Characterization of

polymeric foams
D.V.W.M. de Vries (0611747)
MT 09.22

Supervisors:
J.G.F. Wismans, MSc.
J.A.W. van Dommelen, Dr. Ir.

Eindhoven University of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mechanics of Materials

July 2009
Table of contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2
1 - The mechanics of foams .................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 - Introduction to foams.................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 - Deformation mechanisms in foams ............................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 - Elastic collapse and densification ........................................................................................ 5
1.2.3 - Plastic collapse and densification ........................................................................................ 6
1.2.4 - The effect of strain rate ........................................................................................................ 6
1.2.5 - The effect of air ................................................................................................................... 7
2 - Experimental procedure ..................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 - Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 - IMPAXX foams ................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 - Johnson Controls Foams .................................................................................................... 10
2.2 - experimental set-up................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 - Set-up for IMPAXX foams ................................................................................................ 11
2.2.2 - Set-up for Johnson Controls foams.................................................................................... 12
3 - Results ............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.1 - IMPAXX .................................................................................................................................. 14
3.1.1 - Stress-strain behaviour....................................................................................................... 14
3.1.2 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................. 15
3.1.3 - Plastic collapse................................................................................................................... 18
3.2 - Johnson Controls foams............................................................................................................ 24
3.2.1 - Stress-strain behaviour....................................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 - Linear elasticity ................................................................................................................. 24
3.2.3 - Elastic collapse .................................................................................................................. 27
Conclusions and discussion .................................................................................................................. 32
References ............................................................................................................................................. 34

1
Introduction
The macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams is determined by a subtle interplay of (i)
the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and (ii) the complex microstructure.
Goal of this project is to mechanically characterize two different types of polymer foams (an open-cell
flexible foam and an elasto-plastic foam with a closed-cell structure) in order to determine the effect
of phenomena, such as flow of air through cells in foams and the influence of intrinsic material
behaviour.

As stated above, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour will partially be determined by the intrinsic
constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material of which the foam is made. There are a lot of models
in literature that relate material properties of the polymer foam to the polymeric material of which the
cell walls of the foam are made [3][4]. Some of these are referenced in chapter 1. The models explained
there will be applied to validate experimental results. The other contribution that partially determines
the material behaviour of foams is the complex microstructure. Besides that, there are a lot of external
conditions that can influence the material behaviour of the foam, like temperature and pressure.

As a result of these contributions (and the interplay between them), the strain rate and flow of air
through cells will affect the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of the foams. This will be further
investigated with experiments. Uni-axial compression tests will be executed at different strain rates
and with specimens of different length scales. For both open- and closed-cell foams, foams with
different densities will be analysed. Because of the great complexity of parameters which influence
the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams, a large number of experiments is
performed in order to investigate the effect of these phenomena.

The expectation is that for open-cell foams the influence of air flow will be higher than for closed cell
foams, because the air in foams with an open structure can be forced to flow out of the foam. For
larger length scales the air will pass a longer way to get out of the material and the resistance to it will
grow. Strain rate will influence the mechanical behaviour of both foams, like a viscous response of
the material [6]. A higher strain rate will give also higher resistance due to air flow.

In order to perform an analysis of test results, first an introduction will be given to foams. Both the
mechanics of open- and closed-cell foams will be discussed in here. The most important deformation
mechanisms of foams will be clarified. After this introduction to foams, the materials used for the
experiments will be highlighted and for each material a specific experimental set-up will be clarified.
In the third chapter, the test results will be analysed. The results will also be examined on the
analytical expressions, given in chapter 1. Finally, conclusions will be given about the influence of air
flow and intrinsic material behaviour on the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams.
Also some discussion points are reported and some recommendations will be given for future
investigations to the material behaviour of polymer foams.

2
1 - The mechanics of foams
1.1 - Introduction to foams
There are a lot of different applications for foams. Examples of applications are absorbing the energy
during impact events, lightweight structures and thermal insulation. To use foams efficiently a
detailed understanding of their mechanical behaviour is required. The mechanical properties of foams
are related to their complex microstructure and to the properties of the material of which the cell walls
are made, in here a solid polymeric material. Some salient structural features of foams [4] are:
ρ*
- the relative density R = , in which the superscript * refers to the effective properties of
ρs
the polymer foam and the subscript s refers to the properties of the solid;
- the degree to which cells are open or closed;
- the geometric anisotropy of the foams.

The most important properties of the solid [4] (which will be used here) are the polymer density ρs ,
Young’s modulus Es and yield stress σys. These material parameters can be found in literature or are
given by companies.

The analytical expressions are based on these parameters and test results will be referenced to the
material properties of the solid polymeric material. Factors such as strain-rate and specimen size will
influence the material behaviour of polymer foams too. The latter two factors form the central topic in
this report. Besides that, some other factors, like temperature, anisotropy and loading conditions all
influence the properties too. These will not be considered in this study. Experiments have to be done
in order to ensure the effect of strain rate and air flow on the macroscopic constitutional behaviour.
With the experimental results, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of foams can be analysed and
analytical expressions can be validated. In this chapter the mechanics of foams is further explained in
order to analyse the test results later.

1.2 - Deformation mechanisms in foams

Stress-strain responses of foams in compression tests show equivalent properties for different types of
foams. Figure 1.1 and 1.2 show typical schematic compressive stress-strain responses for an
elastomeric foam and for an elasto-plastic foam respectively. Because only uni-axial compression
tests will be executed, only mechanical properties in compression will be of importance, but it should
be noted that the mechanical behaviour of foams in tension is different. For example, a foam can be
plastic in compression but brittle in tension, caused by the stress-concentrating effect of a crack,
which leads to fast fracture in tension [4].
For the stress-strain responses in compression tests, a region of linear elasticity (Hookean) at low
stresses is followed by a long collapse plateau in which the stresses do not vary a lot, truncated by a
region of densification in which the stress rises steeply. Each region is determined by some
mechanism of deformation.
Linear elasticity is controlled by cell wall bending and, in case of closed cells, by stretching of the cell
walls. The Young’s modulus E* is the initial slope of the stress-strain response of the polymer foam.
For small strains, the foam will have an elastic response. In this region, the compressive stress can be
determined by
σ * = E *ε (1.1)

3
 In compression, the plateau is associated
Elastomeric foam
with collapse of the cells. The plateau
region is different for elastomeric foams
Stress σ Densification and elasto-plastic foams. For an
E elastomeric foam the plateau is determined
by elastic buckling and in elasto-plastic
foams by the formation of plastic hinges
[4]
. For a pure elastomeric foam, there is no
σel* plastic deformation, but for an elasto-
plastic material the foam has a plastic
Plateau
region.
When the cells have almost completely
Linear elasticity
collapsed opposing cell walls touch and
εmax 1 further strain compresses the solid itself,
0 Strain ε giving the final region of rapidly
increasing stress, referred to as
Figure 1.1 - Schematic compressive stress-strain response for
elastomeric foams [4] densification. Increasing the relative
density of the foam increases the Young’s
modulus, raises the plateau stress and
Elasto-plastic foam reduces the strain at which densification
begins. The influence of different densities
will be validated in the experiments.
Densification Superimposed on the deformation of the
Stress σ

cell edges and cell walls is the effect of the

fluid (air) contained within the cells. When
a closed-cell foam is compressed, the cell
fluid is compressed too. This leads to an
σpl* additional force which can be calculated
from Boyle’s law [3]. If the cells are open
Plateau
and interconnected, deformation forces the
Linear elasticity fluid to flow from cell to cell, doing
viscous work, and this generates a force
0 Strain ε εmax 1 which must also be overcome [4].
As indicated before, in this survey foams
Figure 1.2 - Schematic compressive stress-strain response for
elasto-plastic foams [4] will be tested in compression. In the next
paragraphs, a more detailed analysis will
be given for the mechanical properties of foams for this loading regime and foam properties will be
expressed in terms of properties of the solid polymer. The different regions in the stress-strain
responses will be discussed and also some theorem about strain rate and air flow is given. As
indicated in this paragraph, the mechanical behaviour is different for open-cell and closed-cell foams
and for elastomeric and elasto-plastic foams, so a distinction between them has to be made in the
analysis of foams.

