1.

1 The
Steering Wheel
1.Automobile Engines 2.Cooling Systems 3.Charging Systems 4.Fuel System
5.Brakes

The steering wheel is the center device for the driver. The steering wheel is
connected to and controls the wheels by the axle. By turning the steering wheel in a
direction, what you are actually turning are the vehicle's wheels; hence steering
wheel. The steering wheels that are in newer cars are usually powered. This means
that the steering is much more sensitive and easier to handle. In older cars, this was
not available and you are using a lot more muscle to turn the wheels.

Always keep your hands on the steering wheel to keep the car positioned within your
lane or roadway.
To make a right turn or to maneuver a right curve, you must turn the steering wheel to
the right and guide the vehicle to the degree of that right turn or angle.
To make a left turn or to maneuver a left curve, you must turn the steering wheel to
the left and guide the vehicle to the degree of that left angle.
The left hand should be positioned at 9 o'clock and the right hand should be
positioned at 3 o'clock

Understanding
your dashboard gauges
The minimum number of gauges on a passenger car dashboard are the speedometer and
the fuel gauge. The most common additional gauge is the temperature gauge followed by
the tachometer, voltmeter and oil pressure gauge. If your car does not have a temperature
gauge, oil pressure gauge or charging system gauge, then you will have a warning light
for these functions.
The most common configuration in today's family car is: Speedometer, Tachometer, Fuel
& Temperature.

Note: To find out more about the gauges on your car, the best source of information
is your owner's manual.
● Speedometer
● The most used of the gauges. The speedometer is usually driven by a cable that
spins inside a flexible tube. The cable is connected on one side to the
speedometer, and on the other side to the speedometer gear inside the
transmission. Some newer vehicles have eliminated the cable and use an
electronic sensor to measure wheel speed and send the signal to an electronically
driven speedometer. The accuracy of the speedometer can be affected by the
size of the tires. If the tires are larger in diameter than original equipment, the
speedometer will read that you are going slower then you actually are. Another
cause for inaccurate speed readings is an improper speedometer gear inside the
transmission. This can sometimes happen after a replacement transmission has
been installed. Most good transmission shops are aware of this and will make
sure that the correct speedometer gear is the new transmission.
●
●
● Fuel Gauge
 Deliberately designed to be inaccurate! After
you fill up the tank, the gauge will stay on full for a long time, then slowly drop until it reads
3/4 full. After that, it moves progressively faster until the last quarter of a tank seems to go
very quickly. This is a bit of psychological slight-of-hand to give the impression that the car
gets better gas mileage then it does, it seems to reduce the number of complaints from
new car buyers during the first few weeks after they bought the car.
The fuel gauge shown here is probably more accurate than most. Notice the difference
between 3/4 to full and empty to 1/4.
When the needle drops below E, there is usually 1 or 2 gallons left in reserve. To find out
for sure, pull out your owners manual and find out how many gallons of gas your tank
holds, then the next time you fill up an empty tank, check how many gallons it took to fill it.
The difference is your reserve.
Note: It is not a good idea to let your tank drop below 1/4. This is because your fuel
pump is submerged in fuel at the bottom of the tank. The liquid fuel helps to keep the fuel
pump cool. If the fuel level goes too low and uncovers the pump, the pump will run hotter
than normal. If you do this often enough, it can shorten the life of the fuel pump and
eventually cause it to fail.
● Temperature Gauge or warning lamp
●
● This gauge measures the temperature of the engine coolant in degrees. When you
first start the car, the gauge will read cold. If you turn the heater on when the
engine is cold, it will blow cold air. When the gauge starts moving away from cold,
you can then turn the heater on and get warm air.
● Most temperature gauges do not show degrees like the one pictured here. Instead
they will read cold, hot, and have a normal range as pictured in the dash panel
above.
●
● It is very important to monitor the temperature gauge to be sure that your engine is
not overheating. If you notice that the gauge is reading much hotter than it usually
is and the outside temperature is not unusually hot, have the cooling system
checked as soon as possible. Note: If the temperature gauge moves all the
way to hot, or if the temperature warning light comes on, the engine is
overheating! Safely pull off the road and turn the engine off and let it cool.
An overheating engine can quickly cause serious engine damage!
●
●
● Tachometer

●
● The tachometer measures how fast the engine is turning in RPM (Revolutions Per
Minute). This information is useful if your car has a standard shift transmission and
you want to shift at the optimum RPM for best fuel economy or best acceleration.
 One of the least used gauges on a car with an automatic transmission. You should
never race your engine so fast that the tach moves into the red zone as this can
cause engine damage. Some engines are protected by the engine computer from
going into the red zone. Usually, the tachometer shows single digit markings like
1, 2, 3 etc. Somewhere, you will also see an indicator that says RPM x 1000.
This means that you multiply the reading by 1000 to get the actual RPM, so if the
needle is pointing to 2, the engine is running at 2000 RPM.
●
●
● Oil Pressure Gauge or warning lamp

●
● Measures engine oil pressure in pounds per square inch. Oil pressure is just as
important to an engine as blood pressure is to a person. If you run an engine
with no oil pressure even for less then a minute, you can easily destroy it.
Most cars have an oil lamp that lights when oil pressure is dangerously low. If it
comes on while you're driving, stop the vehicle as soon as is safely possible and
shut off the engine. Then, check the oil level and add oil as necessary.
●
●
● Charging system gauge or warning lamp
●

●
● The charging system is what provides the electrical current for your vehicle.
Without a charging system, your battery will soon be depleted and your vehicle will
shut down. The charging system gauge or warning lamp monitors the health of this
system so that you have a warning of a problem before you get stuck.
● When a charging problem is indicated, you can still drive a short distance to find
help unlike an oil pressure or coolant temperature problem which can cause
 serious engine damage if you continue to drive. The worst that can happen is that
you get stuck in a bad location.
● A charging system warning lamp is a poor indicator of problems in that there are
many charging problems that it will not recognize. If it does light while you are
driving, it usually means the charging system is not working at all. The most
common cause is a broken alternator belt.
● There are two types of gauges used to monitor charging systems: a voltmeter
which measures system voltage and an ammeter which measures amperage.
Most modern cars that have gauges use a voltmeter because it is a much better
indicator of charging system health. A voltmeter is usually the first tool a technician
uses when checking out a charging system

A modern automobile has a 12 volt electrical system. A fully charged battery will read
about 12.5 volts when the engine is not running. When the engine is running, the charging
system takes over so that the voltmeter will read 14 to 14.5 volts and should stay there
unless there is a heavy load on the electrical system such as wipers, lights, heater and
rear defogger all operating together while the engine is idling at which time the voltage
may drop. If the voltage drops below 12.5, it means that the battery is providing some of
the current. You may notice that your dash lights dim at this point. If this happens for an
extended period, the battery will run down and may not have enough of a charge to start
the car after shutting it off. This should never happen with a healthy charging system
because as soon as you step on the gas, the charging system will recharge the battery. If
the voltage is constantly below 14 volts, you should have the system checked. If the
voltage ever goes above 15 volts, there is a problem with the voltage regulator. Have the
system checked as soon as possible as this "overcharging" condition can cause damage
to your electrical system.
If you think of electricity as water, voltage is like water pressure, whereas amperage is like
the volume of water. If you increase pressure, then more water will flow through a given
size pipe, but if you increase the size of the pipe, more water will flow at a lower pressure.
An ammeter will read from negative amperage when the battery is providing most of the
current thereby depleting itself to positive amperage if most of the current is coming from
the charging system. If the battery is fully charged and there is minimal electrical demand,
then the ammeter should read close to zero, but should always be on the positive side of
zero. It is normal for the ammeter to read a high positive amperage in order to recharge
the battery after starting, but it should taper off in a few minutes. If it continues to read
more than 10 or 20 amps even though the lights, wipers and other electrical devices are
turned off, you may have a weak battery and should have it checked.
Knowing Your Automobile
You need to know where the following controls are located and how they work, Every
vehicle is put together differently,so make sure before you start to drive you know where
things are.After you have checked everything you are now ready to go out and practice.

4-way flashers
heater/defroster
windshield wipers
emergency and parking brakes
headlights
horn
seat adjustments
turn signals

Before Starting The Vehicle

1. Adjusts mirrors.
2. Fastens safety belt.

Starting The Vehicle

1. Vehicle is in �Park� or �Neutral.�
2. Foot on brake.
3. Starts vehicle smoothly.

Moving Forward
1. Signals.
2. Looks over shoulder before pulling into traffic.
3. Uses both hands on opposite sides of steering wheel.

Stopping
1. Stops when necessary behind crosswalk or limit line.
2. Uses correct foot on brake pedal.

Turns
1. Signals and slows for turns.
2. Begins and ends turns in correct lane.
3. Yields right-of-way when necessary.
4. Accepts legal right-of-way when safe.
5. Sees and reacts to hazards.

Backing
1. Looks back over right shoulder when backing.
2. Checks mirrors and glances quickly to side while backing.

Changing Lanes
1. Signals.
2. Checks mirrors.
3. Checks over shoulder.
4. Changes lanes safely.

Hill Parking
1. Signals.
2. Curbs wheel properly.
3. Sets parking brake.
4. Signals and checks over shoulder before entering traffic.

Parallel Parking
1. Signals.
2. Looks over shoulder while backing.
3. Yields to other vehicles when necessary.

Entering The Freeway

1. Checks traffic flow.
2. Signals.
 3. Times entry into freeway.
4. Checks over shoulder as he or she accelerates into gap in traffic.
5. Signals early and slows down on the exit ramp to posted speed limit.
6. Adjusts speed to road conditions.

Defensive Driving Techniques

1. Checks mirrors frequently and before braking.
2. Checks cross streets before entering intersections.
3. Checks signal lights and signs.
4. Keeps eyes �moving� (watches sides and middle of road).
5. Keeps a �space cushion� around the car.
6. Follows at a safe distance.

A good place to practice these maneuvers; once you have your permit is an empty
parking lot.

Examples of Practice Driving Steps

1.1.2 A Short Course on Cooling

Systems

● What is a cooling system?

● How does a cooling system work?
● The components of a cooling system
● Cooling system maintenance & Repair
What is a Cooling System?
A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour
will produce 4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark
plugs ignite the fuel in each cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously,
these explosions produce an enormous amount of heat and, if not controlled, will
destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling these high temperatures is the
job of the cooling system.
The modern cooling system has not changed much from the cooling systems in the
model T back in the '20s. Oh sure, it has become infinitely more reliable and
efficient at doing it's job, but the basic cooling system still consists of liquid coolant
being pumped by a mechanical water pump through the engine, then out to the
radiator to be cooled by the air stream coming through the front grill of the vehicle.
Today's cooling system must maintain the engine at a constant temperature whether
the outside air temperature is 110 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 below zero. If the
engine temperature is too low, fuel economy will suffer and emissions will rise. If the
temperature is allowed to get too hot for too long, the engine will self destruct.

How Does a Cooling System Work?

