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Cocoa Processing and Impact on Composition

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 C H A P T E R
73
Cocoa Processing and Impact on Composition
Jasminka Giacometti*, Slavica Mazor Jolić†, Djuro Josić *, ‡
*University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia, †Kraš,d.d., Zagreb, Croatia, ‡Brown University, Rhode Island, USA
CHAPTER POINTS
• F  ermentation, drying, roasting, and alkalization
are the main processes in the cocoa chain where
bioactive substances can be lost.
• Standardization of farming practices is important
for quality and high bioactive compounds
content of cocoa products.
• Appropriate starter cultures are useful for
controlled cocoa bean fermentation processes.
• Presence of fungi in cocoa is undesirable and
often related to the formation of off-flavors,
spoilage, and accumulation of mycotoxins.
• ‘Omics’ methods are a new challenge in the
development of traceability and authenticity,
quality, and safety methods.
INTRODUCTION
Cocoa is an important crop around the world: it is
an important cash crop for growing countries, as well
as an important branch of the food industry for process-
ing and consuming countries (Table 73.1) (Cocoa Market
Update, 2012).
Most of the cocoa beans produced worldwide are
produced by small-sized farms. Fragmentation of farms
often causes the heterogeneity of batches of cocoa beans
(Saltini et al., 2013). The expectations of chocolate man-
ufacturers directed on the qualitative parameters by
country origin aim at having uniform and constant raw
materials to produce chocolate.
Quality and flavor of cocoa products strongly depend
on the various stages of cocoa processing (Saltini et al.,
2013). These processes begin very early with cocoa farm-
ing, storage, fermentation, drying, and packing the
cocoa beans and continue with the manufacturing of
chocolate (Figure 73.1). In recent years, interest in the
Processing and Impact on Active Components in Food
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-404699-3.00073-1 Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
implementation of traceability and authenticity of foods
has increased as a result of a growing concern with food
quality and food safety (van der Vorst, 2005), leading
to the introduction of legislations in some parts of the
world, such as the European Union. However, cocoa
beans are produced in non-European countries and EU
regulations do not apply to the participants at the begin-
ning of the cocoa supply chain.
Cocoa and its derived products (cocoa powder, cocoa
liquor, and chocolate) are a very rich source of bioactive
components such as polyphenols (Wollgast and Anklam,
2000; Figure 73.2). The main groups of cocoa polyphenols
are catechins (37%), anthocyanins (4%), and proantocyani-
dins (58%) (Hii et al., 2009). The amounts of polyphenols
vary due to the type of cultivar and the country of origin, as
well as production processes of cocoa bean and chocolate
manufacturing processes (Cooper et al., 2007; Table 73.2).
Flavor compounds and flavor precursors like free
amino acids and reducing sugars are formed during fer-
mentation. The amount of these compounds is a confirma-
tion of the well-fermented process and is responsible for
the flavor profile of the finished chocolate (Afoakwa et al.,
2008; Lefeber et al., 2012). During the roasting process, due
to the Maillard reaction, flavor precursors are transformed
into flavor compounds (Jumnongpon et al., 2012).
The impact of cocoa processing on polyphenol com-
position and suitable flavors and/or flavor precursors of
cocoa beans and chocolate is discussed in this chapter.
Furthermore, our review also highlights the direction of
current and future investigations related to the impact of
processing cocoa bioactive compounds.
BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS IN COCOA
CULTIVARS
In recent years numerous studies have focused on
cocoa polyphenols, especially flavonoids, as potent anti-
oxidants for human health. Therefore, the important
605
606 73.  COCOA PROCESSING AND IMPACT ON COMPOSITION

TABLE 73.1  Worldwide Cocoa Market

Cocoa Bean Producers

Production of
cocoa beans
(103 tonnes) 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012

Africa 2428 (68.%) 3076 (73.3%) 2801 (70.3%)

Cameroon 205 230 220

Cote d’Ivoire 1184 1668 1400

Ghana 740 860 870

Nigeria 230 240 230

Other Africa 69 78 81

Asia and Oceania 642 (18%) 563 (13.4%) 623 (15.6%)

Indonesia 530 450 500

Malaysia 20 18 18

Other Asia 92 95 105

Latin America 499 (14%) 558 (13.3%) 563 (14.1%)

FIGURE 73.1  Flowchart of cocoa bean production and manufac-
Brazil 159 197 185 turing processes.

