf will be induced through the loop as:
17
Numerical Related to “15.8 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR”
15.11 A square coil of side 16 cm has 200 tums and rotates in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude
0.05 T. If the peak emf is 12 V, what is the angular velocity of the coil?
Given Data: Length of side of square loop , Number of turns ,
Magnetic field strength , Peak emf
To Determine: Angular Velocity
Calculations: For square
As
15.12 A generator has a rectangular coil consisting of 360 turns. The coil rotates at 420 rev per min
in 0.14 T magnetic field. The peak value of emf produced by the generator is 50 V. If the coil is 5.0
cm wide, find the length of the side of the coil.
Given Data: Number of turns , Angular Velocity ,
Magnetic field strength , Peak emf , Breadth of Coil

To Determine: Length of Coil
Calculations: As
15.13 It is desired to make an a.c. generator that can produce an emf of maximum value 5 kV with
50 Hz frequency. A coil of area 1 m2 having 200 turns is used as armature. What should be the
magnitude of the magnetic field in which the coil rotates?
Given Data: Peak emf , Frequency , Area , Turn
To Determine: Magnetic Field Strength
Calculations: As
15.14 The back emf in a motor is 120 V when the motor is turning at 1680 rev per min. What is the
back emf when the motor turns 3360 rev per min?
Given Data: Case 1: Back emf , Angular Velocity
Case 2: Angular Velocity
To Determine: Back emf for Case-2:

Calculations: For Case-1: , For Case-2:
Dividing eq (1) and (2):
MCQs Related to the Article “15.8 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR”

1. A generator converts mechanical energy into
(a) Chemical energy (b) Light energy (c) Heat energy (d) Electrical energy
2. The principle of an alternating current generator is based on:
(a) Coulomb’s law (b) Ampere’s law (c) Faraday’s law (d) Lenz’s law
3. Alternating current changes
(a) Its magnitude as well as direction (b) Only direction but not magnitude
(c) Only magnitude but not direction (d) None
4. The induced emf in A.C. generator is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. Maximum emf generated in a generator is:
6. Which one is not present in AC generator?
(a) Armature (b) Magnet (c) Slip Ring (d) Commutator
18
7. If the speed of rotation of a generator is doubled, the output voltage will be:
(a) Remains same (b) Double (c) Four times (d) One Half
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d) MCQ # 7: (b)
Article “15.8 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. What are the factors on which maximum value of emf induced across terminals of armature of an
A.C. generator depend?
1. What is alternating current generator? Describe its principle, construction and working. Also derive
an expression for induced emf and induced current.
15.9 D.C. GENERATOR

Write a note on DC Generator.
AC Generators are not suitable for many applications, for
example to run a DC motor. In 1834, William Sturgeon invented a
simple device called commutator that prevents the direction of
current from changing.
DC Generator is similar to the AC generator in
construction with the difference that “slip rings” are replaced by
“split rings”. The “split rings” are two halves of a ring that act as
commutator.
When the current in the coil is zero and is about to change
direction, the split rings also changes the contacts with the carbon
brushes BB' . Therefore, the output from BB' remains in the
same direction although the current is not constant in magnitude.
The fluctuations of the output can be significantly reduced by
using many coils rather than a single one.
MCQs Related to the Article “15.9 D.C. GENERATOR”
1. Which of the following is not present in AC generator:
(a) Armature (b) Magnet (c) Slip rings (d) Commutator
2. Who invented commutator?
(a) William Sturgeon (b) William Smith (c) Michael Faraday (d) Coulomb
3. The coil used in the generators is called
(a) Commutator (b) Slip rings (c) Armature (d) None
4. Commutator was invented in:
(a) 1820 (b) 1830 (c) 1834 (d) 1840
5. Which part of DC generator prevent the direction of current from changing:
(a) Carbon Brushes (b) Armature (c) Commutator (d) Poles of magnet
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c)
Article “15.9 D.C. GENERATOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. Why are split rings used in DC generator in place of slip rings?
2. How fluctuations of the output can be reduced in DC generator?
19
15.10 BACK MOTOR EFFECT IN GENERATORS
BACK EMF EFFECTS IN GENERATORS
A generator is a source of electricity production that converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy. For this purpose, a large turbine is turned by high
pressure or waterfall. The shaft of the turbine is attached to the coil which
rotates in the magnetic field.
When the circuit is open, the generator does not supply electrical
energy, and a very little force is needed to rotate the coil. As soon as the circuit
is closed, a current is drawn through the coil. The magnetic field exerts force on
the current carrying coil.
Force F1 is acting on the left side of the coil whereas an equal but
opposite force F2 acts on the right side of the coil. These forces are such
that they produce a counter torque that opposes the rotational motion of
the coil. This effect is sometimes referred to as back motor effect in the
generator.
MCQs Related to the Article “15.10 BACK MOTOR EFFECT IN GENERATORS”

1. The back motor effect exist in the
(a) Generator (b) Motor (c) A.C. Motor (d) None
2. A device in a circuit that consumes electrical energy is known as:
(a) Resistance (b) Capacitance (c) Inductance (d) Load
3. The torque produced due to induced current in coil of generator that opposes coil’s rotation is
called:
(a) Back generator effect (b) Back motor effect (c) Mutual Inductance (d) Self Inductance
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b)
Article “15.10 BACK MOTOR EFFECT IN GENERATORS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is back motor effect in generators?
15.11 D.C. MOTOR

DC MOTOR (Definition, Principle, Construction and Working)
Definition
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Principle
The basic principle of electric motor is that “a wire carrying current placed in magnetic field
experience a force”.
Construction
In construction a DC motor is similar to a DC generator, having
a magnetic field, a commutator and an armature.
Working
In DC motor, the brushes are connected to DC supply or
battery. When the current flows through the armature coil, the force
on the conductor produces a torque that rotates the armature. The
amount to the torque depends upon the current, the strength to the
magnetic field, the area of the coil ant the number of turns of the coil.
20
Exercise Short Question Related to “15.11 D.C. MOTOR”
Exercise Short Q # 12. Can a DC motor be turned into a DC generator? What changes are required to
be done?
Ans. Yes, a DC motor be turned into a DC generator.
In order to convert DC motor into a DC generator, two changes are to be done:
 The magnetic field must be supplied by the permanent magnet and not by electromagnet.
 An arrangement to rotate the coil armature should be provided.
Exercise Short Q # 14. Can an electric motor be used to drive an electric generator with output from
the generator being used to operate the motor?
Ans. No it is not possible. Because if it is possible, it will be a self operating system without getting energy
from some external source and this is against the law of conservation of energy.
MCQs Related to the Article “15.11 D.C. MOTOR”
1. A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called:
(a) Transformer (b) AC generator (c) DC motor (d) DC generator
2. The back ward generator is called
(a) Electric motor (b) A.C. generator (c) Reverse generator (d) None
3. The working principle of D.C. motor is similar to
(a) Galvanometer (b) Rectifier (c) DC generator (d) Transformer
4. The jerks in DC motors are created by the use of:
(a) Commutator (b) Armature (c) Torque (d) Source
5. The winding of electromagnet in motor are usually called:
(a) Magnetic coils (b) Field coils (c) Electric coils (d) Induction coils
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b)
Article “15.11 D.C. MOTOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is DC motor? Write its principle.
2. Differentiate between motor and generator.
3. Write two similarities and two differences between motor and generator.
15.12 BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS
BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS
When the coil motor rotates across the magnetic field by the applied potential difference V, an emf is
induced in it. The induced emf is in such a direction that opposes the emf running motor. Due to this
reason, the induced emf is called back emf of the motor. The magnitude of the back emf increases with the
speed of motor.
RELATION BETWEEN BACK EMF AND CURRENT
Since V and  are opposite in polarity, the net emf in the circuit is . If R is the resistance of the
coil and I the current drawn by the motor, then by Ohm’s law:
 When the motor is just started, back emf is almost zero and hence a large current passes through the
coil.
 As the motor speeds up, the back emf increases and current becomes smaller and smaller. However, the
current is sufficient to provide the torque on the coil drive the load and overcome losses due to friction.
 If the motor is overloaded, it slows down. Consequently, the back emf decreases and allows motor to
draw more current.
 If the motor is overloaded beyond its limits, the current could be so high that it may burn out the motor.
21
Exercise Short Question Related to “15.12 BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS”
Exercise Short Q # 11. When an electric motor, such as an electric drill, is being used, does it also act
as a generator? If so what is the consequences of this?
Ans. When an electric motor is running, its armature is rotating in a magnetic field. A torque acts on the
armature and at the same time, magnetic flux is changing through the armature which produces an induced
emf. The induced emf tends to rotate the coil in the direction opposite to that of applied torque. This means
that motor also acts as generator when it is running.
The induced emf opposes the rotation of armature.
Numerical Related to “15.12 BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS”
15.15 A D.C motor operates at 240 V and has a resistance of 0.5 Ω. When the motor is running at
normal speed, the armature current is 15 A. Find the back emf in the armature.
Given Data: Operating Voltage , Resistance , Current
To Determine: Back emf
Calculations: As
MCQs Related to the Article “15.12 BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS”
1. Self-induced emf is sometimes called:
(a) Motional emf (b) Constant emf (c) Back emf (d) Variable emf
2. When a motor is just started, back emf is almost ________
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c) Infinite (d) Zero
3. An over loaded motor draws
(a) Max. current (b) Min. current (c) Half (d) None
4. When motor is at its Max. speed the back emf will be
(a) Maximum (b) Zero (c) Cannot tell (d) None of these
5. When back emf is zero, an electric motor draws:
(a) Zero current (b) Steady current (c) Minimum Current (d) Maximum Current
6. When back emf in the motor is maximum, it draws
(a) Zero current (b) Steady current (c) Minimum Current (d) Maximum Current
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (c)
Article “15.12 BACK EMF EFFECT IN MOTORS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is back emf effect in motor?
15.13 TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER (Definition, Principle, Construction and Working)
Definition
A transformer is an electrical device used to change a given alternating emf into a larger or smaller
alternating emf.
Principle
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two coils. The transformer
consists of two coils of copper electrically insulated from each
other, wound on the same iron core. The coil to which AC power
is supplied is called primary and that from which power is
delivered to the circuit is called secondary.
Construction & Working
Suppose that an alternating emf is applied to the
primary. If at some instant t, the flux is changing at the rate of
, then there will back emf induced in the primary, which will
22
oppose the applied voltage. The instantaneous value of the self induced emf
or back emf is given by:
* +
Where is the number of turns in the primary. If the resistance of the coil
is negligible then the self induced emf is equal and opposite to applied
voltage .
[ ]
Assuming that the two coils are tightly coupled and the flux through the primary also passes
through the secondary. Therefore, the rate of change of flux through secondary will be and the
magnitude of induced emf across the secondary is given by:
[ ]
Where is the number of turns in the secondary.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN A STEP-UP TRANSFORMER AND

STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
Step-up Transformer
A transformer in which voltage across secondary is greater
than the primary voltage is called step up transformer. For the
case of a step up transformer , then according to the

equation (3) we have:
.
Step-Down Transformer
A transformer in which voltage across secondary is less
than the primary voltage is called step down transformer. For the
case of a step down transformer , then according to the equation (3) we have:
.
EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER
The efficiency of the transformer is determined by formula:
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER AND AN ACTUAL TRANSFORMER

Ideal Transformer
For an ideal case the power input to the primary is nearly equal to the power output from secondary i.e.,
The efficiency of an ideal transformer is .

Actual Transformer
But in actual transformer, the output is always less than input due to power losses. There are two
main causes of power losses, namely eddy currents and magnetic hysteresis. Due to power losses, a
transformer is far from being an ideal i.e., efficiency of an actual transformer is always less than .
23
CAUSES OF POWER LOSS
There are two main causes of power loss, which are given below
i. Eddy Current
The induced currents that are set up in the core of
transformer in the direction perpendicular to the flux are known
as eddy currents. It results in power dissipation and heating of
the core material.
ii. Hysteresis Losses
Hysteresis losses are the energy expended to magnetize
and demagnetize the core material in each cycle of AC.
TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF THE TRANSFORMER
Following step should be executed in order to improve the efficiency of transformer:
 Core should be assembled from the laminated sheet of a material whose hysteresis loop area is very
small.
 The insulation between lamination sheets should be perfect so as to stop the flow of eddy currents.
 The resistance of the primary and secondary coils should be kept minimum.
Exercise Short Question Related to “15.13 TRANSFORMER”
Exercise Short Q # 16. Four unmarked wires emerge from a transformer. What steps would you take
to determine the turn ratio?
Ans. By checking continuity of the coils, the coils are separated as primary and secondary coils. An
alternating voltage of known value is connected to one coil (primary coil), the output voltage across
the ends of the other coil (secondary coil) is measured. The turn ratio of the coil is determined by using
relation:
Exercise Short Q # 17. (a) Can a step-up transformer increase the power level?
(b) In a transformer, there is no transfer of charge from the primary to the secondary. How is, then
the power transferred?
Ans.
(a). In case of an ideal transformer, the power output is equal to the power input. In actual transformer,
due of dissipation of energy in the coil, the output power is always less than input power. Therefore, a step-
up transformer can’t increase power level.
(b). The two coils of transformer are magnetically linked i.e., the change of flux through one coil is linked
with the other coil.
Exercise Short Q # 18. When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC mains, the current in it
(a) Is very small if the secondary circuit is open, but
(b) Increases when the secondary circuit is closed. Explain these facts.
Ans. (a). If the secondary circuit is open, then output power will be zero. Because output power is always
slightly smaller than the output power, therefore a very small value of current is being drawn by a primary
coil of transformer form AC mains.
(b). When the secondary circuit is closed, the output power will be increased. As we know that output
power is equal to input power, therefore the transformer will draw large current from the AC mains to
increase the primary power. Hence, greater current is needed in primary to equalize power in secondary
coil.
24
Numerical Related to “15.13 TRANSFORMER”
15.18 An ideal step down transformer is connected to main supply of 240 V. It is desired to operate
a 12 V, 30 W lamp. Find the current in the primary and the transformation ratio?
Given Data: Primary Voltage , Secondary Voltage , Output Power
To Determine: (a) Current in Primary Coil , (b) Transformation Ratio
Calculations: (a) As for ideal transformer,
(b) As Transformation Ratio
MCQs Related to the Article “15.13 TRANSFORMER”

1. The principle of transformer is
(a) Amperes law (b) Mutual induction (c) Motional emf (d) None
2. When constant current flows in primary of transformer, then the emf induced across secondary
of transformer is:
(a) Zero (b) Constant (c) Alternating (d) Irregular
3. A transformer is a device which step up or stop down
(a) Energy (b) Power (c) Voltage (d) All of above
4. To construct a step down transformer:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. To construct a step up transformer:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. An ideal transformer obeys the law of conservation of:
(a) Flux (b) Momentum (c) Emf (d) Energy
7. The coil which is connected to input of a transformer is called:
(a) Primary (b) Secondary (c) Middle (d) None
8. In the actual transformer, the output is always
(a) Equal to input (b) Less then input (c) More than input (d) None
9. In ideal transformer when applied potential difference is double, the output current is:
(a) Doubled (b) Tripled (c) Halved (d) Same
10. Why is the core of a transformer made of iron?
(a) Iron is good conductor (b) Iron is cheaper than copper
(c) Iron can be magnetized or demagnetized easily (d) Iron makes good permanent magnet
11. For a good transformer the hysterics loop are _______ in size.
(a) Small (b) Large (c) Zero (d) None
12. To minimize the heating effect in the transmission lines
(a) High current, low voltage in used (b) High voltage, low current in used
(c) Same voltage and current in used (d) None
13. A step up transformer has primary voltage of 50 V D.C. the secondary voltage is:
(a) 20 V (b) 40 V (c) 220 V (d) 0 V
14. For an ideal transformer:
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
15. A laminated iron core is used in transformer and choke to
(a) Increase magnetic flux (b) Minimize eddy current losses
(c) To conduct current (d) All a, b & c
16. The power loss in transformer takes place due to:
(a) Eddy currents (b) Magnetic field (c) Hysteresis (d) Both a & c
17. The efficiency of transformer is given by:
(a) (b) (c)
18. The loss of power in transformer can be reduced by
(a) Using laminated sheets of core material (b) Decreasing the resistance of coil
(c) Proper coupling of primary and secondary coil (d) All a, b & c
25
19. In a transformer, which of the following quantities has same value in primary and secondary?
(a) Voltage (b) Current (c) Resistance (d) Rate of change of magnetic flux
20. The core of transformers is laminated to reduce:
(a) Magnetic Loss (b) Hysteresis Loss (c) Eddy current loss (d) Electric loss
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (d) MCQ # 7: (a)
MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (c) MCQ # 11: (a) MCQ # 12: (b) MCQ # 13: (d) MCQ # 14: (c)
MCQ # 15: b() MCQ # 16: (d) MCQ # 17: (a) MCQ # 18: (d) MCQ # 19: (d) MCQ # 20: (c)
Article “15.13 TRANSFORMER” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is working principle of a transformer? Explain it.
2. Name and explain the factor responsible for power loss in transformer.
3. Differentiate between step up and step down transformer.
4. How can the power losses be minimized in transformer.
5. Distinguish between AC generator and transformer.
6. What do you know about eddy current?
7. How the efficiency of a transformer can be improved?
1. What is a transformer? Derive its equation. Also explain power losses and power transmission in it.
2. What is a transformer? Describe the principle, construction and working of transformer.
26
Chapter 16 (2nd Year Physics) Alternating Current
ALTERNATING CURRENT
16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT (Definition)
The current that is produced by a voltage source whose polarity keeps on
reversing with time is called alternating current.
INSTANTANEOUS VALUE (Definition)
The value of the voltage or current that exist in a circuit at any instant of time
t measured from some reference point is known as its instantaneous value.
Mathematically, it is given by:
Explanation:
The most common source of alternating voltage is an A.C. generator. The
output of A.C. generator at any instant is given by:
Where T is the period of rotation of the coil and is equal to period of A.C. and
is the angular frequency of rotation of coil. Thus
is the angle through which the coil rotations in time t.

Equation (1) shows that the value of alternating voltage V is not constant. It
changes with time.
 When , then and V is zero.
 When , then and V attain maximum
value at this instant.

 When , then and V is zero.
 When , then and at this instant.
 When , then and .
The variation of V with time and is shown in figure a & b. The variation of V and t is known as waveform
of alternating voltage which is a sine curve. Thus alternating voltage varies sinusoidally with time.
PEAK VALUE (Definition)
It is the highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle. It is denoted by the symbol .
PEAK TO PEAK VALUE (Definition)
It is the sum of the positive and negative peak values usually written as p-p value.
PHASE OF AC (Definition)
The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage is given by:
The angle specifies the instantaneous value of the instantaneous value voltage or current known as
its phase.
1
Explanation:
In figure b, the phases at points A,B, C, D & E is 0, , , ,
respectively because these angles are the values of at these points. Thus
each point on the A.C. waveform corresponds to a certain phase.
 The phase at the positive peak value is
 The phase at the negative peak value is
 The points where the waveform crosses the time axis corresponds
to the phase 0 and .
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE (Definition)

The alternating current (or voltage) measure by square root of its mean square value is known as root
mean square (rms) value.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RMS VALUE
The average value of current and voltage over a cycle is zero but the power delivered during a cycle
is not zero because power is and the values of are positive even for negative values of . Thus the
average value of is not zero and is called mean square current. The alternating current or voltage is
actually measured by square root of its mean square value known as root mean square (rms) value.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION FOR RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATNG QUANTITY
As the graph of is symmetrical
about the line , so from this figure, the
mean or average value of is . The root
mean square value of V is obtained by taking

the square root of (mean square value).
Therefore,
√
PHASE LAG & PHASE LEAD
In practice, the phase difference between two alternating quantities is more important than their absolute
phases. Figure shows two waveform 1 and 2.
 At point B, the phase of waveform 1 is and that of 2 is 0.
 Similarly it can be seen that at each point the phase of

waveform 2 is less than the phase of waveform 1 by an
angle of
Hence, we say that:

 A.C. 2 is lagging behind A.C. 1 by an angle of Or
 A.C. 1 is leading ahead of A.C. 2 by an angle of
2
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY

Phase lead ad lag between two alternating quantities is conveniently shown by representing the
two A.C. quantities as vectors. A sinusoidally alternating voltage or current can be graphically represented
by a counter clockwise rotating vector provided that it satisfies the following conditions.
 Its length represents the peak or rms value of the alternating quantity
 It is in the horizontal position at the instant when the
alternating quantity is zero and is increasing
positively.
 The angular frequency of the rotating vector is the
same as the angular frequency of alternating
quantity.
Figure shows a sinusoidal voltage waveform leading an
alternating current waveform by . The same fact has been
shown vectorially in figure b. Here:

 OI represents the peak or rms value of current which
is taken as the reference quantity.
 OV represents the rms or peak value of the alternating
voltage which is leading the current by
 Both vectors are supposed to be rotating in the

counter clockwise direction at the angular frequency
of two alternating quantities.
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT”
Exercise Short Q # 1. A sinusoidal current has rms value of 10 A. What is the maximum or peak
value?
Ans.
( )
Using formula:
√
√
√ ( )
Thus, the maximum value of the current is .

