JOURNAL OFBIOSCIENCE ANDBIOENGR*TEERJNG

Vol. 94, No. 6, 526529.2002

REVIEW
Sago Starch and Its Utilisation
SURAINI ABD-AZIZ’
Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Food Science h Biotechnology, Universify Putra Malaysia,
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia’

Received 24 September 2002/Accepted 2 October 2002

The importance and development of industrial biotechnology processing has led to the utili-
sation of microbial enzymes in various applications. One of the important enzymes is amylase,
which hydrolyses starch to glucose. In Malaysia, the use of sago starch has been increasing, and it
is presently being used for the production of glucose. Sago starch represents an alternative cheap
carbon source for fermentation processes that is attractive out of both economic and geographical
considerations. Production of fermentable sugars from the hydrolysis of starches is normally car-
ried out by an enzymatic processes that involves two reaction steps, liquefaction and saccharifi-
cation, each of which has different temperature and pH optima with respect to the maximum re-
action rate. This method of starch hydrolysis requires the use of an expensive temperature control
system and a complex mixing device. Our laboratory has investigated the possibility of using
amylolytic enzyme-producing microorganisms in the continuous single-step biological hydrolysis
of sago flour for the production of a generic fermentation medium. The ability of a novel DNA-re-
combinated yeast, Saccharamyces cerevisiae strain YKU 107 (expressing a-amylase production)
to hydrolyse gelatinised sago starch production has been studied with the aim of further utilizing
sago starch to obtain value-added products.

[Key words: biological hydrolysis, fermentable sugar, microbial processing, recombinant yeast, sago pith residues,
sago starch]

The palms (Palmae) constitute one of the oldest plant
families on earth. Several indigenous communities have de-
veloped self-sufficient economies based on various palms.
Examples are the Amerindians based on the moriche palm
(Mauritiaflexuosa), Arabs of the sub-Sahara based on the
date palm (Phoenix ductylifers), South Indians based on the
palmyra palm (BorussusJlabeZZifer), Roto Islanders of Indo-
nesia based on the lontar palm (Borussus sundaicus), Indo-
Pacific islanders based on the coconut (Cocos nucifera),
West Africans based on the oil palm (Hueis quineensis),
and Moluccans based on the sago palm (Metroxylon sagu
Rottboll) (1). Before the emergence of rice, sago (Metroxy-
Zon sugu Rottboll) was the main source of sustenance for the
inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago.
The sago palm (Metroxylon spp.) is 6-14 m tall and ha-
paxantic - that is, it flowers once and dies shortly there-
after. Just before flowering, the plant converts its stored nu-
trients into starch, which tills the trunk. Desiccated products
made from sago starch can be stored for exceptionally long
periods. This dried provision enabled early inhabitants of
e-mail: suraini@putra.upm.edu.my
phone: +603-89468363 fax: +603-89423552
The costs of publication of this article were supported in part by
Grants-in-Aid for Publication Scientific Research Results from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
Japan (no. 143050).
the Malay Archipelago to travel far and wide, and made the
colonisation of the many islands possible. Unfortunately,
sago is now only a minor crop in Peninsular Malaysia, occu-
pying less than 1% of the total agricultural land. The largest
sago-growing areas in Malaysia are to be found outside the
Peninsula, in the state of Sarawak, which is now the world’s
biggest exporter of sago, exporting annually about 25,000 to
40,000 t of sago products to Peninsular Malaysia, Japan,
Taiwan, Singapore, and other countries (Malaysian Agricul-
tural Economics Association, http://www.econ.upm.edu.my/
-pet&ago/sago.html).
Sago is grown in Sarawak as a smallholder crop. The pro-
duction capacity of the sago palm varies from 2-5 t of dry
starch/ha in the wild to lo-25 t/ha in the case of cultivated
plants (2). A clump density of 590palms/acre, or 1480
palms/ha, allows an annual harvest of 125-140palms/year
(1). A well-tended farm can produce 175 kg starch/palm,
giving a total yield of 25 t/ha. In 1987, only 3460 ha were
under sago palm cultivation, but a total area of 61,980 ha
was estimated to be available for production (3). The Land
Custody and Development Authority of Sarawak (PELITA;
a government statutory body) has started to develop two
sago plantations, the Dalat Sago Plantation (1600 ha) lo-
cated on the border between Oya and Igan, and the Mukah
Sago Plantation (20,000 ha) located in the Mukah District.
The underlying aim in these plantations is the application of
modern, scientific agricultural technology and a large-scale