1.2.1 - Linear elasticity

The linear elastic behaviour of a foam is characterized by a set of moduli, that depends on its
(an)isotropy. The determination of the material parameters of foams can be done with different
loading regimes. Only uni-axial compression tests will be performed here.
In order to give some analytical expressions, some simplifications will be made. This analysis is based
on an isotropic foam [4]. Foam properties will be related to the properties of the polymer solid in order
to predict the foam’s Young’s modulus. Distinction is made between open- and closed-cell foams.

4
1.2.1.1 - Open-cell foams
At low relative densities, open-cell foams deform primarily by cell-wall bending. As the relative
density increases (R > 0.1) the contribution of simple extension or compression of the cell walls
becomes more significant.
There are several models in literature to predict the Young’s modulus of the foam which are based on
simple cell shapes in structural arrays, like honeycomb structures [3][4]. In practice, this won’t be the
case, but for understanding the behaviour of foams such analyses are important.
For a cubic array of members simple beam theorem can be applied, and it can be derived that [4]
E*
= C1 R 2 in which C1 is a constant and C1 ≈ 1. (1.2)
Es
The modulus found here, is the modulus at small strains. As the elastic distortion increases, the axial
load on a cell increases. This exerts an additional moment on the bent edge and in compression the
modulus will decrease. So the part of the stress-strain response which is called linear elastic is
concave downwards. When the axial load on the cell edge reaches a critical load, the edge buckles and
the foam loses stiffness. This will be analysed further in 1.2.2.

1.2.1.2 - Closed-cell foams

In closed-cell foams the cell edges both bend and extend or contract, while the membranes which
form the cell faces stretch, increasing the contribution of the axial cell-wall stiffness to the elastic
moduli. If the membranes do not rupture, the compression of the air in the cells also increases their
stiffness (see 1.2.5.2).
So, for Young’s modulus, there are three contributions to the initial stiffness of foams and therefore
the analysis is more complicated. A model - in which the Poisson’s ratio is assumed to be zero - that
predicts the Young’s modulus for closed-cell foams is given by equation 1.3 [4].
E* p0
= φ 2 R 2 + (1 − φ ) R + (1.3)
Es Es (1 − R )
In which (1 − φ ) indicates the fraction of solid in the cell faces, i.e. φ is the fraction of solid contained
in the cell edges. Reasonable values for φ are 0,6 and 0,8 [4].

1.2.2 - Elastic collapse and densification

For open- and closed-cell foams, the elastic collapse stress and the densification behaviour are
different. This part counts for elastomeric open-cell foams. In compression the stress-strain response
for polymeric foams will show an extensive plateau at a stress level which doesn’t change much. This
stress level is referenced to as the elastic collapse stress and the slope of the plateau in the stress-strain
diagram is called the Plateau modulus in here. The elastic collapse in foams is caused by the elastic
buckling of cell walls. The stress level at which elastic collapse occurs - also referred to as σel*, the
elastic collapse stress of the foam - can also be predicted.
Based on a open-cell structure with cubic cells consisting of interconnected cell edges with length l
and thickness t (square cross section t2), the elastic collapse stress can be estimated with the following
model [4]. When an elastomeric open-cell foam is compressed the cell walls will bend till a critical
load is applied at which the cell walls buckle. This load can be calculated with the Euler formula:
n 2π 2 Es I
Fcrit = (1.4)
l2
With second moment of inertia I and the factor n2, that describes the degree of constraint at the ends
of the column. Elastic collapse will initiate at
Fcrit Es I
σ el* ∝ ∝ 4 (1.5)
l2 l

5
 2
t4
Using I ∝ t and R ∝   which counts for open cells [4], the elastic collapse stress can be related to
l
the relative density and the Young’s modulus of the polymer solid, as stated in equation 1.6.
σ el*
= C2 R 2 in which C2 is a constant and C2 ≈ 0.05. (1.6)
Es
At larger compressive strains the opposing walls of the cells crush together. Then the cell wall
material itself will be compressed. This results in a steeply rising stress-strain response, with a slope
approaching the Young’s modulus of the solid polymer at a limiting strain of εmax. This limiting strain
could be given by the porosity ψ - which is given by equation 1.7 - but in practice the cell walls
gather together at a smaller strain. With experimental data it is verified that this limiting strain can be
assessed with equation 1.8.
ψ = 1− R (1.7)
ε max = 1 − 1.4 R (1.8)

1.2.3 - Plastic collapse and densification

Foams that have a plastic collapse stress, referred to as σpl*, collapse plastically when loaded beyond
the linear-elastic regime. Plastic collapse gives a long, approximately horizontal, plateau to the stress-
strain response. Advantage from the long stress plateau is taken in crash protection, since the energy
absorption per unit of volume is defined as the area under the stress-strain responses (Equation 1.9).
Like elastic buckling, the failure is localized in a band transverse to the loading direction. This band
propagates throughout the foam with increasing strain.
ε max

∫σ
*
U= dε (1.9)
0
Since the elasto-plastic foam, that will be tested, has a closed-cell structure, the plastic collapse and
densification will only be further explained for this type of foams.
The plastic collapse stress is affected by stretching as well as bending of cell walls. Besides that, also
the fluid in the cells can give a stress contribution to the plastic collapse stress. This contribution is
further explained in section 1.2.5.2. Plastic collapse causes the cell faces to crumple in the
compression direction. If the cell faces are very thin, they could rupture before full plastic collapse,
and then the closed-cell foams will behave like a foam with an open-cell structure.
Because of complexity, analytical expressions that predict the plastic collapse stress are difficult to
determine. One analytical description is given by [4]
σ *pl 3
p − patm
≈ 0.3 (φ R ) 2 + 0.4 (1 − φ ) R + (1.10)
σ ys σ ys
In which the pressure p represents the pressure of the fluid (air) in the cells and patm is the atmospheric
pressure.