Exercise Short Q # 3. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reaches maximum
brilliance when connected to a 50 Hz source?
Ans. The brilliance of the lamp will become maximum twice in one AC cycle because the current also
becomes maximum two times in a cycle (i.e., for +ve half cycle and –ve half cycle).
As the frequency “f” of AC cycle is 50 Hz.
Hence, the brilliance will be maximum 100 time in one second.
3
NUMERICALS RELATED TO ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY

Q # 1. An alternating current is represented by the equation ( ). Compute its
frequency and the maximum and the rms value of current.
Given Data: Equation of current ( ) ( )
To Determine: Frequency , Maximum Current , RMS Current
Calculations: General Equation of A.C. ( ) ( )
Comparing eq (1) and (2), we have:
i.
ii.
iii.
√ √
Q # 2. A solenoidal A.C. has a maximum value of 15 A. What is its rms values? If the time is recorded
from the instant the current is zero and is becoming positive, what is the instantaneous value of
current after 1/300 s, given the frequency is 50 Hz.
Given Data: Maximum Current , Time , Frequency

To Determine: RMS Current , Instantaneous Alternating Current
Calculations:
√ √
Equation of Instantaneous Alternating Current ( ) ( )
MCQs Related to the Article “16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT”
1. The instantaneous value of alternating voltage is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. The most common source of alternating voltage is:
(a) Motor (b) Transformer (c) AC generator (d) None of these
3. The waveform of alternating voltage is:
(a) Cosine curve (b) Tangent curve (c) Cotangent Curve (d) Sine curve
4. The mean value of A.C. over a complete cycle in
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c) Zero (d) None
5. The highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle is called:
(a) Instantaneous value (b)Peak to peak value
(c) Peak value (d) Root mean square value
6. If √ , then phase voltage will be:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
√
7. If , then will be equal to:
(a) 14.1 A (b) 1.41 A (c) 141 A (d) 0.141 a
8. The frequency of AC used in Pakistan is _________
(a) 60 CPS (b) 50 CPS (c) 100 CPS (d) 120 CPS
9. In case of phasor diagram the vector rotates
(a) Clockwise (b) Anti clockwise (c) Remain stationary (d) None
10. How many times per second will an incandescent lamp reach maximum brilliance when
connected to a 50Hz source?
(a) 50 times (b) 100 times (c) 200 times (d) None of these
11. Phase corresponding to negative peak value is equal to:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b)
MCQ # 7: (a) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (b) MCQ # 10: (b) MCQ # 11: (d)
Article “16.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT” in PAST PAPERS
1. Differentiate between peak value and peak to peak value of an alternating quantity
2. In relation , what angle shows?
3. Find the peak value of the voltage of an AC supply for which root mean square voltage is 0.7 V?
4. What is the root mean square value of current? Explain.
5. Define the instantaneous value and peak value of current.
4
16.2 A.C. CIRCUITS

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DC CIRCUIT & AC CIRCUITS
 The basic element of a direct current circuit is resistor R which controls the current or voltage and the
relation between them is given by the Ohm’s law:
 In AC circuits, in addition to resistors R, two new circuit elements such as inductor L and capacitor C
are used. The current and voltage in AC circuits is controlled by the three elements R, L and C.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.2 A.C. CIRCUITS”
1. The basic circuit element of a DC circuit is:
(a) Battery (b) Resistor (c) Inductor (d) Capacitor
2. The basic circuit element of an AC circuit is:
(a) Resistor (b) Inductor (c) Capacitor (d) All a, b & c
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (d)
Article “16.2 A.C. CIRCUITS” in PAST PAPERS

1. Differentiate between DC circuit and AC circuit.
16.3 A.C. THROUGH A RESISTOR

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE & CURRENT WHEN AC PASSES THROUGH
RESISTOR
Consider a circuit in which a resistor of resistance R is connected with the
alternating voltage source as shown in the figure. The potential difference
across the terminals of the resistor is given by the expression:
( )
where is the instantaneous value of alternating voltage and is the peak value
of the alternating voltage.
Dividing both sides by , we get:
where is the instantaneous current and is the peak value of the current.
The graph of and verses time describe that both and are proportional
to as it is clear from figure that:
 Both and across the resistor oscillate at the same frequency.
 Both and go to zero at the same time.

 Both reach their peak value at the same time.
Thus, the current and voltage are in phase.
In phase diagram of resistive circuit, the voltage and current are drawn
parallel because there is no phase difference between them.
RESISTANCE (Definition)
The opposition offered by resistor to the flow of alternating current is called
resistance, which can be determined by formula:
The SI unit resistance is ohm.
5
MCQs Related to the Article “16.3 A.C. THROUGH A RESISTOR”

1. In pure resistive AC circuit, instantaneous value of voltage or current:
(a) Current lags behind voltage (b) Current leads voltage by
(c) Both are in-phase (d) Voltage leads current by
2. The behavior of resistance is frequency
(a) Dependent (b) Independent (c) No response (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b)
Article “16.3 A.C. THROUGH A RESISTOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. Explain AC through resistor in detail.
16.4 A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR

 Direct current cannot flows through a capacitor continuously because of
presence of insulating medium between the plates of capacitor.
 Alternating current flows through AC circuit containing capacitor, because
the capacitor plates are continuously charged, discharged and charged the
other way round by the alternating voltage.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
WHEN AC PASSES THROUGH CAPACITOR
Consider a circuit consisting of a capacitor of capacitance C is
connected in series with to A.C. source as shown in figure. The applied voltage
between the plates of the capacitor is given by:
( )
The charge stored on the plates of the capacitor at any instant is given by
expression:
( )
Since and are constants, it is obvious that will vary the same
way as applied voltage i.e., and are in phase.
The current I flowing through the connecting wires is equal to the
rate of change of q i.e.,
So the value of at any instant is the corresponding slope of

curve or curve.
 Initially, when , the slope is maximum, so is then maximum.
 From O to A, slop of curve decreases to zero. So is zero at N.
 From A to B, the slope to the curve is negative and so I is negative from N to R.
In this way, the curve PNRST gives the variation of current with time.
It can be seen from figure, that phase of V and I at O is zero and ,
respectively. It means that current leads the voltage by . This is vectorically,
represented as shown in figure.

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (Definition)
It is the measure of opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of alternating current. It is
usually represented by . Its value is given by the expression:
6
where is the root mean square value of the alternating voltage across the capacitor and is the root
mean square value of the alternating current passing through capacitor. The SI unit of the capacitive
reactance is Ohm.
The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of the source, i.e.,
where is capacitance of capacitor.

MCQs Related to the Article “16.4 A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR”
1. A capacitor is perfect insulator for:
(a) Alternating current (b) Direct current (c) Both a and b
2. At high frequency, the current through a capacitor of AC circuit will be:
(a) Large (b) Small (c) Infinite (d) Zero
3. The unit used for capacitive reactance is
(a) Volt (b) Ampere (c) Joule (d) Ohm
4. In case of capacitor, the voltage lags behind the current by
(a) 90o (b) 60o (c) 30o (d) 180o
5. The slope of q-t curve at any instant of time gives:
(a) Current (b) Voltage (c) Charge (d) Both a & b
6. The reactance of capacitor is equal to:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. If the frequency of A.C in large the reactance of capacitor is
(a) Large (b) Small (c) Zero (d) None
8. If the frequency of A.C. is doubled, the reactance of capacitor will be
(a) Half (b) Same (c) Double (d) Triple
9. 100 capacitor is connected to an alternating voltage of 24 V having frequency 50 Hz. The
reactance of capacitor is:
(a) 30.8 (b) 31.8 (c) 34.8 (d) 40
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (d)
MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (a) MCQ # 9: (b)
Article “16.4 A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define capacitive reactance. Describe the condition which will make the reactance small.
1. Describe the phase relationship between voltage and current when an AC source is connected
across a capacitor. Also derive the relation for reactance of a capacitor.
16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WHEN AC PASSES THROUGH
INDUCTOR
Consider a circuit consisting of an inductor of inductance L connected
across the terminals of an A.C. source. Assume that the resistance of the
coil is negligible. Suppose the current flowing at any instant in the circuit
is:
If L is the inductance of the coil, the changing current set up a back emf in
the coil and its magnitude is given as:
7
Since there is no resistance in the circuit, the applied voltage

V must be equal to the back emf:
As L is the constant, the voltage at any instant will be
proportional to the rate of change of current. The value of
is given by the slop of curve.

 At O, the value of the slop is maximum, so the corresponding value of will be maximum (equal to ).
 From O to A, the slop of graph decreases to zero, so the voltage decreases from to zero at .
 From A to B, the slop of graph is negative, so the voltage goes from to .
In this way the voltage is represented by the curve PQRST corresponding to
current curve OABCD is obtained.
It can be seen from figure, that phase of I and V at O is zero and ,
respectively. It means that current lags the voltage by . This is vectorically,
represented as shown in figure.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (Definition)
It is the measure of opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of AC. It is represented by the
symbol . By definition
where is the root mean square value of the alternating voltage across the inductor and is
the root mean square value of the alternating current passing through inductor. The SI unit of the inductive
reactance is Ohm.
The reactance of the inductor is directly proportional to frequency of alternating voltage source, usually
represented by the expression:
where L is inductance of inductor.

Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR”
Exercise Short Q # 2. Name the devices that will
(a) Permit flow of direct current but oppose the flow of alternating current
(b) Permit flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
Ans.
(a) An inductor (choke) is a device which permits flow of direct current but opposes the flow of
alternating current.
(b) A capacitor is a device which permits flow of alternating current but not the direct current.
Exercise Short Q # 4. A circuit contains an iron-cored inductor, a switch and a DC sources arranged
in series. The switch is closed and after an interval reopened. Explain why a spark jumps across the
switch contacts?
Ans. When a switch of circuit containing iron cored inductor is closed, current increases from zero to
maximum value. This changing current produce change of magnetic flux and hence emf is produced.
After an interval, when switch is reopened, the current changes from maximum to zero. Again emf is
developed across the coil. This is back emf. This produces spark across the switch contacts.
8
Exercise Short Q # 5. How does doubling the frequency affect the reactance of (a) an inductor (b)
capacitor?
Ans.
Formula for Reactance Doubling frequency Result
Inductive Reactance will
Inductor
become double
Capacitive Reactance
Capacitor
will becomes half
Hence by doubling the frequency, the inductive reactance will become double, while capacitive reaction
remains half.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR”
1. A device that allows permits flow of DC through the circuit easily, is called:
(a) Inductor (b) Capacitor (c) AC generator (d) Transformer
2. The inductive reactance is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. In pure inductive circuit the voltage
(a) Remain same with current (b) Lag the current by 90o
(c) Lead the current by 90o (d) None
4. In the pure inductor the resistance is
(a) Zero (b) Maximum (c) Large (d) None
5. The reactance of inductor is represented by
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. By increasing the frequency of A.C. through an inductor the reactance will be
(a) Remain same (b) Decreases (c) Increases (d) None
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (c)
Article “16.5 A.C. THROUGH AN INDUCTOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. At what frequency will an inductor of 1.0 H have a reactance of 500 ?
2. What is meant by inductive reactance and write its formula.
3. Which quantity, voltage or current leads in a capacitor and by how much angle?
1. Explain the behavior of AC through inductor. Also show that the reactance of a coil depends upon
the frequency of the AC and inductance L.
16.6 IMPEDANCE
IMPEDANCE (Definition)
A measure of the opposition to the flow of charges in an AC circuit is called impedance.
Explanation:
An AC circuit may be composed of a resistance, inductance and capacitance or a combination of
these elements. The combined effect of resistance and reactances in such circuit is known as impedance
and is denoted by . The SI unit of impedance is ohm.
It measured by the ratio of the RMS value of the applied voltage to the RMS value of resulting current.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.6 IMPEDANCE”

1. The combine opposition of resistor, capacitor and inductor is called
(a) Reactance (b) Resistor (c) Impedance (d) None
2. The SI unit of impedance is:
(a) Henry (b) Hertz (c) Ampere (d) Ohm
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3. The impedance Z can be expressed as:

(a) (b) (c) ⁄ (d) ⁄
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (c)
Article “16.6 IMPEDANCE” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define impedance. Also give its units.
16.7 R-C AND R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

RC Series Circuit
A circuit in which resistor R and capacitor C are connected in series is called RC
series circuit.
DETERMINATION OF IMPEDANCE OF THE RC CIRCUIT BY IMPEDANCE
DIAGRAM
Consider an RC series circuit excited by an A.C. source.
 The potential difference across resistor ‘ ’ would be in phase with
current . Taking the current as the reference, the potential difference across
the resistor is represented by the line along the current line because the
potential difference is in phase with current.
 In case of a capacitor, current leads voltage by . So the line representing
potential difference across the capacitor is drawn at
right angle to the current line (along negative y-axis).

Magnitude of Impedance
The value of applied voltage is obtained by the resultant of vectors
and :
√( ) ( )
√( ) ( )
√( ) ( ) ( )
√ ( )
√ ( )
√ ( )
This expression gives the magnitude to impedance of an RC-circuit.

Direction
Figure shows that the current and the applied voltage are not in phase. The phase θ by which the
current leads the voltage is given by the expression:
( )
( )
10
NUMERICALS RELATED TO RC-CIRCUITS

Q # 7. Find the value of the current flowing through a capacitance when connected to a
source of 150 V at 50 Hz.
Given Data: Capacitance , Peak Value of Voltage ,
Frequency
Calculations: Capacitive Reactance
Current
Q # 8. An alternating source of emf 12 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a capacitor of capacitance

in series with a resistor of resistance of . Calculate the phase angle.
Given Data: , Frequency , Capacitance ,
Resistance
To Determine: Phase Angle
Calculations: Capacitive Reactance
( ) ( )
RL SERIES CIRCUIT
A circuit in which resistor R and inductor L are connected in
series is called RL series circuit.
DETERMINATION OF IMPEDANCE OF RL-CIRCUIT BY IMPEDANCE
DIAGRAM
Consider an RL series circuit excited by an AC source.
 The potential difference across resistor ‘ ’ would be in
phase with current . Taking the current as the reference, the
potential difference across the resistor is represented by the line
along the current line because the potential difference is in phase
with current.
 The potential difference across the inductor
( ). As the current lags the voltage by , so the line
representing vector is drawn at right angle to the current line
(along positive y-axis).
Magnitude of Impedance
The value of applied voltage is obtained by the resultant of vectors and ( ):
√( ) ( )
√( ) ( )
√( ) ( ) ( )
√ ( )
√ ( )
√ ( )
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This expression gives the magnitude to impedance of an RL-circuit.

Direction
Figure shows that the current and the applied voltage are not in phase. The phase θ by which the current
lags the voltage is given by the expression:
( )
( )
Exercise Short Question Related to RL-CIRCUITS

Exercise Short Q # 6. In a RL circuit, will the current lag or lead the voltage? Illustrate your answer
by a vector diagram.
Consider an RL series circuit excited by an AC source.
 The potential difference across resistor ‘ ’ would be in
phase with current . Taking the current as the reference, the
potential difference across the resistor is represented by the line
along the current line because the potential difference is in phase
with current.
 The potential difference across the inductor ( ).
As the current lags the voltage by , so the line representing vector
is drawn at right angle to the current line (along positive y-axis). Figure shows that the current and
the applied voltage are not in phase. The phase θ by which the current lags the voltage is given by the
expression:
( )
( )
NUMERICALS RELATED TO RL-CIRCUITS

Q # 3. Find the values of the current and inductive reactance when A.C. voltage of 220 V at 50 Hz is
passed through an inductor of 10 H.
Given Data: Voltage , Frequency , Inductance
To Determine: Inductive Reactance , Current
Calculations:
i.
ii.
Q # 4. An inductor has an inductance of H and resistance of . A 50 Hz A.C. is supplied to it.

Calculate the reactance and impedance offered by the circuit.
Given Data: Inductance , Resistance , Frequency
To Determine: Inductive Reactance , Impedance

Calculations:
i.
ii. √ √( ) ( )
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Q # 5. An inductor of pure inductance H is connected in series with a resistance of . Find (i)

the peak value of current (ii) the rms value, and (iii) the phase difference between the current and
the applied voltage ( ).
Given Data: Inductance , Resistance ,
Equation of Instantaneous Voltage ( ) ( )

To Determine: Peak Value of Current , RMS Current , Phase Difference
Calculations: General Equation of Instantaneous Voltage ( ) ( )
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we have: ,
Inductive Reactance
Impedance √ √( ) ( )
i.
ii.
√ √
iii. ( ) ( )
MCQs Related to the Article “16.7 R-C AND R-L SERIES CIRCUIT”
1. The magnitude of impedance in RC circuit is:
(a) (b) (c) √ (d) √

√ √
2. The magnitude of impedance in RL circuit is:

(a) √ (b) (c) (d) None
√
3. For RC series A.C. circuit, the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of:
(a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) ( ) (d) ( )
4. For RL series A.C. circuit, the voltage leads the current by a phase angle of:
(a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) ( ) (d) ( )
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “16.7 R-C AND R-L SERIES CIRCUIT” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is RC series circuit? Derive an expression for impedance and phase angle of RC series circuit.
2. Describe the behavior of RC and RL series circuits with an A.C. source. Calculate the impedance of
both the circuits by drawing their impedance diagrams.
16.8 POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS

Q # 11. Describe the power dissipation in AC circuits.
Ans. The expression for power is . This exprfession is true in case of AC circuits, only when V
and I are in phase as in case of purely resistive circuits.
In AC circuits, the potential difference between the applied voltage and the current . is .
The component of along current is . Actually, it is this component of the voltage vector
which is in phase with current. So power dissipated in AC circuit is:
( )
The factor is known as power factor.
13
NUMERICAL RELATED TO POWER DISSIPATION IN A.C. CIRCUITS

Q # 6. A 10 mH, coil is connected across 240 V and Hz source. How much power does it
dissipate?
Given Data: Inductance , Resistance , Peak Value of Voltage ,
Frequency
To Determine: Power Dissipation
Calculations: Inductive Reactance
Impedance √ √( ) ( )
Peak Value of Current
Phase Difference ( ) ( )
Power Dissipation ( )( ) ( )
MCQs Related to the Article “16.8 POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS”
1. The power dissipation in AC circuit is given by: . In this expression, is
called:
(a) Phase factor (b) Gain factor (c) Loss factor (d) Power factor
2. Power dissipation in pure inductive or in a pure capacitive circuit is:
(a) Infinite (b) Zero (c) Minimum (d) Maximum
3. The circuit in which current and voltage are in phase, the power factor is:
(a) Zero (b) one (c) two (d) four
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (b)
Article “16.8 POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS” in PAST PAPERS

1. Describe the formula of power dissipation in AC circuits.
16.9 SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT

RESONANCE FREQUENCY FOR THE CASE OF SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT (Derivation of Expression)
Consider an RLC series circuit which is excited by an alternating voltage
source whose frequency can be varied. It can be seen from the
impedance diagram, that the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance are directed opposite to each other.
 When the frequency of the source is very small, is much
greater than . So the capacitance dominates at low

frequencies and circuit behaves like an RC circuit.
 When the frequency of the source is high, is much greater than . So the inductance
dominates at high frequencies and circuit behaves like an RL

circuit.
 In between low and high frequencies, there will be a frequency
at which . This condition is called resonance.
Thus at resonance, the inductive reactance being equal and opposite to

capacitive reactance, cancel each other. The value of resonance
frequency can be find out by putting value in equation :
14
( )
√
PROPERTIES OF SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT
 The resonance frequency is given by the expression:
√
 The impedance of the circuit is minimum at this frequency
and is equal to R.
 The impedance of the circuit at resonance is resistive, so the
current and the voltage are in phase and power factor is 1.
 If the amplitude of the source voltage is constant, the
current is maximum at the resonant frequency and its value
is .
Exercise Short Question Related to “16.9 SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT”

Exercise Short Q # 7. A choke coil placed in series with an electric lamp in an AC circuit causes the
lamp to become dim. Why is it so? A variable capacitor added in series in this circuit may be
adjusted until the lamp glows with normal brilliance. Explain, how this is possible?
Ans. Let an electric lamp connected to a source of alternating voltage V in AC circuit. The impedance is
equal to the resistance of the circuit, say R. The current flowing through the lamp is ( )
(a) If, now, a choke coil of inductive reactance is placed in series with the electric lamp, the new
impedance of the circuit will be √ . Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit in this
case will be: ( )

√
From the comparison of equation (1) and (2), we see that is smaller than and that is why the
electric lamp is dimmed on placing a choke coil in the circuit.
(b) When a variable capacitor also is in series with the circuit, its capacitive reactance opposes and
thus the impedance of the circuit is √ ( ) . Therefore, the current flowing through the
circuit in this case will be: ( )

√ ( )
 If we tune the circuit such that , then

√ ( )
Hence, the current becomes equal to the current for , as if there is no reactance in the circuit
and hence the lamp glow with normal brilliance.
15
NUMERICALS RELATED TO RESONANT FREQUENCY