Actually, there are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles: Liquid
cooled and Air cooled. Air cooled engines are found on a few older cars, like the
original Volkswagen Beetle, the Chevrolet Corvair and a few others. Many modern
motorcycles still use air cooling, but for the most part, automobiles and trucks use
liquid cooled systems and that is what this article will concentrate on.
The cooling system is made up of the passages inside the engine block and heads,
a water pump to circulate the coolant, a thermostat to control the temperature of the
coolant, a radiator to cool the coolant, a radiator cap to control the pressure in the
system, and some plumbing consisting of interconnecting hoses to transfer the
coolant from the engine to radiator and also to the car's heater system where hot
coolant is used to warm up the vehicle's interior on a cold day.
A cooling system works by sending a liquid coolant through passages in the engine
block and heads. As the coolant flows through these passages, it picks up heat
from the engine. The heated fluid then makes its way through a rubber hose to the
radiator in the front of the car. As it flows through the thin tubes in the radiator, the
hot liquid is cooled by the air stream entering the engine compartment from the grill
in front of the car. Once the fluid is cooled, it returns to the engine to absorb more
heat. The water pump has the job of keeping the fluid moving through this system
of plumbing and hidden passages.
A thermostat is placed between the engine and the radiator to make sure that the
coolant stays above a certain preset temperature. If the coolant temperature falls
below this temperature, the thermostat blocks the coolant flow to the radiator, forcing
the fluid instead through a bypass directly back to the engine. The coolant will
continue to circulate like this until it reaches the design temperature, at which point,
the thermostat will open a valve and allow the coolant back through the radiator.
In order to prevent the coolant from boiling, the cooling system is designed to be
pressurized. Under pressure, the boiling point of the coolant is raised considerably.
However, too much pressure will cause hoses and other parts to burst, so a system
is needed to relieve pressure if it exceeds a certain point. The job of maintaining the
pressure in the cooling system belongs to the radiator cap. The cap is designed to
release pressure if it reaches the specified upper limit that the system was designed
to handle. Prior to the '70s, the cap would release this extra pressure to the
pavement. Since then, a system was added to capture any released fluid and store
it temporarily in a reserve tank. This fluid would then return to the cooling system
after the engine cooled down. This is what is called a closed cooling system.
Circulation
The coolant follows a path that takes it from the water pump, through passages
inside the engine block where it collects the heat produced by the cylinders. It then
flows up to the cylinder head (or heads in a V type engine) where it collects more
heat from the combustion chambers. It then flows out past the thermostat (if the
thermostat is opened to allow the fluid to pass), through the upper radiator hose and
into the radiator. The coolant flows through the thin flattened tubes that make up the
core of the radiator and is cooled by the air flow through the radiator. From there, it
flows out of the radiator, through the lower radiator hose and back to the water
pump. By this time, the coolant is cooled off and ready to collect more heat from the
engine.
The capacity of the system is engineered for the type and size of the engine and the
work load that it is expected to undergo. Obviously, the cooling system for a larger,
more powerful V8 engine in a heavy vehicle will need considerably more capacity
then a compact car with a small 4 cylinder engine. On a large vehicle, the radiator is
larger with many more tubes for the coolant to flow through. The radiator is also
wider and taller to capture more air flow entering the vehicle from the grill in front.
Antifreeze

The coolant that courses

through the engine and associated plumbing must be able to withstand
temperatures well below zero without freezing. It must also be able to handle
engine temperatures in excess of 250 degrees without boiling. A tall order for any
fluid, but that is not all. The fluid must also contain rust inhibiters and a lubricant.
The coolant in today's vehicles is a mixture of ethylene glycol (antifreeze) and water.
The recommended ratio is fifty-fifty. In other words, one part antifreeze and one part
water. This is the minimum recommended for use in automobile engines. Less
antifreeze and the boiling point would be too low. In certain climates where the
temperatures can go well below zero, it is permissible to have as much as 75%
antifreeze and 25% water, but no more than that. Pure antifreeze will not work
properly and can cause a boil over.
Antifreeze is poisonous and should be kept away from people and animals,
especially dogs and cats, who are attracted by the sweet taste. Ethylene Glycol, if
ingested, will form calcium oxalate crystals in the kidneys which can cause acute
renal failure and death.
The Components of a Cooling System
● The Radiator
● Radiator Cooling Fans
● Pressure Cap & Reserve Tank
● Water Pump
● Thermostat
● Bypass System
● Freeze Plugs
● Head Gaskets & Intake Manifold Gaskets
● Heater Core
● Hoses
The Radiator
The radiator core is usually made of flattened aluminum tubes with aluminum strips
that zigzag between the tubes. These fins transfer the heat in the tubes into the air
stream to be carried away from the vehicle. On each end of the radiator core is a
tank, usually made of plastic that covers the ends of the radiator,
On most modern radiators, the tubes run horizontally with the plastic tank on either
side. On other cars, the tubes run vertically with the tank on the top and bottom. On
older vehicles, the core was made of copper and the tanks were brass. The new
aluminum-plastic system is much more efficient, not to mention cheaper to produce.
On radiators with plastic end caps, there are gaskets between the aluminum core
and the plastic tanks to seal the system and keep the fluid from leaking out. On
older copper and brass radiators, the tanks were brazed (a form of welding) in order
to seal the radiator.
The tanks, whether plastic or brass, each have a large hose connection, one
mounted towards the top of the radiator to let the coolant in, the other mounted at
the bottom of the radiator on the other tank to let the coolant back out. On the top of
the radiator is an additional opening that is capped off by the radiator cap. More on
this later.
Another component in the radiator for vehicles with an automatic transmission is a
separate tank mounted inside one of the tanks. Fittings connect this inner tank
through steel tubes to the automatic transmission. Transmission fluid is piped
through this tank inside a tank to be cooled by the coolant flowing past it before
returning the the transmission.
Radiator Fans
Mounted on the back of the radiator on the side closest to the engine is one or two
electric fans inside a housing that is designed to protect fingers and to direct the air
flow.
These fans are there to keep the air flow going through the radiator while the vehicle
is going slow or is stopped with the engine running. If these fans stopped working,
every time you came to a stop, the engine temperature would begin rising. On older
systems, the fan was connected to the front of the water pump and would spin
whenever the engine was running because it was driven by a fan belt instead of an
electric motor. In these cases, if a driver would notice the engine begin to run hot in
stop and go driving, the driver might put the car in neutral and rev the engine to turn
the fan faster which helped cool the engine. Racing the engine on a car with a
malfunctioning electric fan would only make things worse because you are
producing more heat in the radiator with no fan to cool it off.
The electric fans are controlled by the vehicle's computer. A temperature sensor
monitors engine temperature and sends this information to the computer. The
computer determines if the fan should be turned on and actuates the fan relay if
additional air flow through the radiator is necessary.
If the car has air conditioning, there is an additional radiator mounted in front of the
normal radiator. This "radiator" is called the air conditioner condenser, which also
needs to be cooled by the air flow entering the engine compartment. You can find
out more about the air conditioning condenser by going to our article on Automotive
Air Conditioning. As long as the air conditioning is turned on, the system will keep
the fan running, even if the engine is not running hot. This is because if there is no
air flow through the air conditioning condenser, the air conditioner will not be able to
cool the air entering the interior.
Pressure cap and reserve tank
 As coolant gets hot, it expands. Since the
cooling system is sealed, this expansion causes an increase in pressure in the
cooling system, which is normal and part of the design. When coolant is under
pressure, the temperature where the liquid begins to boil is considerably higher.
This pressure, coupled with the higher boiling point of ethylene glycol, allows the
coolant to safely reach temperatures in excess of 250 degrees.
The radiator pressure cap is a simple device that will maintain pressure in the
cooling system up to a certain point. If the pressure builds up higher than the set
pressure point, there is a spring loaded valve, calibrated to the correct Pounds per
Square Inch (psi), to release the pressure.

When the cooling system pressure

reaches the point where the cap needs to release this excess pressure, a small
amount of coolant is bled off. It could happen during stop and go traffic on an
extremely hot day, or if the cooling system is malfunctioning. If it does release
pressure under these conditions, there is a system in place to capture the released
coolant and store it in a plastic tank that is usually not pressurized. Since there is
now less coolant in the system, as the engine cools down a partial vacuum is
formed. The radiator cap on these closed systems has a secondary valve to allow
the vacuum in the cooling system to draw the coolant back into the radiator from the
reserve tank (like pulling the plunger back on a hypodermic needle) There are
usually markings on the side of the plastic tank marked Full-Cold, and Full Hot.
When the engine is at normal operating temperature, the coolant in the translucent
reserve tank should be up to the Full-Hot line. After the engine has been sitting for
several hours and is cold to the touch, the coolant should be at the Full-Cold line.
Water Pump
A water pump is a simple device that will keep the coolant moving as long as the
engine is running. It is usually mounted on the front of the engine and turns
whenever the engine is running. The water pump is driven by the engine through
one of the following:

● A fan belt that will

also be responsible for driving an additional component like an alternator or
power steering pump
● A serpentine belt, which also drives the alternator, power steering pump and AC
compressor among other things.
● The timing belt that is also responsible for driving one or more camshafts.
The water pump is made up of a housing, usually made of cast iron or cast
aluminum and an impeller mounted on a spinning shaft with a pulley attached to the
shaft on the outside of the pump body. A seal keeps fluid from leaking out of the
pump housing past the spinning shaft. The impeller uses centrifugal force to draw
the coolant in from the lower radiator hose and send it under pressure into the
engine block. There is a gasket to seal the water pump to the engine block and
prevent the flowing coolant from leaking out where the pump is attached to the
block..
Thermostat
The thermostat is simply a valve that measures the temperature of the coolant and,
if it is hot enough, opens to allow the coolant to flow through the radiator. If the
coolant is not hot enough, the flow to the radiator is blocked and fluid is directed to a
bypass system that allows the coolant to return directly back to the engine. The
bypass system allows the coolant to keep moving through the engine to balance the
temperature and avoid hot spots. Because flow to the radiator is blocked, the
engine will reach operating temperature sooner and, on a cold day, will allow the
heater to begin supplying hot air to the interior more quickly.

Since the 1970s, thermostats have been

calibrated to keep the temperature of the coolant above 192 to 195 degrees. Prior
to that, 180 degree thermostats were the norm. It was found that if the engine is
allowed to run at these hotter temperatures, emissions are reduced, moisture
condensation inside the engine is quickly burned off extending engine life, and
combustion is more complete which improves fuel economy.
The heart of a thermostat is a sealed copper cup that contains wax and a metal
pellet. As the thermostat heats up, the hot wax expands, pushing a piston against
spring pressure to open the valve and allow coolant to circulate.
The thermostat is usually located in the front, top part of the engine in a water outlet
housing that also serves as the connection point for the upper radiator hose. The
thermostat housing attaches to the engine, usually with two bolts and a gasket to
seal it against leaks. The gasket is usually made of a heavy paper or a rubber O
ring is used. In some applications, there is no gasket or rubber seal. Instead, a thin
bead of special silicone sealer is squeezed from a tube to form a seal.
There is a mistaken belief by some people that if they remove the thermostat, they
will be able to solve hard to find overheating problems. This couldn't be further from
the truth. Removing the thermostat will allow uncontrolled circulation of the coolant
throughout the system. It is possible for the coolant to move so fast, that it will not
be properly cooled as it races through the radiator, so the engine can run even
hotter than before under certain conditions. Other times, the engine will never reach
its operating temperature. On computer controlled vehicles, the computer monitors
engine temperatures and regulates fuel usage based on that temperature. If the
engine never reaches operating temperatures, fuel economy and performance will
suffer considerably.
Bypass System
This is a passage that allows the coolant to bypass the radiator and return directly
back to the engine. Some engines use a rubber hose, or a fixed steel tube. In other
engines, there is a cast in passage built into the water pump or front housing. In any
case, when the thermostat is closed, coolant is directed to this bypass and
channeled back to the water pump, which sends the coolant back into the engine
without being cooled by the radiator.
Freeze Plugs
When an engine block is manufactured, a special sand is molded to the shape of the
coolant passages in the engine block. This sand sculpture is positioned inside a
mold and molten iron or aluminum is poured to form the engine block. When the
casting is cooled, the sand is loosened and removed through holes in the engine
block casting leaving the passages that the coolant flows through. Obviously, if
we don't plug up these holes, the coolant will pour right out.