Ecuador 150 160 170

Other 189 201 208

topics in cocoa research are directed at the processing
of cocoa beans, manufacturing processes of cacao prod-
World Total 3569 4197 3987 ucts, and analytical technologies for the determination of
Cocoa Bean Processors cocoa polyphenols. Some studies on cocoa polyphenols
Grindings of
were also related to biochemical changes during the pro-
cocoa beans cessing and obtaining of the characteristic cocoa flavor
(103 tonnes) 2009–2010 2010–2011 2011–2012 (Rodriguez-Campos et al., 2011; Zahouli et al., 2010).
Europe 1492 (41.2%) 1595 (41.7%) 1554 (39.1%)

Germany 361 439 421 Cultivars

Netherlands 500 525 490 The cocoa tree belongs to the species Theobroma cacao.
Other 631 631 643 Different subspecies can be classified within four
cultivars: Criollo, Forastero, Trinitario, and Nacio-
Americas 801 (22.1%) 839 (22.0%) 865 (21.8%)
nal (Counet et al., 2004). The Criollo cultivar has
Brazil 223 236 243 a high level of procyanidins (Counet et al., 2004;
United States 380 390 400 Elwers et al., 2009). Criollo beans also have a high
level of flavor precursors, reducing sugars and amino
Other 198 213 222
acids that can result in a very high level of pyr-
Asia and Oceania 689 (19%) 770 (20.1%) 897 (22.6%) azines. Other aromatics are formed during the roast-
Indonesia 120 170 270 ing process in reactions between reducing sugars
and amino acids (Misnawi et al., 2004a; Elwers et al.,
Malaysia 298 305 312
2009). Compared to Criollo, the chocolate produced
Other 271 295 315 with Forastero and Trinitario beans showed lower
Africa 642 (17.7%) 618 (16.2%) 657 (16.5%) procyanidins levels (Counet et al., 2004) and similar
amount of pyrazines, while Trinitario showed strong
Cote d’Ivoire 390 340 380
basic chocolate characters as well as some typical
Ghana 200 220 222 winery type of aroma that distinguishes this cultivar
Others 52 58 55 from the other varieties (Counet et al., 2004). Unlike
the others, the Nacional cultivar is known to have a
World Total 3624 3822 3973
very low concentration of reducing sugars after fer-
Source: ICCO; Reuters; LMC Report, February 2012. mentation (Elwers et al., 2009) and also, low levels

8. BEVERAGES
 Bioactive Components in Cocoa Cultivars
of pyrazines found after roasting (Jinap et al., 2004;
Misnawi et al., 2004).
Factors Affecting the Quantity and Quality of
Polyphenols in Cocoa Beans
A number of spontaneous enzymatic ­ reactions
occurred during fermentation of cocoa beans.
­Fermentation and drying are two very important steps
involved in the production of cocoa beans. The amounts
and composition of amino acids change during the
­fermentation process, as well as reducing sugars such as
glucose and fructose, polyphenols, and the pH profile.
The presence of yeast, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and ace-
tic acid bacteria (AAB) during the fermentation process
positively affect the concentration of polyphenols and
development of flavor precursors, while aerobic spores
and moulds have a negative effect.
8. BEVERAGES
607
FIGURE 73.2  Structures of the cat-
echin/epicatechin enantiomers, procy-
anidin B2 and procyanidins C1.
Inadequate procedures during fermentation and dry-
ing processes can significantly reduce polyphenols and
allow the development of undesirable off-flavors.
Fermentation
FERMENTATION METHOD
Different fermentation methods are used for ferment-
ing cocoa beans depending on farmers, (Guehi et al.,
2010) areas, and countries (Camu et al., 2008; Schwan,
1998). Platforms, heaps, baskets, and boxes are the most
used fermentation methods. The platform method has a
quite low fermentation rate, adequate for Criollo beans
which require short fermentation, but inappropriate for
Forastero which requires longer fermentation. This lon-
ger fermentation often induces the growth of unwanted
molds and consequently off-flavors (Guehi et al., 2010;
Schwan and Wheals, 2004).
608 73.  COCOA PROCESSING AND IMPACT ON COMPOSITION

TABLE 73.2  Polyphenols and Total Antioxidant Capacities of Cocoa and Chocolate Products
Total Flavanols and ORAC (μmol
Product Catechins (mg/g) Procyanidins (mg/g) Flavonols (mg/g) Total Polyphenols* (mg/g) of TE/g)#

