Industrial Training Report

On

Quality Assuarance and Quality control

at

Ashish Traders
Dry Ice Manufacturer and supplier

In Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of B.Tech. in

Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by
Mishal Kumar Shukla
Roll No. 15ME19

Submitted to

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary Institute of
Engineering & Technology
Gurugram- 122505
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, Mishal Kumar Shukla, a student of B. Tech. in Mechanical Engineering

Department at Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Haryana hereby declare that I own full responsibility for the information,
results, conclusions etc. provided in this project/ industrial training work titled “
Quality Assurance and Quality Control ” submitted to SGT Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Gurugram, Haryana, India for the award of B.Tech.
(Mechanical Engineering) degree.

I have completely taken care in acknowledging the contribution of others in this

academic work. I further declare that in case of any infringement of intellectual
property rights or copyrights found at any stage, I, as the candidate will be solely
responsible for the same.

Date: 10/06/2019 Name: Mishal Kumar Shukla

Place: Delhi

i
COMPANY CERTIFICATE

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project/ industrial training report entitled “ Quality Control
and Analysis ” submitted by Mr. Mishal Kumar Shukla (Registration No.
1512180175 ) in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelors of Technology in Mechanical Engineering to SGT Institute of Engineering
& Technology, Haryana, India is a record of student’s own work carried out under
our supervision and guidance.
To the best knowledge, this project/ industrial training report has not been submitted in
part or full elsewhere in any other University or Institution for the award of any degree
or diploma. It is further understood that by this certificate the undersigned do not
endorse or approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein,
but approve the thesis only for the purpose for which it is submitted.

SUPERVISOR

Mr. Vinod Pandey Mr. Shivendra Singh

Designation: Owner Assistant Professor
Company Name: Ashish Traders Department of Mechanical Engg.
Address:B-18 DDA Market Chowkhandi SGTIET, Gurgaon
Tilak Nagar,New Delhi-110018

COUNTERSIGNED

Dr. Rajan Garg

Professor & Head

Mechanical Engineering Department
SGTIET, Gurgaon

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present work will remain incomplete unless I express my feelings of gratitude
towards a number of persons who delightfully co-operated with me in the process of
this work.
This work was carried out under the supervision of Mr. Vinod Kumar Pandey, Owner,
Ashish Traders, B-18 DDA Market Chowkhandi Tilak Nagar, New Delhi-110018,
India and Mr. Shivendra Singh, Assistant professor, Mechanical Engineering
Department, SGT Institute of Engineering & Technology, Gurgaon, India for which I
would like to express my deepest appreciation and thank for guiding me since it was
assigned, and sharing their insight, experiences, and endless wisdom. I am extremely
grateful and appreciative for all the knowledge and know-how they have given me.
I express and extend my thanks to Dr. Rajan Garg, Professor & Head, Mechanical
Engineering Department, SGT Institute of Engineering & Technology, Gurgaon for his
constant inspiration, painstaking effort and illuminative guidance during the training
period.
My special thanks are due to Mr. Vinod Kumar Pandey, Owner, Ashish Traders, B-
18 DDA Market Chowkhandi Tilak Nagar ,New Delhi-110018, India who taught me
all about perseverance, moral ethics and provided his specialized technical advice and
recommendations, which is really appreciated.
In addition, I am indeed grateful to my beloved parents for creating a positive working
environment, showing me the ropes, their superior guidance, and always being there
for me through the good and bad times.
Thanks, are also especially to Mr. Dinesh Deshwal for interesting discussions and for
being a good and supportive friend.
Greater thanks are due to my dear friends for their endless support.

Date: 10/06/2019 Name of Student: Mishal Kumar Shukla

Place: Delhi

iv
ABSTRACT
This report gives an overview on quality control process and its use in the various
companies.
Quality Control is an integral part of the production process. The main purpose of
quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is to identify and implement sampling
and analytical methods and to decrease the errors into analytical data. Manufactured
products and services are tested to determine if they meet customer standards or not.
Quality control is a service to maintain consistently high standards not for creating the
standards.
For the quality control processes companies use control charts, quality control
software according to the ISO: 9000 standard, visual verification, accuracy
verification and real time quality control.
Quality control and Quality assurance is very important for acquiring customers trust
and market share.

Quality Control process is very useful and the vital and the lifeblood for all the
manufacturing firms. For maintaining the standards they follow statistical process
control (use of control charts), sampling, using of ISO: 9000 standard software,
manual verification and many other modern process. Quality Control not only affects
the quality of the product but also the production cost.

v
 CONTENTS

Page
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION i
COMPANY CERTIFICATE ii
CERTIFICATE iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTR v
ACT
CONTE vi
NTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of business of the Industry / Institution
1.2 Different products / activities of the Industry /
Institution
1.2.1 dry ice
1.2.2 liquid co2
1.2.3 liquid nitrogen
1.2.4 liquid hydrogen
1.2.5 dry ice blasting
1.2.6 cryogenic blasting
1.2.7 fog machines
1.2.8 gel packs
1.2.9 frozen solutions and services

CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

2.1 Industrial Training at a Glance (brief about
various fields)
2.1.1 history
2.1.2 quality control

vi
 2.1.3 quality assurance
2.2 Details about important areas
2.2.1 process of quality control
2.2.2 planning and implementation of quality
control
2.2.3 control charts
2.2.4 approaches
2.2.5 real time quality control
2.2.6 quality system elements and data cycle
2.2.7 standard of digital elevation models in
quality control
2.3 Observations
2.4 Results
2.5 Conclusions