526
VOL. 94,2002
institutional organization to exploit the cultivation of sago,
which has thus far been cultivated in a primitive and semi-
wild manner.
I. TRADITIONAL USES OF THE SAG0 PALM
AND ITS RESIDUES
Like other basic starches, sago starch is tasteless on its
own and is usually flavoured with other foodstuffs. Since
sago contains virtually no fat or protein, it must be supple-
mented with foods obtained from hunting, fishing, gather-
ing, or small gardens. Besides their starch, sago palms are
also treasured for their leaves, which make tine waterproof
thatched roofs. They are strong, and can be woven into
bags, baskets, cages of all sizes, or rope. Sago leaves are
also utilized to make spoons and to wrap food (Singapore
Zoological Gardens Docents, http://www.szgdocent.org/ff/
f-sago.htm).
Another side-product of the sago palm is the sago grub,
which is the larva of the Capricorn beetle (Rhynchophorus
ferrungineus/6ilineatus). The Asmat tribe celebrates special
occasions by consuming the grubs either raw or roasted.
The Korowai also have sago festivals, the preparations for
which last for 3 months. A large party-house is built with all
the special features needed to enjoy the sago grub. These in-
clude a traditional fire that is always kept burning and spe-
cial racks on which to store the grubs. Sago palms are cut
down, sometimes up to 200, holes are made in the trunks to
allow the beetles to enter, and the trunks are then left on the
ground. The beetles, which are only attracted to damaged
palms, quickly lay their eggs in the starchy material. In
about 6 weeks, the beetle larvae are plump and ready to
pupate. Each palm may contain up to 100 sago grubs. The
grubs are harvested by cutting through the palm. The grubs
are eaten raw, or mixed with sago flour and steamed. The
Asmat eat sago mixed with fish, meat or vegetables, wrap-
ped in palm leaves, and roasted on an open fire. Another
favourite is a long sausage about 20 cm long made of sago
mixed with grubs. The most common way to eat sago is to
roll it into fist-sized balls, which are then roasted on an open
fire. As well as the Asmat, sago is also eaten by a wide
range of tribes and traditional people living near swamps
where sago flourishes, e.g., in Borneo. For these people,
sago is often the staple food, providing the bulk of their cal-
ories (Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents).
II. PRESENT USES OF THE SAG0 PALM
AND ITS RESIDUES
After removing cortex, rachis, and leaflets from the pith,
which is probably the most labor-intensive operation in sago
palm processing, starch has to be extracted from the pith.
The non-pith parts of the sago palm trunk are utilized in a
variety of ways (4, 5): as an excellent building material for
local and urban houses, sheds, or other buildings; as a re-
source for cornposting (biofertiliser); as a resource for gas-
ification and energy production; and as an animal feed.
The pith consists mainly of starch, which has to be sepa-
rated from the cellulosic cell walls of the trunk. The residue
from starch extraction is a very strong pollutant because of
its cellulosic fibrous material. Since it is almost purely cel-
SAG0 STARCH AND ITS UTILISATION 527
TABLE 1. Utilization of sago starch
Sag0 palm part Usage/Utilization
Refined saao starch An ingredient of noodles, vermicelli (bee-
hoon)SKuah-Tiau, biscuits, and many other
foods
Used industrially in products such as mono-
sodium glutamate, glucose, caramel (color
milk), fructose, syrups, etc.
Sago fiber Provides bulk for rumen fermention
Sago pitch Used as an animal feedstuff and in the live-
stock industry
Sago fronds Used in the pulp and paper industries
lulosic, mushrooms thrive on this waste. The cultivation of
edible mushrooms on lignocellulosic and cellulosic residues
is well known (6-9), and represents the only current large-
scale controlled application of microbial technology for the
profitable conversion of agroindustry waste. Another appli-
cation lies in its use as additional carbon in anaerobic di-
gesters for the production of biogas.
As part of the effort to convert sago palm-growing into
plantation cultivation, recent years have seen more research
aimed at increasing the utilisation of sago and its residues.
Sago palms have great potential for starch production in
Malaysia. Starch is a well-known and abundant renewable
raw material, and sago is one of its sources. In Malaysia,
sago starch ranks fifth highest in terms of agricultural reve-
nue after pepper, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber. Sago starch
prepared from the pith of several genera of palms in the
form of small whitish, pinkish or brownish grains, is ex-
