RRL

Soil Analysis

Soil Analysis in Agriculture is given importance by United States Department of

Agriculture: Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment as it ensures optimization

of crop production, protects environment from contamination by the runoff and leaching

of excess fertilizers, helps in diagnosis of plant culture problems, improves nutritional

balance of the growing media and lastly saves money and conserves energy by

applying only the needed amount needed.

Soil analysis is a valuable tool for farms as it determines the inputs required for

efficient and economic production. A proper soil test will help ensure the application of

enough fertilizer to meet the requirements of the crop while taking advantage of the

nutrients already present in the soil. It will also allow you to determine lime requirements

and can be used to diagnose problem areas. It is very important that your sampling

technique is correct as the results are only as good as the sample you take. Soil testing

is also a requirement for farms that must complete a nutrient management plan.

Soil analysis consists of various chemical processes that determine amounts of

available soil plant nutrients, chemical, physical and biological soil properties that is

important for plant nutrition or what we call Soil Health. Chemical Soil Analysis determines

the presence and percentage of essential nutrients Nitrogen, Phosphorous and

Potassium. It aims to determine the availability of nutrients and if there is a need for their

presence, predict yield increase and probability of fertilization which includes calculating
the needed fertilizing and evaluate the status supply of each nutrient element and

determine how to address it. (Folnovik, 2014)

To ensure balanced plant nutrition, one must apply the nutrients that cannot be

supplied by the soil in right amounts; to do this, soil analysis must be used to determine

how much of each nutrient the soil provides to the crop and what are the specific

conditions of the soil that needs to be addressed.

In this research study there are three parts of Soil Analysis that this study wants to

utilize to fulfil its objectives namely: Soil Texture and Type, Soil Nutrients and Soil Ph

Level which involves both Soil Acidity and Soil Alkalinity.

Soil Texture and Type

The Physical properties of soil can be seen by the naked eye or with the usage of

our other senses. The physical component comprise of color; texture, structure, internal

drainage, depth and susceptibility to erosion.

First, the color indicates the soil condition such as organic matter content. Darker

soils mean that the soil contains more organic matter than lighter. Second, texture merely

depends on the amounts of sand, silt and clay. Third, the structure which depends in the

size and arrangement of the pieces called soil aggregates.

According to USDA, Soil Aggregates are one of the soil quality indicators, because

this affects erosion, entry of water and plant root growth. What is desired of the soil

aggregates is its’ stability against rainfall and water movement. The breakdowns because
of unstable aggregates creates crusts that close pores and water and air pathways and

restrict emergence of seedlings.

Soil Nutrients

The chemical properties of the soil involve the management of soil nutrients in the

most basic level, the pH level, cation exchange measures the relative acidity and alkalinity

of a soil solution. The measurement ranges from one to fourteen.

The soil supplies essential nutrients for plant health, the nutrients that is taken in

the greatest amounts by the plant are the essential nutrients, Specifically, Nitrogen,

Phosphorous and Potassium. These three have different roles for plant health, Nitrogen

is needed to produce amino acids for building proteins and the lack of nitrogen could

cause stunted growth and yellow leaf colouring. On the other hand, Phosphorous is

needed in developing healthy root systems normally seed development, uniform crop

maturation, photosynthesis, respiration and cell division. Lastly, Potassium is responsible

for the regular of water usage of plants, resistance to disease, stem strength,

photosynthesis and protein synthesis, a deficiency in potassium will result to microsis of

older leaf margins and poor root system.

Soil Acidity

One of the major factors that influence the plant growth is the soil pH which affects

the abundance, activity and types of organisms in return, it greatly affects the condition
of the plants in terms of the nutrients transformation and its solubility in plants (Hons,

2017).

In order for the plants to produce a good quality of products, it requires sufficient

nutrients and minerals from the ground where it is planted. Different areas have different

soil pH since each area has different characteristics as it experiences various climate

conditions. Soil pH gives a lot of benefits to the soil such as making the ground fertile and

suitable for agriculture that is capable to produce crops.

Soil pH makes the production of plants more excellent quality however it always

depends on the given value. Hence, when the soil pH is lesser or greater amount than

what is required it may cause ailments to the plants. Soil pH that has a value of 4.0 is 10

times more acidic rather than the pH soil value of 5.0 and 100 times more acidic with a

soil ph 6.0. Thus, a soil pH of 3.5 is 1000 times more acidic than ph soil of 6.5 (Dagoon,

2000).