CHAPTER 3 WHAT I LEARNED FROM INDUSTRIAL

TRAINING / MY INDUSTRY?
3.1 Manufacturing process of dry ice
3.2 Quality control and quality assurance
3.3 By product/waste

vii
References

1. Web browsers- google,bing etc.

2. This article incorporates public domain material from the General
Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C" (in
support of MIL-STD-188).
3. Godfrey, A. B., Juran's Quality Handbook, 1999. ISBN 007034003.
4. Pyzdek, T., Quality Engineering Handbook, 2003. ISBN
0824746147.
5. Clapp, Judith A, Software Quality Control, Error Analysis, and
Testing, 1995 William Andrew In.
6. http://www.sqa.net/softwarequalitycontrol.html
7. Wesselius, Jacco, "Some Elementary Questions on Software Quality
Control"
8. http://satc.gsfc.nasa.gov/assure/agbsec5.txt

viii
 List of Figures

Figure No. Title of the Figure Page No.

1. Process of quality control
2. Incoming quality control
3. Inprocess quality control
4. Outgoing quality control
5. Scatter diagram
6. EPC prediction chart
7. Formation of dry ice

ix
 List of Tables

Table No. Title of the Table Page No.

1. Defect counts
2. Defect count analysis
3. Product quality control(y) controlled by process
parameter (x)

x
 List of Abbreviations

Sr. No. Abbreviations Description of Abbreviations

1. C Celsius
2. Co2 Carbon dioxide
3. fig figure
4. k kelvin
5. % percentage
6. f farahnite
7. Lh2 Liquid hydrogen

xi
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Nature of business of the Industry/Institution

The company was founded in the year 2006.Today they are one of
the largest supplier and producer of dry ice(solid co2),liquid co2,
liquid nitrogen and other frozen solutions because they are the
most preferred supplier of CO2 and Dry Ice all across Delhi/NCR
and neighbouring states. They have continuously invested for
future requirements and have substantial production, storage and
distribution assets all across the Delhi and can ensure prompt
delivery of any amount or quality of CO2 or Dry Ice that clients
may need. They are particularly preferred by qual ity conscious
clients due to their product and process quality, as well as their
ability to deliver on time and trace online.

 They provide innovative CO2 solutions

 One of the Largest manufacturing capacity spread out all over
delhi/NCR In coupled with highest strategic storage capacity in
various locations, and the most number of vehicles to give superior
customer service.
 Provide highest quality CO2 in India, as per International Food and
Pharma specs
 Produce 99.9 % food grade dry ice.
 Large, dedicated, varied team with most amount of experience in
the industry.

xii
 1.2 Different products/activities of the Industry/Institution

1.2.1 Dry ICE(Solid CO2)

Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling
agent. Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not
leaving any residue (other than incidental frost from moisture in the
atmosphere). It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical
cooling is unavailable.

Dry ice sublimates at 194.65 K (−78.5 °C; −109.3 °F), at Earth atmospheric
pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without
protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not
very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally
elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined
locations.

Properties of dry ice

At pressures below 5.13 atm and temperatures below −56.4 °C (−69.5 °F)
(the triple point), CO2 changes from a solid to a gas with no intervening
liquid form, through a process called sublimation. The opposite process is
called deposition, where CO2 changes from the gas to solid phase (dry ice).
At atmospheric pressure, sublimation/deposition occurs at −78.5 °C
(−109.3 °F) or 194.65 K.

The density of dry ice varies, but usually ranges between about 1.4 and
1.6 g/cm3 (87 and 100 lb/cu ft). The low temperature and direct sublimation
to a gas makes dry ice an effective coolant, since it is colder than water
ice and leaves no residue as it changes state. Its enthalpy of sublimation is
571 kJ/kg (25.2 kJ/mol).

xiii
Dry ice is non-polar, with a dipole moment of zero, so
attractive intermolecular van der Waals forces operate.The composition
results in low thermal and electrical conductivity.

1.2.2 Liquid co2

Liquid carbon dioxide is the liquid state of carbon dioxide, which cannot
occur under atmospheric pressure. It can only exists at a pressure above 5.1
atm, under 31.1 °C (temperature of critical point) and above -56.6 °C
(temperature of triple point).The properties of liquid carbon dioxide are the
same as gas carbon dioxide in most parts. As it is a type of liquid phase, it
has viscosity and the viscosity is different at different temperatures. The
history of it is not too long, it starts from the 20th century. As same as gas
carbon dioxide, it can be used in various areas, like using in carbon capture
and storage technology, the extraction of virgin oil paste, fire extinguisher,
coolant and others. In fact, the liquid carbon dioxide may be produced for
very small amount as a homemade experiment by using the dry ice that is the
solid phase of carbon dioxide.

1.2.3 Liquid nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely low

temperature. It is a colorless liquid with a density of 0.807 g/ml at its boiling
point (−195.79 °C (77 K; −320 °F)) and a dielectric constant of 1.43.Liquid
nitrogen is a cryogenic fluid that can cause rapid freezing on contact with
living tissue. When appropriately insulated from ambient heat, liquid
nitrogen can be stored and transported, for example in vacuum flasks. The
temperature is held constant at 77 K by slow boiling of the liquid, resulting
in the evolution of nitrogen gas. Depending on the size and design, the
holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. The
development of pressurised super-insulated vacuum vessels has enabled

xiv
liquefied nitrogen to be stored and transported over longer time periods with
losses reduced to 2% per day or less.