Plugging these holes

is the job of the freeze-out plug. These plugs are steel discs or cups that are press
fit in the holes in the side of the engine block and normally last the life of the engine
with no problems. But there is a reason they are called freeze-out plugs. In the
early days, many people used plain water in their engines, usually after replacing a
burst hose or other cooling system repair. "It is summer and I will replace the water
with antifreeze when the weather starts turning".
Needless to say, people are forgetful and many a motor suffered the fate of the
water freezing inside the block. Often, when this happened the pressure of the
water freezing and expanding forced the freeze-out plugs to pop out, relieving the
pressure and saving the engine block from cracking. (although, just as often the
engine cracked anyway). Another reason for these plugs to fail was the fact that
they were made of steel and would easily rust through if the vehicle owner was
careless about maintaining the cooling system. Antifreeze has rust inhibitors in the
formula to prevent this from happening, but those chemicals would lose their effect
after 3 years, which is why antifreeze needs to be changed periodically. The fact
that some people left plain water in their engines greatly accelerated the rusting of
these freeze plugs.
When a freeze plug becomes so rusty that it perforates, you have a coolant leak that
must be repaired by replacing the rusted out freeze plug with a new one. This job
ranges from fairly easy to extremely difficult depending on the location of the
affected freeze plug. Freeze plugs are located on the sides of the engine, usually 3
or 4 per side. There are also freeze plugs on the back of the engine on some
models and also on the heads.
As long as you are good about maintaining the cooling system, you need never
worry about these plugs failing on modern vehicles
Head Gaskets and Intake Manifold Gaskets
All internal combustion engines have an engine block and one or two cylinder
heads. The mating surfaces where the block and head meet are machined flat for a
close, precision fit, but no amount of careful machining will allow them to be
completely water tight or be able to hold back combustion gases from escaping past
the mating surfaces.
In order to seal the block to the heads, we use a head gasket. The head gasket has
several things it needs to seal against. The main thing is the combustion pressure
on each cylinder. Oil and coolant must easily flow between block and head and it is
the job of the head gasket to keep these fluids from leaking out or into the
combustion chamber, or each other for that matter.
A typical head gasket is usually made of soft sheet metal that is stamped with ridges
that surround all leak points. When the head is placed on the block, the head
gasket is sandwiched between them. Many bolts, called head bolts are screwed in
and tightened down causing the head gasket to crush and form a tight seal between
the block and head.
 Head gaskets usually
fail if the engine overheats for a sustained period of time causing the cylinder head
to warp and release pressure on the head gasket. This is most common on engines
with cast aluminum heads, which are now on just about all modern engines.
Once coolant or combustion gases leak past the head gasket, the gasket material is
usually damaged to a point where it will no longer hold the seal. This causes leaks
in several possible areas. For example:
● combustion gases could leak into the coolant passages causing excessive
pressure in the cooling system.
● coolant could leak into the combustion chamber causing coolant to escape
through the exhaust system, often causing a white cloud of smoke at the tailpipe.
● Other problems such as oil mixing with the coolant or being burned out the
exhaust are also possible.
Some engines are more susceptible to head gasket failure than others. I have seen
blown head gaskets on engines that just started to overheat and were running hot
for less than 5 minutes. The best advice I can give is, if the engine shows signs of
overheating, find a place to pull over and shut the engine off as quickly as possible.
Head gaskets themselves are relatively cheap, but it is the labor that's the killer. A
typical head gasket replacement is a several hour job where the top part of the
engine must be completely disassembled. These jobs can easily reach $1,000 or
more.
On V type engines, there are two heads, meaning two head gaskets. While the
labor won't double if both head gaskets need to be replaced, it will probably add a
good 30% more labor to replace both. If only one head gasket has failed, it is
usually not necessary to replace both, but it could be added insurance to get them
both done at once.
A head gasket replacement begins with the diagnosis that the head gasket has
failed. There is no way for a technician to know for certain whether there is
additional damage to the cylinder head or other components without first
disassembling the engine. All he or she knows is that fluid and/or combustion is not
being contained.
One way to tell if a head gasket has failed is through a combustion leak test on the
radiator. This is a chemical test that determines if there are combustion gases in the
engine coolant. Another way is to remove the spark plugs and crank the engine
while watching for water spray from one or more spark plug holes. Once the
technician has determined that a head gasket must be replaced, an estimate is
given for parts and labor. The technician will then explain that there may be
additional charges after the engine is opened if more damage is found.
Heater Core
The hot coolant is also used to provide heat to the interior of the vehicle when
needed. This is a simple and straight forward system that includes a heater core,

which looks like a small version of a

radiator, connected to the cooling system with a pair of rubber hoses. One hose
brings hot coolant from the water pump to the heater core and the other hose
returns the coolant to the top of the engine. There is usually a heater control valve
in one of the hoses to block the flow of coolant into the heater core when maximum
air conditioning is called for.
A fan, called a blower, draws air through the heater core and directs it through the
heater ducts to the interior of the car. Temperature of the heat is regulated by a
blend door that mixes cool outside air, or sometimes air conditioned air with the
heated air coming through the heater core. This blend door allows you to control the
temperature of the air coming into the interior. Other doors allow you to direct the
warm air through the ducts on the floor, the defroster ducts at the base of the
windshield, and the air conditioning ducts located in the instrument panel.
Hoses
There are several rubber hoses that make up the plumbing to connect the
components of the cooling system. The main hoses are called the upper and lower
radiator hoses. These two hoses are approximately 2 inches in diameter and direct
coolant between the engine and the radiator.

Two additional hoses, called heater hoses, supply hot coolant from the engine to the
heater core. These hoses are approximately 1 inch in diameter. One of these
hoses may have a heater control valve mounted in-line to block the hot coolant from
entering the heater core when the air conditioner is set to max-cool. A fifth hose,
called the bypass hose, is used to circulate the coolant through the engine,
bypassing the radiator, when the thermostat is closed. Some engines do not use a
rubber hose. Instead, they might use a metal tube or have a built-in passage in the
front housing.
These hoses are designed to withstand the pressure inside the cooling system.
Because of this, they are subject to wear and tear and eventually may require
replacing as part of routine maintenance. If the rubber is beginning to look dry and
cracked, or becomes soft and spongy, or you notice some ballooning at the ends, it
is time to replace them. The main radiator hoses are usually molded to a shape that
is designed to rout the hose around obstacles without kinking. When purchasing
replacements, make sure that they are designed to fit the vehicle.
There is a small rubber hose that runs from the radiator neck to the reserve bottle.
This allows coolant that is released by the pressure cap to be sent to the reserve
tank. This rubber hose is about a quarter inch in diameter and is normally not part
of the pressurized system. Once the engine is cool, the coolant is drawn back to the
radiator by the same hose.