Milk chocolate 0.23–0.32 2.16–3.14 3.25–5.38 68–86

(Gu et al., 2006) (Gu et al., 2006) (Miller et al., 2008) (Gu et al., 2006)
0.43–0.90
(Miller et al., 2008)

Dark chocolate 0.77–1.58 8.52–19.85 11.73–14.88 211–349

(Gu et al., 2006) (Gu et al., 2006) (Miller et al., 2008) (Gu et al., 2006)
2.78–4.10
(Miller et al., 2008)

Natural powder 2.90–3.48 32.19–48.70 2.11–3.06 871–899

(Gu et al., 2006) (Gu et al., 2006) (Andres–Lacueva (Gu et al., 2006)
et al., 2008)

Alkalized cocoa 0.41–0.73 7.02–10.82 0.85–1.15 397–406

powder (Dutched (Gu et al., 2006) (Gu et al., 2006) (Andres-Lacueva (Gu et al., 2006)
powder) et al., 2008)

Cocoa powder 19.28–23.71 45.30–60.20

(Miller et al., 2008) (Miller et al., 2008)

Chocolate syrup 0.37–0.91 3.66–4.79

(Miller et al., 2008) (Miller et al., 2008)

*Results expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) on a dry weight basis.

#Data expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalents per gram (μmol of TE/g).

The fermentation in boxes shows a relatively low
concentration of sugars, ethanol, and acetic acid, as
well as a high pH. Given the heterogeneity in the size
of the cocoa beans, as well as the construction material
of the boxes, this method of fermentation significantly
affects the pH value, tannins and sugar content, and the
presence of purple beans (Wallace and Giusti, 2011). In
contrast to the box method of fermentation, the tempera-
ture increases faster at the beginning of the process in
the heap method (Guehi et al., 2010). It is considered to
be the reason for a smaller number of matching purple
beans (Guehi et al., 2010).
MICROBIAL ACTIVITY
The role of microbiology in the cocoa bean fermen-
tation is described by Schwan and Wheals (2004). The
changes in pH values during fermentation are very
important for microbial activity. Briefly, the initial low
pH of the pulp (3.6), presence of citric acid, and low oxy-
gen levels favor yeast colonization which leads to ethanol
production and secretion of pectolytic enzymes within
the first 24 h, after which the process slowly decreases.
The resulting conditions are favorable to the growth of
LAB, which reach their peak after around 36 h from the
beginning of fermentation, when glucose is degraded to
lactic acid. LAB population decreases and AAB increases
in the next period of fermentation. In these conditions,
the temperature increases up to about 50°C. It is assumed
that the condition induced by AAB causes the diffusion
and hydrolysis of proteins, and AAB probably plays a
key role in the formation of flavor precursors. After
decreasing AAB (5–6 days), aerobic spores and fungi
occur. Then, the period that adversely affects the quality
and content of polyphenols and flavors begins (Afoakwa
et al., 2012; Camu et al., 2008; Counet et al., 2004).
ENZYMES
The enzymes endoproteinase and also other enzymes
such as carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, invertase,
polyphenol oxidase (PPO), or glycosidases break down
the cell wall proteins into peptides of different chain
length and free amino acids (de Brito et al, 2004; Misnawi
et al., 2003).
Unfermented cocoa beans contain a very low amount
of free amino acids (Misnawi et al., 2002). Low pH at the
beginning of fermentation favors proteolysis and the lib-
eration of free amino acids, while too low pH reduces
the flavor precursors and leads to over-acidification of
the final product (Camu et al., 2008). To know the con-
tent and composition of the released amino acids is
extremely important for predicting the synthesis of aro-
matic compounds in the later stages of the production of
chocolate. Low amounts of d-amino acids were detected
in fermented cocoa beans (Brückner et al., 1993). Taking
into account that the bacteria are important sources of
d-amino acids in fermented foodstuffs (Brückner et al.,
1993), it seems that bacteria do not penetrate the cocoa
beans during the microbial fermentation of the pulp. The
hydrophobic amino acids such as leucine (Leu), alanine
(Ala), phenylalanine (Phe), valine (Val), isoleucine (Ile),