1.2.4 - The effect of strain rate

The material behaviour of foams depends, as one might expect, also on strain rate. There are two
separate contributions to the strain rate-dependence of foam properties. The first one derives from the
polymer solid and will be called inherent strain rate-dependence; the foam inherits the strain rate-
dependence of the solid polymeric material of the cell walls. A relationship for the strain rate
dependency of the yield strength of a polymer is given by Eyring [6]
kT  εɺ 
σ ys = ln   (1.11)
ν act  C3 

6
In which σys is the yield strength of the solid polymer, k is the Bolzmann constant, T is the current
temperature and νact is a so called activation volume. The strain rate is given by εɺ and temperature
dependent parameter C3 is given by [6]
εɺ0  ∆U 
C3 (T ) = exp  −  (1.12)
2  kT 
In here, εɺ0 is a material property and ∆U is the activation energy.

The second contribution to strain rate dependent behaviour derives from the liquid in the cells of the
foam. When the foam is compressed the liquid (in the foams used this will be air) either deforms or is
forced to flow from cell to cell. In an open-cell foam, the air is expelled out of the foam during
compression. This induces viscous forces that are also dependent on strain rate. This is related to air
flow and will further be explained in section 1.2.5.2.
Data in literature [4] states that the plastic collapse strength of polymer foams linearly increases with
the logarithm of strain rate. This is stated in equation 1.13.
0  AT  εɺ0  
σ *pl = (σ *pl )  1 − ln    (1.13)
 Tg  εɺ  

0
( ) is the plastic collapse stress at 0 K, A is material property and T
In which σ *pl g is the glass
transition temperature of the polymer.
σ
V
1.2.5 - The effect of air

1.2.5.1 - Open-cell foams: air-flow Air flow

The air flow resistance of foams is one of the main

aspects in this survey. The contribution of it to the
macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer σ=0
foams is investigated. In contrast to the influence H
on mechanical properties of a foam, the cell size
strongly influences air-flow properties. In closed-
cell foams the effect of air-flow can be neglected in
most cases, but if the membranes are very thin, the ey
L
cells will burst and the air will flow through the ex
foam. But in common, the effect of air-flow is of
importance for open-cell foams.
When an open-cell foam is compressed, the air it Figure 1.3 - Illustration of the cross-sectional area of a
contains is squeezed out. Air has a viscosity, so work foam specimen during uni-axial compression [4]
is done forcing it through the interconnected porosity
of the foam. The faster the foam is deformed, the more work is done; the air flow phenomenon is
therefore strongly dependent on strain rate. One way to analyse the effect of strain rate is to treat the
foam as a porous medium, characterized by an absolute permeability K; then the fluid through it is
described by Darcy’s law [4]
K dp
u= (1.14)
µ dx
Where u is the velocity of the fluid, K is the absolute permeability of the foam, µ is the dynamic
viscosity and dp/dx is the pressure gradient. Because of small pore sizes and relative small velocities,
it can be assumed that only laminar flows will occur (Re < 2300) so inertial effects can be neglected.
For a permeable material with pores of average diameter d the permeability is given by [4]
3
K = C4 d 2 (1 − R ) 2 (1.15)
Where C4 is a constant to which the empirical value 0,4 is generally assigned. Foams typically have
permeabilities in the range 10-10 to 10-8 m2. The viscous flow in a block of foam is illustrated in figure

7
1.3 .The contribution of viscous flow to foam strength can be calculated with help of this figure. The
air flux through each of the two vertical faces is given by
VL εɺ L
q= = (1.16)
2H 2
Where V is the compression speed, H is the height of the block and L is the base length of the foam.
The average flux across any vertical internal surface is one-half of this, because of symmetry.
Inserting a factor of ½ , and substituting the result into equation 1.14, gives
εɺ L K dp
=− (1.17)
4 µ dx
σ
The pressure gradient is in here proportional to − (see figure 1.3). The pore size d is obviously
L
proportional to the cell edge-length l at the start of deformation. During compression the pores
become narrower. Gent and Rusch [4] suggest that
1
d ∝ l (1 − ε ) 2 (1.18)
Substituting these relations into Equation 1.17, with K defined by Equation 1.15, gives the
contribution of the air flow to the strength of open-cell foams like
2
C5 µεɺ  L 
σ g* =   (1.19)
1− ε  l 
In this equation, the proportionality constants have been combined in the constant C5 that is of order
unity. The contribution of air flow to the strength σ* of a foam is therefore proportional to the strain
rate and to the viscosity of air and to the reciprocal of the cell size, squared. To drop temperature
influences, the temperature should remain constant, because also viscosity is temperature dependent.

1.2.5.2 - Closed-cell foams: air response

As stated before in the introduction of paragraph 1.2, superimposed on the polymer response for
closed-cell foams to compression must be the effect of fluid (air) contained within the cells.
Skochdopole and Ruben’s (1965) [3] gave a qualitative model (figure 1.4) that suggests that the cell air
and the polymer microstructure of the closed-cell foam are acting in parallel when they undergo
deformation. The model simply adds the stress due to the polymer structure, σp , to the stress σg
originated from the air in the cells. In here, a simple analysis on the air response will be taken (Rusch,
1970) [3].
Force
Air at pressure p0
ε
1-R Stress σ

Air Cell walls Air at pressure p 1-R-ε

Polymer R Polymer R

Figure 1.4 - Model (redrawn from Skochdopole and

Rubens) of air response and polymer response Stress σ
acting in parallel for a closed-cell foam [3] Figure 1.5 - Volumes before and after compression [3]

Assuming zero lateral expansion, i.e. the Poisson ratio is zero and the volumetric strain is equal to the
compressive strain ε, isothermal gas compression and incompressible polymer cell walls, with figure
1.5 can been proven that
patm (1 − R ) = p (1 − ε − R ) (1.20)
And therefore the air in the cells give an additional stress equal to
 ε 
σ g = p − patm = patm   (1.21)
 1− R − ε 

8
2 - Experimental procedure
In this chapter the experimental set-up and the materials will be clarified. Tests have been performed
on an elasto-plastic polymer foam with closed-cell structure and on an elastomeric polymer foam with
open-cell structure. Both materials will be introduced first and some available technical data will be
given. In here, also some pictures of the foams, made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM),
will be given in order to validate the foam structure. After introducing the materials, a test set-up will
be given which is different for the two polymer foams. Results of the experiments will be given in the
next chapter.

2.1 - Materials
Tests have been performed on two polymer foams with various properties. The first material is called
IMPAXX which is used in automotive industries for crash protection. The second foam will be called
Johnson Controls inc. (JC). This foam is used for interior, like car seats. In this paragraph, both foams
will be introduced.

2.1.1 - IMPAXX foams

For the first tests IMPAXX Energy Absorbing Foams (DOW Automotive) were used. IMPAXX
foams are highly engineered polystyrene-based thermoplastic foams. It is formed by extruding
polystyrene polymer - which contains a halogenated flame-retardant system - that has been formulated
with blowing agents and other additives. The blowing agents expand when pressure is released at the
extrusion die to form the foam. These foams are strong and lightweight and are designed to maximize
efficiency and minimize weight. IMPAXX foams are mainly used for automotive applications. Their
function is to absorb the impact energy in the event of a crash and the foams are for instance installed
within bumpers or doors [9].
For the compression tests, three different IMPAXX foams were used: IMPAXX 300, IMPAXX 500
and IMPAXX 700, all with different densities. This foam has a closed-cell structure, which has been
validated with some scans with a SEM. Figures of this scan can be seen in figures 2.1a and 2.1b.