The temperature of liquid nitrogen can readily be reduced to its freezing

point 63 K (−210 °C; −346 °F) by placing it in a vacuum chamber pumped
by a vacuum pump. Liquid nitrogen's efficiency as a coolant is limited by the
fact that it boils immediately on contact with a warmer object, enveloping the
object in insulating nitrogen gas. This effect, known as the Leidenfrost effect,
applies to any liquid in contact with an object significantly hotter than its
boiling point. Faster cooling may be obtained by plunging an object into a
slush of liquid and solid nitrogen rather than liquid nitrogen alone.

1.2.4 Liquid Hydrogen

Liquid hydrogen (LH2 or LH2) is the liquid state of the element hydrogen.
Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form.

To exist as a liquid, H2 must be cooled below hydrogen's critical point of

33 K. However, for hydrogen to be in a fully liquid state without boiling at
atmospheric pressure, it needs to be cooled to 20.28 K (−423.17 °F;
−252.87 °C). One common method of obtaining liquid hydrogen involves a
compressor resembling a jet engine in both appearance and principle. Liquid
hydrogen is typically used as a concentrated form of hydrogen storage. As in
any gas, storing it as liquid takes less space than storing it as a gas at normal
temperature and pressure. However, the liquid density is very low compared
to other common fuels. Once liquefied, it can be maintained as a liquid in
pressurized and thermally insulated containers.

1.2.5 Dry Ice Blasting

Dry ice is fast becoming the preferred cleaning solution for a host
of different industries because of its many benefits, primarily

xv
substantially reducing machine downtime because of its ability to
clean bacteria and micro particles in hot, cold or sensitive area.

1.2.6 Cryogenic cylinders

Cryogenic liquid containers, also referred to as liquid cylinders, are double-

walled vacuum which are used to store liquid form of gases. Dewars are
open at the top. They are nonpressurized vessels for holding cryogenic.

1.2.7 Fog Machines

A fog machine, fog generator, or smoke machine is a device that emits a

dense vapor that appears similar to fog or smoke. This artificial fog is most
commonly used in professional entertainment applications, but smaller, more
affordable fog machines are becoming common for personal use. Fog
machines can also be found in use in a variety of industrial, training, and
some military applications. Typically, fog is created by vaporizing
proprietary water and glycol-based or glycerin-based fluids or through the
atomization of mineral oil. This fluid (often referred to colloquially as fog
juice) vaporizes or atomizes inside the fog machine. Upon exiting the fog
machine and mixing with cooler outside air the vapor condenses, resulting in
a thick visible fog.

1.2.8 Gel Packs

An ice pack or gel pack is a portable plastic bag filled with

water, refrigerant gel, or liquid. For use the contents are frozen in a freezer.
Both ice and other non-toxic refrigerants (mostly water) can absorb a
considerable amount of heat before they warm above 0 °C, due to the
high latent heat of fusion of water. These packs are commonly used to keep
food cool in portable coolers, or as a cold compress to alleviate the pain of
minor injuries, or in insulated shipping containers to keep products cool
during transport.

xvi
1.2.9 Frozen solutions and services

Different type of frozen solutions for different problems arising in

transportation of product that need high high freezing temperature or a
specipic temperature. Services related to type of product and different
materials required for maintaining the required temperature.

Commercial solution

1. P H C O N T R O L I N W A T E R A N D P U L P T R E A T M E N T

Amongst the current options available for pH control, CO2

provides the most advantages. The solution can be fully
automated, the reaction is easy to control and forms benign
carbonate salts which dont cause further problems with the
effluent. Unlike with the use of corrosive and dangerous acids like
Sulphuric and Hydrochloric acids, the use of CO2 doesn't increase
the TDS levels in the treated water, and this is a huge benefit that
CO2 provides.

2. F O O D P R O C E S S I N G I N G E N E R AL

Co2 and Dry Ice is used at almost every step in food processing.
Right from preliminary areas like increased productivity in
greenhouses and humane slaughter of animals, through
intermediary areas of increasing productivity in bakeries, chicken
and other meat processing units (through Cryo grinding and Cryo
mixing), through increasing shelf life and quality of food products
using Modified Atmosphere Packaging and Cryo Freezing, right

xvii
down to providing a flexible and future proof method of
transporting fresh and frozen end products at any user defined
temperature.

3. R E F R I G E R A T E D T R A N S P O R T

Use of Dry Ice or Liquid CO2 in the cold chain substantially

brings down transport costs, as it allows clients to send any
quantity of refrigerated or frozen product in re gular vehicles. So a
regular vehicle can be used to send multiple products at different
temperatures (at ambient temperature, refrigerated, frozen, or any
other user defined temperature in between), without the need for
dedicated frozen or refrigerated vehicles. Supermarkets and other
specialized logistics providers can save a lot of money by sending
full vehicle loads point to point and by having the flexibility of
sending varied cargo at different temperatures .

4. E N H A N C E D O I L A N D G A S R E C O V E R Y

Liquid CO2 is used in the fracking industry to enhance recovery of

oil and gas from depleted wells. Traditionally vast amounts of
water and chemicals were used for this purpose, but using Liquid
CO2 is more effective and it is environment friendly as it saves the
use of a lot of water.

5. P L A S T I C I N J E C T I O N M O L D I N G

Injecting liquid CO2 during the injection moulding process,

greatly increases the quality of the pieces being produced, but
more significantly it substantially increases the manufacturing
capacity of the moulding machines.

6. C O 2 I N M E D I C A L F I E L D

xviii
Medical and pharma grade CO2 is safe to use in Laproscopic
surgery, cataracts as well as to remove warts. It is also used in
incubation units to promote growth of cells in a controlled
environment.