Cooling System Maintenance and Repair

An engine that is overheating will quickly self destruct, so proper maintenance of the
cooling system is very important to the life of the engine and the trouble free
operation of the cooling system in general.
The most important maintenance item is to flush and refill the coolant periodically.
The reason for this important service is that anti-freeze has a number of additives
that are designed to prevent corrosion in the cooling system. This corrosion tends
to accelerate when several different types of metal interact with each other. The
corrosion causes scale that eventually builds up and begins to clog the thin flat
tubes in the radiator and heater core. causing the engine to eventually overheat.
The anti-corrosion chemicals in the antifreeze prevents this, but they have a limited
life span.
Newer antifreeze formulations will last for 5 years or 150,000 miles before requiring
replacement. These antifreezes are usually red in color and are referred to as
"Extended Life" or "Long Life" antifreeze. GM has been using this type of coolant in
all their vehicles since 1996. The GM product is called "Dex-Cool".
Most antifreeze used in vehicles however, is green in color and should be replaced
every two years or 30,000 miles, which ever comes first. You can convert to the
new long life coolant, but only if you completely flush out all of the old antifreeze. If
any green coolant is allowed to mix with the red coolant, you must revert to the
shorter replacement cycle.
Look for a shop that can reverse-flush the cooling system. This requires special
equipment and the removal of the thermostat in order to do the job properly. This
type of flush is especially important if the old coolant looks brown or has scale or
debris floating around in it.
If you remove the thermostat for a reverse flush, always replace it with a new
thermostat of the proper temperature. It is cheap insurance.
The National Automotive Radiator Service Association (NARSA) recommends that
motorists have a seven-point preventative cooling system maintenance check at
least once every two years. The seven-point program is designed to identify any
areas that need attention. It consists of:
 ● a visual inspection of all cooling system components, including belts and hoses
● a radiator pressure cap test to check for the recommended system pressure level
● a thermostat check for proper opening and closing
● a pressure test to identify any external leaks to the cooling system parts;
including the radiator, water pump, engine coolant passages, radiator and heater
hoses and heater core
● an internal leak test to check for combustion gas leakage into the cooling system
● an engine fan test for proper operation
● a system power flush and refill with car manufacturer's recommended
concentration of coolant
Let's take these items one at a time.
Visual Inspection
What you are looking for is the condition of the belts and hoses. The radiator hoses
and heater hoses are easily inspected just by opening the hood and looking. You
want to be sure that the hoses have no cracking or splitting and that there is no
bulging or swelling at the ends. If there is any sign of problems, the hose should be
replaced with the correct part number for the year, make and model of the vehicle.
Never use a universal hose unless it is an emergency and a proper molded hose is
not available.
Heater hoses are usually straight runs and are not molded, so a universal hose is
fine to use and often is all that is available. Make sure that you use the proper
inside diameter for the hose being replaced. For either the radiator hoses or the
heater hoses, make sure that you route the replacement hose in the same way that
the original hose was running. Position the hose away from any obstruction that can
possibly damage it and always use new hose clamps. After you refill the cooling
system with coolant, do a pressure test to make sure that there are no leaks.
On most older vehicles, the water pump is driven by a V belt or serpentine belt on
the front of the engine that is also responsible for driving the alternator, power
steering pump and air conditioner compressor. These types of belts are easy to
inspect and replace if they are worn. You are looking for dry cracking on the inside
surface of the belt.
On later vehicles, the water pump is often driven by the timing belt. This belt usually
has a specific life expectancy at which time it must be replaced to insure that it does
not fail. Since the timing belt is inside the engine and will require partial engine
disassembly to inspect, it is very important to replace it at the correct interval. Since
the labor to replace this belt can be significant, it is a good idea to replace the water
pump at the same time that the belt is replaced. This is because 90 percent of the
labor to replace a water pump has already been done to replace the timing belt. It is
simply good insurance to replace the pump while everything is apart.
Radiator pressure cap test
A radiator pressure cap is designed to maintain pressure in the cooling system at a
certain maximum pressure. If the cooling system exceeds that pressure, a valve in
the cap opens to bleed the excessive pressure into the reserve tank. Once the
engine has cooled off, a negative pressure begins to develop in the cooling system.
When this happens, a second valve in the cap allows the coolant to be siphoned
back into the radiator from the reserve tank. If the cap should fail, the engine can
easily overheat. A pressure test of the radiator cap is a quick way to tell if the cap is
doing its job. It should be able to hold its rated pressure for two minutes. Since
radiator caps are quite inexpensive, I would recommend replacing it every 3 years or
36,000 miles, just for added insurance. Make absolutely sure that you replace it
with one that is designed for your vehicle.
Thermostat check for proper opening and closing
This step is only necessary if you are having problems with the cooling system.
A thermostat is designed to open at a certain coolant temperature. To test a
thermostat while it is still in the engine, start the engine and let it come to normal
operating temperature (do not let it overheat). If it takes an unusually long time for
the engine to warm up or for the heater to begin delivering hot air, the thermostat
may be stuck in the open position. If the engine does warm up, shut it off and look
for the two radiator hoses. These are the two large hoses that go from the engine to
the radiator. Feel them carefully (they could be very hot). If one hose is hot and the
other is cold, the thermostat may be stuck closed.
If you are having problems and suspect the thermostat, remove it and place it in a
pot of water. Bring the water to a boil and watch the thermostat. You should see it
open when the water reaches a boil. Most thermostats open at about 195 degrees
Fahrenheit. An oven thermometer in the water should confirm that the thermostat is
working properly.
 Pressure test to
identify any external leaks
Pressure testing the cooling system is a simple process to determine where a leak is
located. This test is only performed after the cooling system has cooled sufficiently
to allow you to safely remove the pressure cap. Once you are sure that the cooling
system is full of coolant, a cooling system pressure tester is attached in place of the
radiator cap. The tester is than pumped to build up pressure in the system. There
is a gauge on the tester indicating how much pressure is being pumped. You should
pump it to the pressure indicated on the pressure cap or to manufacturer's specs.
Once pressure is applied, you can begin to look for leaks. Also watch the gauge on
the tester to see if it loses pressure. If the pressure drops more than a couple of
pounds in two minutes, there is likely a leak somewhere that may be hidden. It is
not always easy to see where a leak is originating from. It is best to have the
vehicle up on a lift so you can look over everything with a shop light or flashlight. If
the heater core in leaking, it may not be visible since the core is enclosed and not
visible without major disassembly, but one sure sign is the unmistakable odor of
antifreeze inside the car. You may also notice the windshield steaming up with an
oily residue.
Internal leak test
If you are losing coolant, but there are no signs of leaks, you could have a blown
head gasket. The best way to test for this problem is with a combustion leak test on
the radiator. This is accomplished using a block tester. This is a kit that performs a
chemical test on the vapors in the radiator. Blue tester fluid is added to the plastic
container on the tester. If the fluid turns yellow during the test, then exhaust gasses
are present in the radiator.
The most common causes for exhaust gasses to be present in the radiator is a
blown head gasket. Replacing a bad head gasket requires a major disassembly of
the engine and can be quite expensive. Other causes include a cracked head or a
cracked block, both are even more undesirable than having to replace a head
gasket.
When a head gasket goes bad
The process of replacing a head gasket begins with completely draining the coolant
from the engine. The top part of the engine is then disassembled along with much
of the front of the engine in order to gain access to the cylinder heads. The head or
heads are then removed and a thorough inspection for additional damage is done.
Before the engine can be reassembled, the mating surfaces of the head and block
are first cleaned to make sure that nothing will interfere with the sealing properties of
the gasket. The surface of the cylinder head is also checked for flatness and, in
some cases, the block is checked as well. The head gasket is then positioned on
the block and aligned using locator pegs that are built into the block. The head is
then placed on top of the gasket and a number of bolts, called head-bolts are coated
with oil and loosely threaded into the assembly. The bolts are then tightened in a
specific order to a specified initial torque using a special wrench called a torque
wrench. This is to insure that the head gasket is crushed evenly in order to insure a
tight seal. This process is then repeated to a second, tighter torque setting, then
finally a third torque setting. At this point, the rest of the engine is reassembled and
the cooling system is filled with a mixture of antifreeze and water. Once the engine
is filled, the technician will pressure test the cooling system to make sure there are
no leaks.
In many engines, coolant also passes between the heads and the intake manifold.
There are also gaskets for the intake manifold to keep the coolant from leaking out
at that point. Replacing an intake manifold gasket is a much easier job than a head
gasket, but can still take a couple of hours or more for that job.
Engine Fan Test
The radiator cooling fan is an important part of the cooling system operation. While
a fan is not really needed while a vehicle is traveling down the highway, it is
extremely important when driving slowly or stopped with the engine running. In the
past, the fan was attached to the engine and was driven by the fan belt. The speed
of the fan was directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This type of system
sometimes caused excessive noise as the car accelerated through the gears. As
the engine sped up, a rushing fan noise could be heard. To quiet things down and
place less of a drag in the engine, a viscous fan drive was developed in order to
disengage the fan when it was not needed.
When computer controls came into being, these engine driven fans gave way to
electric fans that were mounted directly on the radiator. A temperature sensor
determined when the engine was beginning to run too hot and turned on the fan to
draw air through the radiator to cool the engine. On many cars, there were two fans
mounted side by side to make sure that the radiator had a uniform air flow for the
width of the unit.
When the car was in motion, the speed of the air entering the grill was sufficient to
keep the coolant at the proper temperature, so the fans were shut off. When the
vehicle came to a stop, there was no natural air flow, so the fan would come on as
soon as the engine reached a certain temperature.
If the air conditioner was turned on, a different circuit would come into play. The
reason for this is the air conditioning system always requires a good air flow through
the condenser mounted in front of the radiator. If the air flow stopped, the air
conditioned air coming through the dash outlets would immediately start warming
up. For this reason, when the air conditioner is turned on, the fan circuit would
power the fans regardless of engine temperature.
If you notice that the engine temperature begins rising soon after the vehicle comes
to a stop, the first thing to check is fan operation. If the fan is not turning when the
engine is hot, a simple test is to turn the AC on. If the fan begins to work, suspect
the temperature sensor in the fan circuit (you will need a wiring diagram for your
vehicle to find it). In order to test the fan motor itself, unplug the two wire connector
to the fan and connect a 12 volt source to one terminal and ground the other. (it
doesn't matter which is which for this test) If the fan motor begins to turn, the motor
is good. If it doesn't turn, the motor is bad and must be replaced.
In order to test the system further, you will need a repair manual for the year, make
and model vehicle and follow the troubleshooting charts and diagnostic procedures
for your vehicle. On most systems, there will be a fan relay or fan control module
that can be a trouble spot. There are a number of different control systems, each
requiring a different test procedure. Without the proper repair information, you can
easily do more harm than good.
Cooling system power flush and refill
While you can replace old coolant by draining it out and replacing it with fresh
coolant, the best way to properly maintain your cooling system is to have the system
power flushed. Power flushing will remove all the old coolant and pull out any
sediment and scale along with it.
Power flushing requires a special machine that many auto repair shops have for the
purpose. The procedure requires that the thermostat is removed, the lower radiator
hose is disconnected, and the flush machine is connected in line. The lower hose is
connected to the machine and the other hose from the machine is connected to the
radiator where the lower hose was disconnected from.
Water, and sometimes, a cleaning agent is pumped through the cooling system in a
reverse path from the normal coolant flow. This allows any scale to be loosened
and flow out. Once clear water is coming out of the system, the hose is reconnected
and a new thermostat is installed. Then the cooling system is refilled with the
appropriate amount of antifreeze to bring the coolant to the proper mixture of
antifreeze and water. For most vehicles and most climates, the mixture is 50
percent antifreeze and 50 percent water. In colder climates, more antifreeze is
used, but must never exceed 75 percent antifreeze. Check your owner's manual for
the proper procedures and recommendations for your vehicle.

1.1.3 A Short Course on Charging

Systems

● What is a charging system

● The Alternator
● The Voltage Regulator
● Charging system gauge or warning lamp
● What Can Go Wrong
● Repairing Charging System Problems
What is a Charging System?
The modern charging system hasn't changed much in over 40 years. It consists of
the alternator, regulator (which is usually mounted inside the alternator) and the
interconnecting wiring.
The purpose of the charging system is to maintain the charge in the vehicle's
battery, and to provide the main source of electrical energy while the engine is
running.
If the charging system stopped working, the battery's charge would soon be
depleted, leaving the car with a "dead battery." If the battery is weak and the
alternator is not working, the engine may not have enough electrical current to fire
the spark plugs, so the engine will stop running.
If the battery is "dead", it does not necessarily mean that there is anything wrong
with it. It is just depleted of its charge. It can be brought back to life by recharging it
with a battery charger, or by running the engine so that the alternator can charge it.
For more information on the battery, Click Here
.The main component in the charging system is the ALTERNATOR. The
alternator is a generator that produces Alternating Current (AC), similar to the
electrical current in your home. This current is immediately converted to Direct
Current (DC) inside the alternator. This is because all modern automobiles have a
12 volt, DC electrical system.
A VOLTAGE REGULATOR regulates the charging voltage that the alternator
produces, keeping it between 13.5 and 14.5 volts to protect the electrical
components throughout the vehicle.
There is also a system to warn the driver if something is not right with the charging
system. This could be a dash mounted voltmeter, an ammeter, or more commonly,
a warning lamp. This lamp is variously labeled "Gen" Bat" and "Alt.". If this warning
lamp lights up while the engine is running, it means that there is a problem in the
charging system, usually an alternator that has stopped working. The most common
cause is a broken alternator drive belt.
 The alternator is driven by
a belt that is powered by the rotation of the engine. This belt goes around a pulley
connected to the front of the engine's crankshaft and is usually responsible for
driving a number of other components including the water pump, power steering
pump and air conditioning compressor. On some engines, there is more than one
belt and the task of driving these components is divided between them. These belts
are usually referred to as: Fan Belt, Alternator Belt, Drive Belt, Power Steering Belt,
A/C Belt, etc. More common on late model engines, one belt, called a Serpentine
Belt will snake around the front of the engine and drive all the components by itself.
On engines with separate belts for each component, the belts will require periodic
adjustments to maintain the proper belt tension. On engines that use a serpentine
belt, there is usually a spring loaded belt tensioner that maintains the tension of the
belt, so no periodic adjustments are required. A serpentine belt is designed to last
around 30,000 miles. Check your owner's manual to see how often yours should be
replaced.
Alternator output is measured in both voltage and amperage. To understand voltage
and amperage, you must also know about resistance, which is measured in ohms.
An easy way to picture this is to compare the movement of electricity to that of
running water. Water flows through a pipe with a certain amount of pressure. The
size (diameter) of the pipe dictates how much resistance there will be to the flowing
water. The smaller the pipe, the more resistance. You can increase the pressure to
get more water to flow through, or you can increase the size of the pipe to allow
more water to flow using less pressure. Since too much pressure can burst the
pipe, we should probably restrict the amount of pressure being used. You get the
idea, but how is this related to the flow of electricity?
Well, voltage is the same as water pressure. Amperage is like the amount or
volume of water flowing through, while resistance is the size of the wire transmitting
the current. Since too much voltage will damage the electrical components such as
light bulbs and computer circuits, we must limit the amount of voltage. This is the
job of the voltage regulator. Too much water pressure and things could start
breaking. Too much voltage and things could start burning out.

Let's get technical

Now, let's go a little deeper and see how these charging system components
actually work to produce the electrical power that a modern automobile requires.

The Alternator
 The alternator uses the principle
of electromagnetism to produce current. The way this works is simple. If you take a
strong magnet and pass it across a wire, that wire will generate a small voltage.
Take that same wire and loop it many times, than if you pass the same magnet
across the bundle of loops, you create a more sizable voltage in that wire.
There are two main components that make up an alternator. They are the rotor and
the stator. The rotor is connected directly to the alternator pulley. The drive belt
spins the pulley, which in turn spins the rotor. The stator is mounted to the body of
the alternator and remains stationary. There is just enough room in the center of the
stator for the rotor to fit and be able to spin without making any contact.
The stator contains 3 sets of wires that have many loops each and are evenly
distributed to form a three phase system. On some systems, the wires are
connected to each other at one end and are connected to a rectifier assembly on the
other end. On other systems, the wires are connected to each other end to end,
and at each of the three connection points, there is also a connection to the rectifier.
More on what a rectifier is later.
 The rotor contains the powerful
magnet that passes close to the many wire loops that make up the stator. The
magnets in the rotor are actually electro magnets, not a permanent magnets. This is
done so that we can control how much voltage the alternator produces by regulating
the amount of current that creates the magnetic field in the rotor. In this way, we can
control the output of the alternator to suit our needs, and protect the circuits in the
automobile from excessive voltage.
Now we know that every magnet has a north and a south pole and electro magnets
are no exception. Our rotor has two interlocking sections of electro magnets that
are arranged so that there are fingers of alternating north and south poles. that are
evenly distributed on the outside of the rotor.
When we spin the rotor inside the stator and apply current to the rotor through a pair
of brushes that make constant contact with two slip rings on the rotor shaft. This
causes the rotor to become magnetized. The alternating north and south pole
magnets spin past the three sets of wire loops in the stator and produce a constantly
reversing voltage in the three wires. In other words, we are producing alternating
current in the stator.
Now, we have to convert this alternating current to direct current current. This is
done by using a series of 6 diodes that are mounted in a rectifier assembly. A diode
allows current to flow only in one direction. If voltage tries to flow in the other
direction, it is blocked. The six diodes are arranged so that all the voltage coming
from the alternator is aligned in one direction thereby converting AC current into DC
current.
There are 2 diodes for each of the three sets of windings in the stator. The two
diodes are facing in opposite directions, one with its north pole facing the windings
and the other with its south pole facing the windings. This arrangement causes the
AC current coming out of the windings to be converted to DC current before it leaves
the alternator through the B terminal. Connected to the B terminal of the alternator
is a fairly heavy wire that runs straight to the battery.
Current to generate the magnetic field in the rotor comes from the ignition switch
and passes through the voltage regulator. Since the rotor is spinning, we need a
way to connect this current from the regulator to the spinning rotor. This is
accomplished by wires connected to two spring loaded brushes that rub against two
slip rings on the rotor's shaft. The voltage regulator monitors the voltage coming out
of the alternator and, when it reaches a threshold of about 14.5 volts, the regulator
reduces the current in the rotor to weaken the magnetic field. When the voltage
drops below this threshold, the current to the rotor is increased.
There is another circuit in the alternator to control the charging system warning lamp
that is on the dash. Part of that circuit is another set of diodes mounted inside the
alternator called the diode trio. The diode trio takes current coming from the three
stator windings and passes a small amount through three diodes so that only the
positive voltage comes through. After the diodes, the wires are joined into one wire
and sent out of the alternator at the L connection. It then goes to one side of the
dash warning lamp that is used to tell you when there is a problem with the charging
system. The other side of the lamp is connected to the run side of the ignition
switch. If both sides of the warning lamp have equal positive voltage, the lamp will
not light. Remove voltage from one side and the lamp comes on to let you know
there is a problem.
This system is not very efficient. There are many types of malfunctions of the
charging system that it cannot detect, so just because the lamp is not lit does not
mean everything is ok. A volt meter is probably the best method of determining
whether the charging system is working properly

The Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator can be mounted inside or outside of the alternator housing. If
the regulator is mounted outside (common on some Ford products) there will be a
wiring harness connecting it to the alternator.
The voltage regulator controls the field current applied to the spinning rotor inside
the alternator. When there is no current applied to the field, there is no voltage
produced from the alternator. When voltage drops below 13.5 volts, the regulator will
apply current to the field and the alternator will start charging. When the voltage
exceeds 14.5 volts, the regulator will stop supplying voltage to the field and the
alternator will stop charging. This is how voltage output from the alternator is
regulated. Amperage or current is regulated by the state of charge of the battery.
When the battery is weak, the electromotive force (voltage) is not strong enough to
hold back the current from the alternator trying to recharge the battery. As the
battery reaches a state of full charge, the electromotive force becomes strong
enough to oppose the current flow from the alternator, the amperage output from the
alternator will drop to close to zero, while the voltage will remain at 13.5 to 14.5.
When more electrical power is used, the electromotive force will reduce and
alternator amperage will increase. It is extremely important that when alternator
efficiency is checked, both voltage and amperage outputs are checked. Each
alternator has a rated amperage output depending on the electrical requirements of
the vehicle.

Charging System Gauge or Warning Lamp

The charging system gauge or warning lamp monitors the health of the charging
system so that you have a warning of a problem before you get stuck.
When a charging problem is indicated, you can still drive a short distance to find
help unlike an oil pressure or coolant temperature problem which can cause serious
engine damage if you continue to drive. The worst that can happen with a charging
system problem is that you get stuck in a bad location.
A charging system warning lamp is a poor indicator of problems in that there are
many charging problems that it will not recognize. If it does light while you are
driving, it usually means the charging system is not working at all. The most
common cause of this is a broken alternator belt.
There are two types of gauges used to monitor charging systems on some vehicles:
a voltmeter which measures system voltage and an ammeter which measures
amperage. Most modern cars that have gauges use a voltmeter because it is a
much better indicator of charging system health. A mechanic's voltmeter is usually
the first tool a technician uses when checking out a charging system.

A modern automobile has a 12 volt electrical

system. A fully charged battery will read about 12.5 volts when the engine is not
running. When the engine is running, the charging system takes over so that the
voltmeter will read 14 to 14.5 volts and should stay there unless there is a heavy
load on the electrical system such as wipers, lights, heater and rear defogger all
operating together while the engine is idling at which time the voltage may drop. If
the voltage drops below 12.5, it means that the battery is providing some of the
current. You may notice that your dash lights dim at this point. If this happens for an
extended period, the battery will run down and may not have enough of a charge to
start the car after shutting it off. This should never happen with a healthy charging
system because as soon as you step on the gas, the charging system will recharge
the battery. If the voltage is constantly below 14 volts, you should have the system
checked. If the voltage ever goes above 15 volts, there is a problem with the voltage
regulator. Have the system checked as soon as possible as this "overcharging"
condition can cause damage to your electrical system.

If you think of electricity as water, voltage is like

water pressure, whereas amperage is like the volume of water. If you increase
pressure, then more water will flow through a given size pipe, but if you increase the
size of the pipe, more water will flow at a lower pressure. An ammeter will read from
a negative amperage when the battery is providing most of the current thereby
depleting itself, to a positive amperage if most of the current is coming from the
charging system. If the battery is fully charged and there is minimal electrical
demand, then the ammeter should read close to zero, but should always be on the
positive side of zero. It is normal for the ammeter to read a high positive amperage
in order to recharge the battery after starting, but it should taper off in a few minutes.
If it continues to read more than 10 or 20 amps even though the lights, wipers and
other electrical devices are turned off, you may have a weak battery and should
have it checked.

What can go wrong?

There are a number of things that can go wrong with a charging system:
● Insufficient Charging Output
● If one of the three stator windings failed, the alternator would still charge, but only
at two thirds of its normal output. Since an alternator is designed to handle all
the power that is needed under heavy load conditions, you may never know that
there is a problem with the unit. It might only become apparent on a dark, cold
rainy night when the lights, heater, windshield wipers and possible the seat
heaters and rear defroster are all on at once that you may notice the lights start
to dim as you slow down. If two sets of windings failed, you will probably notice it
a lot sooner.
●
● It is more common for one or more of the six diodes in the rectifier to fail. If a
diode burns out and opens one of the circuits, you would see the same problem
as if one of the windings had failed. The alternator will run at a reduced output.
 However, if one of the diodes were to short out and allow current to pass in either
direction, other problems will occur. A shorted diode will allow AC current to pass
through to the automobile's electrical system which can cause problems with the
computerized sensors and processors. This condition can cause the car to act
unpredictably and cause all kinds of problems.
● Too much voltage
● A voltage regulator is designed to limit the voltage output of an alternator to 14.5
volts or less to protect the vehicle's electrical system. If the regulator
malfunctions and allows uncontrolled voltage to be released, you will see bulbs
and other electrical components begin to fail. This is a dangerous and potentially
costly problem. Fortunately, this type of failure is very rare. Most failures cause
a reduction of voltage or amperage.
● Noise
● Since the rotor is always spinning while the engine is running, there needs to be
bearings to support the shaft and allow it to spin freely. If one of those bearings
were to fail, you will hear a grinding noise coming from the alternator. A
mechanic's stethoscope can be used to confirm which of the spinning
components driven by the serpentine belt is making the noise.

Repairing Charging System Problems

The most common repair is the replacement of the alternator with a new or rebuilt
one. A properly rebuilt alternator is as good as a new alternator and can cost
hundreds less than purchasing a brand new one.
Labor time to replace an alternator is typically under an hour unless your alternator
is in a hard to access location. Most alternators are easily accessible and visible on
the top of the engine.
Replacing an alternator is usually an easy task for a backyard mechanic and rebuilt
alternators are readily available for most vehicles at the local auto parts store. The
most important task for the do-it-yourselfer is to be careful not to short anything out.
ALWAYS DISCONNECT THE BATTERY BEFORE REPLACING AN
ALTERNATOR.
Alternators can be repaired by a knowledgeable technician, but in most cases, it is
not economical to do this. Also, since the rest of the alternator is not touched, a
repair job is usually not guaranteed.
In some cases, if the problem is diagnosed as a bad voltage regulator, the regulator
can be replaced without springing for a complete rebuild. The problem with this is
that there will be an extra labor charge for disassembling the alternator in order to
get to the internal regulator. That extra cost, along with the cost of the replacement
regulator, will bring the total cost close to the cost of a complete (and guaranteed)
rebuilt.
This is not the case when the regulator is not inside the alternator. In those cases,
the usual practice is to just replace the part that is bad.

1.1.4 Fuel
System

The function of the fuel system is to store and supply fuel to the cylinder chamber
where it can be mixed with air, vaporized, and burned to produce energy. The fuel,
which can be either gasoline or diesel is stored in a fuel tank. A fuel pump draws
the fuel from the tank through fuel lines and delivers it through a fuel filter to
either a carburetor or fuel injector, then delivered to the cylinder chamber for
combustion.

GASOLINE
Gasoline is a complex blend of carbon and hydrogen compounds. Additives are then
added to improve performance. All gasoline is basically the same, but no two blends
are identical. The two most important features of gasoline are volatility and
resistance to knock (octane). Volatility is a measurement of how easily the fuel
vaporizes. If the gasoline does not vaporize completely, it will not burn properly
(liquid fuel will not burn).
If the gasoline vaporizes too easily the mixture will be too lean to burn properly.
Since high temperatures increase volatility, it is desirable to have a low volatility fuel
for warm temperatures and a high volatility fuel for cold weather. The blends will be
different for summer and winter fuels. Vapor lock which was a persistent problem
years ago, exists very rarely today. In today's cars the fuel is constantly circulating
from the tank, through the system and back to the tank. The fuel does not stay still
long enough to get so hot that it begins to vaporize. Resistance to knock or octane is
simply the temperature the gas will burn at. Higher octane fuel requires a higher
temperature to burn. As compression ratio or pressure increases so does the need
for higher octane fuel. Most engines today are low compression engines therefore
requiring a lower octane fuel (87). Any higher octane than required is just wasting
money. Other factors that affect the octane requirements of the engine are: air/fuel
ratio, ignition timing, engine temperature, and carbon build up in the cylinder. Many
automobile manufacturers have installed exhaust gas recirculation systems to
reduce cylinder chamber temperature. If these systems are not working properly, the
car will have a tendency to knock. Before switching to a higher octane fuel to reduce
knock, make sure to have these other causes checked.

DIESEL
Diesel fuel, like gasoline is a complex blend of carbon and hydrogen compounds. It
too requires additives for maximum performance. There are two grades of diesel
fuel used in automobiles today: 1-D and 2-D. Number 2 diesel fuel has a lower
volatility and is blended for higher loads and steady speeds, therefore works best in
large truck applications. Because number 2 diesel fuel is less volatile, it tends to
create hard starting in cold weather. On the other hand number 1 diesel is more
volatile, and therefore more suitable for use in an automobile, where there is
constant changes in load and speed. Since diesel fuel vaporizes at a much higher
temperature than gasoline, there is no need for a fuel evaporation control system as
with gasoline. Diesel fuels are rated with a cetane number rather than an octane
number. While a higher octane of gasoline indicates resistance to ignition, the higher
cetane rating of diesel fuel indicates the ease at which the fuel will ignite. Most
number 1 diesel fuels have a cetane rating of 50, while number 2 diesel fuel have a
rating of 45. Diesel fuel emissions are higher in sulfur, and lower in carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbons than gasoline and are subject to different emission testing
standards.

FUEL TANK
Tank location and design are always a compromise with available space. Most
automobiles have a single tank located in the rear of the vehicle. Fuel tanks today
have internal baffles to prevent the fuel from sloshing back and forth. If you hear
noises from the rear on acceleration and deceleration the baffles could be broken.
All tanks have a fuel filler pipe, a fuel outlet line to the engine and a vent system. All
catalytic converter cars are equipped with a filler pipe restrictor so that leaded fuel,
which is dispensed from a thicker nozzle, cannot be introduced into the fuel system.
All fuel tanks must be vented. Before 1970, fuel tanks were vented to the
atmosphere, emitting hydrocarbon emissions. Since 1970 all tanks are vented
through a charcoal canister, into the engine to be burned before being released to
the atmosphere. This is called evaporative emission control and will be discussed
further in the emission control section. Federal law requires that all 1976 and newer
cars have vehicle rollover protection devices to prevent fuel spills.