Figure 2.1a - Side view of closed-cell strucure of IMPAXX Figure 2.1.b - Top view of closed-cell strucure of
(with SEM, TU/e) IMPAXX (with SEM, TU/e)

From DOW Automotive, some technical data are available for IMPAXX 300 and 500 [7][8]. These are
listed in table 2.1. This is just a short guideline to check whether the test results are in the same range.

9
IMPAXX is also said to have a small temperature dependence, so all tests will be executed at room
temperature, which is about 21°C.

Table 2.1 - Technical data IMPAXX foams

IMPAXX ρ* [kg/m3] Compression Compression Compression
strength (23 °C) strength (23 °C) strength (23 °C)
at 10% [MPa] at 25% [MPa] at 50% [MPa]
300 35 0.345 0.375 0.434
500 43 0.512 0.544 0.612

2.1.2 - Johnson Controls Foams

This foam is used for the seating interior
i of vehicles. There are specimens delivered by Johnson
Controls Inc. with 4 different (relative) densities. These foams will be indicated with JC80, JC90,
JC100 and JC120. This foam has an open-cell
open cell structure which is validated with a SEM, see figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 - Microscopic view of open-cell

open structure of JC80 foam, made with SEM (TU/e)

The material of the solid cell walls of JC foams is polyurethane

p (PU) and the material behaviour of
the JC foams is supposed to be similar to elastomeric foams.. This will be validated with a material
recovery analysis in 2.2.2.1. A PU is any polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by
urethane links. It is formed through step-growth polymerization by reacting a monomer
monomer, that contains
at least two isocyanate functional groups,
groups, with another monomer containing at least two hydroxyl
groups in the presence of a catalyst.. PU polymers can be built of many different components, and they
cover a wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities [6][10].

10
From Johnson Controls Inc., some technical data are available for the different polyurethane foams.
These are listed in table 2.2. In here, σel* represents the elastic collapse stress of the JC foam (is
explained later). Again, this is just a short guideline to check whether the test results are in the same
range.

Table 2.2 - Technical data Johnson Controls foams

JC ρ [kg/m3] σel* [MPa]
80 58 6
90 60 8
100 60 10
120 62 13

2.2 - experimental set-up

2.2.1 - Set-up for IMPAXX foams
In order to determine material parameters of the IMPAXX foams (Young’s modulus, Plateau modulus
and plastic collapse stress) as function of test parameters (diameter of specimens and strain rate), a
great number of compression tests has to be done. The forces and displacements are measured on
cylindrical specimens with a constant height and with three different diameters (25, 50 and 75 mm).
Specimens are cut to the appropriate dimensions using a cavity drilling apparatus with different
diameters. From each dimension, 20 specimens (corresponding to one density) will be tested at 5
different strain rates: 10, 100, 10-1, 10-2 and 10-3 s-1. The loading is therefore displacement controlled.
At each strain rate, 4 identical set-ups are used to validate the results. The compression tests are
carried out on an MTS 810 Elastomer Test System with a 25 kN load cell. The specimens will be
compressed between two cylindrical platens. All specimens are loaded to an engineering strain of
approximately 80%, well beyond the densification strain. Before starting up a measurement, the force
has to be set to zero (without the specimens on the plates). Then a specimen is placed on the machine
and a small load is set on the specimen (approximately 5N). After this (only) the displacement must
be set zero and then the experiment is ready to start. After each measurement following up after the
first one, only the displacement has to be set zero again. The compressive stress-strain responses are
obtained by dividing the applied load by the original specimen area (engineering stress), and by
dividing the specimen displacement by the original specimen height (engineering strain). In this case,
the engineering stress is approximately identical to true stress, because the Poison’s ratio is almost
zero so no notable changes in cross-sectional
area will occur.
To identify the Young’s modulus, the plastic
collapse stress and the Plateau modulus,
Matlab is used. The Young’s modulus can be
E* found by fitting a line through the elastic
Stress σ

region of the stress-strain response and

determining the slope of that line. This
σpl* Epl elastic region has to meet some conditions to
get an appropriate value without disturbances
due to noise. Afterwards, the Plateau
modulus is found equivalently by a line
through the plateau area. The plastic collapse
stress is approximated by the intersection
Strain ε point of these two lines. This is illustrated in
0
figure 2.3. For elastomeric foams, this
Figure 2.3 - Determination of Young’s modulus, Plateau modulus intersection point is called the elastic
and collapse stress.
collapse stress.

11
Because the experiments will be performed in series consisting of 4 tests with identical circumstances,
the found parameters (Young’s modulus, Plateau modulus and plastic collapse stress of the foam) are
averaged and a standard deviation is assessed. These deviations will also be plotted in the figures.

2.2.2 - Set-up for Johnson Controls foams

Because the Johnson Controls (JC) foams are supposed to be elastomeric, the idea is to measure one
specimen more than once because no (or not much) plastic deformation will occur and not much
specimens are available for testing this material.
In order to set up a proper experiment, first the material will be analysed in order to check the
recovery of the material. Therefore, first a material recovery analysis is done at one specimen.
Afterwards, the test set-up for this material is formulated.

2.2.2.1 - Material recovery analysis

In order to test the recovery of the JC foams (fully elastic deformation), ten compression tests with
JC80 foam have been performed at the MTS 810 Elastomer Test System. For the first three
experiments the stress-strain responses are given in figure 2.4. Between all experiments, the material
was given two minutes to recover. For these tests, the strain rate was 10-2 s-1 but for other strain rates
the same results were found.The legend indicates the the number of the experiment. As can be seen,
there’s a significant difference between the stress-strain response of the first test and that of the
second and third experiment. This implicates some plastic deformation at the first compression test.
After the first test, the quality of the foam remains approximately constant and test data will be
reproducible although the stresses in the successive experiments are lying just below each other. This
aspect should therefore be considered in the test set-up.
As can also been concluded from this stress-strain responses, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour
of JC foams is similar to that of elastomeric foam which is described in 1.2 and visualised in figure
1.1.

Figure 2.4 - Stress-strain responses for 3 successive compression test performed at one specimen of JC80 foam

12
2.2.2.2 - Test set-up
With this information, a test set-up is formulated, equivalent to the test set-up for IMPAXX foams.
The set-up is based on 4 available specimens of each of the 4 different types of Johnson Controls
foams. The forces and displacements are measured on square specimens with a constant height. First,
a set of experiments will be executed on blocks with a length of approximately 50 mm and a height of
approximately 30 mm. After executing tests on these specimens, the blocks will be cut to lengths of
25 mm and height of 30 mm.
To reduce the influence of the plastic deformation in the first tests, first three experiments will be
performed on a specimen to get more corresponding results afterwards. These first tests are done at a
strain rate of 10-2 s-1 and the maximum strain in this test is 60%, well before the densification strain so
less plastic deformation occurs. Between all tests the material is given two minutes to recover.
After this kind of initialisation, from each material, 4 specimens will be tested successively at 4
different strain rates: 10, 100, 10-1 and 10-2 s-1. The order in which this strain rates are applied is
different for each of the 4 specimens so there’s less dependency of the times a specimen is used.
Between all tests, the same recovery time (two minutes) is used. For each material and each strain
rate, 4 data files will be created this way. The loading is again done in displacement control and the
test system is identical to the system for IMPAXX foams (see also 2.2.1). All specimens are -
similarly to the initialisation tests - loaded to an engineering strain of approximately 60%, well before
the densification strain. After testing the specimens with lengths of 50 mm, specimens with lengths of
25 mm will be created. These specimens are tested the same way, but only 1 initialisation test will be
done, because there’s less influence of plastic deformation due to the tests done before.
Initialising forces and displacements is done the same way described before, but in here the
prestressing force is much less and approximately 0.1 to 1.0 N. Identifying the Young’s modulus,
Plateau modulus and the elastic collapse stress of the foam is done similarly to the way described in
section 2.2.1, with help of Matlab.