7. F I R E P R O T E C T I O N W I T H C O 2

Is an excellent fire retardant and it the extinguisher of choice for

most commercial establishments as it is inexpensive and easy to
use and leaves no residue unlike other agents. And it can also be
used as a fire retardant to ??lood?? unin habited protected areas
like data centers, power plants, engine rooms, pump rooms etc.

8. E N H AN C E C O A L M I N E P R O D U C T I V I T Y

Indian coal mines have been simmering for centuries, thereby

wasting a valuable resource. It is dangerous to mine coal when
there is a fire and it also takes a heavy toll in terms of loss of
production and sealing of that part of the mine. Flooding parts of
the mine with CO2, suppresses and prevents underground fires.
The payoff is immediate as it substantially increases the efficiency
of the mine and increases safety.

Residential solutions

1.POWER OUTAGE

Dry Ice is used to maintain low temparatures in freezers and

refrigerators when there is a power outage. It can be used for home
use, as well as for critical storage of vaccines, pharmaceuticals,
special chemicals and frozen foods.
2. F O O D S T O R A G E A T H O M E

xix
Dry ice is an easy and economical way to fumigate and store dry
goods for a long time at home. Put some Dry Ice (without any frost
on it) at the bottom of a food container and then fill the container
with Dry food. As the Dry ice sublimates it replaces all the air
with CO2, without oxygen pests and bacteria in the food can not
survive.. Remember to close the lid only once all the Dry Ice has
completely sublimated and DONT close the lid if there is any Dry
Ice still available in the container. Closing an air tight container
with Dry Ice inside it can be dangerous.

3. M O S Q U I T O A N D B E D B U G T R A P S

CO2 substantially increase the trap rate of mosquito, bedbugs and

other biting insects. The CO2 fools bitting insects into believing
that an animal is present and they are drawn towards the trap.

Other solutions

1. I Q F

Quick cryogenic freezing helps better quality product with less

weight loss and smaller ice crystals. High value items like like
prawns and cooked foods are frozen with CO2 as CO2 freezing
saves money.

2. C H I C K E N P R O C E S S I N G

Liquid CO2 and Dry Ice is provides a lot of benefits and savings to
Chicken processors. It is used to humanely kill the bird, to reduce
temperature and bacterial contamination during grinding and
blending of mince, to increase shelf life of fresh chicken, to quick
freezing frozen chicken and ready to eat meals, to transport the
end product to supermarkets and other shops.

xx
3. S P E C I A L E F F E C T S

Putting in some Dry Ice into water creates a ??og??effect, which

can be used in plays, movies or even at house parties provided
there is adequate ventilation. Avoid putting Dry Ice directly into
drinks and food which will be consumed, as in case Dry Ice is
swallowed by accident the low temperature can cause a lot of
damage to the mouth and stomach lining. Special swizzle sticks
are available into which Dry Ice can be inserted, after which the
swizzle stick can be placed into a drink, thereby providing the
special effect in a safe way with the Dry Ice not free floating in
the drink.

xxi
 Chapter 2

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

2.1 Industrial training at a glance

2.1.1 History

In the early 1900s, the beginning of Factory Productions, the final products
were inspected for the purpose of accepting or rejecting the same. During
these times, in his list of basic areas of manufacturing management, F. W.
Taylor, emphasized on quality by including Product Inspection into it.
Radford’s was of the view of involving quality consideration early in the
product design stage and also to connect-together Quality, Productivity and
Costs.

In 1924, Walter Shewhart introduced ‘Statistical Process Control (SPC)’ by

means of ‘Control Charts’ in order to keep a control over production. After
five years or so, Dodge & Romig introduced Acceptance Sampling
Inspection Tables popularly known as Dodge-Romig Tables. The concept of
SPC found a little acceptance in the Manufacturing Industry till 1940s.

Historically, Second World War remarkably increased the importance of

Quality Control. W. Edward Deming introduced SQC in Japanese Industry.
This resulted in creation of a quality manufacturing facilities in Japan. The
devastated country in this Second World War posed a tough competition to
other leading nations in the area of manufacturing, especially the American
Manufacturing Firms.

After this war, in the mid-twentieth century, professionals and engineers in

the industry hugely benefited by the American Universities in terms of
training in quality control. This has seen the emergence of ‘Quality
Assurance’ evolved out of this development taken place around ‘Quality

xxii
Control’ concept. At about the same time, Joseph Juran began his `Cost of
Quality’ approach, emphasizing accurate and complete identification and
measurement of Costs of Quality, In the mid 1950s, Armand Fiegen Baum
proposed Total Quality Control which enlarged the focus of Quality Control
from manufacturing to include Product Design.

During the 1960s, the concept of “Zero-defects” gained favor. Philip Crosby,
who was the champion of “Zero defects” concept focused on employee
motivation and awareness. In this decade from 1950 to 1960; quality control
and management became synonymous with the growth of Industrial
Revolution in Japan.

In the 1970s, Quality Assurance methods were used in services such as

government operations, health care, banking etc. During this period the world
started importing heavily from Japan including America and European
countries. In the late 1970s, there was a dramatic shift from quality assurance
to a Strategic

Approach to quality. The reactive approach of finding and correcting

defectives in products manufactured was changed to a pro-active’ approach of
focusing on preventing defects from recurring altogether. During the same
period ‘British Standards’ (BS 5750) emerged along with ISO 9000 Standards
of Quality.