Q # 9. What is the resonance frequency of a circuit which include a coil of inductance 2.5 H and a
capacitance ?
Given Data: Inductance , Capacitance
To Determine: Resonant Frequency
Calculations:
√ √
Q # 10. An inductor of inductance is connected in parallel with a variable capacitor whose

capacitance can be changed from to . Calculate the maximum frequency and minimum
frequency for which the circuit can be tuned.
Given Data: Inductance ,
Initial Capacitance , Final Capacitance
To Determine: Minimum Frequency , Maximum Frequency ,
Calculations:
√ √
√ √
MCQs Related to the Article “16.9 SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT”

 At resonance, the phase angle for RLC series resonance circuit equals:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
 At resonance RLC series circuit shows the behavior of:
(a) Pure resistive circuit (b) Pure capacitive circuit
(c) Pure inductive circuit (d) Pure RLC circuit
 In RLC series resonance circuit, at resonance frequency, the impedence Z is:
(a) √ (b) √ (c) (d)

 At resonance, the value of current in RLC series circuit is equal to:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
 In RLC series circit, the current at resonance frequency is:
(a) Minimum (b) Zero (c) Maximum (d) Infinite
 The condition of resonance reached when
(a) XC > XL (b) XL < XC (c) XL = XC (d) None of these
 In RLC series AC circuit, when XL = XC then impedance is
(a) Minimum (b) Maximum (c) Zero (d) None
 At resonance, the value of the power factor in an RLC series is
(a) Zero (b) ½ (c) 1 (d) Not defined
 The angular frequency of resonance circuit is
(a) (b) (c) (d) √
√ √
 At higher frequencies, which of the following plays a dominant role in RLC series circuit
(a) Resistor (b) Inductor (c) Capacitor (d) Transistor
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (c)
MCQ # 7: (a) MCQ # 8: (c) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (b)
Article “16.9 SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT” in PAST PAPERS
1. Write three characteristics of series resonance circuit.
2. At resonance frequency the impedance of RLC series circuit is only resistive. Why?
3. Define resonant frequency.
4. Prove that
√
1. Describe an RLC series circuit. Draw its impedance diagram and derive expression for its resonance
frequency. Also write down its properties.
16
16.10 PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT

parallel resonance circuit
Consider an RLC-parallel circuit connected to alternating voltage source is
shown in the figure. The inductance coil L has negligibly small resistance. The
circuit resonates at frequency for which capacitive reactance becomes equal
to inductive reactance i.e.,
PROPERTIES OF PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT
 The resonance frequency of parallel resonance circuit can be

determined by using expression:
√
 At resonance frequency, the circuit impedance is maximum.
 At resonance, the circuit current is minimum and is in phase with the
applied voltage.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.10 PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT”
1. In parallel RLC circuit , at resonance frequency, there will be maximum
(a) Power (b) Voltage (c) Impedance (d) None
2. Natural or Resonant frequency of an LC circuit is
(a) ( )
(b) (c) √ (d) ( )
√
3. Rejector circuits is:

(a) Parallel Resonance Circuit (b) Series Resonance Circuit
(c) RC Series Circuit (d) RL Series Circuit
4. At resonance frequency the power factor is
(a) One (b) Zero (c) Two (d) Three
5 For Parallel Resonance circuit at resonant frequency, the circuit current is:
(a) Maximum (b) Minimum (c)Zero (d) One
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b)
Article “16.10 PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT” in PAST PAPERS

1. Give the two properties of parallel resonance circuit.
16.11 THREE PHASE A.C. SUPPLY
THREE PHASE AC SUPPLY (Construction, Working & Applications)
In a three phase AC supply (generator), there are three coils
inclined at an angle to each other. Each coil is connected to its own
part of slip rings. As the coils rotate in the magnetic field, an alternating
voltage is generated across all slip rings.
The phase difference between the alternating voltages are .
It means that when the voltage between the first pair of slip rings is zero,
the voltage across the second pair of slip rings . Similarly, the voltage
generated across the third pair will have a phase difference of .
The main advantage of having a three phase supply is that the total load
of the house or a factory is divided in three parts, so that none of the line is
overloaded.
17
MCQs Related to the Article “16.11 THREE PHASE A.C. SUPPLY”

1. The phase difference between each pair of coils of a three phase AC generator is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. Three phase AC machine has
(a) 4 terminals (b) No terminal (c) 2 Terminals (d) 6 terminals
3. In three phase voltage across any two lines is about:
(a) 220 V (b) 230 V (c) 440 V (d) 400 V
4. The main advantage of having three phase supply is that the total load of the house or a factory
is divided into:
(a) 2 parts (b) 3 parts (c) 4 parts (d) 5 parts
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b)
Article “16.11 THREE PHASE A.C. SUPPLY” in PAST PAPERS

1. Write down the uses of three phase AC supply.
16.12 PRINCIPLE OF METAL DETECTORS

METAL DETECTORS (Construction, Working & Applications)
Metal detectors are the electrical instruments that are used for detection and security purposes. A metal
detector consists of LC-circuits, which behave just like an oscillating mass-spring system. This circuit is
called electrical oscillator. Two such electrical oscillators
are used in the operation of a metal detector. The
schematic diagram of a metal detector is shown in the
figure below:
In the absence of any nearby metal object, the
inductances and are the same and hence the
resonant frequency of the two circuits is also same. When
the inductor B comes near a metal object, its inductance
decreases and corresponding oscillator frequency
increases and thus a beat note is heard in the attached
speaker.
Metal detectors are used for security purposes and to locate buried objects.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.12 PRINCIPLE OF METAL DETECTORS”
1. A coil and a capacitor are electrical component connected parallel form:
(a) Rectifier (b) Oscillator (c) Choke (d) Detector
2. Metal Detector consists of:
(a) Rectifier (b) Transistor (c) LC Oscillator (d) None of these
3. The electrical oscillators are used in
(a) Metal detectors (b) Amplifier (c) Diode (d) None
4. In metal detector, the energy oscillates between
(a) Resistor and Capacitor (b) Resistor and Inductor
(c) Capacitor and Inductor (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “16.12 PRINCIPLE OF METAL DETECTORS” in PAST PAPERS

1. Describe the working of a metal detector.
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16.13 CHOKE
CHOKE (Construction & Applications)
It is a coil of thick copper wire wound closely over a soft iron laminated cores. It is used in AC
circuits to limit current with extremely small wastage of energy as compared to a resistor or a rheostat.
The choke uses the induction phenomenon to limit the current of the circuit. As its resistance is
very small, therefore, it consumes extremely small power.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.13 CHOKE”
1. Resistance of choke is:
(a) Zero (b) Very small (c) Large (d) Infinite
2. Pure choke consumes:
(a) Minimum Power (b) Maximum Power (c) No Power (d) Average Power
3. The choke coil is used in:
(a) DC circuits (b) AC circuits (c) Both a & b (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b)
Article “16.13 CHOKE” in PAST PAPERS
1. What is choke? Why is it used in AC circuits?
16.14 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The waves which don’t require any material medium for their propagation are called
electromagnetic waves. It consists of vibrating electric and
magnetic fields which move at the speed of light and are at
right angle to each other and to the direction of propagation.
These waves are periodic waves, hence they have
wavelength , which is given by:
where and are is the speed and frequency of wave

respectively.
Depending upon the values of wavelength and frequency, the electromagnetic waves are classified
into different types such as Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared Waves, Visible light rays etc.
19
MCQs Related to the Article “16.14 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES”

1. The waves which can also pass through the vacuum are
(a) Matter wave (b) Mechanical wave (c) Electromagnetic wave (d) Transverse wave
2. Electromagnetic waves transport:
(a) Energy (b) Mass (c) Current (d) Charge
3. Which of the follo wing requires a material medium for their propagation:
(a) Heat waves (b) x-rays (c) sound waves (d) ultravoilot rays
4. X-rays have wavelength of the order of:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. Which of the following are more energetic?
(a) Radio Waves (b) Infrared Waves (c) Ultraviolet Waves (d) Gamma Waves
6. In electromagnetic waves, the electric, magnetic fields and propagation of waves are:
(a) Parallel (b) Perpendicular (c) Make angle (d) Anti-Parallel
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (b)
Article “16.14 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES” in PAST PAPERS

1. What are electromagnetic waves?
16.15 PRINCIPLE OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
PRINCIPLE OF GENERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The basic principle of generation of electromagnetic waves is:
“A changing magnetic flux creates an electric field and a changing electric flux creates magnetic field”
Explanation
If the change of magnetic flux takes place in region of space AB. This
change of magnetic flux will set up an electric field in the surrounding region CD.
The creation of the electric field in the region CD will cause a change of electric
flux through it due to which a magnetic field will be set up in the space
surrounding CD and so on.
Thus each field will generate the other and the whole package of electric
and magnetic fields will move along propelling itself through space.
TRANSMISSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

When alternating voltage is applied across the ends of a metallic antenna, and
oscillating electric field comes into existence which accelerates the electrons
again and again as the polarities of the antenna changes after half a cycle.
The accelerated electrons radiate energy carried by changing electric
field. A changing electric field creates a magnetic field and a changing magnetic
field creates electric field. Thus each field will generate the other and the whole
package of electric and magnetic fields will move along propelling itself through
space.
RECEPTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

A particular radio station can be selected on a radio set by tuning it. When the
frequency of the LC-oscillator in the radio set is equal to the frequency of the
radio wave from a particular radio station, a resonance is produced. The current
of this signal becomes maximum and can detected and amplified.
20
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “16.15 PRINCIPLE OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION
& RECEPTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES”
Exercise Short Q # 8. Explain the condition under which electromagnetic waves are produced from a
source.
Ans. When alternating voltage is applied across the ends of a metallic antenna, and oscillating electric field
comes into existence which accelerates the electrons again and again as the polarities of the antenna
changes after half a cycle.
The accelerated electrons radiate energy carried by changing electric field. A changing electric field
creates a magnetic field and a changing magnetic field creates electric field. Thus each field will generate
the other and the whole package of electric and magnetic fields will move along propelling itself through
space.
Exercise Short Q # 9. How the reception of a particular radio station is selected on your radio set?
Ans. A particular radio station can be selected on a radio set by tuning it. When the frequency of the LC-
oscillator in the radio set is equal to the frequency of the radio wave from a particular radio station, a
resonance is produced. The current of this signal becomes maximum and can detected and amplified.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.15 PRINCIPLE OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & RECEPTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES”
1. By moving an electrically charged objects to & fro produces:
(a) Stationary Waves (b) Mechanical Waves (c) Electromagnetic waves (d) Sound
waves
2. Which of circuit is used in radio set?
(a) RC circuit (b) RL circuit (c) LC circuit (d) RLC circuit
3. A radio transmitting antenna generate electromagnetic waves by:
(a) Stationary charges (b) Accelerating Charges (c) Both a & b (d) None of
these
4. A changing electric flux creates:
(a) Electric field (b) Gravitational Field (c) Magnetic Field (d) Electric
Field
5. Electrons vibration 94000 times each second will produce radio waves of frequency:
(a) 94 Hz (b) 940 Hz (c) 940 kHz (d) 94 kHz
6. Electromagnetic waves emitted from radio antenna are __________________ waves:
(a) Stationary (b) Longitudenal (c) Transverse (d) Matter
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (c)
WAVES” in PAST PAPERS

1. Describe the generation, propagation and reception of electromagnetic waves.
16.16 MODULATION
MODULATION
The process of combining the low frequency signal with a high frequency is called modulation.
21
Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “16.16 MODULATION”

Exercise Short Q # 10. What is meant by A.M and F.M?
Ans. Amplitude Modulation
In this type of modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is increased or diminished as the
amplitude of the superposing modulating signal increases or decreases.
Frequency Modulation
In this type of modulation, the frequency of the carrier wave is increased or diminished as the
amplitude of the superposing modulating signal increases or decreases. But the carrier wave amplitude
remains constant.
MCQs Related to the Article “16.16 MODULATION”

1. The process combining low frequency signal with high frequency radio wave is called:
(a) Modulation (b) Amplification (c) Demodulation (d) Resonance
2. There are ___________ types of modulations:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
3. Low frequency signal is known as:
(a) Loaded signal (b) Fluctuated signal (c) Harmonic signal (d) Modulating signal
4. A.M stands for
(a) Applied Metal (b) Amplitude Modulation (c) Accurate Measurement (d) None
5. The AM transmission waves have frequency range of:
(a) 540Hz-1600Hz (b) 540kHz-1600 kHz (c) 540Hz-1600MHz (d) 88 MHz-108 MHz
6. F.M stands for
(a) Frequency Metal (b) Frequency Member (c) Frequency Modulation (d)None
7. The FM transmission waves have frequency range of:
(a) 540Hz-1600Hz (b) 540kHz-1600 kHz (c) 540Hz-1600MHz (d) 88 MHz-108 MHz
8. In modulation, high frequency radio wave is called:
(a) Fluctuated wave (b) Carrier wave (c) Matter wave (d) Energetic wave
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (d) MCQ # 8: (b)
Article “16.16 MODULATION” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is modulation? Name its types.
2. What is meant by AM and FM? Also give their range.
22
23
Chapter 17 (2nd Year Physics) Physics of Solids
PHYSICS OF SOLIDS
17.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS (Definition)
The solids in which the atoms, ions and molecules are arranged
periodically are called crystalline solids.
Examples:
 Metals such as copper, zinc, iron etc.
 Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride
 Ceramics such as zirconia
are the examples of crystalline solids.
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
1. The crystalline solids show the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction.
2. Every crystalline solid has sharp melting point i.e., for every crystal there is a temperature at which the
thermal vibrations becomes so great that the structure suddenly breaks up, and the solid melts.
AMORPHOUS SOLIDS OR GLASSY SOLIDS (Definition)
The word amorphous means shapeless. Thus in amorphous solids,
there is no regular arrangement of molecules like that in crystalline
solids. The ordinary glass is an example of amorphous solids.
PROPERTIES OF AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
1. As the atom, ions and molecules are not arranged periodically
in amorphous solids, so these solids don’t show the
phenomenon of X-ray diffraction.
2. The amorphous solids don’t have sharp melting point. For
example, a glass passes through a paste like state on heating
and becomes a very viscous liquid at almost 8000C.
POLYMERIC SOLIDS (Definition)
Polymeric solids are formed by polymerization reaction in
which relatively simple molecules are chemically combined into
massive long chain molecules. Polymers may be said to be more
or less solid materials with a structure that is intermediate
between order and disorder.
Plastics, synthetic rubber, polythene and nylon etc. are
the examples of polymers.
PROPERTIES OF POLYMERIC SOLIDS
Polymeric solids have low specific gravity, but yet they
exhibit good strength to weight ratio.
UNIT CELL (Definition)
A crystalline solid consists of three dimensional pattern that repeat
itself over and over again. This smallest three dimensional basic structure is
called unit cell.
CRYSTAL LATTICE (Definition)

The whole structure obtained by the repetition of unit cell is known
as crystal lattice.
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Exercise Short Question Related to the Article “17.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLIDS”
Exercise Short Q # 1. Distinguish between crystalline, amorphous and polymeric solids.
Crystalline Solids
The solids in which the atoms, ions and molecules are arranged periodically are called crystalline
solids. Metals such as copper, zinc, iron etc., Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride and
Ceramics such as zirconia are the examples of crystalline solids.
Amorphous Solids
The word amorphous means shapeless. Thus in amorphous solids, there is no regular
arrangement of molecules like that in crystalline solids. The ordinary glass is an example of
amorphous solids.
Polymeric Solids
Polymeric solids are more or less solid materials with a structure between order and disorder.
Natural rubber which is in pure state composed of Hydrocarbons. Polythene, Polystyrene and Nylon are
examples of synthetic polymers.
MCQs Related to the Article “17.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLIDS”
1. Solids having regular a arrangement of molecules through its structure is called:
(a) Amorphous Solids (b) Polymeric Solids (c) Glassy Solids (d) Crystalline Solids
2. Which type of solids have definite melting point:
(a) Crystalline Solids (b) Amorphous Solids (c) Polymeric Solids (d) Glassy Solids
3. Which of the following is an example crystalline solids:
(a) Plastic (b) Zirconia (c) Glass (d) Nylon
4. The arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in crystalline solids can be studied by:
(a) Radio Waves (b) Infrared Waves (c) X-rays (d) Ultraviolet Rays
5. Formation of large molecule by joining small molecules is __________
(a) Fusion (b) Polymerization (c) Crystallization (d) Subtraction
6. Example of crystalline solids are also
(a) Metals (b) Ionic compounds (c) Ceramics (d) All of them
7. The crystal structure of NaCl is:
(a) Triclinic (b) Monoclinic (c) Cubic (d) Tetragonal
8. Amorphous solids are also called:
(a) Polymeric Solids (b) Glassy Solids (c) Crystalline Solids (d) Brittle Solids
9. Which of the following is polymeric solid:
(a) Glass (b) Iron (c) Steel (d) Nylon
10. The solids that are intermediate between order and disorder are called
(a) Polymeric Solids (b) Glassy Solids (c) Crystalline Solids (d) Ductile Solids
11. How many crystal systems are there on the basis of geometric arrangement of the atoms:
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 7
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (d)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (d) MCQ # 10: (a) MCQ # 11: (d)
Article “17.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS” in PAST PAPERS

1. Differentiate between amorphous and polymeric solids
2. What are glassy solids? Do they posses property of flow?
3. Define unit cell.
4. Define crystal lattice
2
17.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
The properties shown by the solid material under the action of external
force are called mechanical properties. Physical quantities such as stress,
strain and modulus of elasticity are used to describe the mechanical
properties of solids.
DEFORMATION
Any change in shape, volume and length of an object when it is
subjected to some external force is called deformation.
DEFORMATION IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
In crystalline solids, atoms are arranged in a certain order. When
external force is applied on such a body, a distortion results because of
displacement of the atoms from their equilibrium position and the body is
said to be in state of deformation.
In deformed crystalline solid, the atoms return to their equilibrium
position after the removal of external force. This ability of the body to
return to its original shape is called elasticity.
STRESS (Definition)
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in the shape,
volume or length of a body is called stress. Mathematically, it is described as:
( )
( )
( )
The SI unit of stress is newton per square meter, which is given the name
pascal (Pa).
TYPES OF STRESS
1. Tensile Stress: A stress that causes the change in length of an object is
called tensile stress.
2. Shear Stress: A stress that causes the change in shape of an object is
called shear stress.
3. Volume Stress: A stress that causes the change in volume of an object is
called volume stress.
STRAIN (Definition)
Strain is the measure of deformation of a solid when stress is applied to it. For
the case of one dimensional deformation, strain is defined as the fractional
change in length.
If l is the change in length and l is the original length, then the strain is
given by:
( )
3
Since strain is the ration of lengths, it is dimensionless, and therefore, has no units.
TYPES OF STRAIN
1. Tensile Strain: If the strain is due to tensile stress, it is called tensile strain.
2. Shear Strain: A strain produced in the object when it is subjected to shear stress is called shear strain.
When the opposite faces of a rigid body are subjected to shear stress, the shear strain produced is given
by:
3. Volumetric Strain: When the applied stress changes the volume, then the change in volume per unit
volume is called volumetric strain. Thus
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (Definition)

The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material, provided the external applied force is not too
great, called modulus of elasticity. Mathematically, it is described as:
Since the strain is a dimensionless quantity, the units of modulus of elasticity are the same as that of stress,
i.e., Nm-2 or Pa.
TYPES OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS
1. Young Modulus: For the case of linear deformation, the ration of tensile stress to tensile strain is called
Young Modulus (Y):
( ⁄ )
( ⁄)
2. Shear Modulus: When the shear stress τ =(F/A) and shear strain (γ = tanθ) are involved, then their
ratio is called shear modulus (G):
( ⁄ )
3. Bulk Modulus: For three dimensional deformations, when volume is involved, then the ratio of applied
stress to volumetric strain is called bulk modulus (K):
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
Where ΔV is the change in original volume V.
DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A WIRE BY TENSILE TEST
In tensile test, metal wire is extended at a specified deformation rate. The stresses generated in the wire
during deformation are continuously measured by a suitable electronic device fitted in the mechanical
testing machine. Stress-strain curve is plotted automatically on XY chart recorder. A typical stress strain
curve for a ductile material is shown in the figure:
1. PROPORTIONAL REGION
In the initial stages of deformation, stress is increased
linearly with strain till point A on stress-strain curve. This is
called proportional limit.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (Definition):
Proportional limit is the greatest stress that a material can endure
without losing straight line proportionality between stress and
strain.
4
2. ELASTICITY REGION
From A to B, the stress and strain are not proportional, but nevertheless, if the load is removed at
any point between O and B, the curve will be retraced and the material will return to its original length. The
point B is called yield point and the value of stress at this point is known as yield stress or elastic limit.
YIELD STRESS OR ELASTIC LIMIT (Definition):
Elastic limit is the greatest stress that a material can endure without any permanent deformation.
3. PLASTICITY REGION
If the stress is increased beyond elastic limit, the specimen becomes permanently deformed. This
kind of behavior is called plasticity. The region of plasticity is represented by the portion of the curve from
B to C. The point C represents ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS (UTS) (Definition):
Ultimate tensile stress is the maximum stress that a material can withstand.
Once point C corresponding to UTS is crossed, the material breaks at point D, responding to fracture stress.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Ductile Substances
Substances that undergo plastic deformation until they break are called ductile substances. Lead,
copper and wrought iron are ductile.
Brittle Substance
The substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached, are known as brittle substances.
Glass and high carbon steel are brittle.
STRAIN ENERGY (Definition & Derivation of Expression)

The amount of P.E stored in a material due to displacement of its molecule from its equilibrium position,
under the action of stress, is called strain energy.
Consider a wire whose one end is attached to a fixed support,
is stretched vertically by connecting a weight at its lower end. The
suspended weight acts as a stretching force. The extension in the wire
is increased by increasing the stretching force. The graph plotted
between extension l for the different value of stretching force is shown
in the figure:
It is clear from the figure that the force is constant in producing
extension l1 but is changing linearly from 0 to F1 . In order to calculate
the work done for extension l1 by a certain force F1, it is convenient to
find the work done by graphical method.
The work done for extension l1 by a certain force F1 will be equal to the area under force –extension
curve, which is equal to the area of triangle OAB. Therefore,
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
This work done is appeared as strain energy inside the wire. So
( )( ) ( )
5
Expression of Strain Energy in terms of Elastic Modulus
If A is the cross-sectional area of the wire of length L, then the modulus of elasticity E of the wire can be
described as:
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
Putting value in equation (1), we get:
( )( )
( )
This is expression of strain energy in terms of Modulus of Elasticity.

Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “17.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
Exercise Short Q # 2. Define stress and strain. What are their SI units? Differentiate between tensile,
compressive and shear modes of stress and strain.
Ans. Stress
The force applied on unit area to produce any change in the shape, volume or length of a body is called
stress. Mathematically, it is described as:
( )
( )
( )
The SI unit of stress is newton per square meter, which is given the name pascal (Pa).
Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length, volume or shape of a body when stress is applied on
it. It has no unit.
Tensile Stress: When a stress changes length it is called tensile stress.
Tensile Strain: It is defined as the fractional change in length on applying stress.
Compressive Stress: The stress which causes change in volume of the body is called compressive stress.
Compressive Strain: This is the strain produced as a result of compressive stress.
Shear Stress: The stress tending to produce an angular deformation or change in the shape is called shear
stress.
Shear Strain: This is the strain caused by angular deformation. It is equal to the angular displacement
produced.
Exercise Short Q # 3. Define modulus of elasticity. Show that the units of modulus of elasticity and
stress are the same. Also discuss its three kinds.
Modulus of Elasticity
The ratio of stress to strain is a constant for a given material, provided the external applied force
is not too great, called modulus of elasticity. Mathematically, it is described as:
Since the strain is a dimensionless quantity, the units of modulus of elasticity are the same as that
of stress, i.e., Nm-2 or Pa.
Young's modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
Bulk modulus is the ratio of volume stress to volume strain.
Shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain of a body.
6
Exercise Short Q # 4. Draw a stress-strain curve for a ductile
material, and then define the terms: Elastic limit, Yield point and
Ultimate tensile stress.
Elastic Limit: It is defined as the maximum stress a material can
endure without any permanent deformation.
Yield Point: The stress at which the material start to be permanently
deformed is called Yield Point.
Ultimate Tensile Stress: It is defined as the maximum stress a material
can withstand.
Exercise Short Q # 5. What is meant by strain energy? How can it be determined from the force-
extension graph?
Ans. The amount of P.E stored in a material due to displacement of its
molecule from its equilibrium position, under the action of stress, is called
strain energy.
Consider a wire whose one end is attached to a fixed support, is
stretched vertically by connecting a weight at its lower end. The work done
for extension by a certain force will be equal to the area under force –
extension curve, which is equal to the area of triangle OAB. Therefore,
( )( )
This work done is appeared as strain energy inside the wire. So
( )( )
NUMERICALS RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

17.1 A 1.25 cm diameter cylinder is subjected to a load of 2500 kg. Calculate the stress on the bar in
mega pascals.
Given Data: Diameter of Cylinder , Load
To Determine: Stress
Calculations: As ( )
( )
17.2 A 1.0 m long copper wire is subjected to stretching force and its length increases by 20 cm.
Calculate the tensile strain and the percent elongation which the wire undergoes.
Given Data: Length , Elongation ,
To Determine: (a) , (b)
Calculations: (a)
(b)
17.3 A wire 2.5 m long and cross-section area is stretched 1.5 mm by a force of 100 N in the
elastic region. Calculate (i) the strain (ii) Young's modulus (iii) the energy stored in the wire.
Given Data: Length , Cross-Section Area , Force
Elongation
To Determine: (i) (ii) (iii)
Calculations: (i)
( ) ( )
(ii)
( ) ( )
(iii)
7
17.4 What stress would cause a wire to increase in length by 0.01% if the Young's modulus of the
wire is 12 x 1010 Pa. What force would produce this stress if the diameter of the wire is 0.56 mm?
Given Data: , Young Modulus ,
Diameter
To Determine: Force
Calculations:
( )
( ) [ ( )]
( )
( )
( )[ ( )] * +[ ]
17.5 The length of a steel wire is 1.0 m and its cross-sectional area is . Calculate the
work done in stretching the wire when a force of 100 N is applied within the elastic region. Young's
modulus of steel is .
Given Data: Length of wire , Cross-Sectional Area , Force
To Determine: ( )( ) , Here
( )
Calculations:
( )
Now ( )( ) ( )( )
17.6 A cylindrical copper wire and a cylindrical steel wire each of length 1.5 m and diameter 2.0 mm
are joined at one end to form a composite wire 3.0 m long. The wire is loaded until its length
becomes 3.003 m. Calculate the strain in copper and steel wires and the force applied to the wire.
(Young's modulus of copper is and for steel is ).
Given Data: Case 1 (Copper wire): Length , Diameter
Case 2 (Steel wire): Length , Diameter
Length of Composite Wire , Final Length Elongation
Young Modulus for Copper , Young Modulus for Steel
To Determine: (a) Strain in Copper Wire , (b) Strain in Steel Wire , (c) Force
Calculations: As ,
For Copper wire ( ), For Steel wire ( )
As both wire experience equal stress: ( ) ( )
( )
Let ( ), then ( )
Equation (3) Becomes: ( )
Therefore, by equation (4) and (5): &
(a) Strain in Copper Wire &
(b) Strain in Steel Wire

( )
(c) As ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
8
MCQs Related to the Article “17.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
1. Any alteration produced in shapes, length or volume when a body is subjected to some external
force is called __________
(a) Stiffness (b) Ductility (c) Extension (d) deformation
2. The SI unit of stress is same as that of:
(a) Momentum (b) Pressure (c) Force (d) Length
3. The stress that produces change in length is known as:
(a) Tensile stress (b) Shear stress (c) Volumetic stress (d) Longitudenal stress
4. The stress that produces change in shape is known as:
(a) Tensile stress (b) Shear stress (c) Volumetic stress (d) Longitudenal stress
5. Which one of the following physical quantities does not have the dimensions of force per unit?
(a) Stress (b) Strains (c) Young’s modulus (d) Pressure
6. unit of strain is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. The ratio of applied stress to volumetric strain is called:
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Shear modulus (c) Bulk modulus (d) Tensile modulus
8. The amount of energy stored in the wire when it is deformed:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
9. The strain energy can be determined by calculating area under:
(a) Velocity-time graph (b) Force-velocity graph (c) Force-Extension graph
10. Which of the following is an example of ductile substances:
(a) Lead (b) Copper (c) Glass (d) Lead and copper
11. Substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached are called:
(a) Ductile substances (b) Hard substances (c) Soft substances (d) Brittle substances
12. The maximum stress which a body can bear is called
(a) Proportional Limit (b) Elastic Limit (c) Permanent Stress (d) Ultimate Tensile Stress
13. Materials that undergo plastic deformation before breaking are called ___________
(a) Brittle (b) Ductile (c) Amorphous (d) Polymers
14. Examples of brittle substances are
(a) Glass (b) Copper (c) Lead (d) None
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (d)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (a) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (d) MCQ # 11: (d) MCQ # 12: (d)
MCQ # 13: (b) MCQ # 14: (a)
Article “17.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

1. Distinguish between elasticity and plasticity
2. How can the strain energy be determined from force extension graph?
3. Define stress and strain. What are their SI units?
4. Differentiate brittle and ductile substances. Give an example of each.
5. Define modulus of elasticity. Show that units of modulus of elasticity and stress are same.
6. Define volumetric strain.
7. Define Young’s modulus and Shear modulus.
8. Define elastic limit and Yield point.
9. What is meant by strain energy?
10. Define ultimate tensile stress (UTS) and fracture stress.
9
17.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS ON BASIS OF ENERGY BAND THEORY
The electrical properties of solids determine its ability to conduct electric current. The conventional free
electron theory based on Bohr Model failed to explain completely the vast diversity in the electrical
behavior of solids. On the other hand, the energy based on wave mechanical model has been found
successful in resolving this problem.
Energy Band
When the numbers of atoms are brought together, as in a crystal, they interact with one another. As
the result, each energy level splits up into several sub-levels. A group of such energy sub-levels are called
an energy band.
Forbidden Bands
The energy bands are separated by gaps in which there is no energy level. Such energy gaps are
called forbidden bands.
Valence Bands
The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valance electrons. Therefore, the energy
band occupied by valance electrons is called the valance band. The valance band may be either completely
filled or partially filled with the electrons but can never be empty.
Conduction Band
The energy band next to the valance band is called the conduction band. The valance and
conduction bands are separated by forbidden energy gaps. The conduction band may be empty or partially
filled. The electrons in the conduction band can drift freely in the materials and are called free or
conduction electrons.
DISTINGTION BETWEEN CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS ON THE BASIS OF
BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
The width of forbidden energy gap between valance and conduction band decide whether a material is a
conductor, insulator or a semiconductor.
Insulators
Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons are bound very
tightly to their atoms and are not free. In terms of energy bands, it means that an
insulator has:
(a) An empty conduction band (no free electron)
(b) A full valence band
(c) A large energy gap (several eV) between them.
Conductors
Conductors are those which have plenty of free electrons for
electrical conduction. In terms of energy bands, conductors are those
materials in which valence and conduction band largely overlap each
other. There is no physical distinction between the two band which
ensures the availability of free electrons. That is why, the conductions
are good conductors of electricity.
Semiconductors
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those materials which at
room temperature have
(a) A partially filled conduction band
(b) A partially filled valence band
(c) A very narrow forbidden energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) between
10
the conduction and valence bands.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS
 At 0 K, there are no electrons in the conduction band and their valence band is completely filled. It
means at 0 K a piece of Ge or Si is a perfect insulator.
 However, with the increase of temperature, some electrons posses sufficient energy to jump across
the small energy gap from the valance band to conduction band. This transfers some free electrons
in the conduction band and create some holes in the valance band. Thus at room temperature, Ge or
Si crystals becomes a semiconductor.
HOLE (Definition)
The vacancy of electron in the valence band is known as a hole. It behave like a positive charge.
DISTINGTION BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic Semi-conductors
The doped semi-conduct materials are called extrinsic semi-conductors.
DOPING (Definition)
The process of injecting impurity atoms in intrinsic semiconductors is called doping.
Explanation
The electrical behavior of semiconductors is extremely sensitive to the purity of the material. It is
substantially changed on introducing a small impurity into pure semi-conductor. This process is called
doping.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Pure elements of silicon and germanium are intrinsic semi-conductors.
These semi-conductor elements have atoms with four valence electrons. In
solid crystalline form, the atoms of these elements arrange themselves in such
a pattern that each atom has four equidistant neighbors. Each atom with its
four valence electrons, shares an electrons from its neighbors. This effectively
allocates eight electrons in the outermost shell of each atom, which is a stable
state.
TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
N-Type Semi-conductors
When a silicon crystal is doped with a pentavalent element, e.g.,
arsenic, antimony or phosphorous etc., four valance electrons of impurity
atom form covalent bond with the four neighboring Si atoms, while the
fifth valence electron provides a free electron in the crystal. This extra
electron becomes a conduction electron because it is not attached to any
atom. Such a doped extrinsic semi-conductor is N-type semi-conductor.
P-Type Semi-conductors
When a silicon crystal is doped with the trivalent element, e.g.,
aluminum, boron, gallium or indium etc., three valence electrons of the
impurity atom form covalent bond with three neighboring Si atoms, while
the one missing electron in the covalent bond with the forth neighboring
Si atom, is called a hole which in fact is vacancy where an electron is
accommodated. Such a semi-conductor is called P-Type Semi-conductor.
11
EFFECT OF BATTERY ON THE MOTION OF CHARGE CARRIER IN A SEMI-CONDUCTOR CRYSTAL
Ans. When a battery is connected to a semi-conductor, it establishes an electric field across it due to which
a directed flow of electrons and holes takes place. The electrons drift towards the positive end whereas the
holes drift towards the negative end of the semi conductor. The
current flowing through the semi-conductor is carried by both
electrons and holes. It may be noted that the electronic current and
charge the hole current add up together to give the current I.
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “17.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
Exercise Short Q # 6. Describe the formation of energy bands in solids. Explain the difference among
electrical behavior of conductors, insulators and semi-conductors in terms of energy band theory.
Energy Band
When the numbers of atoms are brought together, as in a crystal, they interact with one
another. As the result, each energy level splits up into several sub-levels. A group of such energy
sub-levels are called an energy band.
Conductors
In conductors, valence and conduction bands largely overlap each other. There is no physical
distinction between the two bands which ensures the availability of a large number of free electrons.
Insulators
In insulators, valence electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and are not free to move. An
insulator has an empty conduction band, a full valence band and a large energy gap in between them.
Semi-conductors
At room temperature, the semiconductors have partially filled conduction band, partially filled
valence band and very narrow forbidden gap between valence and conduction band.
Exercise Short Q # 7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors. How would you
obtain n-type and p-type material from pure silicon? Illustrate it by schematic diagram.
Intrinsic semi-conductors: A semiconductor in its extremely pure form is known as intrinsic
semiconductors.
Extrinsic semi-conductors: The doped semi-conducting materials are called extrinsic semi-conductors.
P-type: These materials are obtained by doping semi-conductor with atoms of a trivalent impurity such as
Aluminum. It creates a vacancy of an electron called a hole.
N-type: The N-type materials are obtained by doping semi-conductor with atoms of a pentavalent impurity
such as Phosphorous. It leaves a free electron.
Exercise Short Q # 8. Discuss the mechanism of electrical conduction by holes and electrons in a
pure semi-conductor element.
Ans. In a pure (or intrinsic) semi-conductor, the number of holes
and free electrons is equal and both
contribute to the flow of current through it. When voltage is
applied across the semi-conductor, an electric field is produced.
Due to this electric field, electrons get a drift velocity opposite to
the electric field and holes in the direction of the electric field. The electronic current and the hole current
add up together to give the current through semiconducting material.
12
MCQs Related to the Article “17.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
1. The band theory of solids explains satisfactorily the nature of
(a) Electrical insulators alone (b) Electrical conductors alone
(c) Electrical semi conductors alone (d) All of the above
2. Which one has the greatest energy gap _______
(a) Semi-conductors (b) Conductors (c) Insulators (d) Metals
3. A well known example of an intrinsic semi-conductor is:
(a) Germanium (b) Phosphorous (c) Aluminum (d) Cobalt
4. Holes can exist in:
(a) Super conductors (b) Conductors (c) Semi-conductors (d) Insulators
5. Germanium is:
(a) semi-conductor (b) conductor (c) insulator (d) none of these
6. The substances having negative temperature coefficient of resistance are:
(a) Conductors (b) Insulators (c) Semi-Conductor (d) None Of These
7. Good conductors have conductivities of the order of:
(a) ( ) (b) ( ) (c) ( ) (d) ( )
8. At piece of Ge or Si is a perfect:
(a) Conductors (b) Insulators (c) Semi-Conductor (d) Paramagnetic
9. A vacant or partially filled band is called ___________
(a) Conduction band (b) Valence band (c) Forbidden band (d) Empty band
10. A completely filled or partially filled band is called _______
(a) Conduction band (b) Valence band (c) Forbidden band (d) Core band
11. A substance having empty conduction band is called:
(a) Semi-conductor (b) Conductor (c) Insulator (d) None of these
12. Pentavalent impurities are called
(a) Donor impurities (b) Acceptor impurities (c) None of these
13. Minority carriers in N-type materials are
(a) Electrons (b) Protons (c) Neutrons (d) Holes
14. What type of impurity is to be added to the semi-condutor material to provide holes:
(a) Monovalent (b) Trivalent (c) Tetravalent (d) Pentavalent
15. Holes can exists in_________
(a) Conductors (b) Insulators (c) Semi conductors (d) All of the above
16. In a semi conductors, the charge carriers are __________
(a) Holes only (b) Electrons only (c) Both Electrons and Holes
17. The net charge on N-type material is ________
(a) Positive (b) Negative (c) Both a & b (d) Zero
18. Total current in semiconductor is:
(a) Electronic Current (b) Current due to Hole (c) Both a & b
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (a) MCQ # 6: (c)
MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (a) MCQ # 10: (b) MCQ # 11: (c) MCQ # 12: (a)
MCQ # 13: (d) MCQ # 14: (c) MCQ # 15: (c) MCQ # 16: (c) MCQ # 17: (d) MCQ # 18: (c)
Article “17.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS” in PAST PAPERS

1. How the conductivity of semiconductors can be raised?
2. Distinguish between a valance and conduction band.
3. Describe energy band picture of semiconductors.
4. Describe energy band picture of insulators.
5. Differentiate between conductors and insulators.
6. What are the main differences between semiconductors and conductors?
7. How n-type semiconductors are formed
13
17.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS
Exercise Short Q # 9. Write a note on superconductors.
Ans. The materials whose resistivity becomes zero below a certain
temperature are called superconductors. And the temperature at which
the resistivity of a material falls to zero is called
critical temperature.
Any superconductor having a critical temperature above 77K (the boiling
point of liquid nitrogen) is referred as high temperature superconductor.
Superconductors can be used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
Magnetic Levitation Trains, Powerful but small electric motors and in Fast computer chips.
MCQs Related to the Article “17.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS”
1. The temperature below at which materials lose its resistivity is called ___________Temperature
(a) Super (b) Kelvin (c) Critical (d) Curie
2. The critical temperature for mercury is:
(a) 7.2 K (b) 4.2 K (c) 1.18 K (d) 3.7 K
3. The critical temperature of Lead is:
(a) 7.2 K (b) 4.2 K (c) 1.18 K (d) 3.7 K
4. The temperature 77 K is the
(a) Melting point of Nitrogen (b) Boiling Point of Nitrogen
(c) Melting point of Helium (d) Boiling Point of Helium
5. The practical use of superconductors is:
(a) Fast computer chips (b) Magnetic Resonance Levitation Trains
(d) Power but small electric motors (d) All of these
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (d)
Article “17.4 SUPERCONDUCTORS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is critical temperature in superconductivity?
17.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
REASON OF MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF SOLIDS