13
3 - Results
In this chapter the most important results of the experiments will be given. As indicated before, the
results are processed with help of Matlab. First of all, the IMPAXX foams will be analysed and
afterwards the results of the JC foams will be shown.
For each material, first a short view will be taken on the stress-strain response to uni-axial
compression. After that, test data will be analysed and the found material parameters will be checked
in relation with variable sample rates, specimen sizes and relative densities. In addition, it will be
validated whether the analytical expressions to predict specific foam properties, see chapter 1, hold or
not. Besides that, some additional phenomena will be analysed, e.g. the influence of air flow in open-
cell foams on the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of the foam.

3.1 - IMPAXX
3.1.1 - Stress-strain behaviour
For IMPAXX, typical stress-strain responses are shown in figure 3.1. The three lines represents the
three foams with different densities. In here, a strain rate of 10-1 s-1 is applied on specimens with a
diameter of 50 mm. The responses are similar to the schematic compressive stress-strain response for
elasto-plastic foams, see also figure 1.2. The region of linear elasticity is followed (at a strain of
approximately 1,5 to 2,0%) by a long collapse plateau at which the stress only slightly rises. At a
strain of approximately 70% densification starts. The plastic collapse can clearly be seen during
compression because the failure is localized in a band transverse to the loading direction. This band
propagates throughout the foam with increasing strain. There is no expansion of the foam during
compression, so in the analysis, a Poisson’s ratio of zero can be assumed.

Figure 3.1 - Stress-strain responses for IMPAXX with different densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1
and a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

14
In the stress-strain response, three remarkable points must be concerned. The first point can be found
at the transition between the elastic region and the plateau. In here, sometimes a drop in stress can be
found, especially for IMPAXX 500 at low strain rates (of 10-1, 10-2 and 10-3). An explanation for this
behaviour is that the high pressure in the cells is removed due to plastic collapse of cells in the upper
layer of the foam. As a consequence, the stiffness of the foam decreases and the stress becomes
temporarily lower until the next band of cells is reached. For lower strain rates, the time scale is
larger, resulting in a larger stress drop. The second point that must be concerned is the second
transition area, between the plateau region and the point at which densification starts. At this point,
the stress regularly drops before densification starts. This occurs mainly for IMPAXX 500 and
IMPAXX 700. This indicates that the loss of stiffness at this point may have something to do with the
relative density of the foam. A full explanation for the material behaviour at this point is not gathered
yet and is beyond the scope of this project. The last remarkable point can be noticed at the final point
of deformation, where the stress drops vertical. This is due to stress relaxation (at a constant strain
level).

3.1.2 - Linear elasticity

3.1.2.1 - Prediction of Young’s modulus

In order to validate test results, one may want to relate test data to analytical expressions. Therefore,
measured properties of the IMPAXX foams will be related to material properties of the solid polymer,
which is in here assumed to be pure polystyrene (PS). For IMPAXX foams it’s known that PS has
been formulated with blowing agents and some additive components [9], but because no further
information about solid properties is given by DOW, the properties that will be used for the analytical
expressions are stated in table 3.1 [5].

Table 3.1 - Data PS

ρs [kg/m3] Es [MPa]
1051 3300

By measuring the length and the weight of the specimens, the densities (on average) and relative
densities of the different IMPAXX foams are found. These are listed in table 3.2. Also the standard
deviation of the measured densities is given. Besides that, also the densities given by DOW are stated.
Note that these are not the same as the measured densities. This can be due to different measurement
methods.

Table 3.2 - Measured densities for IMPAXX

IMPAXX ρ*measured [kg/m3] R [-] σstd [kg/m3] ρ*DOW [kg/m3] [7][8]
300 38,46 0,0366 0,33 35
500 40,39 0,0384 0,44 43
700 44,70 0,0425 0,58 N.A.

Assuming a Poisson’s ratio of zero, the Young’s modulus of the polymer foam can be estimated with
equation 1.3. Reasonable values for φ are 0,6 and 0,8 [4], and the initial pressure in the cells is
assumed to be atmospheric. The results are listed in table 3.3. In here, also the standard deviation is
given for the measured modulus. It must be noted that the modulus listed in here represents the
average modulus over all measurements, with different specimen diameters and different strain rates.

Table 3.3 - Predicted Young’s modulus for different IMPAXX foams

IMPAXX E*predicted [MPa] E*predicted [MPa] E*measured [MPa] σstd
φ = 0,6 φ = 0,8 [MPa]
300 50,00 27,09 21,64 2,58
500 52,59 28,59 30,87 4,42
700 58,39 32,00 42,49 6,34

15
From this, it can be concluded that the predictions of the Young’s modulus are of the same order of
magnitude as the measured moduli, especially for a φ of 0,8, although the prediction is not very
accurate.

As listed in table 3.3, the Young’s modulus is dependent on the density of the foam. Using equation
1.3, the relationship between Young’s modulus and foam density should primarily be linear for
closed-cell structures, since the relative densities are small (< 0,05) for IMPAXX foams and the
contribution of the initial pressure (last term) in the cells to stiffness is small. Therefore, equation 1.3
could be simplified to a linear relation
E*
= (1 − φ ) R (3.1)
Es
With this formula, the Young’s modulus of the different IMPAXX foams can be related to each other,
because
*
E300 Es (1 − φ )
*
= C6 with C6 = (3.2)
ρ 300 ρs

Therefore, assuming that fraction of solid in the cell faces is equal for the different IMPAXX
densities, the Young’s moduli of the different IMPAXX foams are coupled with
* * *
E300 E500 E700
*
= *
= *
(3.3)
ρ300 ρ500 ρ700
In table 3.4, this relation has been checked. The relationship doesn’t seem to hold in this case. This
could be attributed to the used model, but it may be more convenient to attribute this difference to
variable values of φ for the different foam densities. For each IMPAXX density, the value of φ is
therefore determined with equation 3.2 and stated in table 3.4. With these new, analytically
determined values of φ , new predictions of the Young’s modulus are made using equation 1.3. Now
it appears that the prediction of the Young’s modulus is more realistic.
However, some simplifications have been made and the determination of φ is complex. The latter
could also be done with an accurate analysis of the microstructure. Besides that - based on the relative
densities - one would expect the solid fraction in the cell edges to increase for larger densities. In here,
the fraction decreases, probably originating from simplifications or microstructure of the foam.