8. BEVERAGES
 Bioactive Components in Cocoa Cultivars
and tyrosine (Tyr) were found in the highest amount in
free amino acids profile during fermentation (Rohsius
et al., 2006). Finally, knowledge of the content and com-
position of total and free amino acids can give useful
information of the flavor potential of cocoa beans and
thus on the final cocoa products.
The optimal concentration of reducing sugars in cocoa
beans as well as the optimal concentration of free amino
acids is found after 4–5 days of the fermentation pro-
cess (Saltini et al., 2013). Rodriguez-Campos et al. (2012)
found that the optimal conditions for the fermentation
and drying of cocoa beans were 6 days of the beginning
of fermentation, followed by drying at 70°C.
During fermentation and drying, polyphenols diffuse
from their storage cells and oxidize to become condensed
high molecular compounds, mostly insoluble tannins.
PPO is involved in the catalysis of these processes
(Rohsius et al., 2006). Its activity is strongly reduced
during the first day of fermentation. The epicatechin
as the major cocoa phenolic compound is then reduced
10–20%, and at the same time the enzymatic activity of
PPO is strongly decreased from 50% to 6% (Wollgast and
Anklam, 2000). The decreased activity in PPO is related
to the significantly low level of polyphenols. It is believed
that the non-enzymatic oxidation of polyphenols causes
inactivation of PPO (Wollgast and Anklam, 2000). The
consequence of the oxidation of polyphenols is also the
production of black, brown and red pigments of cocoa
beans (de Brito et al., 2002). These results lead to a better
understanding of the fermentation process that is aimed
at the alteration of biologically active components such
as polyphenols and flavor compounds.
Polyphenols are involved in the flavor profile of cocoa
products, giving astringency and bitterness, and increas-
ing antioxidative capacity. Raw cocoa beans contain
a higher content of phenolics than those processed. In
unfermented cocoa, 60% of total phenolics were flavanol
monomers and procyanidin oligomers (Tomas-Barberan
et al., 2007). The epicatechin content was observed to
decrease between days two and three during fermenta-
tion, which could indicate a loss of fluids or formation of
large tannins (Afoakwa et al., 2012). The brown color of
cocoa beans is related to the production of tannins dur-
ing the optimal fermentation.
Drying
Drying of cocoa beans is the final farming process,
which uses heating and reduces the moisture content of
the beans to less than 7.5% (w/w) (Zahouli et al., 2010).
Many investigations have been carried out to find the
optimal drying methods. Therefore, the drying condi-
tions, temperature and duration of drying, drying rate,
and grade were studied.
Drying continues during the process of oxidation that
follows after the fermentation process and therefore plays
8. BEVERAGES
609
an important role in the composition of p ­ olyphenols
(Payne et al., 2010; Wollgast and Anklam, 2000).
PPO is also sensitive to sun drying, reducing its enzy-
matic activity about 2% (Wollgast and Anklam, 2000). The
increased temperature during the drying process is also
an important factor in the loss of polyphenols. Epicate-
chin decreased approximately 50% in unfermented beans
after 2 days of sun drying (Wollgast and Anklam, 2000).
Too fast drying affects the excessive production of
acids, including acetic acid, which is deleterious to the
flavor, while too slow drying results in lower pH, the
absence of the optimal color of cocoa beans and increased
growth of molds (Zahouli et al., 2010; Rodriguez-Campos
et al., 2012; Hurst et al., 2011). The quality of cocoa beans
drying depends on the use of conventional hot air dry-
ers and sun drying (Hii et al, 2011). Natural sun drying is
still widely used, especially in West Africa. Step-up-dried
samples showed the best flavor profile with a high level of
cocoa flavor, low in sourness and not excessive in bitterness
and astringency (Hii et al., 2011).
Factors that Affect the Quantity and Quality of
Polyphenols in Chocolate Production
Chocolate characteristics originate not only in f­lavor
precursors present in cocoa beans, but are generated
during post-harvest treatments and transformed into
­
desirable odor notes in the manufacturing process as
well. Complex biochemical modifications of bean constit-
uents are further altered by thermal reactions in r­ oasting
and conching, and in alkalization (Afoakwa et al., 2008).
Alkalization and roasting are two processes that contrib-
ute to the flavor and color of the semi-­finished products
(excluding cocoa butter).
Roasting
Roasting of the fermented cocoa beans is carried out
due to mainly two purposes: the removal of undesired