In late 1980s, Total Quality Management (TQM) gained a lot of popularity

even outside Japan and became the main theme revolving around the concept
of Quality Control. In the twenty first century the concept of quality has been
gathering a total or gross approach in terms of ‘Business Excellence’.

2.1.2 Quality control

Quality Control is a process of making product or a service to maintain

consistently high standards. It is a special which is followed in
manufacturing of products or service for maintenance of standards of quality

xxiii
of manufactured goods. In quality control incoming materials are tested to
make sure they meet the appropriate industry specifications. Quality Control
is an integral part of the production process.

Quality Control is the process of maintaining standards of incoming or

outgoing products ,not for creating the standards ,it is the vital for all the
manufacturing companies whether pharmaceutical company, logistics
assembling company, air-conditions/microwave oven assembling company,
textile company, electrical ,hardware or software company.

For maintaining the standards they follow statistical process control (use of
control charts), sampling, using of ISO: 9000 standard software, manual
verification and many other modern process. Quality Control not only affects
the quality of the product but also the production cost.

2.1.3 Quality assurance

This covers providing evidence for supporting the claim that quality has been
established in work, product or service. For this purpose, suitable standard
operating procedures (SOP’s) are to be introduced for defining a
standardized procedure of doing operations in an effective manner. This
ensures adherence to maximum efficiency and safety requirements of the
clinical research activities that have been performed. Such defined
procedural information assures auditors and regulatory inspectors of
requirements adherence. These SOPs should be sufficiently proliferated
amongst all the individuals involved in the procedure and proper training
should be provided to them. Such planned implementation of procedures is in
complete concordance with the basic PDCA cycle of quality control that asks
quality implementers to plan, perform, measure and take necessary actions as
per the measured data. For this purpose, SOPs are tailored for clinical, pre-
clinical, pharmacokinetics, bio-analysis, regulatory affairs, data management,
drug safety, project management, vendor management, supply chain
management, change control and crisis management.

xxiv
2.2 Details about important areas

The main purpose of quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is to

identify and implement sampling and analytical methods and to decrease the
errors into
analytical data. Manufactured products and services are tested to determine if
they meet customer’s standards or not.

2.2.1 PROCESS OF QUALITY CONTROL

Quality Control mainly consists of three processes:

Fig(1) process of quality control

xxv
Quality is not only a mindset, but also a formalized system. Through strict
documentations and procedures, our engineers and operators maintain
control of quality throughout every step of production.

Our division of the quality control process into three separate processes
ensures that specialized expertise is applied to each stage of our operation.
This system also provides the redundancy necessary to prevent any quality
problem from evading detection

Incoming Quality Control

Fig(2) Incoming quality control

It is the job of the IQC process to conduct inspections and handle quality
problem before the assembly process starts.

Specific tasks of IQC include:

Perform approved vendor list check;

Evaluate supplier quality records;

xxvi
Perform sampling of incoming materials based on the MIL-STD-105E
standard;
Assess dimension, visual and functional inspection of material samples;
Monitor quality control chart of inspected properties and alert engineering
staff of significant deviations;
Continuously enhance the IQC process.

In-Process Quality Control

Fig(3) In-process quality control

IPQC process governs the quality systems during the assembly process, to
detect and handle problems that may arise as a result of assembly.

Specific tasks of IPQC include:

Perform inspections on assembled and in-process materials according to IPC-

A-610D standards;
Conduct in-line automated and manual inspections
Apply first-article inspection after process setup;
Utilize statistical control techniques and watch for significant deviations;

xxvii
 Perform in-process audits to ensure processes are up to standard, and to
identify factors needing improvement.

Outgoing Quality Assurance

Fig(4) Outgoing quality assurance

OQA is the last process before products ship to customers, and hence is
every important to ensure our shipment is defect-free. Numerous
redundancies with IQC and IPQC is performed here to ensure the validity of
previous processes.

Specific tasks of OQA include:

Perform visual and functional inspection;

Verify first-article inspection;
Repeat approved vendor list check;
Apply sampling based on the MIL-STD-105E standard;
Conduct reliability testing;
Submit failure analysis reports and alert engineering staff.

2.2.2 PLANNING & IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY CONTROL

Sampling:

xxviii
 It is also called as statistics. This sampling plays key role in Quality Control
process. Sampling is called as the process of selecting a suitable
sample for study from the whole lot.

Different sampling parts are there. Below are few examples:

1.Single-Sampling-Plan
2.Double-Sampling-Plan
3.Sequential-Sampling-Plan

2.2.3 Control Charts:

Control Charts are used to tell the difference between normal and abnormal
variations of a process. It explains whether the process is
running smoothly or not. Control Charts are used as a Tool in Data Quality
Improvement process. Control Charts gives indicate at a glance of production
process. Control charts are often referred to as statistical process control
(SPC).

Common Types of Charts

The types of charts are often classified according to the type of quality
characteristic that they are supposed to monitor: there are quality control
charts for variables and control charts for attributes. Specifically, the
following charts are commonly constructed for controlling variables:

 X-bar chart. In this chart the sample means are plotted in order to control the
mean value of a variable (e.g., size of piston rings, strength of materials,
etc.).
 R chart. In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control the
variability of a variable.
 S chart. In this chart, the sample standard deviations are plotted in order to
control the variability of a variable.
 S**2 chart. In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in order to control
the variability of a variable.

xxix
 For controlling quality characteristics that represent attributes of the product,
the following charts are commonly constructed:

 C chart. In this chart (see example below), we plot the number of defectives
(per batch, per day, per machine, per 100 feet of pipe, etc.). This chart
assumes that defects of the quality attribute are rare, and the control limits in
this chart are computed based on the Poisson distribution (distribution of rare
events).