Table 3.4 - Relation between Young’s moduli

IMPAXX E* φ E*predicted [MPa]
ρ*
300 0,563 · 106 0,821 24,70
500 0,764 · 106 0,757 33,69
700 0,951 · 106 0,697 45,50

3.1.2.2 - Analysis of Young’s modulus

Different tests have been executed with IMPAXX foams of three different densities, at five different
strain rates and for three different specimen diameters. Therefore it’s useful to check whether material
parameters, like the Young’s modulus, depend on these variables.
Besides the relative density of the foam and/or it’s complex microstructure, an other phenomenon that
could influence the Young’s modulus of the foam is the specimen diameter. In order to investigate
this, the modulus can be plotted as function of the three different densities (given as 300, 500 and
700) for different specimen diameters at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1. At other strain rates,
equivalent plots will show up. This is illustrated in figure 3.2. From this, it can be concluded that the

16
influence of specimen diameter on the Young’s modulus of the foam is small. No clear link exists
between the modulus and the diameter.
The same can be done to investigate the influence of strain rate. This is plotted in figure 3.3. In here,
the Young’s modulus is given at a constant diameter of 50 mm. This will be equivalent for other
diameters. From this, it can be concluded that also the influence of strain rate on the Young’s modulus
of the IMPAXX foam is small.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Young’s modulus for this closed-cell foam is mainly
determined by the relative density of the foam and by the complex microstructure.

Figure 3.2 - Young’s modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different specimen diameters at a
constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.3 - Young’s modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different strain rates at a constant
specimen diameter of 50 mm.

17
3.1.3 - Plastic collapse
The second region in which some parameters can be found from experimental data, and can be related
to analytic expressions, is the plateau region. In this paragraph, first the Plateau modulus Epl* of the
foam will be determined and it will be validated if this modulus depends on test variables (strain rate,
foam density and specimen diameter). After evaluating the Plateau modulus, the plastic collapse stress
will be determined; analogous to the method described in 2.2.1. This material parameter is also
checked on relations with test variables. Besides that, the found collapse stress is compared with
analytical expressions from paragraph 1.2.

3.1.3.1 - Plateau modulus

The Plateau modulus is small in comparison with the Young’s modulus. Typical values for the
Plateau modulus of IMPAXX foams are between 0,10 and 0,50 MPa. This can be seen in figure 3.1
and table 3.5. As listed, the plateau modulus is the highest for IMPAXX 300 and the lowest for
IMPAXX 500. For IMPAXX 700, the mean value of the Plateau modulus is between the values for
IMPAXX 300 and 500. Thus, not a real dependency on foam density is found; it rather originates
from the foam’s microstructure.

Table 3.5 - Plateau modulus of different IMPAXX foams

IMPAXX Epl*[MPa] σstd [MPa]
300 0,350 0.057
500 0,160 0.034
700 0,289 0.038

Also for the Plateau modulus, the relations with strain rate and specimen diameter have been
determined. As can be seen in figure 3.4, in which the Plateau modulus is given as function of the
IMPAXX density for different specimen diameters and at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1, the
dependency of specimen diameter is small. This figure is equivalent for other strain rates. In figure
3.5, the Plateau modulus has been given as function of foam density for different strain rates (with a
constant diameter of 25 mm). In here, for IMPAXX 300 and IMPAXX 500 the Plateau modulus will
raise slightly as function of strain rate, except when the strain rate is raised from 1 to 10 s-1 as the
modulus slightly drops. For the IMPAXX 700 foam, the Plateau modulus doesn’t seem to depend on
strain rate at all. So, in some cases a small dependency on strain rate is found, but no clear link exists.
Thus, it can be concluded that also the Plateau modulus is mainly influenced by the complex
microstructure of the foam. Only for IMPAXX 300 and 500, strain rate slightly influences the
modulus.

18
Figure 3.4 - Plateau modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different specimen diameters at a
constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.5 - Plateau modulus as function of IMPAXX-density (300, 500 or 700) for different strain rates at a constant
specimen diameter of 50 mm.

3.1.3.2 - Analysis of plastic collapse stress

As found in the experiments and stated in 3.1.2.2 and 3.1.3.1, the Young’s modulus and the Plateau
modulus of the IMPAXX foams both mainly seems to be determined by the relative density of the
foam and/or the complex microstructure. There were no clear relations found between the material
behaviour of the foams and test variables. But as can be gathered from figure 3.6, the plastic collapse
stress is dependent on strain rate. Also the relation between plastic collapse stress and specimen
diameter will be analysed.

19
Figure 3.6 - Stress-strain responses for IMPAXX 300 for different strain rates with constant specimen diameter of 75 mm.

In figure 3.7 the relationship between the plastic collapse stress and strain rate is shown for a constant
specimen diameter of 50 mm. As could also be concluded from figure 3.6, the plastic collapse stress
will increase for larger strain rates. In figure 3.8 the relationship for the plastic collapse stress with the
specimen diameter is shown. In here, the strain rate has a constant value of 10-3 s-1, but results are
comparable at other strain rates. As can be concluded from this figure, the plastic collapse stress is
hardly influenced by the specimen diameter. For the lowest strain rate, the plastic collapse stress
seems to increase slightly for larger specimen diameters - as can be seen in figure 3.8 - but at larger
strain rates this effect vanishes and no clear relation is found. Overall, the influence of specimen
diameter seems to be small.

Figure 3.7 - Plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different IMPAXX densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant
specimen diameter of 50 mm.

20
Figure 3.8 - Plastic collapse stresss as function of specimen diameter for different IMPAXX densities (300, 500 or 700) at a
constant strain rate of 10-3 s-1.

As stated before in chapter 1.2.3, 1.2.4 and 1.2.5.2, the plastic collapse stress will be influenced by
different phenomena, like pressure build-up in closed-cells and viscous behaviour of cell wall
material. In chapter 1, also some equations were given in order to predict the plastic collapse stress
and to estimate the added stress due to pressure in cells. These are used here in order to determine
whether these analytical expressions can give a proper prediction of the plastic collapse stress.
First of all, the stress addition due to pressure built up in closed cells will be analysed. For this,
equation 1.21 was given. The strain at the point at which plastic collapse starts, εpl*, is different for
each IMPAXX density and each experiment, but the mean values (over all experiments) for each
material are given in table 3.6. In here, also the contribution of stress due to pressure in the cells is
given and compared to the mean plastic collapse stress of each IMPAXX density. From this, it can be
concluded that the contribution of the pressure in the cells of the foam can be neglected at this strain
level.

Table 3.6 - Contribution of inner gas pressure in cells at ε = εpl*

IMPAXX mean σpl* [MPa] mean εpl* [-] σg [kPa] σg / mean σpl* [-]
300 0,393 0,0167 1,793 0,0046
500 0,578 0,0168 1,805 0,0031
700 0,865 0,0185 1,996 0,0023

Nevertheless, if the foam is compressed further, one may expect the contribution of pressure build-up
in the cells may become of significant importance. Therefore, the same analysis is done at a strain of
50%. The stress level at this strain level is computed with
( )
σ * = σ *pl + 0,5 − ε *pl E *pl (3.4)
From this, the results are placed in table 3.7.