A value that is greater than 7.0 is considered to be acidic since it lacks potassium

and calcium that plants must possess, this may force it to weaken or produce low quality

of fruits or vegetables while a soil with a pH value that has lesser than 4.0 may cause soil

to have less acid that causes the soil to experience too much moisture that can lead to

leaching and be waterlogged—a state not suitable for planting crops.

Another factor that may affect the soil acidity is the fertilization that is used in the

previous crops; fertilizers with the presence of Ammonium is a notable example. Air

pollution that contains Sulfur Dioxide and Nitric Acid that mostly produced by industrial

factory which also affects the soil acidity as it is absorbed by soil through rainfall. This
phenomena usually happens because of the human activities occurring near the area

(Perton Media Inc., 2017).

Gardeners and farmers usually use fertilizers to make their plants to grow to its

desire beauty and produce a good quality of products. However, after those plants were

harvested, it may leave high acidity to the soil which may also affect the next crops that

will be growing in that area. The more the farmers uses fertilizers to their crop, the higher

the rate of the increase of the soil acidity. The pollution in the society and the environment

greatly affects the properties of the soil since most of the pollution can affect the ground

the soil’s ability to absorb water and some air.

Soil Alkalinity

The alkalinity of the soil also affects the production of the crops, this may differ in

terms of the value of pH soil in the area. An 8.5 value of soil pH is 10 times greater alkaline

than a 7.5 pH soil but has lesser amount of 100 times of alkaline than a soil that has a pH

value of 9.5 (Dagoon, 2000).

Too much alkalinity in the soil is not suitable for planting crops since it can stiffen

the roots which causes the soil to limit the absorption of water that results to deficiency of

phosphorous and zinc. It may delay the production of fruits and vegetables to its supposed

growth or worst, it may result to failure of growing of crops.

According to Perton Media Inc(2017), A lot of human activities causes the alkalinity

of the soil to increase. One of the human activities which affects the properties of the soil,

especially its alkalinity, is the irrigation of water which contains high bicarbonates. Once
the soil absorb the water it slowly increases the soil pH, at the same time, also increases

the alkalinity of the soil.

Crop Nutrition

Different crops need different amounts of Nutrients, especially the essential ones:

Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. Plants require more nitrogen (N) than any other

nutrient but only a small portion of the nitrogen in soil is available to plants; 98 % of the

nitrogen in soil is in organic forms. Most forms of organic nitrogen cannot be taken up

by plants, with the exception of some small organic molecules.

The level of soil nitrogen supply that best balances the benefits and risks varies

depending on the clay content of soil. In sand soils, the best balance is achieved by a

“Moderate” soil nitrogen supply (25 – 50 mg-N/kg soil). In contrast, in loam and clay

soils “High” soil nitrogen supply is most suitable (50 – 75 and 75 – 125 mg-N/kg soil

respectively).

In soils there are two types of Nitrogen, Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen (Plant

and Soil Sciences eLibrary 2018) Several organic compounds (compounds containing

carbon) which compose the organic fraction of nitrogen in soil exist as decomposing

plant and animal residues which are considered to be relatively stable products of

decomposition-resistant compounds and humus, during soil development. Nitrogen has

accumulated in these organic fractions. (Harmsen& Kolenbrander,1965) discusses that

most of the nitrogen in normal soils is organically bound. There is only a small fraction

available in the inorganic form. However, the latter is available for the direct
consumption of plants. The organic nitrogenous substances in the soil is considered as

the potential reserve of N for the plant nutrition.

Plants need amounts of phosphorous as well, there is no specific fraction

available of phosphorous in soils (Beagle & Durst). The available phosphorus in the

solution plus the expected material to be soluble from minerals and organic matter

during the growing season. Soil test, cannot extract the exact amount available from the

soil but the number or the amount that will. In usage of Mehlich 3 Soil Test usage, it is

between 30 and 50 ppm phosphorus where optimum production of agronomic crops is

seen.

According to Plant and Soil Science ebrary, Phosphorus is a part of the complex

nucleic acid structure of plants that takes part in protein synthesis. Therefore, this is

important in cell division and tissue development. To promote root growth and winter

hardiness, tillering stimulant and fast maturity, Phosphorus is added to the soil Plants

that have low phosphorus are stunted in growth and have abnormal green color, with

this, sugars can also accumulate and cause anthocyanin pigments to develop, causing

a reddish-purple color.