 U chart. In this chart we plot the rate of defectives, that is, the number of
defectives divided by the number of units inspected (the n; e.g., feet of pipe,
number of batches). Unlike the C chart, this chart does not require a constant
number of units, and it can be used, for example, when the batches (samples)
are of different sizes.
 Np chart. In this chart, we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day,
per machine) as in the C chart. However, the control limits in this chart are
not based on the distribution of rare events, but rather on the binomial
distribution. Therefore, this chart should be used if the occurrence of
defectives is not rare (e.g., they occur in more than 5% of the units
inspected). For example, we may use this chart to control the number of units
produced with minor flaws.


 P chart. In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per batch, per day, per
machine, etc.) as in the U chart. However, the control limits in this chart are
not based on the distribution of rare events but rather on the binomial

xxx
 distribution (of proportions). Therefore, this chart is most applicable to
situations where the occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g., we expect the
percent of defectives to be more than 5% of the total number of units
produced).

2.2.4 Approaches:

*Quality-reviews
* Auto Software assessment and software measurement.

2.2.5 Real-time quality control:

 It is also called as Batch monitoring. It is displayed as batch control charts.

2.2.6 Quality System Elements and Data life Cycle:

Planning:

• Data Quality Objectives (DQOs)

• Quality Assurance Project Plans (QAPPs)
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
Implementation:
• QAPPs
• SOPs
• Data collection
• Assessments and audits

Assessment:
• Data validation and verification
• Data Quality Assessment (DQA)

xxxi
2.2.7 Standards for Digital Elevation Models in Quality Control:

Quality Control tests:

• Accuracy Verification
• Statistical Testing
• Water Bodies
• Hydrographs
• Slopes
• Logical and Physical Format Verification
• Visual Verification
• Editing

Uses of quality control data and control charts:

• Control charts can Measure uncertainty

• Used in method validation
• Used in method comparison
• It can estimate Limit of Detection (LOD)
• Quality Control data can do person comparison or qualification
• These charts can use in evaluation of proficiency tests
• Also used in environmental parameters and similar checks

xxxii
2.3 Observations

In today's competitive market place, there is a need for business

organizations to ensure continual improvement. Manufacturing companies
experience growing pressure to improve quality, increase productivity, and
reduce cost with limited resources. Service organizations need to reduce
response time, eliminate errors, and improve customer satisfaction.

Many top management personnel are not aware that relatively simple
techniques like SPC and EPC can be put to use to achieve quantum jumps in
quality improvement and cost reduction.

2.3.1 Statistical Process Control (SPC):

SPC is a time-tested and effective control scheme used for process capability
analysis and process monitoring. SPC techniques consist mainly of Pareto
Analysis, Scatter Diagram and Regression Analysis, and Statistical Control
Charts.

Pareto Analysis

It is perhaps the most useful tool in the early stages of quality improvement
initiatives. It can be deployed to identify the vital few and screen out trivial
many.

Let us look at the following table on defect counts, taken from the inspection
log of a garment manufacturing unit:

xxxiii
Table1: Defect counts

Production Improper Missing

Date Day
(Pcs) Stitch Button

05/07 Mon 200 12 5

06/07 Tue 250 8 10

07/07 Wed 200 7 9

08/07 Thu 150 4 6

09/07 Fri 350 12 15

10/07 Sat 250 10 12

What is the general conclusion?

As the production increases, proportionately more defects are reported on

those days. Is this justification sufficient if you are looking for defect
reduction? Let us summarize the same data in a different way, as shown
below (Pareto Table):

Table 2: Defects counts

Weekly % Cum.
Defect
Total Total %

Missing
57 41.61 41.61
Button

Improper
53 38.69 80.30
Stitch

Length
21 15.33 95.63
Mismatch

Reverse
6 4.37 100.00
Buckle

TOTAL 137 100.00 -

xxxiv
 Now, what is the conclusion?

Missing buttons and improper stitches contribute 80% of total defects. If the
corrective and preventive actions can be focused on elimination of the root
causes of these two dominant defects from the process, we can easily achieve
a significant reduction in overall defect tally.

Pareto Analysis can be effectively utilized for...

 Machine down time analysis

 Dominant fault analysis
 Floor rejection analysis
 Customer complaint analysis etc.

Scatter Diagram and Regression Analysis

They are very useful in the study of inter-relationship between a key process
output variable (KPOV) and a key process input variable (KPIV). If there is a
significant relation between the two, the process output can be controlled
effectively by controlling the process input.

There are many practical situations where measurement of product quality is

not easy. For example, in case of mechanical properties of heat-treated steel,
by the time the product is cooled, sample is taken and tested, a lot of
production could have already happened. In case the test piece fails, you
have already generated huge pile of scrap.

In such situations, it is worthwhile to explore whether the product quality (Y)

can be controlled by controlling one/more process parameters (X's).