21
Table 3.7 - Contribution of inner gas pressure in cells at ε = 0,5
IMPAXX σ* [MPa] σg* [MPa] σg* / mean σpl* [-]
300 0,562 0,1093 0,194
500 0,655 0,1098 0,168
700 1,004 0,1107 0,110

From this, it can be concluded that the stress build-up in the closed cells will give a significant stress
addition. The stress increase in the plateau region is mainly determined by the pressure build-up in the
closed cells. However, if cell walls are thin, they could fail at a low pressure levels and the
contribution of the pressure build-up in the closed-cells to the strength of the foam decreases.

3.1.3.3 - Strain-rate dependency of plastic collapse stress

As stated in section 3.1.3.2, the collapse stress of IMPAXX foams depends on strain rate, originating
from the intrinsic material behaviour of the solid polymeric cell walls. Assuming this dependency on
solid material properties, it can be validated if the behaviour of the plastic collapse stress of the foam
is related to the behaviour of the yield stress of PS.
For a double logarithmic scale, the plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different
IMPAXX foams is given in figure 3.9. The figure corresponds with a specimen diameter of 50 mm,
but the figure is equivalent for specimens with diameters of 25 and 75 mm. As can be seen, there are
drawn straight parallel lines through the measured data. These fitted lines can be formed analogous to
equation 3.6.
10
( )
log σ *pl = a ⋅ 10 log ( εɺ ) + b with constants a and b (3.6)

Figure 3.9 - Double logarithmic figure with the plastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different IMPAXX
densities (300, 500 or 700) at a constant specimen diameter of 50 mm.

When these constants are known, the slope of the lines can be compared to that of polystyrene [5]. In
figure 3.10, the yield stress of polystyrene as function of strain rate is given on a double logarithmic
scale.

22
Figure 3.10 - Double logarithmic figure with the yield stress of PS as function of strain rate. [5]

The slope of the fitted line through the data for PS (assuming room temperature) is determined and
compared with that of the IMPAXX foam. These data is listed in table 3.8.

Table 3.8 - Slope of polyfit lines through data of PS and IMPAXX

Material PS IMPAXX 300 IMPAXX 500 IMPAXX 700
Specimen - 25 50 75 25 50 75 25 50 75
diameter
[mm]
Slope of 0.054 0.0348 0.0319 0.0221 0.0338 0.0358 0.0279 0.0383 0.0253 0.0224
line (a)

It can be concluded from table 3.8 that the slope of the line becomes smaller with increasing specimen
diameter but is approximately the same for the different IMPAXX foams. To illustrate this, the mean
values (for all different densities of IMPAXX foams) of the gradients for the different specimen
diameters are shown in table 3.9. This implies that for larger specimens, the strain rate dependency for
the plastic collapse stress becomes less important.

Table 3.9 - Mean slopes for different specimen diameters

Specimen diameter [mm] 25 50 75
Mean Gradient 0.0356 0.0310 0.0241

Besides that, the gradient of the PS is above all gradients of the plastic collapse stress of IMPAXX. A
reason for this can be found by the choice for the solid cell wall material in this survey. On top of that,
a scale factor, owing to the complex microstructure of the foam, should be used to relate the
properties of the solid material to that of the foam.

23
3.2 - Johnson Controls foams
3.2.1 - Stress-strain behaviour
For the Johnson Controls Foams (JC foams), typical stress-strain responses are shown in figure 3.11.
The four lines represent the four open-cell foams with different densities. In here, a strain rate of 10 s-1
is applied on specimens with an average length scale of 50 mm. The responses are similar to the
schematic compressive stress-strain response for elastomeric foams, see also figure 1.1. The region of
elasticity is initially linear, but after a strain of approximately 4%, it’s concave downwards, till it is
followed (at a strain of approximately 10%) by a long elastic collapse plateau. At a strain of
approximately 60% densification starts. After compression, the foam specimen will (almost) fully
return to its original shape, so the deformation is fully elastic. This was exposed in paragraph 2.2.2.1.
Further on, the stress-strain response clearly shows a material dependent behaviour. Especially the
Young’s modulus and the elastic collapse stress will significantly differ for the various densities of JC
foams, as is obvious from figure 3.11. There is (almost) no expansion of the foam during
compression, so in the analysis, a Poisson’s ratio of zero can be assumed. Again, at the end of
deformation (at a strain of 60%), the stress relaxation can be seen.

Figure 3.11 - Stress-strain responses for JC foams with different densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant strain rate of 10
s-1 and a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

3.2.2 - Linear elasticity

3.2.2.1 - Prediction of Young’s modulus

In here, again the measured properties of the foam will be related to the solid polymer, which is in
here polyurethane (PU). As stated in 2.1.2, PU polymers can be made in many different ways, so they
cover a wide range of specific material properties. In here, the parameter values for (flexible) PU that
will be used are listed in table 3.10 [4]

Table 3.10 - Data PU

ρs [kg/m3] Es [MPa]
1200 45

24
After measuring specimens of the different JC foams, mean densities (over all specimens) are found
which are listed in table 3.11. Also the relative densities of the foams and the standard deviations of
the measured densities are given. Besides that, also the densities given by Johnson Controls Inc. are
stated. Note that these are approximately the same as the measured densities.

Table 3.11 - Measured densities for JC foams

JC ρ* [kg/m3] R [-] σstd [kg/m3] ρ*JC Inc. [kg/m3]
80 58,08 0,0484 0,62 58
90 58,85 0,0490 0,39 58
100 60,39 0,0503 0,86 60
120 62,21 0,0518 1,08 62

The Young’s modulus of this open-cell polymer foam can be estimated with equation 1.2. The results
are listed in table 3.12. Also the Young’s modulus of the foam, determined in the experiments, is
stated and the standard deviation is given. It must be noted that the modulus listed in here represents
the average modulus over all measurements, so with different specimen diameters and different strain
rates.

Table 3.12 - Young’s modulus for different JC foams

JC E*predicted [MPa] E*measured [MPa] σstd
[MPa]
80 0,1054 0,0909 0,0142
90 0,1082 0,0985 0,0163
100 0,1140 0,1553 0,0192
120 0,1210 0,2029 0,0253

Again, it can be concluded that the given analytical expression to determine the foam’s Young’s
modulus does give the right order of magnitude but is not very accurate for all JC foams. For JC 100
and JC 120, the predicted value is not accurate.

3.2.2.2 - Analysis of Young’s modulus

Similar to the experiments with IMPAXX foams a large number of experiments have been executed,
with different test set-ups. Foams of four different densities, four different strain rates and two
different specimen length scales were used. Therefore it’s, again, useful to check whether material
parameters, like the Young’s modulus, depend on these variables. As listed in table 3.12, the Young’s
modulus is clearly dependent on the density of the foam.

A phenomenon that also could influence the Young’s modulus is the specimen length. To investigate
this, the modulus is plotted as function of the four different densities and for different specimen
lengths at a constant strain rate of 10-1 s-1. At other strain rates, equivalent plots will show up. This is
illustrated in figure 3.12. From this, it can be concluded that there is an influence of specimen length
on the Young’s modulus. The modulus seems to rise for larger specimen sizes. It should be noted that
the decrease of Young’s modulus for smaller length scales of the specimens can partially be due to the
fact that smaller specimens have been cut out of the larger specimens and are tested subsequently. But
the effect could also originate from size effects. One could also relate the specimen size dependency
of the Young’s modulus to the air flow phenomenon, but, as will be evaluated in 3.2.3.2, this is
unlikely because of the small effects of air flow for JC foams.