FUEL LINES
Steel lines and flexible hoses carry the fuel from the tank to the engine. When
servicing or replacing the steel lines, copper or aluminum must never be used. Steel
lines must be replaced with steel. When replacing flexible rubber hoses, proper hose
must be used. Ordinary rubber such as used in vacuum or water hose will soften
and deteriorate. Be careful to route all hoses away from the exhaust system.

FUEL PUMPS
Two types of fuel pumps are used in automobiles; mechanical and electric. All fuel
injected cars today use electric fuel pumps, while most carbureted cars use
mechanical fuel pumps. Mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, mounted on
the engine and operated by an eccentric cam usually on the camshaft. A rocker arm
attached to the eccentric moves up and down flexing the diaphragm and pumping
the fuel to the engine. Because electric pumps do not depend on an eccentric for
operation, they can be located anywhere on the vehicle. In fact they work best when
located near the fuel tank.
Many cars today, locate the fuel pump inside the fuel tank. While mechanical pumps
operate on pressures of 4-6 psi (pounds per square inch), electric pumps can
operate on pressures of 30-40 psi. Current is supplied to the pump immediately
when the key is turned. This allows for constant pressure on the system for
immediate starting. Electric fuel pumps can be either low pressure or high pressure.
These pumps look identical, so be careful when replacing a fuel pump that the
proper one is used. Fuel pumps are rated by pressure and volume. When checking
fuel pump operation, both specifications must be checked and met.

FUEL FILTERS
The fuel filter is the key to a properly functioning fuel delivery system. This is more
true with fuel injection than with carbureted cars. Fuel injectors are more susceptible
to damage from dirt because of their close tolerances, but also fuel injected cars use
electric fuel pumps. When the filter clogs, the electric fuel pump works so hard to
push past the filter, that it burns itself up. Most cars use two filters. One inside the
gas tank and one in a line to the fuel injectors or carburetor. Unless some severe
and unusual condition occurs to cause a large amount of dirt to enter the gas tank, it
is only necessary to replace the filter in the line.

1.1.5
Brake
s
The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and
has become extremely dependable and efficient.

The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or
drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link
the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder. Other systems that are
connected with the brake system include the parking brakes, power brake
booster and the anti-lock system.
 When you step
on the brake pedal, you are actually pushing against a plunger in the master
cylinder which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and
hoses to the braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for
that matter) cannot be compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like
pushing a steel bar through a pipe. Unlike a steel bar, however, fluid can be
directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving
with the exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very
important that the fluid is pure liquid and that there are no air bubbles in it. Air
can compress, which causes a sponginess to the pedal and severely reduced
braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove
the air. There are "bleeder screws" at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this
purpose.
 On a disk brake, the fluid from the
master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against a piston. The
piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor) which is
attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop.

This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two rubber pads rub against
the wheel rim creating friction.
 With drum brakes, fluid is forced
into the wheel cylinder which pushes the brake shoes out so that the friction
linings are pressed against the drum which is attached to the wheel, causing
the wheel to stop.

In either case, the friction surfaces of the pads on a disk brake system, or the
shoes on a drum brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat.
Heat is what causes the friction surfaces (linings) of the pads and shoes to
eventually wear out and require replacement.
Let's take a closer look at each of the components in a brake system and
see where other problems can occur...

Master Cylinder

The master cylinder is located in

the engine compartment on the firewall, directly in front of the driver's seat.
A typical master cylinder is actually two completely separate master
cylinders in one housing, each handling two wheels. This way if one side
fails, you will still be able to stop the car. The brake warning light on the
dash will light if either side fails, alerting you to the problem. Master
cylinders have become very reliable and rarely malfunction; however, the
most common problem that they experience is an internal leak. This will
cause the brake pedal to slowly sink to the floor when your foot applies
steady pressure. Letting go of the pedal and immediately stepping on it
again brings the pedal back to normal height.

Brake Fluid

Brake fluid is a special oil that has specific properties. It is designed to

withstand cold temperatures without thickening as well as very high
temperatures without boiling. (If the brake fluid should boil, it will cause you
to have a spongy pedal and the car will be hard to stop.) Brake fluid must
meet standards that are set by the Department of Transportation (DOT).
The current standard is DOT-3 which has a boiling point of 460� F. But
check your owners manual to see what your vehicle manufacturer
recommends.

The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today
have a transparent reservoir so that you can see the level without opening
the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear.
This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops
noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full,
have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered
except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a can of
brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point
.Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that
boiling point.

NEVER PUT ANYTHING BUT APPROVED BRAKE FLUID IN YOUR

BRAKES. ANYTHING ELSE CAN CAUSE SUDDEN BRAKE FAILURE!
Any other type of oil or other fluid will react with the brake fluid and
very quickly destroy the rubber seals in the brake system causing
brake failure.

Brake Lines

The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a
series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only
used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which
move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses
non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment
points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the
complete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special
splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use
brass "compression" fittings or copper tubing to repair a brake system. They
are dangerous and illegal.

Other Components in the Hydraulic System

● Proportioning valve or Equalizer Valve
● These valves are mounted between the master cylinder and the rear
wheels. They are designed to adjust the pressure between the front and
rear brakes depending on how hard you are stopping. The shorter you
stop, the more of the vehicle's weight is transferred to the front wheels, in
some cases, causing the rear to lift and the front to dive. These valves are
designed to direct more pressure to the front and less pressure to the rear
the harder you stop. This minimizes the chance of premature lockup at
the rear wheels.
● Pressure Differential Valve
● This valve is usually mounted just below the master cylinder and is
responsible for turning the brake warning light on when it detects a
malfunction. It measures the pressure from the two sections of the master
cylinder and compares them. Since it is mounted ahead of the
 proportioning or equalizer valve, the two pressures it detects should be
equal. If it detects a difference, it means that there is probably a brake
fluid leak somewhere in the system.
● Combination Valve

● The Combination valve is simply a proportioning valve and a pressure

differential valve that is combined into one unit.
●
● Electronic Brake Force Distribution
● Newer cars use the antilock brake hardware and the onboard computer to
replace these proportioning valve systems with a system called Electronic
Brake force Distribution (EBD) in order to distribute the exact amount of
pressure at each wheel to insure a balanced brake system.
Disk Brakes

The disk brake is the best brake we have found so far. Disk brakes are used to
stop everything from cars to locomotives and jumbo jets. Disk brakes wear
longer, are less affected by water, are self adjusting, self cleaning, less prone
to grabbing or pulling and stop better than any other system around. The main
components of a disk brake are the Brake Pads, Rotor, Caliper and Caliper
Support.

● Brake Pads
● There are two brake pads on each caliper. They are constructed of a metal
"shoe" with the lining riveted or bonded to it. The pads are mounted in the
caliper, one on each side of the rotor. Brake linings used to be made
primarily of asbestos because of its heat absorbing properties and quiet
operation; however, due to health risks, asbestos has been outlawed, so new
materials are now being used. Brake pads wear out with use and must be
replaced periodically. There are many types and qualities of pads available.
The differences have to do with brake life (how long the new pads will last)
and noise (how quiet they are when you step on the brake). Harder linings
tend to last longer and stop better under heavy use but they may produce an
irritating squeal when they are applied. Technicians that work on brakes
usually have a favorite pad that gives a good compromise that their
customers can live with.
●
● Brake pads should be checked for wear periodically. If the lining wears down
to the metal brake shoe, then you will have a "Metal-to-Metal" condition
where the shoe rubs directly against the rotor causing severe damage and
loss of braking efficiency. Some brake pads come with a "brake warning
sensor" that will emit a squealing noise when the pads are worn to a point
 where they should be changed. This noise will usually be heard when your
foot is off the brake and disappear when you step on the brake. If you hear
this noise, have your brakes checked as soon as possible.
● Rotor
● The disk rotor is made of iron with highly machined surfaces where the brake
pads contact it. Just as the brake pads wear out over time, the rotor also
undergoes some wear, usually in the form of ridges and groves where the
brake pad rubs against it. This wear pattern exactly matches the wear
pattern of the pads as they seat themselves to the rotor. When the pads are
replaced, the rotor must be machined smooth to allow the new pads to have
an even contact surface to work with. Only a small amount of material can
be machined off of a rotor before it becomes unusable and must be replaced.
A minimum thickness measurement is stamped on every rotor and the
technician doing the brake job will measure the rotor before and after
machining it to make sure it doesn't go below the legal minimum. If a rotor is
cut below the minimum, it will not be able to handle the high heat that brakes
normally generate. This will cause the brakes to "fade," greatly reducing their
effectiveness to a point where you may not be able to stop!
● Caliper & Support
● There are two main types of calipers: Floating calipers and fixed calipers.
There are other configurations but these are the most popular. Calipers must
be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking brake fluid.

●
● Single Piston Floating Calipers are the most popular and also least costly
to manufacture and service. A floating caliper "floats" or moves in a track in
its support so that it can center itself over the rotor. As you apply brake
pressure, the hydraulic fluid pushes in two directions. It forces the piston
against the inner pad which in turn pushes against the rotor. It also pushes
the caliper in the opposite direction against the outer pad, pressing it against
 the other side of the rotor. Floating calipers are also available on some
vehicles with two pistons mounted on the same side. Two piston floating
calipers are found on more expensive cars and can provide an improved
braking "feel".
●
● Four Piston Fixed Calipers are mounted rigidly to the support and are not
allowed to move. Instead, there are two pistons on each side that press the
pads against the rotor. Four piston calipers have a better feel and are more
efficient, but are more expensive to produce and cost more to service. This
type of caliper is usually found on more expensive luxury and high
performance cars.

Drum Brakes

So if disk brakes are so great, how come we still have cars with drum brakes?
The reason is cost. While all vehicles produced for many years have disk
brakes on the front, drum brakes are cheaper to produce for the rear wheels.
The main reason is the parking brake system. On drum brakes, adding a
parking brake is the simple addition of a lever, while on disk brakes, we need
a complete mechanism, in some cases, a complete mechanical drum brake
assembly inside the disk brake rotor! Parking brakes must be a separate
system that does not use hydraulics. It must be totally mechanical, but more
on parking brakes later.

Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel
cylinder, return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When
you apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel
cylinder which, in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined
surface on the inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return
springs pull the shoes back to their rest position. As the brake linings wear,
the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. When the
distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically
reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the
drum.
● Brake Shoes
● Like the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction
material or lining riveted or bonded to it. Also like disk pads, the linings
eventually wear out and must be replaced. If the linings are allowed to wear
through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake
drum.
● Backing Plate
● The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the axle
and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted
hardware. It rarely causes any problems.
● Brake Drum
● Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside
where the shoes make contact. Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will
show signs of wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the
machined surface of the drum. When new shoes are installed, the brake
drum should be machined smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter
specification that is stamped on the outside of the drum. When a drum is
machined, it must never exceed that measurement. If the surface cannot be
machined within that limit, the drum must be replaced.
● Wheel Cylinder
● The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each
side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with
 a brake shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out
pushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be
rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.
● Return Springs

● Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the
pressure is released from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do
not return the shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear because
the linings will remain in contact with the drum. A good technician will
examine the springs during a brake job and recommend their replacement if
they show signs of fatigue. On certain vehicles, the technician may
recommend replacing them even if they look good as inexpensive insurance.
● Self Adjusting System
● The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and move freely to
insure that the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If
the self adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will have to step down
further and further on the brake pedal before you feel the brakes begin to
engage. Disk brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not require any type
of mechanism. When a technician performs a brake job, aside from checking
the return springs, he will also clean and lubricate the self adjusting parts
where necessary.
● .
 ● On drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake and is
directly connected to the brake shoes. this has the effect of bypassing the
wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.
● Disk brakes on the rear wheels add additional complication for parking brake
systems. There are two main designs for adding a mechanical parking brake
to rear disk brakes. The first type uses the existing rear wheel caliper and
adds a lever attached to a mechanical corkscrew device inside the caliper
piston. When the parking brake cable pulls on the lever, this corkscrew
device pushes the piston against the pads, thereby bypassing the hydraulic
system, to stop the vehicle. This type of system is primarily used with single
piston floating calipers, if the caliper is of the four piston fixed type, then that
type of system can't be used. The other system uses a complete mechanical
drum brake unit mounted inside the rear rotor. The brake shoes on this
system are connected to a lever that is pulled by the parking brake cable to
activate the brakes. The brake "drum" is actually the inside part of the rear
brake rotor.