The magnetism produced by electrons within an atom can arise from two motions:
i) Electron orbiting the nucleus behaves like an atom sized loop of current that generate small
magnetic field.
ii) The spin motion of electron also gives rise to a magnetic field.
The net magnetic field generated by the electrons within an atom is due to combined field created by their
orbital and spin motion.
14
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “17.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
Exercise Short Q # 10. What is meant by para, dia and ferromagnetic substances? Give examples for
each.
Paramagnetic Substances
If the spin and orbital axis of electrons in an atom are oriented in such a way that their fields
support each other and the atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Such substances are called Paramagnetic
substances. e.g., Manganese, Aluminum, Platinum etc.
Diamagnetic Substances
The substances in which the magnetic field produced by orbital and spin motion of the electrons
may cancel each other’s effects are called Diamagnetic substances. e.g., the atoms of water, Copper (Cu),
Bismuth (Bi), Antimony (Sb).
Ferromagnetic Substances
Ferromagnetic substances are those substances in which atoms co-operate with each other in such
a way so as to show strong magnetic effects e.g., Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Chromium dioxide and
Alnico.
DOMAINS OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
In ferromagnetic substance, there exist small
regions called domains (contain 1012 to 1016 atoms).
Within each domain, the magnetic fields of all spinning
electrons are parallel to one another, i.e., each domain is
magnetized to saturation. Each domain behaves as a
small magnet with its own north and south poles.
TYPES OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. Soft Ferromagnetic Substances
In soft ferromagnetic substances, the domains are easily oriented on applying an external field and
also readily return to random positions when the field is removed. This is desirable in an electromagnet
and also in transformers. Iron is a soft magnetic material.
2. Hard Ferromagnetic Substances
In hard ferromagnetic materials, domains are no so easily oriented to order. They required very
strong external fields, but once oriented, retain the alignment. These solids are used to make permanent
magnet. Steel is an example of hard ferromagnetic material.
CURIE TEMPERATURE IN FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES
The thermal vibrations in ferromagnetic solids tends to disturb the orderliness of domains.
Ferromagnetic materials preserve the orderliness at ordinary temperatures. When heated, they begin to
lose their orderliness due to increased thermal motion. This process begins to occur at a particular
temperature called Curie temperature. Above the Curie temperature iron is paramagnetic but not
ferromagnetic. The curie temperature of iron is about 7500C.
15
Hysteresis Loop of a magnetic material
To investigate a ferromagnetic material, a bar of that material such
as iron is placed in an alternating current solenoid. When the
alternating current is at the positive peak value, it fully magnetizes
the specimen in one direction and when the current is at its
negative peak, it fully magnetized it in opposite direction. Thus an
alternating current changes from its positive peak value to its
negative peak value and then back to its positive peak value, the
specimen undergoes a complete cycle of magnetization, called
hysteresis loop.
PROPERTIES OF HYSTERESIS LOOP
1. Hysteresis
Magnetism lags behind the magnetizing current. This phenomenon is known as hysteresis. It
means that the value of flux density for any value of current is always greater when the current is
decreasing than when it is increasing
2. Saturation
The alignment of all domains of magnetic materials under the
influence of external magnetic field is called saturation. The magnetic flux
density increases from zero and reaches a maximum value. At this stage,
the material is said to be magnetically saturated.
3. Remanence or Retaintivity
When the current is reduced to zero, the material still remain
strongly magnetized represented by point R on the curve. It is due to the
tendency of domains to stay partially in line, once they have been aligned.
4. Coercivity
To demagnetize the material, the magnetizing current is reversed
and increased to reduce the magnetization to zero. This is known as coercive
current, represented by C on curve. The Coercivity of steel is more than that
of iron, as more current is needed to demagnetize it.
5. Area of the loop (Measure of Hysteresis Loss)
The area of the loop is the measure of the energy needed to magnetize
and demagnetize the specimen during each cycle of the magnetizing current.
This is the energy required to do work against internal friction of the
domains. This work is dissipated as heat. It is called hysteresis loss.
Hard magnetic material like steel cannot be easily magnetized and
demagnetized, so they have large loop area as compared to soft magnetic
materials such as iron which can easily be magnetized. The energy dissipated
per cycle, thus, for iron is less than for steel.
ADVANTAGES OF HYSTERESIS LOOP
Suitability of magnetic material for different purposes can be studied by taking the specimen through a
complete cycle and drawing the hysteresis loop.
 A material with high Retaintivity and large coercive force would be most suitable to make a
permanent magnet.
 The cores of electromagnets used for alternating current where the specimen repeatedly undergoes
magnetization and demagnetization should have narrow hysteresis curve of small area to minimize
the waste of energy.
16
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “17.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”
Exercise Short Q # 11. What is meant by hysteresis loss? How is it used in the construction of a
transformer?
Ans. The area of hysteresis loop is the measure of energy required to magnetize and demagnetize a
substance. This energy is dissipated in form of heat, which is called hysteresis loss. The materials, for which
hysteresis loss is small, are used to form the core of transformers.
MCQs Related to the Article “17.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS”

1. The magnetism produced by electrons within an atom is due to
(a) Spin motion (b) Orbital motion (c) Spin & orbital motion
2. The field of long bar magnet is like a current carrying
(a) Solenoid (b) Toroid (c) Loop (d) None
3. Substances in which resultant magnetic moment is zero are called
(a) Ferromagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Diamagnetic (d) Conductor
4. The examples of diamagnetic are
(a) Water (b) Copper (c) Antimony (d) All of them
5. The substances in which atoms cooperate with each other in such a way so as to exhibit strong
magnetic field are called:
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Ferromagnetic (d) Insulators
6. Domains contain atoms:
(a) to (b) to (c) to (d) to
7. Curie temperature for iron is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8. Above curie temperature iron is:
(a) Diamagnetic (b) Paramagnetic (c) Ferromagnetic (d) Superconductor
9. Magnetization lags behind magnetizing current, this phenomenon is known as:
(a) Diamagnetism (b) Coercively (c) Susceptibility (d) Hysterisis
10. A current which demagnetize the material completely is called
(a) Applied current (b) Coercive current (c) Maximum current (d) None of these
11. The energy need to magnetize and demagnetize the specimen during the each cycle of
magnetizing current is
(a) Value of current (b) Value of demagnetizing current
(c) Value of magnetic flux density (d) Area of the loop
12. Best hard magnetic materials is made up of:
(a) Alnico V (b) Iron (c) Nickel (d) Cobalt
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (b) MCQ # 9: (d) MCQ # 10: (b) MCQ # 11: (d) MCQ # 12: (a)
Article “17.5 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What does area of hysteresis loop tell?
2. Explain what is curie temperature.
3. What is hysteresis loss? How it is represented on a graph between B & I?
4. Define coercivity of a material.
5. Define retantivity and coercivity.
6. Distinguish between critical and curie temperature.
7. Distinguish between soft magnetic materials and hard magnetic materials.
8. Energy dissipated per cycle is more as compared to iron. Why?
17
18
F Sc (2nd Year) Chap # 18: Electronics
ELECTRONICS
It is branch of Physics which deals with the controlled flow of charge carriers through semiconductors.
18.1 BRIEF REVIEW OF PN-JUNCTION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
PN-JUNCTION
A p-n junction is formed when a crystal of germanium or silicon grown in such a way that its one
half is doped with a trivalent impurity and the other half with a pentavalent impurity.
The p region of p-n junction has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a
few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers). The n region has many free electrons (majority
carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated
holes (minority carriers). A p-n junction is one of the most important
building block of electronic devices.
FORMATION OF THE DEPLETION REGION
Just after the formation of p-n junction, then the free electrons in
the n region begin, due to their random motion, diffuse into the p-type
region. As a result of this diffusion, a region is formed around the

junction in which charge carriers are not present. This region is known
as depletion region.
BARRIER POTENTIAL
The depletion region constitutes layers of positive ions in n
region and layers of negative ions in p-region. Due to charge on these
ions, a potential difference develops across the junction which stop
further diffusion of electrons in p-type region. This potential difference is
called potential barrier. Its value is 0.7V in case of silicon and for the case
of germanium, its value is 0.3V.
FORWARD BIASING
A junction diode is said to be forward biased if its P-type region is connected to the positive
terminal and N-type region is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
The external potential difference supplies energy to free electrons in the n-regions and to hole in p-
region. When this energy is sufficient to overcome the potential barrier, a current of the order of few milli-
amperes begins to flow across the junction.
The variation of current through the junction with the bias voltage is described by the VI-diagram.
If the forward biased voltage is increased by , the current is . The ratio ⁄ is known as forward
resistance of p-n junction, i.e.,
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REVERSE BIASING
A junction diode is said to be reversed biased, if its P-
type region in connected with the negative terminal and N-type
region with positive terminal of the battery.
In reverse biasing, the negative terminal attracts the
holes and the positive terminal attracts the electrons away from
the junction, so that the depletion region is widened. There is
no possibility of majority charge carriers to flow across the
junction. However a very small current (of the order of a few
micro-amperes) flow in the circuit due to minority charges carriers, which
is called a reverse current.
The reverse characteristics of the p-n junction diode describes that
as the reverse voltage is increase from 0, the reverse the reverse current
quickly rises to its saturation value I0. As the reverse voltage is further
increased, the reverse current remains constant.
As the reverse voltage is increased, the kinetic energy of the
minority charge carriers with which they cross the depletion

region also increases till it is sufficient to break a covalent bond.
As the covalent bond breaks, more electron-hole pairs are created.
Thus the reverse current begin to increase till a point reached
when the junction breaks down and reverse current rise sharply.
After breakdown the reverse current will rise to very high value
which will damage the circuit.
Exercise Short Questions of “18.1 BRIEF REVIEW OF PN-JUNCTION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS”
Exercise Short Q # 1: How does the motion of an electron in n-type substance differ from the motion
in a p-type substance?
Ans. In n-type material, the electrons are the majority carriers. They move from lower potential to higher
potential. In p-type materials, the holes are the majority carriers. They move from higher potential to lower
potential.
Exercise Short Q # 2: What is the net charge on an n-type or p-type substance?
Ans. The pentavalent or trivalent impurity atoms bombard on intrinsic semiconductor, to form it n-type or
p-type material, are neutral. Therefore, an n-type or p-type substance is an electrically neutral substance.
Exercise Short Q # 3: The anode of a diode is 0.2 V positive with respect to its cathode. Is it forward
biased?
Ans. A junction diode is said to be forward biased if its P-type region is connected to the positive terminal
and N-type region is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Since anode (p-type) is at positive
potential 0.2 V with respect to its cathode (n-type), so it satisfied the condition of forward biased.
But the potential barrier of Ge and Si are 0.3 V and 0.7 V respectively, so such small value of voltage
can’t produce forward current.
Exercise Short Q # 4: Why charge carries are not present in the depletion region?
Ans. When a p-type semiconductor is brought close an n-type to form a PN-junction, and then the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction into the p-type region where
they combine with holes near the junction, and neutralize holes in p-type. As a result, a charge less region is
formed across the junction in which charge carriers are not present. This region is known as depletion
region.

Exercise Short Q # 5: What is the effect of forward and reverse biasing of diode on the width of
depletion region?
Ans. When the diode is forward biased, the width of depletion region is decreased. When the diode is
reversed biased, the width of depletion region is increased.
MCQs Related to Article “18.1 BRIEF REVIEW OF PN-JUNCTION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS”
1. A potential barrier of 0.7 v exist across the pn-junction made from:
(a) Indium (b) germinium (c) Silicon (d) gallium
2. Which type of impurity is to be added to a pure semi-conductor crystal to provide holes
(a) Monovalent (b) Trivalent (c) Pentavalent (d) Tetravalent
3. The potential difference across the depletion region of germanium at 300 K is
(a) 0.5 V (b) 0.6 V (c) 0.7 V (d) 0.3 V
4. In n-type materials, the Minority carriers are:
(a) Free electrons (b) Holes (c) Protons (d) Meson
5. Diode is a device which has ________ terminals.
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Four
6. When a pn-junction is reverse biased, the depletion region is:
(a) Widened (b) Narrowed (c) Normal (d) No change
7. The forward current through a semiconductor diode circuit is due to
(a) Minority carriers (b) Majority carriers (c) Holes (d) Electrons
8. The reverse current in a p-n junction flows due to
(a) Minority carriers (b) Majority carriers (c) Holes (d) Electrons
9. The reverse current through pn-junction is:
(a) Zero (b)Less than forward current (c) Greater than forward current
10. The reverse or leakage current of the diode is of the order of
(a) Microampere (b) Milli-ampere (c) Both (d) None of these
11. Pulsating DC can be made smooth by using a circuit known as:
(a) Filter (b) Tank (c) Acceptor (d) Rejecter
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (a)
MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (a) MCQ # 9: (b) MCQ # 10: (a) MCQ # 11: (a)
Article “18.1 BRIEF REVIEW OF PN-JUNCTION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS” in PAST PAPERS
1. What is the potential barrier? What is the value of potential barrier of Si and Ge.
2. Define depletion region.
1. What is pn junction? How it is forward and reverse biased? Draw circuit and give characteristics.
2. What is pn junction? Also define depletion region and potential barrier.
18.2 RECTIFICATION
The process of conversion of alternating current into direct current is called rectification.
Half Wave Rectification
A half-wave rectifier allow current through the load
only during one-half of the cycle.
A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load
resistor RL forming a half-wave rectifier. When the sinusoidal
input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased
and conducts current through the load resistor. The current
produces an output voltage across the load RL which has the
same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage as shown in
figure below:
When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of
its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased. There is no current, so the voltage
across the load resistor is 0 V. The net result is that only the positive
ha]f-cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the
output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a

certain frequency as shown in the figure.

Full-Wave Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load during the entire
360˚ of the input cycle.
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown in Figure. When the input cycle is positive
(i.e., during interval ) as in Figure (a), diodes Dl and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current in the
direction shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks like the positive half of the input cycle. During
this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle is negative (i.e., during interval ) as in Figure (b), diodes D3 and D4 are
forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction through RL as during the positive half-cycle.
During the negative half-cycle, Dl and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified output voltage appears
across RL as a result of this action.
MCQs Related to Article “18.2 RECTIFICATION”

1. AC can be converted to DC by:
(a) Transformer (b) Generator (c) Motor (d) Rectifier
2. The process in which only half cycle of AC signal is converted to DC is called:
(a) Filtration (b) Half wave Rectification (c) Full wave Rectification
3. The number of diodes in a half wave rectifier:
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 1
4. The process in which complete cycle of AC signal is converted to DC is called:
(a) Filtration (b) Half wave Rectification (c) Full wave Rectification
5. The number of diodes in a bridge rectifier is:
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 1
6. In a full wave rectifier, the diodes conducts during:
(a) Both halves of the input cycle (b) A portion of the positive half of the input cycle
(c) One half of the input cycle (d) A portion of the negative half of the input cycle
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (a)
Article “18.2 RECTIFICATION” in PAST PAPERS
1. What is meant by rectification.
2. Draw a circuit used for full wave rectification. Show direction of current in the circuit when positive
half of input AC cycle passes through it.
1. Define rectification and describe the working of half-wave and a full-wave rectifier.
2. Define rectification. What are its types? Discuss half wave rectification.
3. Write a note on full wave rectification with diagrams.

18.3 SPECIALLY DESIGNED P-N JUNCTIONS

There are many types of p-n junctions diodes that have been developed for special purposes. Three
most commonly used such diode are:
1. Light Emitting Diode
2. Photo Diode
3. Photo Voltaic Cell
Light Emitting Diode
Light emitting diode (LED) are made from special semi-
conductors such as gallium arsenide and gallium arsenide phosphide.
In these diodes, the potential barrier between p and n sides is such
that when an electron combines with the hole during forward biased
conduction, a photon of visible light is emitted. These diodes are
commonly used as small light sources e.g., indicators etc.
Photo Diode
Photo diode is used for the detection of light. It is operated in reverse
biased condition. When no light is incident on the junction, the reverse current
I is almost negligible but when its p-n junction is exposed to light, the reverse
current increases with the intensity of light.
A photo diode can turn its current ON and OFF in nano-seconds. Hence
it is one of the fastest photo detection devices. Application of photo diodes
includes:
i. Detection-both visible and invisible
ii. Automatic switching
iii. Logic circuits
iv. Optical communication equipment etc.
Photo-Voltaic Cell
It consists of a thick n-type region covered by a thin p-type layer. When such a p-n junction having no
external bias is exposed to light, absorbed photons generate electron-hole pairs. It results into an increase
percentage of minority charge carriers in both p and n-regions. When these charge carriers diffuse close to
the junction, the electric field due to junction potential barrier sweeps them across the junction. It causes a
current flow through the external circuit R. The current is proportional to the intensity of light.
Exercise Short Questions Related to Article “18.3 SPECIALLY DESIGNED P-N JUNCTIONS”
Exercise Short Q # 6: Why ordinary silicon diodes don’t emit light?
Ans. The potential barrier across the pan-junction of Si is 0.7 V. so in forward biased condition, when
electron recombine with the hole, a photon of light having 0.7 eV energy is released. As the energy of
emitted photon lies in infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum. That’s why we don’t observe light
emission from Si diode.
Exercise Short Q # 7: Why a photo diode is operated in reverse biased state?

Ans. Photo diode is used for detection of light. It is operated in the reverse biased condition.
 When no light is incident on the junction, the reverse current is almost negligible.
 When a photo diode is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with intensity of light.
Thus the reverse biased condition of a photo diode is useful to detection of light.
MCQs Related to Article “18.3 SPECIALLY DESIGNED P-N JUNCTIONS”
1. The color of light emitted by led depends on
(a) Its forward biased (b) Its reversed biased
(c) The amount of forward current (d) Type of semi-conductor material used
2. A LED emits lights only when it is:
(a) Forward biased (b) Reverse biased (c) Un biased (d) None of these
3. A pn junction photodiode is
(a) Operated in forward direction (b) Operated in reversed direction
(c) A very fast photo detector (d) Dependent on thermally generated carriers
4. A photo – diode can switch its current on and off in
(a) Milli seconds (b) Micro seconds (c) Nano seconds (d) None
5. A sensor of light is:
(a) Transistor (b) LED (c) Photo Diode (d) None of these
6. In photovoltaic cell, current is directly proportional to:
(a) Interference of light (b) Intensity of light (c) Frequency of light (d) Energy
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b)
Article “18.3 SPECIALLY DESIGNED P-N JUNCTIONS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is photo diode? Write down its any two applications.
2. Give four applications of a photo diode.
3. What is photo-voltic cell? Discuss its working.
18.4 TRANSISTOR
The transistor is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions. The three regions of transistor are termed as emitter, base, and collector and the two p-n
junctions are called base-emitter junctions and collector-base junctions.
For the normal operation of a transistor, the base-emitter junction is forward biased and collector-
base junction is reversed biased.
There are two types of transistors:
npn-Transistor:
If a p-type region is sandwiched between two n type regions, then the
transistor is called npn-transistor.
pnp-Transistor:
If a n-type region is sandwiched between two p type regions, then the
transistor is called npn-transistor.
Working
In normal operation of a transistor, the batteries and connected in such way that its
emitter-base junction is forward biased and its collector-base junction is reversed biased.
When the biasing voltage is applied, the emitter injects a large number of electrons in the base
region. These free electrons in the base can flow in either of the two directions. They can either flow out of
the base to the positive terminal of or they can be attracted towards the collector because of battery
Since the base is extremely thin, very few electron manage to recombine with holes and escape out of
the base. Almost all of the free electrons injected from the emitter into the base are attached into the
collector by the large positive .

Thus, in a normally biased transistor, an electronic current flows from the emitter into the base. A very
small part of it flows out of the base, the rest current flows out of the collector i.e.,
It is found that for a given transistor, the ratio of collector current to base current is nearly constant,
called current gain of a transistor.
BIASING DIAGRAMS OF NPN & PNP TRANSISTORS

 In figure (a), EB-junction of NPN transistor is forward biased by and its CB-junction is reversed
biased by .
 In figure (a), EB-junction of PNP transistor is forward biased by and its CB-junction is reversed
biased by .
Exercise Short Questions Related to Article “18.4 TRANSISTOR”

Q # 8: Why is the base current in a transistor very small?
Ans. The base of a transistor is kept thin so that a very few charge carriers (electrons or holes)from emitter
may combine with electrons or holes of base. This result in larger collector current, hence larger current
and power gain to transistor become possible.
MCQs Related to Article “18.4 TRANSISTOR”
1. The central region of a transistor is called:
(a) Collector (b) Emitter (c) Base (d) Neutral
2. The term transistor means:
(a) Transfer of current (b) Transfer of heat (c) Transfer of heat (d) Transfer of voltage
3. The transistor are made from
(a) Plastic (b) Metals (c) Insulators (d) Doped semiconductors
4. Transistor has:
(a) 2 regions (b) 3 regions (c) 4 regions (d) 1 region
5. Transistor is a device which has ________ terminals.
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Four
6. Base of the transistor is very thin of the order of:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. The SI unit of current gain is:
(a) Ampere (b) Volt (c) Coulomb (d) No unit
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (c) MCQ # 7: (d)

Article “18.4 TRANSISTOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. Draw the symbols of pnp and npn transistors.
2. Define current gain of a transistor. Give its mathematical expression.
3. In a certain circuit, the transistor has a collector current of and base current . What is
the current gain of a transistor.
4. How the normal operation of transistor is achieved?
1. Describe the flow of current in npn transistor with the help of circuit diagram. Define current gain
of a transistor.
18.5 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal. In majority
of the electronic circuits, transistors are basically used as amplifiers. An amplifier is thus the building block
of every complex electronic circuit.
Consider an npn transistor in common emitter mode. The common emitter mode is widely used,
since it provides much greater power gain as compare to common base or common collector mode.
The input signal is applied between the emitter-base junction and output is taken across the load
connected in the collector circuit. The common emitter transistor as an amplifier is shown in the figure:
DC Analysis
The battery forward biases the base emitter junction
and reverse biases the collector base junction. and are
the input and output voltages respectively. The base current
current flowing through the input circuit is given by the relation:
Where is the base emitter resistance of the transistor.

The transistor amplifies the base current times. So the current
passes through the output circuit is given by the expression:
The output voltage is determined by the applying the Kirchhoff Voltage Rule on the output loop:
AC Analysis
When small signal voltage is applied at the input, the input voltage changes from to
. This causes a little changes in base from to due to which the collector current
changes from to . As the collector current changes, the voltage drop across i.e., also
changes due to which the output voltage changes by . Substituting the changed values in equation
(1), we get:
( )
Subtracting equation (1) and (2), we get:
( )

The factor is of the order of hundred, so the input signal is amplified. The negative sign shows that
there is a phase shift of between the input and output signals.