Consider the following data:

Table 3: Product quality (y) controlled by process parameters(x)

St I St I
S r. m . S r. mp

xxxv
l. R p. l. R .
N at % N at %
o e (Y o e (Y)
. (X ) . (X
) )

7. 1 16.
1 16 . 36
1 1 4

8. 1 15.
2 18 . 38
0 2 5

8. 1 18.
3 20 . 40
4 3 9

9. 1 18.
4 22 . 42
5 4 5

11 1 20.
5 24 . 44
.8 5 6

10 1 19.
6 26 . 46
.4 6 8

13 1 21.
7 28 . 48
.3 7 7

14 1 22.
8 30 . 50
.8 8 8

13 1 23.
9 32 . 52
.2 9 6

1 14 2 25.
34 . 54
0 .7 0 4

xxxvi
 Fig (5) scatter diagram

this set of data shall be as below:

We can predict the value of Product Characteristic (Y) for various values of
Process Characteristic (X) using the following equation:

Y = -0.5011 + 0.4635 X

2.3.2 Engineering Process Control (EPC):

Engineering Process Control (EPC) is fast gaining popularity these days.

While SPC charts provide a good check against assignable causes of
variation, EPC charts can be used for prediction and run-on-run adjustment
of process average.

Consider the data on weight of tablets discussed earlier. You may ask two
interesting questions.

What would be the process average at 16:00 Hrs?

xxxvii
What amount of adjustment is required NOW to bring the process average to
target value?

Fig (6) EPC Pridiction chart

Process mean at 16:00 Hrs (predicted)= 1.01823

Process adjustment required now (at 15:30 Hrs) = -0.016

Six Sigma:

Six Sigma is a business initiative first introduced by Motorola in early 1990s.

Recent Six Sigma success stories come from companies like General
Electric, Allied Signal, and Sony etc. According to GE's 1997 annual report,
Six Sigma initiatives contributed more than 300 million US Dollars!

In general, Six Sigma implementation involves the following SEVEN

phases:

1. DEFINE the processes that contribute to the problem.

2. MEASURE the capability of critical processes.

xxxviii
3. ANALYSE the data.

4. IMPROVE the key product / service characteristics.

5. CONTROL the key process variables.

6. STANDARDISE the methods for best-in-class process performance, and

7. INTEGRATE the standard methods and processes with the product /

service design stage.

The Six Sigma strategy involves extensive use of statistical techniques such
as control charts, design of experiments, response surface methodology etc.
in order to minimize process variations and product / service defects. These
techniques need to be applied in a structured manner.

While reporting the process improvement, Six Sigma teams use certain
numeric values, known as Six Sigma Metrics. The most common metrics are
'Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO)', 'Sigma Quality Level', and
'Yield'.

'Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO)' is the number of critical defects

that the process is estimated to generate per million opportunities (operations
or steps). In shop-floor process control, this is also called defective 'Parts per
Million (PPM)' pieces produced by a single process / operation.

'Sigma Quality Level' is an indicator of process centering and, process

variation viz-a-viz technical tolerance. A process at six sigma quality level is
expected to generate only 3.4 defective Parts per Million.'Yield' is the
estimated percentage of defect-free items (probability of zero defects)
churned out by a process.

Based on the quality characteristic under study (variable / attribute data

type), one or more metrics may be used for process monitoring and reporting.

It may be noted that the six sigma metrics are just the indicators of process
quality. Sustaining and improving the process performance require process

xxxix
 monitoring and control schemes such as Statistical Process Control (SPC),
Engineering Process Control (EPC) etc.Six Sigma initiatives aim at reduction
of process variations and defects. SPC and EPC are two important techniques
for achieving these goals. Relatively inexpensive and easy to understand
(requiring minimal support from external experts), it is a feasible proposition
to implement these techniques in any organization.

2.4 Results

The QC department performs following activities:

 RM/PM analysis
 Finished Products analysis
 In-process Checks
 Stability Studies

The QC activities are managed through four sections:

 Instrumental Analysis and Finished Products

 Wet Analysis Laboratory
 Microbiological Testing Laboratory
 Packaging Material -Testing Laboratory

xl
Quality Control for API / PM, Finished Products & In-Process Control
is as follows:

Flow Chart - RM / PM Inspection:

Flow Chart - Finished Products Inspections ::

xli
 31.

Flow Chart - In process Checks:

xlii
2.5 Conclusion

Quality Control is an important part of any manufacturing operation. It is the

lifeblood and vital for all manufacturing process. Quality control process
affects both production cost n the product quality.

The quality control statement of the company is to produce and distribute

defect free products, reduce waste, reduce variation in the manufacturing
process, and establish policies and procedures that will provide for
continuous improvement of its products and services.

In many companies there are quality control departments which controls the
production cost, quality of product, employee’s efficiency and daily work.
Many companies are hiring employees as a quality control manager,
supervisor etc. So the scope of jobs in this department is very good.

Nowadays there is much software for quality controlling is available in the

market which reduces the manual work of control process and companies are
using them frequently.

xliii
companies are using many advanced technologies for improving the quality
of product and they are recruiting many staves for controlling and assuring
the quality of the product.