On cars with automatic transmissions, the parking brake is rarely used. This
can cause a couple of problems. The biggest problem is that the brake cables
tend to get corroded and eventually seize up causing the parking brake to
become inoperative. By using the parking brake from time to time, the cables
stay clean and functional. Another problem comes from the fact that the self
adjusting mechanism on certain brake systems uses the parking brake
actuation to adjust the brakes. If the parking brake is never used, then the
brakes never get adjusted.
Power Brake Booster

The power brake booster is mounted on the firewall directly behind the master
cylinder and, along with the master cylinder, is directly connected with the
brake pedal. Its purpose is to amplify the available foot pressure applied to the
brake pedal so that the amount of foot pressure required to stop even the
largest vehicle is minimal. Power for the booster comes from engine vacuum.
The automobile engine produces vacuum as a by-product of normal operation
and is freely available for use in powering accessories such as the power
brake booster. Vacuum enters the booster through a check valve on the
booster. The check valve is connected to the engine with a rubber hose and
acts as a one-way valve that allows vacuum to enter the booster but does not
let it escape. The booster is an empty shell that is divided into two chambers
by a rubber diaphragm. There is a valve in the diaphragm that remains open
while your foot is off the brake pedal so that vacuum is allowed to fill both
chambers. When you step on the brake pedal, the valve in the diaphragm
closes, separating the two chambers and another valve opens to allow air in
the chamber on the brake pedal side. This is what provides the power assist.
Power boosters are very reliable and cause few problems of their own,
however, other things can contribute to a loss of power assist. In order to have
power assist, the engine must be running. If the engine stalls or shuts off while
you are driving, you will have a small reserve of power assist for two or three
pedal applications but, after that, the brakes will be extremely hard to apply
and you must put as much pressure as you can to bring the vehicle to a stop.

Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS)

The most efficient braking pressure takes place just before each wheel locks
up. When you slam on the brakes in a panic stop and the wheels lock up,
causing a screeching sound and leaving strips of rubber on the pavement, you
do not stop the vehicle nearly as short as it is capable of stopping. Also, while
the wheels are locked up, you loose all steering control so that, if you have an
opportunity to steer around the obstacle, you will not be able to do so. Another
problem occurs during an extended skid is that you will burn a patch of rubber
off the tire which causes a "flat spot" on the tread that will produce an
annoying thumping sound as you drive.

Anti-lock brake systems solve this lockup problem by rapidly pumping the
brakes whenever the system detects a wheel that is locked up. In most cases,
only the wheel that is locked will be pumped, while full braking pressure stays
available to the other wheels. This effect allows you to stop in the shortest
amount of time while maintaining full steering control even if one or more
wheels are on ice. The system uses a computer to monitor the speed of each
wheel. When it detects that one or more wheels have stopped or are turning
much slower than the remaining wheels, the computer sends a signal to
momentarily remove and reapply or pulse the pressure to the affected wheels
to allow them to continue turning. This "pumping" of the brakes occurs at ten or
more times a second, far faster then a human can pump the brakes manually.
If you step on the brakes hard enough to engage the anti-lock system, you
may feel a strong vibration in the brake pedal. This is a normal condition and
indicates that the system is working, however, it can be disconcerting to some
people who don't expect it. If your vehicle has anti-lock brakes, read your
owner's manual to find out more about it.

The system consists of an electronic control unit, a hydraulic actuator, and

wheel speed sensors at each wheel. If the control unit detects a malfunction in
the system, it will illuminate an ABS warning light on the dash to let you know
that there is a problem. If there is a problem, the anti-lock system will not
function but the brakes will otherwise function normally.

1.2 Signaling
Indicator
 What are Signals? The signals are the lighting devices that allow you to
inform other drivers on the roadway what your intentions are.

To use your turning signals you must first locate the signaling indicator.
The signaling indicator is usually located on the steering column at 9 o'clock
just on the side of the steering wheel.
To signal a right lane change or right turns you should push the signal
indicator up.

To signal a left signal or left turns you should push down on the signal
indicator.

When you use the turn signal, it will illuminate the lights on the rear and front.

1.3 Hand
Gestures

The use of hand gestures replaces the turn signals.

Hand signals must be used when the turn signals are not working properly.
 To indicate a right turn the driver should lower the driver�s window and put their
left arm out in a "L" shape. The arm should be straight out from the shoulder and
bent up towards the sky from the elbow to the hand. This will inform the other
drivers of the right turn.

To indicate a left turn the driver should completely extend the arm straight out.
This will inform the other drivers on the road of your intentions.

To indicate a stop or slowing down, the driver should extend the arm out straight
from the shoulder, and at the elbow the arm should bend straight down towards
the ground. This will allow other drivers to be prepared for your vehicle to slow or
stop.

1.4 Emergency
Flashers
 The emergency flashers are usually located on the dashboard of the vehicle,
labeled by a red and white emergency symbol.

The driver of a vehicle should only use these as a signal to an emergency

situation, for instance - if the driver of a vehicle is having mechanical problems,
physical health problems, or there is an emergency situation on the roadway
ahead.
The driver should use the emergency flashers to warn the other drivers so they
can prepare and slow down.

If you can see an accident ahead, warn the drivers behind you by turning on your
emergency flashers or tapping your brake pedal quickly three or four times. You can
also use the hand signal when slowing and stopping.
Never stop on the road, unless necessary for safety or to obey a law. If you need to
stop, then start braking early as a signal to the cars behind you. If your car breaks
down on the road, make sure that other drivers can see it. If you are having car
trouble, and need to stop, follow these rules:
● If possible, pull of the road away from all traffic.
● If you cannot get completely off the road, stop where people can see you and
your car from behind. Don�t stop just over a hill or just around a curve.
● Turn on your emergency flashers if you are not moving. If your car doesn�t have
flashers, turn signals may be used instead.
● If it is safe, lift the hood to signal an emergency.

● Give other drivers plenty of warning. Place emergency flares or

triangles 200 to 300 feet behind the car. This allows other drivers time to change
lanes, if necessary. Be very careful when using flares. They may cause fires,
especially when used near flammable liquids.

● If you don�t have emergency flares, follow the rules listed above
and stay in your vehicle until help arrives. Be careful for your safety and stay off
 the road. Remember; don�t even try to change a tire if it means you have to
stand in a traffic lane.

The driver should always use the emergency flashers when they are on the side of
the road.

1.5
Brake
Lights

The brake lights are red lights that are on the back of each vehicle.

Brake lights allow the driver to indicate a stop, slowing, or an emergency

situation.
As the driver of a vehicle presses down on the brake pedal, the rear brake lights
will illuminate on the back of the car to indicate slowing or stopping.
The brake pedal is the pedal in the center of the driver's floorboard.
 The brake lights are electrically wired to the braking system.

The driver should always allow enough of a braking cushion in the front and the back
of the car.

1.6 Mirrors

How to use the car's breaking system

Mirrors aid the driver in seeing on the sides and to the rear of the car.

The side view mirrors are located on the outside of the vehicle, placed in a
position so the driver is able to see to their sides and side rear of the vehicle.
The driver will need to check the side mirrors while driving to see where the
traffic and other vehicles are positioned.
 The driver shall check the appropriate mirror for the direction in which the
driver intends to make their maneuver. Look right for a right maneuver; and
look left for a left maneuver.

1.7
Windsh
ield

The windshield is the driver's direct view of traffic and the road conditions in
front of the vehicle.

The driver is positioned in the driver's seat to look out through the windshield.
The windshield is the largest window on any car. A good driver will be able to
scan the entire area within the windshield's view.

You must keep your windows clear for view, and without cracks. You are required
by law to have a windshield in place, free of obstructions and without need of
repair. If you have a crack or lines in the windshield glass you need to repair it
immediately.

Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, which consists
of two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety,
and are glued into the window frame. Earlier windshields were made of toughened
glass and were fitted in the frame using a rubber or neoprene seal. The modern,
glued-in screens contribute to the vehicle's rigidity.
Windshields protect the vehicle's occupants from wind, temperature extremes, and
flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks. Properly installed automobile
windshields are also essential to safety; along with the roof of the car, they provide
protection in the case of a roll-over accident in the vehicle. UV Coating may be
applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet light.

In many places, laws restrict the use of heavily tinted glass in vehicle windshields;
generally, laws specify the maximum level of tint permitted. There is noticeably more
tint in the uppermost part of the windshield of motor vehicles that blocks glare from
the sun.
Today�s windshields are a safety device just like seat belts and air bags. The
installation of the auto glass is done with an automotive grade urethane designed
specifically for automobiles. The adhesive creates a molecular bond between the
glass and the vehicle. If the adhesive bond fails at any point on the glass it can
reduce the effectiveness of the air bag and substantially compromise the structural
integrity of the roof.

Stone chip and crack damage

Many types of stone damage can be successfully repaired. Bull�s eyes, cracks,
star breaks or a combination of all three, can be repaired without removing the
windshield, eliminating the risk of leaking or bonding problems sometimes
associated with replacement

History
Mary Anderson is said to have invented the windshield wiper in the United States,
where she patented the idea in 1905. The idea was initially met with resistance, but
was a standard feature on all American cars by 1916.

Wiper Blades
Video
Your windshield must be kept free of obstructions such as papers, material placed,
displayed, installed, affixed or applied, that blocks the driver visibility of the road and its
conditions.

1.8
Headli
ghts

Every vehicle must be equipped with two headlamps one on each side of the
front of the vehicle.

All drivers must use their headlights 30 minutes AFTER sunset to 30 minutes
BEFORE sunrise. If a driver is on the road during this time, the driver must turn
on their headlights.
The headlights are set up with low and high beam lights. The low beam light is
the standard light used to illuminate the driving surface and conditions.

The high beam lights are only used when the driver's visibility is limited.
This gives the driver a bigger picture of the driving conditions. In an
effort not to blind or blur another driver, do not use your high beams
when you are les than 300 feet behind another vehicle.

The low beam lights are used when driving under most normal conditions. They
must be visible 500 feet in front of your vehicle.
 It is required by law to have both headlamps; and both low and high beam lights
working at all times.

On rural or mountain roads, you may be required to turn on your low beam lights, to
aid other drivers in seeing your vehicle.

1.9 Basic
Speed Law

California's basic speed law says that you must never drive faster than is safe
for the present weather and road condition, regardless of the posted speed limit.

The basic law is set-up to minimize traffic accidents and congestion.

1.10
Braki
ng
The purpose of brakes is to allow the driver to stop the vehicle, upon pressing
down on the brake pedal.

The brakes must be in top working condition, so that in an emergency the driver
is able to stop completely without incident.

The brake pads are what usually need to be repaired or replaced, since they get
the most wear.
The driver needs to be able to stop at the required time and within the required
distance.

Good brake control will keep the driver from an accident.

It is imperative to have the braking system checked every 3,000

miles.
 How Antilock Brake Systems
Work

1.11
Parking
Brake

Parking Brakes
The parking brake (a.k.a. emergency brake) system controls the rear brakes through
a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The
idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely by-passes the hydraulic
system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total brake
failure

The parking brake is your secondary braking system.

The driver should use the parking brake when they park the vehicle. This will
keep the car from rolling away from its parked position.

1.12 Automatic
Transmission
 The automatic transmission allows a driver to drive without changing the
gears. The transmission automatically changes gears when the car reaches
certain speeds. This allows the driver to spend more time focusing on the
roadway and both hands on the wheel at all times. However, the driver may
need to change the "shifter" into the reverse, neutral, low or high gears to
help the driver maneuver different driving conditions. A vehicle with an
automatic transmission has a gear shift. The shifter has six positions.