Exercise Short Question Related to Article “18.5 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER”
Q # 9: What are the biasing requirements of the junction of a

transistor for its normal operation? Explain how these
requirements are met in a common emitter amplifier?
Ans.For the normal operation of transistor, the EB (emitter-base)
junction of transistor is forward biased and CB (collector-base)
junction of transistor is reversed.
In npn-transistor in common emitter configuration, the EB-
junction is forward biased by battery and CB-junction is reversed
biased by battery, as shown in the figure.
Numerical Related to Article “18.5 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER”
18.1 The current flowing into the base of a transistor is 100 µA. Find its collector current , its
emitter current and the ratio , if the value of current gain β is 100.
Given Data: Base Current , Current Gain
To Determine: (a) Collector Current , (b) Emitter Current , (c)
Calculations: (a) Collector Current

(b) Emitter Current
(c)
18.2 Fig. shows a transistor which operates a relay as the switch S is

closed. The relay is energized by a current of 10 mA. Calculate the value
which will just make the relay operate. The current gain β of the transistor
is 200. When the transistor conducts, its can be assumed to be 0.6 V.
Given Data: Collector Current , Current Gain , ,

To Determine: Base Resistance
Calculations: As
Applying KVR on input circuit:

18.3 In circuit (Fig.), there is negligible potential drop between B and E, if β is

100. Calculate
i. Base current
ii. Collector current
iii. Potential drop across
iv.
Given Data: , , , ,
To Determine: (a) base current , (b) collector current ,
(c) potential drop across , (d)
Calculations: (a) Applying KVR on Input Circuit:
(b) Collector Current

(c) Potential Drop Across
(d) Applying KVR on Output Circuit:
MCQs Related to Article “18.5 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER”

1. A device which converts low voltage or current to high voltage or current is called:
(a) Transformer (b) AC-generator (c) Rectifier (d) Amplifier
2. For typical transistor as an amplifier, the voltage gain:
3. An expression for current gain of a transistor is given by:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. The gain of transistor amplifier depends upon:
(a) Resistance connected with emitter (b) Resistance connected with collector
(c) Resistance connected with base (d) None of these
5. Which of the following is true for a transistor:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. Transistor can be used as
(a) Oscillators (b) Switches (c) Memory unit (d) All of them
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (d)
Article “18.5 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is a transistor? Describe the use of transistor as an amplifier and calculate its voltage gain.
2.

18.6 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

The circuit in which a transistor is used as a switch is shown in the figure. The base B and emitter E
act as input terminals, which are also called the control terminals. The collectors C and emitter E behave as
the output terminals of the switch.
 In order to turn on the switch, a potential
VB is applied between control terminals.
This injects a large current IB into the base
circuit due to which a very heavy current IC
begins to flow in the CE circuit which will
turn the bulb ON.
 To turn the switch OFF, the base current IB
is set zero by opening the base circuit. As IC
= β IB, so IC becomes zero and CE circuit
becomes open.
USES OF TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
An electronic computer is basically a vast
arrangement electronic switches which are made
from transistors.
Article “18.6 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH” in PAST PAPERS
1. Write a short note on transistor as a switch.
18.7 OPERATIONAL Amplifiers

The enclosed circuit of the amplifier that is integrated on a small
silicon chip is called operational amplifier (OP-AMP). Operational amplifier is
used by making requisite connections (such as input, output and power
supply) with pins projected outside the capsule. used by making requisite
connections with these pins. OP-AMP sometimes used to perform
mathematical operations electronically.
The op-amp is usually represented by its symbol shown
in Fig. It has two input terminals. One is known as inverting input
(-) and the other non-inventing input (+).
 A signal that is applied at the inverting (-) input,

appears after amplification, at the output terminal
with a phase shift of 180°.
 If the signal is applied at non-inverting input (+).it
is amplified at the output without any change of
phase.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Input Resistance
It is the resistance between the (+) and (-) inputs of the
amplifier. Its value is very high --of the order of several mega ohms.
Due to high value of the input resistance Rin, practically no current
flows between the two input terminals.

Output Resistance
It is the resistance between the output terminal and ground. Its value is
only a few ohms.
Open Loop Gain

It is the ratio of output voltage Vo, to the voltage difference between
non-inverting and inverting inputs when there is no external
connection between the output and the inputs i.e.,
The open loop gain of the amplifier is very high. It is of the

order of 105.
MCQs Related to Article “18.7 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS”
1. A complete amplifier circuit made on a silicon chip and enclosed in a small capsule is called:
(a) Diode (b) Inductor (c) Resistor (d) Operational amplifier
2. The open loop gain of an operational amplifier is of the order of
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The resistance between + ive and – ive inputs of op – amplifier is
(a) 100 (b) 1000 (c) (d) None of these
4. Output resistance of an op-amp is
(a) High (b) Zero (c) Low (d) Equal to input resistance
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “18.7 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS” in PAST PAPERS

1. Give any two characteristics of operational amplifier.
2. Define the open loop gain of operational amplifier. Also give its formula.
3. Define input and output resistance of an operational amplifier.
18.8 OP-AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF GAIN OF A OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER

For the use of OP-AMP as inverting amplifier, the
input signal Vin, is applied at inverting terminal (-)
through a resistance R1. V0 is its output. The non-inverting
terminal (+) is grounded, i.e., . We know that open
loop gain AOL is very high:
Now
As practically no current flows between (-) and (+) terminals, so according to Kirchhoff’s current rule:

As is defined as gain G of the inverting amplifier, so
The negative sign indicates that the output signal is 180° out of phase with respect to input signal.
Important Note: It is interesting to note that the closed loop gain depends upon the two externally
connected resistances R1 and R2. The gain is independent of what is happening inside the amplifier.
Numerical Related to the Article “18.8 OP-AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER”
18.4 Calculate the output of the op-amp circuit shown in Fig.
Given Data: Let , ,

To Determine: Output Voltage
Calculations: Let , ,
By Kirchhoff’s Current Rule:
MCQs Related to Article “18.8 OP-AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER”

1. An op-amp will act as an inverting amplifier, when input signal is connected to:
(a) Inverting Terminal (b) Non-Inverting Terminal (c) Output Terminal
2. The gain G of inverting operational amplifier is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. The gain of inverting op-amp depends on
(a) Internal Resistance (b) External Resistances (c) Potential Difference (d) Current
4. The negative sign in the expression of voltage gain for an inverting amplifier indicates that
output signal is:
(a) In-phase with input signal (b) Out of phase with input signal
(c) Perpendicular to input signal (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (b)
Article “18.8 OP-AMP AS INVERTING AMPLIFIER” in PAST PAPERS

1. If and . Find the gain of inverting operational amplifier.
2. What is the principle of virtual ground?
1. What is operational amplifier? Describe the operational amplifier as inverting amplifier.

18.9 OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF GAIN OF OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
To use OP-AMP as non-inverting amplifier, the input signal Vin is applied at the non-inverting
terminal (+). Due to high open loop gain of amplifier:
Also, from figure:
As practically no current flows between (-) and (+)

terminals, so according to Kirchhoff’s current rule:
( )
( )
As is defined as gain G of the inverting amplifier, so
Again the gain of the amplifier is independent of the internal structure of the op-amp. The positive sign of
gain indicates that the input and output signals are in phase.
Numerical Related to Article “18.9 OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER”
18.5 Calculate the gain of non-inverting amplifier shown in Fig.
Given Data: Let ,

To Determine: Gain
Calculations: For Non-Inverting Op-Amp:
MCQs Related to Article “18.9 OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER”

1. The gain G of non-inverting operational amplifier is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2. For non-inverting amplifier, if and , then the gain of amplifier is
(a) -1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d)
3. An operational amplifier will act as a non-inverting amplifier when alternaing signal is applied
at:
(a) Inverting terminal (b) Non-Inverting terminal (c) Output resistance (d) Both a & b
4. The gain of non-inverting op-amp depends on
(a) Internal Resistance (b) External Resistances (c) Potential Difference (d) Current

5. The positive sign in the expression of voltage gain for an inverting amplifier indicates that
output signal is:
(a) In-phase with input signal (b) Out of phase with input signal
(c) Perpendicular to input signal (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (a)
Article “18.9 OP-AMP AS NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER” in PAST PAPERS

1. What is operational amplifier? Describe the use operational amplifier as inverting amplifier.
18.10 OP-AMP AS A COMPARATOR
As the open loop gain of the op-amp is very high (105),

even a very small potential difference between the inverting
and non-inverting inputs is amplified to such a large extent
that amplifier gets saturated. This feature of op-amp is used
to compare two voltages. Fig. shows the circuit of an op-amp
used comparator. VR is reference voltage which is connected
with (+) terminal and V is the voltage which is to be
compared with the reference VR. It is connected with (-)
terminal.
When
and if
MCQs Related to Article “18.10 OP-AMP AS A COMPARATOR”

1. The conduction to saturation of an operational amplifier help us to:
(a) Comparing two resistors (b) Comparing two voltages (c) Comparing two currents
2. When op-amp is saturated, then
(a) (b) (c) (d)
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c)
Article “18.10 OP-AMP AS A COMPARATOR” in PAST PAPERS

1. How an operational amplifier is used to compare two voltages?
18.11 COMPARATOR AS A NIGHT SWITCH

Suppose it is required that when intensity of light falls below a certain level, the street light is
automatically switched on. This can be accomplished by using op-amp as a comparator. The output of the
op-amp is connected with a relay system which energizes only when V0= +VCC and then it turns on the
street lights.
In figure, resistances R1 and R2 form a potential divider. The
potential drop across R2 provides the reference voltage VR to the (+)
input of the op-amp. Thus:
LDR is a light dependent resistance. The value of its resistance

RL depends upon the intensity of light falling upon it. RL and R3 form
another potential divider. The potential drop across R3 is V' which is
given by:

V' provides the voltage to (-) input of the op-amp. V' will not be a constant voltage but it will vary
with the intensity of light.
 During day time, when light is falling upon LDR, RL is small. According to Eq. (2), V' will be large such
that V' > VR so that V0= - VCC. Thus when V0= - VCC, the light will not be switched ON.
 As it gets darker, RL becomes larger and V' decreases. When V' becomes just less than VR, the output of
op-amp switches to +VCC which energizes the relay system and the street lights are turned ON.
MCQs Related to Article “18.11 COMPARATOR AS A NIGHT SWITCH”
1. The automatic working of street lights is due to
(a) Inductor (b) Capacitor (c) Comparator (d) Rectifier
2. LDR is abbreviated for:
(a) Light dependent resistor (b) light depositing resistor
(c) Light doped resistor (d) all of these
3. The use of LDR is in the circuit of:
(a) Night Switch (b) Logic Gates (c) Rectifier (d) Oscillator
4. The value of LDR depends upon:
(a) Intensity of sound (b) Intensity of heat (c) Intensity of light (d) Current
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c)
Article “18.11 COMPARATOR AS A NIGHT SWITCH” in PAST PAPERS

1. Describe the working of operational amplifier as a night switch.
Digital Systems
A system which deals with quantities and variables having two discrete values or states are called is
called digital system. In these circuits, the input and output can have any one of the two values “1” or “0”.
Following are the examples of such quantities:
 A switch can either open or closed.
 The answer of a question can be either yes or no.
 A certain statement can be either true or false.
 A bulb can be either on or off.
In all these situations, one of the states is represented by “1” and the other
state by “0”.
 1 represents:
i. ON circuit
ii. High voltage
iii. True statement
 0 represents:
i. OFF circuit
ii. Low voltage
iii. False statement
Logic gates solve problems by using a special algebra, known as “Boolean Algebra”. Boolean algebra is
based upon three basic operations namely:
i. AND operation
ii. OR operation
iii. NOT operation

MCQs Related to Article “18.12 DIGITAL SYSTEMS”

1. A system which deals with quantities or variables which have only two discrete values or states
is known as
(a) Octa system (b) Hexa system (c) Digital System (d) Decimal System
2. Which is not a basic logic operation:
(a) OR operation (b) AND operation (c) NOT operation (d) NAND operation
3. The electronic circuits which implement the various logic operations are known as
(a) Digital gates (b) Logic gate (c) Voltage operated gate (d) All of them
4. In describing functions of digital systems, lighted bulb will be described as
(a) Infinity (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) None of these
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c)
18.13 FUNDAMENTAL LOGIC GATES

The electronic circuits which implement the various logic operations are known as logic gates.
There are three basic types of logic gates: (i) AND Gate, (ii) OR Gate, (iii) NOT Gate
OR GATE
OR gate implements the logic of OR operation. It has two or more
inputs and a single output. The symbolic representation of an OR gate is
shown in the figure.
The output of the OR gate has a value “0” when both of its inputs A
and B is at 0. For all other operations of inputs , the
output is “1”. It is also called “Any or All Gate”. Thus it implements the
truth table of OR operation. The mathematical notation of OR operation is:
AND GATE
AND gate implements the logic of AND operation. It has two or more
inputs and a single output. The symbolic representation of an AND gate is
The output of the AND gate has a value “1” when all inputs are “1”
and “0” for all other combinations of inputs. This gate is also called “All or
Nothing Gate”. Thus it implements the truth table of AND operation. The
mathematical notation of OR operation is:
NOT Gate
It performs the operation of inversion or complementation. That is

why it is also known as inverter. It changes a logic level to its opposite level,
i.e., it changes 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The symbolic representation of NOT gate is
shown in the figure. The Boolean equation corresponding to NOT operation
is described as:
MCQs Related to Article “18.13 FUNDAMENTAL LOGIC GATES”

1. Truth table of logic function:
(a) Summarizes output values (b) Tabulate all input values
(c) Display all input and output possibilities (d) is not based on logic algebra
2. The boolean expression X = A + B represents the logic operation of
(a) NAND gate (b) OR gate (c) NOR gate (d) NOT gate
3. The output of a two inputs OR gate is 0 only when its

(a) Both inputs are 0 (b) Either input is 1 (c) Both
inputs are 1 (d) Either input is zero
4. The output of AND gate is 1 when
(a) Both inputs are at 0 (b)
either one input is at 1
(c) Both inputs are at 1 (d) none
of these
5. The only function of a NOT gate is to
(a) Stop a signal (b) Re-complement a signal (c) Invert an input signal
6. NOT gate has only
(a) One input (b) Two inputs (c) Many inputs (d) None
7. The term invertor is used for:
(a) NOR Gate (b) NAND Gate (c) NOT Gate (d) OR Gate
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (c)
Article “18.13 FUNDAMENTAL LOGIC GATES” in PAST PAPERS
1. Draw the symbolic diagram of OP gate and write its truth table.
2. The input of a gate are 1 & 0, identity the gate if its output is (a) 0 & (b)
3. Draw the symbolic representation of NOT gate and write its truth table.
4. What is mathematical expression of AND gate? Write its truth table.
1. What is the digital system? Explain OR and AND gate with diagrams and truth tables.
2. What are logic gates? Discuss OR and AND gate.
18.14 OTHER LOGIC GATES
NOR Gate
If a NOT Gate is connected at the output of an OR gate, then the

combination acts as NOR Gate i.e., in NOR gate the output of the OR
Gate is inverted. The symbolic representation of a NOR gate is shown
in the figure. The output of the NOR gate is “1” when both inputs A and
B are “0”. And the output is “0” for all other combinations of inputs. Its
Boolean equation is:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
NAND Gate
If a NOT Gate is connected at the output of an AND gate, then the
combination acts as NAND Gate i.e., in NAND gate the output of the AND
Gate is inverted. The symbolic representation of a NAND gate is shown
in the figure. The output of the NAND gate is “0” when both inputs A and
B are “1”. And the output is “1” for all other combinations of inputs. Its
Boolean equation is:
̅̅̅̅̅̅

Exclusive OR Gate (XOR Gate)

This gate has two inputs A, B and one output C. the
output of XOR gate is “0” when both inputs are same i.e.,
and the output is “1” when the inputs
are different. The symolic representation of XOR gate is
Its Boolean equation is:
̅ ̅
The circuit which acts as XOR gate consist of combinations of
gates as shown in the figure:
In XOR gate, A and ̅ (Complement of B) are applied
to the inputs 1st AND gate and 2nd AND gate is gets the inputs
̅ (Complement of A) and B as shown in the figure. The
outputs from two AND gates are fed to OR gates. This circuit
verifies the truth table of XOR operation.
Exclusive NOR Gate (XNOR Gate)

If an inverter is connected in the output of and XOR
gate, then the combination is called XNOR gate. It has two
inputs A, B and one output C. The output of XNOR gate is “1”
when both inputs are same i.e., and the
output is “0” when the inputs are different. The symolic
representation of XNOR gate is shown in the figure.Its Boolean
equation is:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ ̅
The circuit which acts as XNOR gate consist of combinations of
gates as shown in the figure:
In XNOR gate, A and ̅ (Complement of B) are applied to

the inputs 1st AND gate and 2nd AND gate is gets the inputs
̅(Complement of A) and B as shown in the figure. The outputs
from two AND gates are fed to NOR gates. This circuit verifies
the truth table of XNOR operation.
MCQs Related to Article “18.14 OTHER LOGIC GATES”

1. In NOR gate 1 + 1 = ________
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d) 3
2. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ is the mathematical notation for:
(a) OR gate (b) AND gate (c) NOR gate (d) NAND gate
3. NAND gate with two inputs a and b has output 0, if
(a) A is 0 (b) b is 0 (c) both a and b are 0 (d) both a and b are 1
4. NAND gate is a combination
(a) AND gate and NOT gate (b) AND gate and OR gate
(c) OR gate and NOT gate (d) NOT gate and NOT gate
5. An XOR gate produces an positive logic output only when its two inputs are
(a) High (b) Low (c) Different (d) Same
6. Temperature, pressure etc are converted into electronic information by devices called
(a) LEDs (b) Sensors (c) Vacuum tubes (d) None
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b)

Article “18.14 OTHER LOGIC GATES” in PAST PAPERS

1. Draw the symbol and truth table of NOR gate.
2. Draw the symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
3. Draw a diagram showing scheme of XOR gate.
4. Write down symbol and truth table of exclusive NOR gate.
1. Draw the symbols of logic gates for the following Boolean functions ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ & ̅̅̅̅̅. Write
their respective truth tables.
Application of Gates in Control Systems

Gates are widely used in control systems. They control the function of the system by monitoring
some physical parameter such as temperature, pressure or some
other physical quantity of the system.
A circuit is to be designed which will ring an alarm when
either the temperature or pressure or both cross the maximum
specified limit. The alarm requires a LOW (0) voltage for its
activation.
The block diagram of the problem is shown in Fig. in which C
is the circuit to be designed. Its inputs A and B are fed by the
temperature and pressure sensors T and P fitted into the vet.
Whenever output of the circuit C is LOW, the alarm is activated. So
the circuit C should be such that its output is 0 as soon as the limit for
temperature or pressure is exceeded, i.e., when A=0, B = 1 or when
A= 1, B = 0 or when A= B = 1. The output of C should be HIGH
when temperature and pressure are within the specified limit, i.e.,
when A = B = 0. This gives the truth table of NOR gate. So the circuit C
in Fig. should be a NOR gate.

Chapter 19 (2nd Year Physics) Dawn of Modern Physics
19.1 Relative Motion

Relative motion is the calculations of motion of an object with respect to some other moving object.
Example 1:
The walls of the cabin of a moving train are stationary with respect to the passengers sitting inside it but in
motion to a person stationary on the ground.
Example 2:
When a ball is thrown up, the up direction is only for that particular place. It will be down direction for a
person who is on the diametrically opposite side of the globe.
Example 3:
Consider two cars, one is at rest and other is moving with constant velocity.
 Suppose a ball is thrown straight up by the person in the car moving with constant velocity. He will
receive the ball straight down.
 On the other hand, the person sitting in stationary car observes the path of the ball to be parabolic.
Conclusion:
 If the states of rest or motion are observed in same frame of reference, the results will be identical.
 If the observations are taken in different frame of references, the results about the same state of
body will be different.
19.2 Frame of Reference

A coordinate system relative to which observations are taken is called frame of reference
Or An arbitrary set of axes with reference to which the position or motion of something is described is
called frame of reference.
There are two types of frame of reference.
Inertial Frame of Reference
A coordinate system in which the law of inertia is valid is called inertial frame of reference.
Or Non accelerated frame of reference is called inertial frame of reference.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference
A coordinate system in which the law of inertia doesn’t hold, called non-inertial frame of reference.
Or Accelerated frame of reference is called inertial frame of reference.
MCQs Related to the Article “19.2 FRAMES OF REFERENCE”
1. All motions are
(a) Absolute (b) Uniform (c) Relative (d) Variable
2. A coordinate system relative to which measurement are taken is known as:
(a) Frame of reference (b) Infinity Point (c) Zero point (d) None of these
3. A coordinate system in which a body moves with constant velocity as long as no force is acting
on it is called
(a) Accelerated frame of reference (b) Inertial frame of reference
(c) Non-inertial frame of reference (d) None of these
4. The coordinate system in which law of inertia is valid is called:
(a) Special frame of reference (b) Standard frame of reference
(c) Non-Inertial frame of reference (d) Inertial frame of reference
5. Non-Inertial frame of reference has:
(a) Zero Acceleration (b) Non-Zero Acceleration
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (a) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (d) MCQ # 5: (b)
Article “19.2 FRAME OF REFERENCE” in PAST PAPERS

1. Differentiate between inertial and non-inertial frame of reference.
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19.3 Special Theory of Relativity

THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The theory of relativity is concerned with the way in which observers who are in state of relative motion
describe physical phenomenon.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY AND GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
i. The special theory of relativity treats the problems involving inertial or non-accelerating frames of
reference
ii. The general theory of relativity deals problems involving non-inertial or accelerating frames of
reference.
POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The special theory of relativity is based upon two postulates:
i. The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames.
ii. The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers, regardless of their state of
motion.
CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Some interesting results of special theory of relativity include time dilation, length contraction, mass
increment etc.
Time Dilation
The time of an event measured by an observer in a moving spaceship would seem greater than the
time measured by an observer on at rest. This consequence of Special Theory of Relativity is called Time
Dilation. Thus according to special theory of relativity, time is not absolute quantity. It depends upon the
motion of the frame of reference.
Explanation:
 Suppose an observer is stationery in an inertial frame. He measures the time interval between two
events in this frame, called as proper time.
 If another observer is moving with respect to rest-frame with velocity v, the time measured by this
observer between same two events would not be , but it would be given by:
As the quantity√ is always less than one, so t is greater than i.e., time has dilated.
Length Contraction
The distance from Earth to a star measured by an observer in a moving spaceship would seem
smaller than the distance measured by an observer on Earth. This consequence of Special Theory of
Relativity is called Length Contraction. Thus according to special theory of relativity, length is not absolute
quantity. It depends upon the motion of the frame of reference.
Explanation
 Suppose an observer is stationery in an inertial frame. He measures the distance between two points
in this frame, called as proper length.
 If another observer is moving with respect to the rest-frame of events with velocity v, the distance
measured by the observer between same two points would not be , but it would be given by:
As the quantity√ is always less than one, so is smaller than i.e., length has contracted.