Potassium (K) enhances disease resistance in plants by strengthening stalks and

stems, contributes to a thicker cuticle (leaf surface layer) which guards against disease

and water loss, controls the turgor pressure within plants to prevent wilting, and

enhances fruit size, flavor, texture and development. Soil potassium is found in three

forms; trapped between clay layers (relatively unavailable), adsorbed on the surface of

soil colloids (exchangeable), and in the soil solution (available). Available potassium
supply for maximum crop production depends on the type of clay mineral in the soil

parent material (some minerals have more potassium than others) and its resistance to

weathering actions.

Methodology

Process/Soil Analysis Procedures

Laboratory for SOP 2

Nitrogen Determination by Kjeldahl Method

The Kjeldahl method is used to determine the nitrogen content in organic and

inorganic samples. The said method has been used for longer than 100 years in

nitrogen determination in a wide range of samples. It is an official method and it is

described in different normatives such as AOAC, USEPA, ISO, DIN, Pharmacopeias

and different European Directives.

The Kjeldahl procedure involves three major steps: Digestion, Distillation and

Titration. The aim of the digestion procedure is to break all nitrogen bonds in the sample

and convert all of the organically bonded nitrogen into ammonium ions (NH4 +). Organic

carbon and hydrogen form carbon dioxide and water. In this process the organic

material carbonizes which can be visualized by the transformation of the sample into
black foam. During the digestion the foam decomposes and finally a clear liquid

indicates the completion of the chemical reaction.

Equipments Needed:

1. Sulfuric Acid

2. Potassium Sulfate

3. Sodium Hydroxide

4. Steam Distillation Setup

5. Absorbing Solution with Boric Acid

First, the sample is mixed with sulfuric acid at temperatures between 350 and

380 ºC. The higher the temperature used, the faster digestion can be obtained. The

speed of the digestion can be greatly improved by the addition of salt and catalysts.

Second, Potassium sulfate is added in order to increase the boiling point of

sulfuric acid and catalysts are added in order to increase the speed and efficiency of the

digestion procedure. Oxidizing agents can also be added to improve the speed even

further.

Third, During the distillation step the ammonium ions (NH4 +) are converted into

ammonia (NH3 ) by adding alkali (NaOH).

Fourth, The ammonia (NH3 ) is transferred into the receiver vessel by means of

steam distillation.

Fifth,The receiving vessel for the distillate is filled with an absorbing solution

which involve aqueous boric acid [B(OH)3 ] of 2-4% concentration in order to capture
the dissolved ammonia gas. The ammonia is quantitatively captured by the boric acid

solution forming solvated ammonium ions.

The concentration of the captured ammonium ions can be determined through

direct titration. When using the boric acid solution as absorbing solution, an acid-base

titration is performed using standard solutions of sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid and a

mixture of indicators. Depending on the amount of ammonium ions present,

concentrations in the range of 0.01N to 0.5N are used. Alternatively the end point can

be determined potentiometrically with a pH-electrode.

Reference: PanReac AppliChem ITW Reagents

S. R. OLSEN AND L. E. SOMMERS method for Phosphorous Test

The Olsen test, which is based on extraction with 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate, is

an effective choice for agronomic purposes in regions where soils are neutral or

calcareous.
 The method is based on the use of the HCO3 - , CO3 -3 and OH in the pH 8.5,

0.5M NaHCO3 solution to decrease the solution concentrations of soluble Ca2 by

precipitation as CaCO3 and soluble Al3+ and Fe+3 by formation of Al and Fe

oxyhydroxides, thus increasing P solubility. The increased surface negative charges

and/or decreased number of sorption sites on Fe and Al oxide surfaces at high pH

levels also enhance desorption of available P into solution. An Olsen P value of 10 mg

P/kg is generally considered to be optimum for plant growth.

Equipment:

1. No. 10 (2 mm opening) sieve

2. Standard 1 g and 2 g stainless steel soil scoops

3. Automatic extractant dispenser, 25 mL capacity

4. Extraction vessels, such as 50 mL Erlenmeyer flasks, and filter funnels (9 and 11

cm) and racks

5. Rotating or reciprocating shaker with a capability of 200 excursions per minute

(epm)

6. Whatman No. 42 or No. 2 (or equivalent) filter paper, 9 to 11 cm. (Acid resistant

filter paper may be needed if using an automated method for determining P

concentration by intensity of color. Bits of filter paper may cause an obstruction in

the injection valves.)

Reagents:
 1. Olsen P Extracting Solution (0.5M NaHCO3, pH 8.5): Dissolve 420 g commercial

grade sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in distilled water and make to a final

volume of 10 L. Note that a magnetic stirrer or electric mixer is needed to

dissolve the NaHCO3. Adjust extracting solution pH to 8.5 with 50% sodium

hydroxide.