ported to Europe and America, where it is used mainly for
thickening soups and making puddings. It is widely used in
Indonesia, and in India it is boiled with sugar to make a
jelly. Starch from the sago palm is a natural raw material
alongside that from other important starch-producing plants
such as potato, corn, tapioca, rice, and wheat.
Sarawak exports about 50,000 t of air-dried flour a year
produced from sago palms grown commercially on small-
holdings. By growing sago instead of other commercial
crops that require the draining of peat swamps, the benefits
of such swamps (preventing floods and droughts, and main-
taining a source of clean ground water) can be retained. The
sago palm’s large fibrous roots trap silt and remove heavy
metals and minerals that may poison life further down-
stream. The sago palm also requires no fertilisation and has
few natural pests or diseases. Perhaps sago will eventually
become a key crop that can be grown in areas where it is
impossible for other crops to flourish. Besides its use as a
foodstuff, sago starch can also be utilized to produce ad-
hesives for paper, textiles, and plywood; as a stabilizer in
pharmaceuticals; or converted to other types of food. It is
now widely employed together with other starches in the
production of noodles, monosodium glutamate, and soft
drinks. New uses for sago include in biodegradable plastics,
fuel alcohol, and ethanol (Singapore Zoological Gardens
Docents). Table 1 summarised the utilisation of sago starch
and its residues.
III. MICROBIAL BIOPROCESSING OF STARCH
The production marketable products from starch requires
528 ABD-AZIZ
the conversion of polymer starch into glucose, which can
only be accomplished economically on a large scale using
two enzymes, cc-amylase to loosen the structure of the mol-
ecule and thus lower the viscosity, and amyloglucosidase
for the final formation of glucose. Glucose from sago starch
is used as a substrate in the fermentation industry and also
for the production of high-fructose syrup. It is common
practice to employ carbohydrates as the carbon source in
microbial fermentation processes (10). However, in most
cases the starch must first be hydrolyzed to simpler sugars
before it is readily fermentable. Production of fermentable
sugars from the hydrolysis of starches is normally achieved
by an enzymatic process that comprises two reaction steps,
liquefaction and saccharification, each having different tem-
perature and pH optima with respect to the maximum re-
action rate. This method of starch hydrolysis requires an
expensive temperature control system and a complex mix-
ing device. As an alternative, in our laboratory, we have in-
vestigated the possibility of using amylolytic enzyme-pro-
ducing microorganisms for continuous single-step biologi-
cal hydrolysis of sago flour for the production of a generic
fermentation medium.
The following are some examples of starch processing in-
volving the use of microbial cells:
Enzyme production The fungus Rhizopus oligosporus,
used to make the traditional food tempeh, is a prolific amy-
lase enzyme producer and is known to be free of myco-
toxins, such as aflatoxin. From pilot plant experiments with
cassava tubers containing 65% starch, it has been calculated
that 1 ha bearing 65 t cassava tubers can produce 3500 kg of
microbial protein with highly productive amylase enzymes
to convert approximately 39,000 t of grain or cassava tubers
into glucose (11, 12), which is equivalent to a 1200-ha har-
vest and a glucose yield required for the production of
15.6 million liters of ethanol.
Ethanol production Ethanol is gaining ever-increas-
ing importance as a fuel additive or even as a conventional
non-renewable fuel replacement. Ethanol is able to reduce
significantly the amount of oil imported by developing
countries or it can replace the present fuel, allowing large
savings in import costs or increased revenues from export of
the country’s own oil, both of which will contribute signifi-
cantly toward a strengthening of foreign currency reserves
(13).
There are two technologies available for ethanol produc-
tion: traditional yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae or others)
fermentation and a newly developed bacterial ethanol fer-
mentation technology using Zymomonas mobilis (14) iso-
lated from tropical fruits. This bacterium allows significant-
ly higher ethanol production rates, produces less biomass,
has higher ethanol tolerance and a high protein content with
a much higher amino acid profile, and produces no glycerol
as a by-product. At present, however, plants employ the tra-
TABLE 2. Effect of pH on a-amylase production and hydrolysis of gelatinised sago starch (60 g/1) to reducing sugar