Mass Increment
The mass of an object measured by an observer in a moving spaceship would seem greater than the
mass measured by an observer at rest. This consequence of Special Theory of Relativity is called Mass
Increment. Thus according to special theory of relativity, mass is not absolute quantity. It depends upon the
motion of the frame of reference.
Explanation
 Suppose an observer is stationery in an inertial frame. He measures the mass of the object in this
frame, called as proper mass.
 If another observer is moving with respect to the rest-frame of events with velocity v, the mass of same
object measured by the observer would not be , but it would be given by:
As the quantity√ is always less than one, so is greater than i.e., mass has increased.
Energy Mass Relationship

According to special theory of relativity, mass and energy are different entities but are inter-convertible.
 The total energy E and mass m of an object are related by the expression
where m depends on the speed of the object.

 At rest, the energy equivalent of an object's mass is called rest mass energy :
As is greater than , the difference of energy is due to motion, as such it represents

the kinetic energy of the mass. Hence
From equation (1), the change in mass m due to change in energy is given by
Because is a very large quantity, this implies that small changes in mass require very large changes in
energy. In our everyday world, energy changes are too small to provide measurable mass changes.
However, energy and mass changes in nuclear reactions are found to be exactly in accordance with the
above mentioned equations.
APPLICATIONS OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY FOR NAVSTAR NEVIGATION SYSTEM
The results of special theory of relativity are put to practical use even in everyday life by a modern system
of navigation satellites called NAVSTAR.
i. The location and speed anywhere on Earth can now be determined to an accuracy of about 2 cms -1.
However, if relativity effects are not taken into account, speed could not be determined any closer
than about 20 cms-1.
ii. Using these results the location of an aircraft alter an hour's flight can be predicted to about 50 m as
compared to about 760 m determined by without using relativistic effects.
Exercise Short Question Related to “19.3 Special Theory of Relativity”
Exercise Short Q # 1. What are the measurements on which two observers in relative motion will
always agree upon?
Ans. The measurement on which two observers in relative motion will always agree upon is speed of light.

Exercise Short Q # 2. Does the dilation means that time really passes more slowing in moving
system or that it only seems to pass more slowly?
Ans. According to the time dilation formula , time is not constant. It is relative.
√
 Time passes normally for any observer within his own system.
 Time seems to pass more slowly when an observer in one system in relativistic motion takes the time
measurement of the other system.
Exercise Short Q # 3. If you are moving in a space ship at very high speed relative to the earth, would
you notice a difference (a) in your pulse rate (b) in pulse rate of people on earth?
Ans. The pulse rate of a person who is travelling in a spaceship is not changed with respect to clock inside
the spaceship.
But the person in spaceship will experience the change in pulse rate of the people on earth,
according to the relation .
√
Exercise Short Q # 4. If the speed of light were infinite, what would the equations of special theory of
relativity reduce to?
Ans. If we take speed of light c as infinity, then the equations of special theory of relativity reduce to:
 Time dilation formula: , i.e., Time in motion=Proper Time
√ √ √
 Length contraction formula: √ √ √ , i.e.,

Length in motion = Proper Length
 Mass increment formula: , i.e., Mass in motion=Rest Mass
√ √ √

Exercise Short Q # 5. Since mass is form of energy, can we conclude that a compressed spring has
more mass than the same spring when it is not compressed?
Ans. Mass is form of energy. According to the theory of relativity, there would be increase in mass of
compressed spring. However, this increase in mass is slightly greater than original mass (negligibly small)
according to the relation:
Numerical Related to “19.3 Special Theory of Relativity”

19.1 A particle called the pion lives on the average only about when at rest in the
laboratory. It then changes to another form. How long would such a particle live when shooting
through the space at 0.95 c?
Given Data: Proper Time , Relative Speed

To Determine: Relativistic Time
Calculations:
√ √ √ √
19.2 What is the mass of a 70 kg man in a space rocket traveling at 0.8 c from us as measured from
Earth?
Given Data: Proper Mass , Relative Speed

To Determine: Relativistic Time
Calculations:
√ √ √ √

MCQs Related to the Article “19.3 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY”

1. In 1905, the special theory of relativity was proposed by
(a) Maxwell (b) De Broglie (c) Bohr (d) Einstein
2. An observer shoots parallel to a meter stick at very high speed (relativistic) and finds that the
length of meter stick is __________
(a) Greater than one meter (b) Less than one meter
(c) One meter (d) None of these
3. Using relativistic effects, the location of an aircraft after an hour’s flight can be predicted about
(a) 20 m (b) 50 m (c) 760 m (d) 780 m
4. 1 kg mass will be equivalent to energy:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. The special theory of relativity is based on:
(a) 1 postulate (b) 2 postulates (c) 3 postulates (d) 4 postulates
6. The velocity at which the mass of the body becomes double is:
√ √
(a) (b) (c) (d)
√
7. If the object moves with speed of light, its mass become:
(a) Zero (b) Infinity (c) Remain same (d) Decreases
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (b) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (b) MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (b)
Article “19.3 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY” in PAST PAPERS

1. Give two postulates of special theory of relativity.
2. Explain NAVSTAR navigation system.
3. What are advantages of NAVSTAR navigation system?
4. Can an object move with speed of light?
1. Write down the postulates of special theory of relativity. Also describe the four results of special
theory of relativity. What is NAVSTAR navigating system.
19.4 BLACK BODY RADIATIONS
THERMAL RADIATION (Definition)
The radiations emitted by a body due to its temperature are called thermal radiations.
CAVITY RADIATOR
In order to determine the distribution of thermal
radiations emitted from a hot body, we consider a
non-reflecting solid object that has cavity with lamped
blacked inner walls. Such body absorbs all the
radiations entering it and is called cavity radiator
which is a nearest approach to black body.
 A black body is both an ideal absorber and an
ideal radiator.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY DISTRIBUTION CURVES OF BLACK BODY
Lummer and Pringsheim
measured the intensity of emitted
energy radiated from a black
body at different temperature.
The amount of radiation emitted
with different wavelengths at
different temperatures is shown
in the figure.

These curves reveal the following interesting facts.

1. At a given temperature, the energy is not uniformly
distributed in the radiation spectrum of the body.
2. For all wavelengths, an increase in temperature causes an
increase in energy emission. The radiation intensity
increases with increase in wavelengths and at a particular
wavelength , it has a maximum value. With further
increase in wavelength, the intensity decreases.
3. At a given temperature T, the emitted energy has maximum
value for a certain wavelength and the
remains constant i.e.,
The value of the constant known as Wien‘s constant is about

. This equation known as Wein’s
Displacement Law. It describes that as T increases, shifts towards shorter wavelength.
4. The area under each curve represents the total energy (E) radiated per time per unit area over all
wavelengths at a particular temperature. It is found that area is directly proportional to the fourth
power of kelvin temperature T. Thus
Or
where is called Stefen's constant. Its value is and the above relation is
known as Stefen-Boltzmann law.
PLANK’S ASSUMPTION TO EXPLAIN THE ENERGY DISTRIBUTIONS CURVES OF BLACK BODY
Electromagnetic wave theory of radiation cannot explain the energy distribution curves of black body. In
1900, Max Planck founded a mathematical model resulting in an equation that describes the shape of
observed curves exactly. He based his theory on following assumption
“In black body, energy is radiated or absorbed in discrete packets, called quanta. Each quantum is
associated with radiation of a single
frequency f. The energy E of each quantum
is proportional to its frequency f, i.e.,:
where h is Planck's constant. Its value is

.
PHOTON (Definition)
Einstein extended the idea of quantization
of radiation and postulated that packets or
tiny bundles of energy are integral part of
all electromagnetic radiation and they
could not be subdivided. These indivisible
tiny bundles of energy, called photons.

MOMENTUM OF PHOTON (Derivation of Expression)

Consider a beam of light with wavelength consists of stream of photons travelling at speed c and carries
energy hf.
From the theory of relativity, momentum p of the photon is related to energy as:
Also
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we have:
( )
This is expression of momentum of a photon.

Exercise Short Questions Related to “19.4 BLACK BODY RADIATIONS”
Exercise Short Q # 6. As a solid is heated and begins to glow, why does it first appear red.
Ans. At lower temperature, a body emits radiation of low energy (longer wavelength). Since longest visible
wavelength is red, so it appears red first.
Exercise Short Q # 7. What happens to total radiation from a black body if its absolute temperature
is doubled?
Ans. According to Stephen Boltzmann law:
 When absolute temperature is doubled, then:
Thus if absolute temperature is doubled, the total radiation emitted by black body increases 16 times.
MCQs Related to the Article “19.4 BLACK BODY RADIATION”
1. Energy of black body radiation depends upon:
(a) Nature of the surface of body (b) Nature of material of the body
(c) Shape and size of the body (d) Temperature of the body
2. When Platinum is heated, it becomes cherry red at:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. When Platinum is heated, it becomes orange at:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. Platinum wire becomes yellow at temperature of:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
5. When Platinum is heated, it becomes white at:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6. The relation is known as
(a) Wein’s Law (b) Plank’s Law (c) Stephen Law (d) None
7. As the temperature of black body is raised, the wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity
(a) Shifts towards longer wavelength (b) Shifts towards shorter wavelength
(c) Remains the same (d) None of these
8. The energy radiated is directly proportional to fourth power of Kelvin’s temperature is _____
(a) Karl-wein’s laws (b) Raleigh jeans law (c) Stephens law (d) Planck’s
9. According to Stephen’s law about black body radiations:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
10. At low temperature, a body is usually emits radiation of:
(a) Long wavelength (b) Short Wavelength (c) Infinite Wavelength (d) None of these
11. The name of photon for quantum of light was proposed by
(a) Ampere (b) Planck’s (c) Thomson (d) Einstein
12. The units of Plank’s constant are same as that of:
(a) Energy (b) Power (c) Angular frequency (d) Angular momentum

13. The value of Plank’s constant h is equal to:

(a) (b) (c) (d)
14. Linear momentum of a photon is
(a) Zero (b) hf/c (c) hf/c (d) c
MCQ # 1: (d) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (c) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (b)
MCQ # 8: (c) MCQ # 9: (c) MCQ # 10: (a) MCQ # 11: (d) MCQ # 12: (d) MCQ # 13: (a) MCQ # 14: (b)
Article “19.4 BLACK BODY RADIATIONS” in PAST PAPERS

1. What do you know about cavity radiator?
2. The rest mass of photon is zero. Is its momentum also zero?
1. What is black body radiation? Explain the intensity distribution diagram.
19.5 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER
Electromagnetic radiation or photons interact with matter in three distinct ways depending mainly on their
energy. The three processes are
i. Photoelectric effect
ii. Compton effect
iii. Pair production
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (Definition)
The emission of electrons from a metal surface when exposed to light of suitable frequency is called the
photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP TO DEMOSTRATE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
The photoelectric effect is demonstrated by the apparatus
shown in Fig. An evacuated glass tube X contains two electrodes. The
electrode A connected to the positive terminal of the battery is
known as anode. The electrode C connected to negative terminal is
known as cathode.
When monochromatic light is allowed to shine on cathode, it
begins to emit electrons. These photoelectrons are attracted by the
positive anode and the resulting current is measured by an ammeter.
The current stops when light is cut off, which proves, that the
current flows because of incident light. This current is, hence, called
photoelectric current.
DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF THE PHOTOELECTRONS
The maximum energy of the photoelectrons can be determined by reversing the connection of the battery
in the circuit i.e., now the anode A is negative and cathode C is at positive potential. In this condition the
photoelectrons are repelled by the anode and the photoelectric current decreases. If this potential is made
more and more negative, at a certain value, called stopping potential , the current becomes zero. Even the
electrons of maximum energy are not able to reach collector plate. The maximum energy of photoelectrons
is thus
where m is mass, v is velocity and e is the charge on electron.

Dependence of MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF PHOTOELECTRONS on

INTENSITY OF INCIDENT LIGHT
If the experiment is repeated with light beam of higher intensity, the

amount of current increases but the current stops for the same value of .
The Fig. shows two curves of photoelectric current as a function of potential
V where .
Dependence of MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF PHOTOELECTRONS on FREQUENCY OF INCIDENT LIGHT
If the intensity is kept constant and experiment is performed

with different frequencies of incident light, we obtain the curves shown
in Fig. The current is same but stopping potential is different for each
frequency of incident light, which indicates the proportionality of
maximum kinetic energy with frequency of light f.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT EXPERIMENT

The important results of the experiments are
 The electrons are emitted with different energies. The maximum
energy of photoelectrons depends on the particular metal surface
and the frequency of incident light.
 There is a minimum frequency below which no electrons are
emitted, however intense the light may be. This threshold
frequency varies from metal to metal.
 Electrons are emitted instantaneously, the intensity of light
determines only their number.
FAILURE OF CLASSICAL THEORY IN ORDER TO EXPLAIN PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The results of photoelectric effect experiment could not be explained on the basis of
electromagnetic wave theory of light. According to this theory, increasing the intensity of incident light
should increase the K.E. of emitted electrons which contradicts the experimental result. The classical
theory cannot also explain the threshold frequency of light.
QUANTUM THEORY PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein extended the idea of quantization of energy proposed by Max Planck that light is emitted
or absorbed in quanta, known as photons. The energy of each photon of frequency f as given by quantum
theory is
A photon could be absorbed by a single electron in the metal surface. The electron needs a certain
minimum energy called the work function to escape from the metal surface. If the energy of incident
photon is sufficient, the electron is ejected instantaneously from the metal surface. A part of the photon
energy (work function) is used by the electron to break away from the metal and the rest appears as the
kinetic energy of the electron. That is,

This is known as Einstein's photoelectric equation.

When of the photoelectron is zero, the frequency f is equal to threshold frequency , hence the
Eq.(1) becomes
Hence, we can also write Einstein's photoelectric equation as
It is to be noted that all the emitted electrons do not possess the maximum kinetic energy, some electrons
come straight out of the metal surface and some lose energy in atomic collisions before coming out. The
equation (3) holds good only for those electrons which come out with full surplus energy.
PHOTO CELL
A photocell is based on photoelectric effect. A simple photocell consists of an evacuated glass bulb with
a thin anode rod and a cathode of an appropriate metal surface. The material of the cathode is selected to
suit to the frequency range of incident radiation over which the cell is operated. For example:
 sodium or potassium cathode emits electrons for visible light
 cesium coated oxidized silver emits electrons for infrared light
 some other metals respond to ultraviolet radiation.
When photo-emissive surface is exposed to appropriate light, electrons are emitted and a current flows in
the enteral circuit which increases with the increase in light intensity. The current stops when the light
beam is interrupted. The cell has wide range of applications. Some of these are to operate:
i. Security systems
ii. Counting systems
iii. Automatic door systems
iv. Automatic street lighting
v. Exposure meter for photography
vi. Sound track of movies
Exercise Short Question of “PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT”
Exercise Short Q # 8. Which photon, red, green or blue carry the most (a) energy and (b)
momentum?
Energy: According to relation: , the photons of blue light having shorter wavelength must have
larger energy as compared to photons of red or green color light.

Momentum: According to relation: , the photons of blue light having shorter wavelength must have
larger momentum as compared to photons of red or green color light.

Exercise Short Q # 9. Which have the low energy quanta? Radio waves or X-rays.
Ans. According to relation: , the quanta of X-rays having shorter wavelength must have larger
energy as compared to quanta of radio waves.

Exercise Short Q # 10. A beam of red light and a beam of blue light have exactly the same energy.
Which beam contains the greater number of photons?
Ans. As
Therefore, two color beams having same energy will contain different number of photons.
 The blue light, having photon of comparatively larger energy contains less number of photons
 The red light, having photon of comparatively smaller energy contains greater number of photons

Exercise Short Q # 11. Does the brightness of a beam of light primarily depend on the frequency of
photons or the number of photons?
Ans. The brightness of a beam depends upon intensity (number of photons) and not on the frequency of
light. Thus brightness increases with intensity of light.
Exercise Short Q # 12. When ultravoilot light falls on certain dyes, visible light is emitted. Why does
this not happens when infrared light falls on these dyes?
Ans. UV light consists of photons having energy greater than energy of visible light photons. When UV light
falls on dyes, atoms initially become excited and then de-excited by emitting lower energy photons, which
may be detectable by normal human eyes.
Infrared light consists of photons having energy lower than energy of visible light photons. When
Infrared light falls on dyes, atoms initially become excited and then de-excited by emitting lower energy
photons which couldn’t lie in visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
Exercise Short Q # 13. Will bright light eject more electrons from metal surface than dimmer light of
same color?
Ans. Since “number of electrons” ejected from metal surface depend upon the intensity of light (number of
photons). Therefore, bright light being more intense will eject more electrons from a metal surface than
dimmer light of same color.
Exercise Short Q # 14. Will higher frequency light eject greater number of electrons than lower
frequency light?
Ans. No, the higher frequency light will not eject greater number of electrons than low frequency light. It is
because of the reason that number of electrons emitted from metal surface depends upon intensity of light
(number of photons) and not frequency of light.
Exercise Short Q # 15. When light shines on a surface, is momentum transferred to the metal
surface?
Ans. When light falls on the surface, about 20% of incident light energy is absorbed in each reflection. So
both energy and momentum is transferred to the metal surface.
Exercise Short Q # 16. Why can red light be used in photographic dark room when developing films
but a blue or white light cannot?
Ans. Since the frequency of red light is less as compared to blue light, so red light has less energy as
compared to blue light. Therefore, photographic films an the material concerned are less affected in the
presence of red light.
Exercise Short Q # 17. Photon A has twice the energy of photon B. what is the ratio of the
momentum to A to that of B.
Ans. Given that the energy of photon A is twice the energy of photon B i.e.,
The momentum of photon A =
The momentum of photon B =
( )
Now,
( )
So, photon A has twice the momentum of photon B.

MCQs Related to the Article “PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT”
1. The light of suitable frequency falling on metal surface ejects electrons, this phenomenon is
called
(a) X-ray emission (b) Compton effect (c) Photoelectric effect (d) Nuclear fission
2. Photoelectric effect was explained by

(a) Hertz (b) Einstein (c) Rutherford (d) Bohr

3. In order to increase the K.E of ejected photoelectrons, there should be an increase in:
(a) Frequency of light (b) Intensity of light (c) Both a & b (d) None of these
4. The amount of energy required to eject an electron from metal surface is called:
(a) Threshold frequency (b) Work function (c) Compton Shift (d) Pair production
5. Photon ‘A’ has twice the energy of photon ‘B’. What is the ratio of the momentum of ‘A’ to that of
‘B’?
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 8 : 1 (c) 1 : 2 (d) 2 : 1
6. Stopping potential for a metal surface in case of photo electric emission depends on
(a) The threshold frequency for the metal surface (b) The intensity of incident light
(c) The frequency of incident light and the work function for metal surface (d) None of these
7. At stopping potential , the current passing through circuit is:
(a) Minimum (b) Maximum (c) Zero (d) None of these
8. The number of electrons emitted depends upon
(a) Color of target surface (b) Shape of the surface
(c) Frequency of incident light (d) Intensity of incident light
9. The unit of work function is:
(a) Volt (b) eV (c) Farad (d) Hertz
10. Application of photoelectric effect is
(a) Photo diode (b) Photo transistor (c) Photocell (d) None of these
11. Potassium cathode in photocell emits electrons for a light that is:
(a) X-rays (b) Infrared (c) Ultraviolet (d) Visible
12. Wave nature of light appears in:
(a) Pair production (b) Compton Effect (c) Photoelectric effect (d) Interference
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (b) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (c)
MCQ # 7: (c) MCQ # 8: (d) MCQ # 9: (b) MCQ # 10: (a) MCQ # 11: (d) MCQ # 12: (d)
COMPTON EFFECT
COMPTON EFFECT (Definition)
When X-rays are incident on loosely bound electrons of a graphite target, the X-rays are scattered at
an angle θ to the direction of incident. The wavelength of scattered X-rays is greater than the wavelength of
incident X-rays. This phenomenon is known as Compton effect.
COMPTON SHIFT
The change in wavelength of the photon due to its scattering from the target of graphite known as
Compton shift. Compton shift of X-ray photon scattered at an angle θ is described as:
where is the rest mass of electron.