Procedure:

Scoop or weigh 1 g of soil into a 50 mL Erlenmeyer flask, tapping the scoop on the

funnel or flask to remove all of the soil from the scoop.

Add 20 mL of extracting solution to each flask and shake at 200 or more epm for 30

minutes at a room temperature at 24 to 270 C

If it is necessary to obtain a colorless filtrate, add 1 cm3 (~200 mg) of charcoal (DARCO

G60, J. T. Baker, Phillipburg, NJ) to each flask.

Filter extracts through Whatman No. 42 filter paper or through a similar grade of paper.

Refilter if extracts are not clear.

Analyze for P by colorimetry or inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy using

a blank and standards prepared in the Olsen P extracting solution.

Calculations: Olsen Extractable P (mg P/kg soil) = [Concentration of P in Olsen extract,

mg/L ] x [ 0.020 L extract ÷ 0.001 kg soil]

References:

Fixen, P.E. and J.H. Grove. 1990. Testing soils for phosphorus. p. 141-180.
In R.L. Westerman (ed.) Soil Testing and Plant Analysis. SSSA, Madison, WI. Kuo, S.

1996. Phosphorus. p. 869-919.

In D.L. Sparks. (ed.). Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 3- Chemical Methods. SSSA,

Madison, WI. Olsen, S.R., C.V. Cole, F.S. Watanabe, and L.A. Dean. 1954.

Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate.

USDA Circular 939. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. Schoenau, J.J.

and R.E. Karamanos. 1993.

Sodium bicarbonate extractable P, K, and N. p. 51-58. In M. R. Carter (ed.) Soil

Sampling and Methods of Analysis. Can. Soc. Soil Sci., Ottawa, Ontario.

Soil Potassium Test

Alternative

On the use of Hibiscus subdariffa flower extract as natural acid-base indicator

The Hibiscus subdariffa contains anthocyanine i.e. a pigment usually responsible for

pink, red, purple, violet and blue colours in flowering plants. The dye extracted from the

flower of the plant changes its colour according to the hydrogen ion concentration of the

solution. As such, may be utilized as an acid - base indicator in neutralization titrations.

The chief characteristic of pH indicators is that their colour change from a predominantly
alkaline colour is not sudden but takes place within intervals of pH. This is termed the

colour-change intervals of indicators.

The position of the colour-change intervals in the pH scale varies widely with different

indicators. The indicator is weak acid (or base) and their equilibria in aqueous solution

may be written as follows; Ind KH H H O a Ind a a Ind • 3 + = where KHlnd is known as

the thermodynamic equilibrium constant. Ind KH H H O a Ind a a Ind • 3 + = where

[Hind] and [Ind] are concentrations of the acidic and basic forms of indicator respectively

-VHInd and Vlnd are their activity coefficient and a = activity. Ind Ind Ind Ind V VH Log

Ind H pH = pKH − Log − [ ] [ ] Most acid - base indicators are organic compounds

exhibiting the properties of weak acids or bases. The reactions of proton transfer for

such substances are attended by structural changes with the formation, disappearance

or change in the chromophoric groups. In monochromatic indicators, the chromophoric

groups are contained in only one form of the indicator (protonated or deprotonated),

while in dichromatic indicators, these groups are present in the structure of both forms [

Sample Collection Dried flower (Zobo calyces) was purchased from Samaru-Zaria

market. The dried flower was powdered in a mortar and then kept in plastic bottles.

Extraction of Pigment 0.25g of the dried powdered sample was extracted at room

temperature with 25ml of distilled water, then centrifuged at 15000rpm for 15minutes.

The extract solution was filtered off through a Whatman filter No.1 paper and then used

for investigation (Spectrophotometric method). Buffer Solution Thiel - Schulzbuffers

were prepared from oxalic, boric, succinic acids, sodium sulphate, borax and sodium

carbonate to obtain the series of buffer solutions. Determination of pKIn using

Spectrophotometric Method 1ml of flower extract (pigment) and 1M NaClO4 (0.5ml)

were transferred into a volumetric flask (5ml) and made to the mark with each of the

buffer solutions. The absorption spectrum of the solution was measured using UV-

visible SP 8 - 100 spectrophotomer against blank buffer solution. Acid - Base Titration

To compare the sensitivity of the flower pigment with the synthetic acid-base indicators,

different concentrations (0.01, 0.1 and 1M) of HCl were prepared and then titrated

against NaOH using methylorange indicator and flower extract (pigment).