G x
Initial pH
($! (d5 ct
5.5 8.10 14.82 23
6.0 16.69 16.86 36
7.0 15.47 16.56 45
J. Broscr. BIOENG.,
20 25
0 5 10 15
Time (h)
FIG. 1. Growth of recombinant DNA yeast on gelatinised sago
starch and a-amylase production. Fermentation was carried out using
20 g/l sago starch and 5 g/Z yeast extract. The initial culture pH was
5.5. Circles, Cell concentration; diamonds, starch; squares, reducing
sugar; triangles, a-amylase activity.
ditional yeast technology.
Glucose/fermentable sugar production It should be
mentioned here that glucose is an ideal substrate for all
microorganisms, and can thus be used in making a variety
of products, including biopolymers such as dextran, anti-
biotics, acetone, and butanol, some of which may require
expensive downstream processing as well as a microbial
biomass protein (4). In our laboratory, a recombinant DNA
yeast (S. cerevisiue strain YKU 107) (15), kindly provided
by courtesy of Prof. Suteaki Shioya (Department of Bio-
technology, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Univer-
sity), was used to hydrolyse gelatinised sago starch for the
production of fermentable sugar and other related enzymes
that include a-amylase (16). Rapid accumulation of reduc-
ing sugar was observed during active growth, indicating that
starch was hydrolysed by the action of amylolytic enzymes
secreted by the yeast. The highest a-amylase activity and
reducing sugar production was obtained at pH 6 and at a low
operating temperature of 30°C (Fig. 1 and Table 2).
Solid-substrate fermentation of sago ‘hampas’
Sago ‘hampas’ is the fibrous residue left behind after most
of the starch has been washed out of the rasped pith of the
sago palm. Microscopic examination reveals that a large
number of starch granules are trapped within the lignocellu-
losic matrix (17). Dried ‘hampas’ contains about 60-70%
starch on a dry weight basis (18). Studies by Vicki and Shim
(1996) (19) showed the approximate residues of sago ‘ham-
pas’ obtained from nine major factories in Sibu, Sarawak
(Table 3). Myceliophthora thermophilu exhibited reason-
ably good activity against raw sago starch, producing about
Max a-amylase Productivity Yield of a-amylase
activity (U/ml) &wing s&l. h) (U’gS&l)
1.90 0.247 0.352 0.032
2.40 0.281 0.464 0.040
2.15 0.276 0.344 0.036
VOL. 94,2002
TABLE 3. Component analysis of sago ‘hampas’ (18)
Component Percentage
Apparent starch 65.7
Crude fiber 14.8
Crude protein 1.0
Fat n.d.
Ash 4.1
Moisture 59.1
n.d., Not detectable.
1800 IU of raw starch degrading activity per kg of sago
‘hampas’ after 72-h of solid-substrate fermentation.
Whichever technology is used, by-products (which some
call ‘waste’) are formed - mainly CO,, microbial protein,
and aqueous effluent (or stillage). Microbial biomass pro-
tein (MBP) can be used as an animal feed additive since the
solid residue contains 30-34% protein. CO, can either be
compressed to dry ice or transferred into a pond system for
algal cultivation. The stillage can be partially recycled; with
yeast about 30-40% and with bacterial fermentation up to
80%. Otherwise, the stillage contains sufficient nitrogen,
phosphorous, etc. to be employed as a biofertiliser or trans-
ferred into ponds. The process therefore provides at least 3
products: ethanol, CO, as dry ice, and MBP.
OUTLOOK
Single-step biological hydrolysis of sago starch using S.
cerevisiue YKU 107 for the production of fermentable sugar
was successfully carried out in batch fermentation mode at
low temperature (30°C) (20). Although in a previous study
(21) the yield from biological hydrolysis was lower than
that from enzymatic hydrolysis, the process generated cell
biomass from which protein could be extracted and used as
a nitrogen source in a fermentation medium. If biological
hydrolysis were carried out using a continuous-type biore-
actor, the outflow, after being sterilized, could be used as a
generic fermentation medium containing both C and N
sources.
In summary, the sago palm can provide the community
with housing materials, bioenergy, mushroom cultivation,
an enzyme industry, ethanol, microbial biomass protein for
feed, sago flour or meal for food, and effluent as a biofer-
tiliser.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful for financial support of this research
project from the National Biotechnology Directorate, Ministry of
Science, Technology and Environment, Malaysia, under the “Top-
Down” Biotechnology Programme and from the Japan Society for
the Promotion Science (JSPS, Group 3) under the Large-Scale
Cooperative Research program in Biotechnology (JSPS-NRCT/
DOSTILIPINCC).
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