COMPTON WAVELENGTH
The factor has the dimensions of length is called Compton Wavelength and has numerical value:
Question When does the Compton shift becomes equal to Compton wavelength?
If the scattered X-ray photon is observed at , then the Compton shift becomes equal to
Compton wavelength:
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “COMPTON EFFECT”

Exercise Short Q # 18. Why don’t we observe Compton effect with visible light?
Ans. We don’t observe a Compton effect with visible light because photons of visible light have smaller
energy and momentum then the photons of X-rays.
MCQs Related to the Article “COMPTON EFFECT”
1. Compton’s effect is associated with:
(a) Gamma Rays (b) X-rays (c) Beta Rays (d) Positive Rays
2. In Compton effect, the law/laws are conserved
(a) Energy (b) Momentum (c) Both (d) None of these
3. The change in wavelength of scattered photon in Compton’s effect is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4. The factor in Compton equation has dimensions of:

(a) Pressure (b) Length (c) Mass (d) Momentum
5. Compton shift is equal to Compton’s wavelength when the scattered X-ray photons are observed
at an angle:
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 90°
6. Compton’s shift in the wavelength is zero, when scattered angle of photon is
(a) (b) (c) (d)
7. A maximum Compton shift in the wavelength of scattered photon will be occur at
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8. Compton’s Effect proves:
(a) Wave nature of radiation (b) Wave nature of particle
(c) Dual nature of matter (d) Particle nature of radiation
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b)
MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (a) MCQ # 7: (d) MCQ # 8: (d)
PAIR PRODUCTION
PAIR PRODUCTION (Definition)
When a high energy -ray photon passes through the vicinity of the
heavy nucleus, the energy of the photon is converted into an electron-
positron pair. This process is called pair production.
BASIC CONDITION FOR PAIR PRODUCTION
The creation of two particles with equal and opposite charges is
essential for charge conservation in the universe. The interaction
usually takes place in the electric field in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus

so that there is a particle to take up recoil energy and momentum is conserved.

In this process, radiant energy is converted into matter in accordance with Einstein's equation
, and hence, is also known as materialization of energy. For an electron or positron, the rest mass
energy . Thus to create the two particles or energy is
required. For photons of energy greater than , the probability of pair production occurrence
increases as the energy increases and the surplus energy is carried off by the two particles in the form of
kinetic energy. The process can be represented by the equation
* + [ ]
POSITRON (Definition)
A positron is a particle having mass and charge equal to that of electron but the charge being of opposite
nature i.e. positive. The positron is also known as antiparticle of electron or anti-electron.
Exercise Short Questions Related to the Article “PAIR PRODUCTION”
Exercise Short Q # 19. Can pair production takes place in vacuum? Explain.
Ans. No, pair production can’t take place in vacuum. Because, in vacuum, there is no heavy nucleus present.
Pair production always takes place in the presence of a heavy nucleus.
Exercise Short Q # 20. Is it possible to create a single electron from energy? Explain.
Ans. No it is not possible to create a single electron from energy. The creation of single electron from
energy is violation of law of conservation of charge. Whenever pair production takes place, the electrons
and positrons are created at the same time.
MCQs Related to the Article “PAIR PRODUCTION”
1. Photon with energy greater than 1.02 MeV can interact with matter as
(a) Photoelectric effect (b) Compton effect (c) Pair production (d) Pair annihilation
2. The minimum energy needed for a photon to create an electron-positron pair is
(a) 1.02 KeV (b) 0.51 KeV (c) 0.51 MeV (d) 1.02 MeV
3. The rest mass energy of an electron in MeV is equal to
(a) 0.511 (b) 0.611 (c) 0.902 (d) 1.02
4. The anti-particle of electron is
(a) Proton (b) Position (c) Meson (d) Neutron
5. The energy of each positron is given by:
(a) 1.2 MeV (b) 1.02 MeV (c) 0.51 MeV (d) 5.1 MeV
6. The rest mass energy of and electron-positron pair is:
(a) 1.2 MeV (b) 1.02 MeV (c) 0.51 MeV (d) 5.1 MeV
7. Pair production is also called:
(a) Pair annihilation (b) Materialization of energy
(c) Fusion Reaction (d) Fission Reaction
8. The condition refers to:
(a) Compton effect (b) Pair Production
(c) Photoelectric effect (d) Annihilation of matter
MCQ # 1: (c) MCQ # 2: (d) MCQ # 3: (a) MCQ # 4: (b)
MCQ # 5: (c) MCQ # 6: (b) MCQ # 7: (b) MCQ # 8: (b)

Numerical Related to “19.5 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER”

19.3 Find the energy of photon in
a) Radiowave of wavelength 100 m
b) Green light of wavelength 550 nm
c) X-ray with wavelength 0.2 nm
Given Data: (a) Wavelength of Radiowave ,
(b) Wavelength of Green Light ,
(c) Wavelength of X-ray
To Determine: (a) Energy of Radiowave , (b) Energy of Green Light , (c) Energy of X-ray
Calculations:
(a) Energy of Radiowave
(b) Energy of Green Light
(c) Energy of X-ray
19.4 Yellow light of 577 nm wavelength is incident on a cesium surface. The stopping voltage is
found to be 0.25 V. Find
a) the Maximum K. E. of the photoelectrons
b) the work function of cesium
Given Data: Wavelength of Yellow Light , Stopping Potential
To Determine: (a) Maximum K. E. , (b) Work Function
Calculations: (a) Maximum K. E.
(b) By Quantum Theory of Photoelectric Effect
19.5 X-rays of wavelength 22 pm are scattered from a carbon target. The scattered radiation being
viewed at 85° to the incident beam. What is Compton shift?
Given Data: Wavelength , Scattering Angle
To Determine: Compton Shift
Calculations:
19.6 A 90 keV X-ray photon is fired at a carbon target and Compton scattering occurs. Find the
wavelength of the incident photon and the wavelength of the scattered photon for scattering angle
of (a) 30° (b) 60°
Given Data: Energy of Photon
To Determine: (a) Wavelength of Incident Photon ,
(b) Wavelength of Scattered Photon at : , (c) Wavelength of Scattered Photon at :
Calculations: (a) As
(b)
(c)

Article “19.5 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER” in PAST PAPERS

1. Write some important uses of photocell.
2. Why don’t we observe Compton Effect with visible light?
3. Photoelectric effect gives the evidence of the particle nature of light. Explain it how.
4. What do you understand by work function and stopping potential?
5. What are the conclusions made from pair production?
6. Define Compton effect. Write formula of Compton shift for scattering angle.
7. Define stopping potential and threshold frequency.
8. Define pair production.
9. What is the basic condition for pair production to occur?
1. Define photoelectric effect. Give its explanation on the basis of Quantum theory.
2. Define Compton Effect. Write down the expression for Compton shift. Draw its scattering diagram
and label it.
19.6 ANNIHILATION OF MATTER
PAIR ANNIHILATION (Definition)
It is converse of pair production. When a positron comes close to an
electron they annihilate or destroy each other. The matter of two particles
changes into electromagnetic energy producing two photons in the
range.
The two photons are produced travelling in opposite directions so

that momentum is conserved. Each photon has energy 0.51 MeV equivalent
to rest mass energy of a particle.
Numerical Related to “19.6 ANNIHILATION OF MATTER”
19.7 What is the maximum wavelength of the two photons produced when a positron annihilates an
electron? The rest mass energy of each is 0.51 MeV.
Given Data: Energy
To Determine: Wavelength
Calculations: As
MCQs Related to the Article “19.6 ANNIHILATION OF MATTER”

1. When an electron combines with a positron, we get
(a) One photon (b) Two photons (c) Three photons (d) Four photons
2. Electron is an antiparticle of
(a) Proton (b) Photon (c) Positron (d) Deuteron
3. A positron is a particle having
(a) Mass equal to electron (b) Charge equal to electron
(c) Equal mass but opposite charge to electron (d) Mass equal to proton
4. The reverse process of pair-production is
(a) Annihilation (b) Materialization (c) Fission (d) Fusion
5. Neutron was discovered in 1932 by
(a) Bohr (b) Chadwick (c) Dirac (d) Fermi
MCQ # 1: (b) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (c) MCQ # 4: (a) MCQ # 5: (b)
Article “19.6 ANNIHILATION OF MATTER” in PAST PAPERS

1. Define pair production and annihilation of matter

19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLE

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
A wave is associated with every moving particle whose wavelength can be find out by expression:
where h is Plank’s constant, m is mass of the object moving with velocity v.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER IS PROMINENT FOR MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS
An object of large mass and ordinary speed has such a small wavelength that its wave effects such as
interference and diffraction are negligible. For example, a rifle bullet of mass 20 g and flying with speed 330
ms-1 will have a wavelength given by:
This wavelength is so small that it is not measurable or detectable by any of its effects.
On the other hand for an electron moving with a speed of , the de Broglie wavelength will be:
This wavelength is in the X-rays range. Thus, diffraction effects for electrons are measurable whereas
diffraction or interference effects for bullets are not.
DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
A convincing evidence of the wave nature of electrons was provided by Davisson and Germer. They showed
that electrons are diffracted from metal crystals in exactly the same manner as X-rays or any other wave.
The apparatus used by them is shown in Fig., in which
electrons from heated filament are accelerated by an
adjustable applied voltage V. The electron beam of energy Ve
is made incident on a nickel crystal. The beam diffracted from
crystal surface enters a detector and is recorded as a current I.
The gain in K. E. of the electron as it is accelerated by a
potential V in the electron gun is given by
√
From de Broglie equation:
√
In one of the experiments, the accelerating voltage V was 54 volts, hence
This beam of electrons diffracted from crystal surface was obtained for a glancing angle of 65°. According to
Bragg's equation
For 1st order diffraction and for nickel , Bragg’s law takes the form:

which gives
Thus, experimentally observed wavelength is in excellent agreement with theoretically predicted
wavelength. Diffraction patterns have also been observed with protons. neutrons, hydrogen atoms and
helium atoms thereby giving substantial evidence for the wave nature of particles.
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
 Interference and diffraction of light confirm its wave nature, while photoelectric effect proves the
particle nature of light.
 Similarly, the experiments of Davisson and Germer and G. P. Thomson reveal wave like nature of
electrons and in the experiment of J. J. Thomson to find e/m we had to assume particle like nature
of the electron.
Therefore, both matter and radiation have a dual ‘wave-particle' nature and this new concept is known as
wave-particle duality.
Niels Bohr pointed out in stating his principle of complementarity that both wave and particle
aspects are required for the complete description of both radiation and matter. Both aspects are always
present and either may be revealed by an experiment. However, both aspects cannot be revealed
simultaneously in a single experiment, which aspect is revealed is determined by the nature of the
experiment being done
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
The fact that energetic particles have extremely short de Broglie wavelengths has been put to
practical use in many ultra-modern devices of immense importance such as electron microscope.
Electron microscope makes practical use of the wave nature of electrons which is thousands of time
shorter than visible light which enables the electron microscope to
distinguish details not visible with optical microscope.
 In an electron microscope, electric and magnetic fields
rather than optical lenses are used to focus electrons by
means of electromagnetic forces that are exerted on moving
charges. The resulting deflections of the electrons beams are
similar to the refraction effects produced by glass lenses
used to focus light in optical microscope.
 The electrons are accelerated to high energies by applying
voltage from 30 kV to several megavolts. Such high voltages
give extremely short wavelength and also give the electron
sufficient energy to penetrate specimen of reasonable
thickness. A resolution of 0.5 to l nm is possible with a 50 kV
microscope as compared to best optical resolution of 0.2 µm.
A schematic diagram of the electron microscope is shown in

the Figure. The magnetic conducting lens concentrates the beam
from an electron gun on to the specimen. Electrons are scattered out
of the beam from the thicker parts of the specimen. The transmitted
beam therefore has spatial differences in density that correspond to
the features of the specimen. A three dimensional image of
remarkable quality can be achieved by modern versions called
scanning electron microscopes.

Exercise Short Questions Related to “19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLE”

Exercise Short Q # 21. If electrons behaved only light particles, what pattern would you expect on
the screen after the electron passing through double slit?
Ans. If electron behave only like particles then, after passing through the double slit, only those parts of the
screen are affected which are in front of the slits.
Exercise Short Q # 22. If an electron and proton have the same de Broglie wavelength, which
particle have greater speed?
Ans. The de Broglie wavelength associated with moving particle is given by expression:
As the wavelength is same for both electron and proton beam, therefore:
As mass of electron is smaller then proton, so electron has greater speed.

Exercise Short Q # 23. We don’t notice the de Broglie wavelength for a pitched cricket. Explain.
Why?
Due to large mass and small speed, the wavelength associated with moving cricket ball is very small. As the
diffraction produced by the ball is also very small. So it is impossible to measure de Broglie wavelength for
a pitched cricket ball.
Exercise Short Q # 24. If the following particles all have the same energy, which has the shortest
wavelengths? Electrons, particle, neutron, proton.
√ √
For same energy of beam of particles, wehave:
√
Thus the massive particle has shorter wavelength. As mass of alpha particle is greater, so it has the
shorter wavelength.
Exercise Short Q # 25. When does light behave as a wave? When does it behave as a particle?
Ans. Light behaves as wave in the phenomenon of:
(i) Interference, (ii) Diffraction & (iii) Polarization
Light behaves as particle in
(i) Photo electric effect, (ii) Compton effect & (iii) Pair production
Exercise Short Q # 26. What advantage an electron microscope has over an optical microscope?
Ans. The resolving power of electron microscope is thousand times greater then an Optical microscope.
The internal structure of an object can also be obtained by electron microscope which is not possible with
optical microscope.

Numerical Related to “19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLE”

19.8 Calculate the wavelength of
a) a 140 g ball moving at
b) a proton moving at the same speed
c) an electron moving at the same speed
Given Data: Speed (a) Mass of Ball ,
(b) Mass of Proton , (c) Mass of Electron
To Determine: (a) Wavelength associated with Ball ,
(b) Wavelength associated with Proton , (c) Wavelength associated with Electron
Calculations: (a)
(b)
(c)
19.9 What is the de Broglie wavelength of an electron whose kinetic energy is 120 eV?
Given Data: , Mass
To Determine: De Broglie Wavelength
Calculations: As De Broglie Wavelength
As √
Putting values in (1):
MCQs Related to the Article “19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES”

1. Who gave the idea of matter wave?
(a) De-Broglie (b) Planck (c) Einstein (d) Huygen
2. Wavelength associated with the particle with the particle of mass m and moving with velocity
v is:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3. Davisson and Germer indicates _____________ in their experiment
(a) Electron refraction (b) Electron polarization
(c) Electron reflection (d) Electron diffraction
4. In Davison – Germer experiment, the diffracted electron from crystal shows ____________
(a) Particle property (b) Wave property (c) Light property (d) Quantum property
5. In electron microscope, electric and magnetic field are used as _______
(a) Electromagnetic gun (b) Source of electromagnetic waves
(c) Deflected charged particle (d) Converging source of electrons
6. _____________ has the largest de Broglie wavelength at same speed.
(a) Proton (b) particle (c) Neutron (d) Electron
MCQ # 1: (a) MCQ # 2: (c) MCQ # 3: (d) MCQ # 4: (b) MCQ # 5: (d) MCQ # 6: (d)
Article “19.7 WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLE” in PAST PAPERS

1. If and , then prove that
√
2. What is wave particle duality? Give one practical use?
1. Describe deBroglie’s hypothesis and explain its confirmation through Davisson and Germer
experiment.
2. State deBroglie hypothesis, give its formula. Also explain an electron microscope.

19.8 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Position and momentum of a particle cannot both be measured simultaneously with perfect
accuracy. There is always a fundamental uncertainty associated with any measurement. This uncertainty is
not associated with the measuring instrument. It is a consequence of the wave particle duality of matter
and radiation.
This was first proposed by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 and hence is known as Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle. This fundamental uncertainty is completely negligible for measurements of position
and momentum of macroscopic objects but is a predominant fact of life in the atomic domain.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Consider a photon of light strike an electron. Such interaction will drastically alters electron’s
motion. Due to wave nature of photon, we would expect to be able to determine the position of the electron
only to within one wavelength of the light being used.
Hence, in order to observe the position of an electron with less uncertainty and also for minimizing
diffraction effect, we must use light of short wavelength. But it will alter the motion drastically making
momentum measurement less precise. If light of wavelength it is used to locate a micro particle moving
along x-axis, the uncertainty in its position measurement is
At most, the photon of light can transfer all its momentum to the electron whose own momentum will
then be uncertain by an amount
Multiplying these two uncertainties gives
( )
The equation is the mathematical form of uncertainty principle. It states that the product of the uncertainty
in the position of a particle at some instant and the uncertainty in the x-component of its momentum
at the same instant approximately equals Planck's constant h.
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR ENERGY AND TIME
If the is the uncertainty in our knowledge of the energy of our particle and if the time
interval during which the particle had the energy is , then
The more accurately we determined the energy of a particle, the more uncertain we will be of the time
during which it has that energy.
NOTE:
According to Heisenberg's more careful calculations, he found that at the very best
i.
ii.
Where

Exercise Short Question Related to “19.8 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE”

Exercise Short Q # 27. If measurement shows a precise position for an electron, can those
measurements show precise momentum also? Explain.
Ans. According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it is impossible that measure both position and
momentum precisely at the same time. Mathematically:
Thus if one measurement is precise, then the other is uncertain.

MCQs Related to the Article “19.8 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE”
The uncertainty in momentum and position is due to its ___________
(a) Emotion of certain wave length (b) Two dimensional motions
(c) Property of matter and radiation (d) Very high velocity
MCQ # 1: (c)
Article “19.8 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE” in PAST PAPERS

1. State the uncertainty principle. Give its two mathematical form.
1. What is uncertainty principle? Explain it.

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Chapter 12 (2nd Year Physics) Electrostatics

Chapter # 12: ELECTROSTATICS

Charges of the same signs repel each other and charges

Multiple Choice Questions Related to “ELECTRIC CHARGE”

12.1 COULOMB’S LAW

where is the constant of proportionality and is expressed as

where is the permittivity of free space and its value in SI unit is

VECTOR FORM OF COULOMB'S LAW

Here ̂ is the unit vector directed from ‘ ’ to ‘ ’.

COULOMB FORCE IS A MUTUAL FORCE

Proof: If ̂ represents the direction of force from charge ‘ ’

As ̂ ̂ , so the eq. (1) becomes

This expression shows that Coulomb force is a mutual force.

EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM ON ELECTRICAL FORCE BETWEEN TWO POINT CHARGES

Given Data: Masses , Charges ,

Given Data: Charges , ,

Calculations: From Fig. ( )

Force Exerted by Charge on :

Force Exerted by Charge on :

Magnitude of Resultant Force √ √

Direction of Resultant Force ( ) (Resultant is along x-axis)

Calculate the force on .

Given Data: First Charge , Second Charge

Distance between charges | | √ √ √

MCQs Related to the Article “12.1 COULOMB’S LAW”

ARTICLE “12.1 COULOMB’S LAW” IN PAST PAPERS

12.2 FIELDS OF FORCES

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO POINT CHARGE (Derivation of Expression)

Putting value of ‘ ’ in eq. (1), we get

This is the expression of electric field intensity due to a point charge.

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS RELATED TO “12.2 ELECTRIC FIELD”

NUMERICALS RELATED TO “12.2 ELECTRIC FIELD”

To Determine: Electric Field

12.5 Two point charges, and , are separated by a distance of 3.0

So the correct answer is

Example 12.2: Two positive point charges and

Which gives . Here is not possible.

MCQs Related to the Article “12.2 FIELDS OF FORCE”

ARTICLE “12.2 FIELDS OF FORCES” IN PAST PAPERS

1. Define electric intensity and give its units.

12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

EXERCISE SHORT QUESTIONS RELATED TO “12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES”

5. Electric field lines can never

ARTICLE “12.3 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES” IN PAST PAPERS

ARTICLE “12.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS” IN PAST PAPERS

12.5 ELECTRIC FLUX

where ⃗ is the Electric Field Intensity and ⃗ is Vector Area

ARTICLE “12.5 ELECTRIC FLUX” IN PAST PAPERS

Short Questions (2 Marks)

1. Define electric flux. Write its SI units.

12.6 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE ENCLOSING CHARGE

to the area elements ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ are ⃗ ,⃗ ,………. ⃗

respectively. Total flux passing through a closed surface of sphere is

The direction of electric field intensity and the vector area is

Equation (1) will become

This is expression of electric flux through a surface enclosing charge

2. Electric flux through a close surface does not depend upon:

12.7 GAUSS’S LAW

charge enclosed in it. Mathematically, it is described as:

Total flux passing through the closed surface is

MCQs RELATED TO THE ARTICLE “12.7 GAUSS’S LAW”

ARTILE 12.7 GAUSS’S LAW IN PAST PAPERS