xliv
 Chapter 3
What I learned from industrial training/my industry

3.1 Manufacturing process of Dry Ice (Solid Co2)

1. Carbon dioxide is liquefied by compressing and cooling, liquefying at a

pressure of approximately 870 lb/in 2 (395 kg/cm 2 ) at room temperature.
Liquid carbon dioxide is pumped, via piping, into huge holding tanks so that
dry ice manufacturers can remove the liquid required.
2. The liquid carbon dioxide is shipped in huge quantities, sometimes
weighing many tons. Thus, most dry ice manufacturers choose to locate their
factories close to the petroleum or ammonia refineries to keep transportation
costs affordable. The pressurized, refrigerated liquid carbon dioxide is piped
directly into a pressurized tank or rail car owned by the dry ice manufacturer
and heads for the plant.
3. The tank trunk pulls up to the factory and dumps the liquid carbon dioxide
into huge tanks on the premises. These tanks hold the liquid under pressure,
keeping it refrigerated so that it remains in liquid state. These tanks are
situated adjacent to the factory wall and, through piping, the liquid is brought
directly inside when required for manufacturing.
4. The liquid carbon dioxide is released, again via piping, from the adjacent
tanks through the factory wall and into the dry ice press. When the liquid
moves from a highly-pressurized environment to atmospheric pressure, it
expands and evaporates at high speeds, causing the liquid to cool to its
freezing point which is −109°F (−78.3°C). A nozzle puts the liquid into the
top block of a dry ice press, which stands approximately 16 ft (4.9 m) tall.
This press includes a large block at the top that can exert extreme pressure on
the product that is brought into it. When the liquid carbon dioxide hits the
block of the dry ice press, it immediately solidifies since it is now at room
temperature. The carbon dioxide now resembles snow.
5. This snow, now in the upper portion of the press, must be compressed into
a block of dry ice. Thus, this top portion of the press goes up and down with
extraordinary pressure (about 60 tons), squashing the snow into a solid block

xlv
of dry ice. This is approximately a five minute process. When the block is
solid, it is generally about 2 ft (61 cm) wide and 10 in (25 cm) high,
weighing about 220 lb (100 kg).
6. This block of opaque white dry ice is pushed out of the press and onto a
roller. A pneumatic saw cuts the block in half and the blocks are pushed to
another saw that cuts the smaller blocks yet again. Thus, the single block
made in the dry ice press is now in four pieces, each weighing about 55 lb
(25 kg).
7.The smaller blocks are put into containers that keep the blocks cold so
sublimation is kept to a minimum. If shipped as unwrapped pieces they must
be tightly packed in a container,

Fig (7) The formation of dry ice is a series of chemical reactions.

generally including four blocks, with very little air allowed inside to reduce
sublimation. If a block is removed during shipping, the other blocks will
quickly begin to dissipate. Many dry ice manufacturers wrap the blocks in
paper using machines (it is wise not to touch the very cold surface) and send
it distributors or wholesalers.

3.2 Quality control and assurance

Quality Control is an integral part of the production process. The main purpose
of quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) is to identify and implement
sampling and analytical methods and to decrease the errors into
analytical data. Manufactured products and services are tested to determine if

xlvi
they meet customer standards or not. Quality control is a service to maintain
consistently high standards not for creating the standards.

Quality control and assurance issues primarily revolve around the grade of
the carbon dioxide used in the manufacture of food grade dry ice. Recently,
the federal government set fairly stringent standards for the purity of carbon
dioxide used in the manufacture of dry ice, causing manufacturers to certify
and test the liquid carbon dioxide used, as well as the purity of the
manufactured product.

Other quality control issues include ensuring that tanks and equipment are
working precisely. If pressure is not properly maintained, the product cannot
be produced. Moving the product quickly and efficiently from cutting to
storage is very important, as dry ice quickly sublimates at room temperature,
thus reducing the weight and price of the salable product. Shipping must
pack the blocks densely to reduce sublimation in transit as well.

Some of the Technologies used for controlling the quality:

1.
The Art Robbins Phoenix protein crystallography dispenser features
accuracy, speed and precision.

xlvii
2.
CI-3100 series remote particle sensors detect microscopic particles in
controlled environments and critical processes.

3.
Climet is the world's leading manufacturer of application-driven optical
particle counting instruments.

4.
AUTOTEST 4: fully automatic measuring of weight, thickness, diameter and
hardness.

5.
ETI is a temperature-indicating device and can replace MIG thermometers.

xlviii
6.
Ellab’s TrackSense® Pro high-temperature sensors are ideal for monitoring
processes with extreme heat such as depyrogenation.

7.
The Testo Saver is data logging system offers an extensive range of radio and
Ethernet probes, making it a truly flexible temperature and humidity
monitoring solution

8.
Micromeritics offers an extensive line of particle characterization instruments
for use in fundamental research, product development, quality assurance,
quality control, production, and process control applications.

Quality Control through software

It is the set of procedures used by organizations (1) to ensure that a software

product will meet its quality goals at the best value to the customer, and (2) to

xlix
 continually improve the organization’s ability to produce better products in the
future.

5.1. Software Control Methods

 Rome laboratory Software framework

 Goal Question Metric Paradigm
 Risk Management Model
 The Plan-Do-Check-Action Model of Quality Control
 Total Software Quality Control
 Spiral Model Of Software Development

Verification and Validation of Methods

 Independent Verification and Validation

 Requirements Verification Matrix
 Software Quality Assurance

Testing

 Unit testing
 Integration testing
 System testing

3.3 By products/ waste

No significant chemicals are created in the production of dry ice. Since the
product is made only from carbon dioxide, when the product sublimates the
gases are emitted into the atmosphere. The only detectable waste is
sublimation of the product in block form, which is kept to a minimum.

future

While the use of dry ice in refrigeration and food storage may be
diminishing, its use in other areas holds some promise. As mentioned above,

l
house cleaners and machinery operators are interested in the small dry ice
pellets for their ability to bombard a house or machine at high pressure,
remove dirt or other contaminants, and then dissipate into the atmosphere.
Recently a telephone company used dry ice pellets to safely clean sensitive
electronic testing equipment without using dangerous solvents. Car body
repair shops have discovered that applying dry ice to dents in the body can
sometimes eliminate the disfiguration. Also, tests on dry ice blocks advocate
dropping it into gopher holes to eradicate the pests or putting it out in the
backyard to attract mosquitoes in order to keep them away from humans.

li
lii
liii