Park (P) - Park, which is the position the vehicle starts out in. Most vehicles will
not start if not in the park position.
Reverse (R) - Reverse is the second gear on the shifter. Reverse allows the
driver to go backwards.
Neutral (N) - Neutral is the third gear on the shifter. Neutral allows the driver to
stop the gears from moving the vehicle forward or backwards.
Drive (D) - Drive is the fourth gear on the shifter. The drive position allows the
driver to move the vehicle forward.
Low 2 (2) - Low 2 aids the driver on varying degrees of inclines and declines. It is
used when the driver feels the vehicle is either losing power while ascending, or
gaining too much power while descending.
Low (1) - Low 1 is the sixth and last gear on the Shifter. Low 1 is a lower gear
than Low 2. This gives the driver increased power while ascending. Low 1 gives
the descending driver control from gaining too much speed.

It's True: Drive has an automatic gear changing system, which means that the vehicle
changes from one gear to another without the driver having to switch the gears him or
herself, except in regards to ascending or descending an incline.
 The modern automatic transmission is by far, the most complicated mechanical
component in today's automobile. Automatic transmissions contain mechanical
systems, hydraulic systems, electrical systems and computer controls, all working
together in perfect harmony which goes virtually unnoticed until there is a problem.
This information will help you understand the concepts behind what goes on inside
these technological marvels and what goes into repairing them when they fail.

1.13 Standard
Transmission

A vehicle with standard transmission must change the car's gears

themselves. This is done by the gear shift, which is on the floor or the
steering column.
 Vehicles with a standard transmission are equipped
with a clutch. The clutch is the neutralizer, which
allows the transmission and the driver to switch the
gears.
To switch gears the driver must push in the clutch
with the left foot while releasing the accelerator with
the right, then the driver will use the gear shift to put
the vehicle in the needed gear.
The standard transmission has at the least four
gears, plus a neutral position. The vehicle has first,
second, third, and reverses. Other vehicles may have
first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and reverse.

Depending on the vehicle, the car could have as few as four gears or as many as six
gears.

Switching gears with a standard (manual) transmission

1.14
The
Gears
 The standard transmission has at the least four gears, plus a neutral position.
The vehicles have first, second, third, and reverse. Other vehicles may have
first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and reverse.

The transmission of the vehicle is designed to change

gears at different speeds.
If the driver is pulling onto a highway from a side road
from a stopped position, the driver will put the vehicle
into the first gear.
Then as the vehicle gains speed, the driver will need
to change the car into second gear; this usually will
happen at 15 mph.
As the vehicle reaches around 30 mph the driver will
switch the car into third gear.
The driver of a vehicle with standard transmission
must follow the sequence of the numbers on the
gears to increase the speed of the vehicle.
Reverse is to be used when a driver needs to go
backwards.

Learning To Drive a Stick Shift

Before you begin

Know your way around. A manual transmission

demands that the driver shift the gears instead of the
engine. Most cars have four to six forward speeds, as
well as reverse. In order to master the process, you
need to know the following:

The clutch pedal is located at the far left and is used

when moving up or down from one gear to another.
The clutch is disengaged when the pedal i s pushed to
the floor.

Neutral is not a gear; actually, it is the absence of gear.

When the engine is running in neutral, you can rev up
the engine, but you won't go anywhere. You'll also be
able to wiggle the shifter back and forth - which you
can't do when engaged in any gear.

For most cars, second gear is the workhorse. It will get

you up (and down) steep hills as well as through
congested downtown.

Reverse gear is somewhat different from the others:

it's got more range than, say, first gear, but doesn't like
going for too long or too fast. So, don't back up around
the block to pass the time.

The gas pedal (at far right) works with the gears to
give the engine power at different levels. As mentioned
before, if you press on the gas pedal while out of gear,
you will only rev the car up: this is how 50's
hot-rodders showed their toughness. But if you
over-accelerate with the clutch partially engaged, you'll
eventually wear it out.

Step 1: Learn the Gears

Learn the location of and feel of passing through the

gears. First learn to shift the gears without the car
running (pushing the clutch in each time). Then, from
the passenger seat, try it with someone else driving
the car and operating the clutch. Be sure to place the
stick all the way into gear--until it won't go any
more--but don't force it. If you stop halfway, you will
hear an incredibly unpleasant grinding sound which
means your car is not in gear.

Eventually, you will know when to shift by feel, but

early on you'll have to act deliberately. Even if you've
never been in a car before, you can tell when a car is
in the appropriate gear: the car's not making a
coughing and chugging sound (gear too high) but it's
not making a high-revving sound either (gear too low).
If you have a tachometer, shift around "3" (3000 rpm)
on each gear or every 15 miles per hour (1st gear
1-15, 2nd 15-30, 3rd 30-45, etc.). This is only a
general rule, of course, and higher powered autos will
deviate from this. Shift before you hear that loud
revving sound.

Step 2: Start it up
Put the car in neutral before starting, or you will jump
ahead. Keep in mind that most new cars will not start
without the clutch pressed down. Leave the shifter into
neutral while the car warms up. Alternately, start the
car in gear with the clutch pedal pushed to the floor,
then shift into neutral, release the clutch pedal, and let
the car warm up.

Step 3: Protect the clutch, yourself and the car

The clutch is the mechanism that allows the gears to

transition back and forth smoothly. If you pull the car in
or out of gear without using the clutch, or release the
clutch only halfway into gear, you will hear an
amazingly unpleasant sound. Avoid this.

It's difficult to avoid some sort of wear and tear on the

clutch when learning how to drive a stick shift. If you
go slowly at first and pay close attention, you can feel
(in your feet) where the clutch engages and
disengages. If you learn that well, you'll put less strain
on your car. You'll also be able to drive any stick shift
more smoothly from the get-go.

Avoid needless acceleration when the clutch is

partially engaged. When at a stoplight, don't get in the
habit of holding the clutch in for more than a few
seconds or you will have other problems down the line.
Instead, put the car in neutral while stopped for any
period of time.

Popping the clutch: Invariably, you will miss your gear

(or release the clutch too quickly) and the car will lurch
ahead. Often at the outset, you will pop the clutch too
quickly and stall the car. Don't worry, it happens to
everyone. Just get those exercises out of the way
before you find yourself in bumper-to-bumper traffic.

Step 4: Find the right spot

Here we are at the most important junction of the stick

shift world: the door to acceleration. Driving a stick
shift is all about that magical place where the clutch
comes up and the gas pedal goes down. It's that
seamless place where the gears are shifted and the
car accelerates. Let's take first to second on a flat road
as an example: First gear going steady, clutch in as
you come off the gas quickly, then off the clutch slowly
while pressing in the gas.

That place in the middle where the clutch pedal is to

the floor and you're off the gas is where you take the
shifter from first to second. Get those feet and hands
used to working together.

Here we go once more:

● Revving high (around 3000 rpms or at 15 mph).

 ●
● Clutch in and gas off.
● Move the shifter smoothly from first to second.
●
● Slowly off the clutch while pushing on the gas.
●
● Completely let your foot off the clutch and gas it
up.
●
● Same time next gear!

Step 5: Now try downshifting

Downshifting is the act of moving appropriately to

lower gears while slowing down. This is the essential
difference between the operation of an automatic
transmission and one of manual persuasion:
downshifting not only helps you slow the car, but it also
puts you in the right gear for the speed. Downshifting
is your friend - especially in bad weather or on hills,
where immediate braking can be dangerous.

Keep in mind that you may shift down only one gear or
simply apply the brakes. Again, knowing your range in
each gear will help determine what's needed.

While downshifting, move from clutch to brake while in

gear. This will help you slow down without revving too
high between gears.
If you are driving 45 mph in fourth gear and come
upon a stop sign ahead:

● Push in the clutch and shift down to third while

using the brake.
●
● Let the clutch out slowly to avoid high revs.
● Next, do it again into second before you stop.
●
● Don't downshift into first!

Step 6: Learn the subtleties of reverse

Be very careful in backing up. The reverse gear is very

quick and can jump out at you. To get into reverse,
sometimes you need to run the shifter through the
other gears first with the clutch in.

Using the clutch is key while going in reverse. Since

reverse is so quick, let out the clutch slowly and push it
back in while using the brake if necessary; you will
likely be able to back out of any spot with this simple
measure.

Step 7: Win the hill challenge

Find a hill with little traffic. Use your emergency brake
when coming to a stop. When the light turns green to
go, shift into first, start to accelerate slowly as you
release the clutch pedal, then release the emergency
brake just as you feel the car engage the gear. This
way you are using the brake to keep you from rolling
back. If you stall, put on your brake and start again.

Step 8: Remember the parking brake

It is important to note that the emergency brake is very

important when parking a stick shift car, because there
exists no "park" gear to keep the car from rolling.
Some rely only on the pull-up emergency brake,
usually sufficient in most situations. But for extra
safety, leave the car in gear AND use the emergency
brake.

Step 9: Practice these scenarios

In the neighborhood, 25 mph: Start, 1st gear, change

to second gear, run either high rpm in second gear or
low rpm in third. Sometimes run high to low second
gear depending on speed.

On the highway: High rpm in third or fourth onto the

highway at the appropriate speed, then fifth gear (if
available).
Going down a steep hill: Keep the car in a gear that
will aid the braking process, the engine sounds like its
working but not screeching. You may press the clutch
in and out to further complement your braking.

All vehicles must start in either 1st or reverse in order to get the car moving
smoothly.

To reduce the speed of the vehicle with standard transmission gradually, the driver
will reverse the gear process: from 3rd to 2nd, from 2nd to 1st.

1.15 Safety
Equipment
 Every vehicle on the road must be equipped with a safety restraint device
(seat belt) for every passenger in the vehicle. Some newer cars offer an air
bag for the driver and some with a bag for both driver and the passenger.

The safety restraints are devices that help the driver and passengers of vehicles
survive a traffic collision with the most protection possible.

Allen Breed pioneered airbags.

Airbags are a type of automobile safety restraint like seatbelts. They are gas-inflated
cushions built into the steering wheel, dashboard, door, roof, or seat of your car that
use a crash sensor to trigger a rapid expansion to protect you from the impact of an
accident.

Airbags Introduced
In 1971, the Ford car company built an experimental airbag fleet. General Motors
tested airbags on the 1973 model Chevrolet automobile that were only sold for
government use. The 1973, Oldsmobile Toronado was the first car with a passenger
air bag intended for sale to the public. General Motors later offered an option to the
general public of driver side airbags in full-sized Oldsmobile's and Buick's in 1975
and 1976 respectively. Cadillacs were available with driver and passenger airbags
options during those same years.
Early airbags system had design issues resulting in fatalities caused solely by the
airbags.
Airbags were offered once again as an option on the 1984 Ford Tempo automobile.
By 1988, Chrysler became the first company to offer air bag restraint systems as
standard equipment. In 1994, TRW began production of the first gas-inflated airbag.
They are now mandatory in all cars since 1998.
Types of Airbags
There are two types of airbags; frontal and the various types of side-impact airbags.
Advanced frontal air bag systems automatically determine if and with what level of
power the driver frontal air bag and the passenger frontal air bag will inflate. The
appropriate level of power is based upon sensor inputs that can typically detect: 1)
occupant size, 2) seat position, 3) seat belt use of the occupant, and 4) crash
severity.
Side-impact air bags (SABs) are inflatable devices that are designed to help protect
your head and/or chest in the event of a serious crash involving the side of your
vehicle. There are three main types of SABs: chest (or torso) SABs, head SABs and
head/chest combination (or "combo") SABs.

Allen Breed - History of the Airbag

Allen Breed was holding the patent to the only crash sensing technology available at
the birth of the airbag industry. Breed invented a "sensor and safety system" in
1968, the world's first electromechanical automotive airbag system.
However, rudimental patents for airbags go back to the 1950s. Patent applications
were submitted by German Walter Linderer and American John W. Hedrik as early
as 1953