compounds with low boiling points, such as acetic acid,
and the formation of the typical roasty, sweet odorants of
cocoa (Oliviero et al., 2009). The cocoa roasting process is
carried out at high temperatures (120–150°C). However,
the synthesis of flavor precursors, such as free amino
acids and reducing sugars, occur before the roasting
process by enzymatic reaction (proteolysis and hydro-
lysis) during the fermentation process. Non-enzymatic
browning, known as Maillard reaction, is involved in
numerous reactions including the formation of brown
pigments and synthesis of pyrazines. The concentration
of pyrazines increases rapidly during the roasting pro-
cess until reaching a maximum value, after which these
constant values are maintained.
Misnawi et al. (2004a) studied sensory properties of
cocoa liquor as affected by the polyphenol concentra-
tion and duration of roasting. They found that cocoa
610 73.  COCOA PROCESSING AND IMPACT ON COMPOSITION
polyphenols had a negative effect on flavor properties. A
lower concentration of amino acids and reducing sugars
was related to a higher polyphenol concentration and
lower pH value (Noor-Soffalina et al., 2009).
The Criollo cultivar has higher pyrazines than those
of Forastero (Elwers et al., 2009). On the other hand,
Forastero roasted cocoa beans have three times higher
amount of pyrazines than Criollo (Counet et al., 2004).
During roasting, amino acids and sugars are reduced
(amino acids between 24–72%, sugars between 47–60%)
and vary depending on the cultivar, type of fermentation
method, temperature, and dynamics of roasting (Misnawi
et al., 2004b). Unlike sugars, where the concentration con-
tinuously decreases until all the sugar is decomposed,
the content of amino acids decreased in the first 30 min-
utes after the beginning of the process. This decrease in
the concentration of amino acids depends on the roast-
ing temperature, where higher temperature favors pyr-
azine synthesis (Misnawi et al., 2004b).
By the action of proteases and PPO during fermen-
tation, additional brown products are formed from
­quinones and free amino acids. Activity of these enzymes
is strongly correlated with amount of water and tem-
perature during roasting, thus reducing bitterness and
astringency of cocoa products (Misnawi et al., 2004a).
Cocoa polyphenols are thermally labile to some
degree; however, the exact stability of epicatechin in
chocolate will likely depend on stabilizing interactions
with other components of the cocoa nib. G ­ enerally,
high processing temperatures and /or longer process-
ing times reduce the amount of ­polyphenols available
in cocoa beans (Hurst et al., 2011). Those degradations
are known to be related to enzymatic and nonenzy-
matic oxidations that occur during these manufactur-
ing processes (Tomas-Barberán et al., 2007). Recently,
Payne et al. (2010) found that when cacao beans were
roasted to 120°C, the catechin level in beans increased
696% in unfermented beans, 650% in Ivory Coast
beans, and 640% in Papua New Guinea fermented
beans compared to the same unroasted beans. These
results suggest that roasting in excess of 70°C gen-
erates significant amounts of (−)-catechin (Payne
et al., 2010). (−)-Catechin is generally formed during
the manufacturing process by epimerization which
converts (−)-epicatechin into its epimer (−)-catechin
(Hurst et al., 2011). The manufacturing process could
equally reduce the amount of (−)-epicatechin as com-
pared to procyanidins B2, B5, C1, and D. Epicatechin
concentrations can be used to predict the content of
other polyphenols, especially B2 and C1, and total
polyphenols content. Finally, the (−)-catechin content
is not predictable from the epicatechin content, and
it is the main form of polyphenol that varies accord-
ing to manufacturing conditions and cocoa origin
(Cooper et al., 2007).
8. BEVERAGES
Conching is typically applied with gentle grinding to
improve the flavor characteristics and reduce the con-
centration of free acids and other volatile by-products
from the cocoa bean (Sulistyowati and Misnawi, 2008).
Alkalization
Cocoa nibs, cocoa liquor, and cocoa powder can be
modified by treatment with alkali, also known as alka-
lization. Although originally performed to make the
powder not agglomerate or sink to the bottom, when
it was added to milk or water-based drinks, the alkali-
zation process is nowadays mainly applied to modify
the flavor and color of cocoa powders (Andres-Lacueva
et al., 2008). It was established that alkalization caused
a progressive reduction of polyphenols as well as
their antioxidant activity (Miller et al., 2008). Reduc-
tion of the polyphenol antioxidant activity was sug-
gested to be triggered by heat and alkali synergistically
(Sulistyowati and ­Misnawi, 2008). Recently, a study by
Payne et al. (2010) found that compared to natural cocoa
powders, alkalization caused a loss in both epicatechin
(up to 98%) and catechin (up to 80%). Andres-Lacueva
et al. (2008) described a decrease in epicatechin and cat-
echin of 67% and 35%, respectively, as a result of the
alkalization of cocoa powders. In the case of flavonols,
quercetin presented the highest loss (86%), whereas
quercetin-3-­ glucuronide, quercetin-3-arabinoside, and
isoquercetin showed a similar decrease (58, 62, and 61%,
respectively) (Andres-Lacueva et al., 2008). In general,
changes occurring as the result of alkalization treatment
could be attributed to the oxidation of phenolic com-
pounds under basic pH conditions, leading to the brown
pigments that are polymerized to different degrees. In
particular, secondary reactions involving o-quinones
previously formed during the fermentation stage by
polyphenol oxidase are probably involved in further
reactions responsible for the browning developed dur-
ing alkalization (Miller et al., 2008).
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
is usually the method of choice for characterisation and
quantification of polyphenols in chocolate. This method
is often used coupled with a variety of detectors such as
UV/Vis, photodiode array (PDA), fluorescence, electro-
chemical (ECD), and mass spectrometry (MS) (Wollgast
and Anklam, 2000). Cooper et al. (2007) improved this
method by using ultra-performance liquid chromatog-
raphy (UPLC).
Antioxidant activity (ORAC), total polyphenols (TP),
and flavanols of natural and processed cocoa powders
including the monomeric, oligomeric, polymeric, and
total flavanols of cocoa powders were studied by Miller
 References
et al. (2008). Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) is
the fluorescent method for assessing antioxidant capacity
(Miller et al., 2008). Total polyphenols are determined by
the colorimetric method. Flavanols were measured in cocoa
and chocolate products using a normal phase H ­ PLC-ESI/
MS based on the separation of the flavanol monomers and
polymers (procyanidins) by Gu et al. (2006).
PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES
As described previously, fermentation, drying, roast-
ing, and alkalization are the main processes in the cocoa
chain where bioactive substances can be lost.
Optimization of these processes is one of the tasks.
Due to standardization of farming practices, some of the
world’s chocolate manufacturers now have their own
plantations in the countries of origin.
The restriction of yeast, LAB, and AAB species diver-
sity is crucial for successful cocoa bean fermentation pro-
cess and is responsible for formation of the necessary color
and flavor precursors of well-fermented dry cocoa beans
(Schwan and Wheals, 2004). This knowledge concerning
microbial species diversity and their activities during spon-
taneous cocoa bean fermentation processes can be imple-
mented using appropriate starter cultures for controlled
cocoa bean fermentation processes (Lefeber et al., 2012).
In general, the presence of fungi in cocoa is undesirable
and often related to the formation of off-flavors, spoilage,
and accumulation of mycotoxins (Copetti et al., 2011).
The use of proteomics for process development and
validation in food technology and food biotechnol-
ogy as well as corresponding quality control of starting
materials and final products provide new opportunities
­(Gašo-Sokač et al., 2010). This methodology has not yet
been used in the evaluation of cocoa processing.
Verifying the quality and safety of cocoa products in
terms of their composition, processing or origin is a new
challenge and an important one in protecting consumers.
These practical challenges relate to developing trace-
ability and authenticity methods, where the most suc-
cessful are ‘omics’ methods. Transcriptomics, proteomics,
metabolomics, and glycomics termed as ‘omics’ technolo-
gies can be used in monitoring cocoa processing in order
to manufacture cocoa products with a high content of
bioactive substances and appropriate flavor properties.
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Changes in total polyphenols, o-diphenols and anthocyanin con-
centrations during fermentation of pulp pre-conditioned cocoa
(Theobroma cacao) beans. Int. Food Res. J. 19 (3), 1071–1077.
8. BEVERAGES
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Andres-Lacueva, C., Monagas, M., Khan, N., Izquierdo-Pulido, M.,
Urpi-Sarda, M., Permanyer, J., Lamuela-Raventós, R.M., 2008.
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Brückner, H., Becker, D., Lüpke, M., 1993. Chirality of amino acids of
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8. BEVERAGES
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