A similar evaluation can be done to investigate the influence of strain rate. This is plotted in figure
3.13. In here, the Young’s modulus is given at a constant length of 50 mm, but for a specimen length
of 25 mm this will be equivalent. From this, it can be concluded that the strain rate clearly influences
the Young’s modulus for this open-cell foam, originating from the intrinsic material behaviour of the
polymeric cell wall material.

25
Thus, it can be concluded that the Young’s modulus is determined by material parameters of the solid
cell walls and by the complex microstructure of the foam as well as by the specimen size and the
applied strain rate. Therefore, the region of linear elasticity should actually be called the ‘visco-
elastic’ region.

Figure 3.12 - Young’s modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different specimen lengths at a constant
strain rate of 10-1 s-1.

Figure 3.13 - Young’s modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different strain rates at a constant
specimen length of 50 mm.

26
3.2.3 - Elastic collapse
The second region in which some parameters can be found from experimental data, and can be related
to analytic expressions, is the plateau region. In this part, first the Plateau modulus Epl* of the foam
will be determined and it’ll be checked whether this modulus depends on test variables (strain rate,
foam density and specimen diameter). After evaluating the Plateau modulus, the elastic collapse stress
will be determined; analogous to the method described in 2.2.1.This is also checked on relations with
test variables. Besides that, the found collapse stress is compared with analytical expressions from
paragraph 1.2 and also the air flow phenomena will be analysed.

3.2.3.1 - Plateau modulus

The Plateau modulus is small in comparison with the Young’s modulus (< 10%). Typical values for
the Plateau modulus of JC foams are between 5 and 15 kPa. This modulus is dependent on the foam
density. This can be seen in table 3.13. The plateau modulus will slightly increase as function of foam
density.

Table 3.13 - Plateau modulus of different JC foams

JC Epl*[kPa] σstd [kPa]
80 6,4 2,5
90 8,9 3,4
100 8,6 2,3
120 11,6 4,0

In figure 3.14, the Plateau modulus is given as function of the JC foam density for different specimen
lengths at a constant strain rate of 1 s-1. The dependency of the Plateau modulus on specimen size is
small, i.e. differences between the two lines are in the range of the standard deviations. This figure is
equivalent for other strain rates.

Figure 3.14 - Plateau modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different specimen lengths at a constant
strain rate of 1 s-1.

27
In figure 3.15, the Plateau modulus has been given as function of foam density for different strain
rates (with a constant length of 50 mm). For a specimen length of 25 mm, an equivalent figure can be
shown, but larger standard deviations occur due to larger (relative) measurement errors. As can be
concluded from this figure, the Plateau modulus will rise as function of sample rate.
Thus, it can be concluded that the Plateau modulus of the JC foams is mainly influenced by the
material itself and by the strain rate at which the polymer foam is compressed.

Figure 3.15 - Plateau modulus as function of JC density (80, 90, 100 or 120) for different strain rates at a constant specimen
length of 50 mm.

3.2.3.2 - Elastic collapse stress

Now it is clear that the Young’s modulus is influenced by strain rate, specimen size and the material
itself, i.e. the relative density, the solid polymeric material and the complex microstructure, and that
the Plateau modulus is dependent on both the material and strain rate, it can be expected that also the
elastic collapse stress will be influenced by both the material itself and test parameters too. In figure
3.16 the typical relationship between the elastic collapse stress and the strain rate is shown at a
constant specimen length of 50 mm. The elastic collapse stress increases for larger strain rates. In
figure 3.17 the relationship for the elastic collapse stress with the specimen length is shown. In here,
the strain rate has a constant value of 10-2 s-1, but the results are comparable with other strain rates. As
can be concluded from this figure, the elastic collapse stress is hardly influenced by the specimen
diameter. In general, the elastic collapse will slightly grow for larger specimen diameters, but for
higher strain rates this effect vanishes. So, no clear link is found between the collapse stress and strain
rate. The latter effect was also seen for the plastic collapse stress of IMPAXX foams.

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Figure 3.16 - Elastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different JC densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant
specimen length of 50 mm.

Figure 3.17 - Elastic collapse stress as function of specimen length for different JC densities (80, 90, 100 or 120) at a
constant strain rate of 10-2 s-1.

Similar to the closed-cell IMPAXX foams, the collapse stress versus the strain rate shows linear
parallel lines when depicted in a double logarithmic scale, as can be seen in figure 3.18. It is assumed
that these curves can be related to the stress-strain response of the solid cell wall material PU, but this
is not analysed in here.

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Figure 3.18 - Double logarithmic figure with the elastic collapse stress as function of strain rate for different JC densities
(80, 90, 100 or 120) at a constant specimen length of 50 mm.

As stated before in chapter 1.2.2, 1.2.4 and 1.2.5.1, the elastic collapse stress will be influenced by
different phenomena, like air flow and viscous behaviour of cell wall material. With equations given
in chapter 1, the elastic collapse stress can be predicted. Also the added stress due to air flow can be
analysed. These equations are used here in order to determine if these analytical expressions can give
a proper prediction of the elastic collapse stress.

First of all, the elastic collapse stress can be predicted with the analytical expressions given by
equation 1.6. In here, no strain rate dependency is taken into account. The measured elastic collapse
stress is therefore averaged over all tests at different strain rates and different specimen lengths. This
is stated in table 3.14. From this, it can be concluded that this analytical expression only gives an
indication for the order of magnitude of the elastic collapse stress.

Table 3.14 - Predicted elastic collapse stress

JC mean σel, measured* [kPa] σstd [kPa] σel, predicted* [kPa]
80 5,512 0,586 5,271
90 6,450 0,811 5,402
100 9,494 1,209 5,693
120 12,064 1,587 6,037

Secondly, the stress addition due to (the resistance to) airflow in open-cell structures will be analysed.
For this, equation 1.19 was given. In here, again some assumptions have to be made. It can be easily
seen that for the highest strain rate and largest specimen length the effect of air flow will become
more important. Therefore a strain rate of 10 s-1 and a specimen length of 50 mm will be used in this
analysis. For the constant C5 in equation 1.19, a value of 1 is used. The air flow is analysed at a strain
at which elastic collapse starts. This point, εel* is different for each JC foam density and strain rate,
and its average value is stated in table 3.15.
The dynamic viscosity µ for air (at 20 °C) equals 18,27 · 10-6 Ns/m2, and the average edge length is
assumed to be 0.1 mm (estimated with the microscopic view of the JC foams, see figure 2.2). The
stress contribution due to air flow is compared to the mean elastic collapse stress of each JC foam
density.

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From this, it can be concluded that the contribution of air flow in the cells of the open-cell foam is
small at this strain level. In here, it must be remarked that a number of simplifications is used, e.g. the
edge length will be smaller for foams with a higher density.

Table 3.15 - Contribution of air flow at ε = εel* with L = 50 mm and εɺ = 10 s-1

JC mean σel* mean εel* [-] mean Eel* σg* [Pa] σg */ σel* [-]
[kPa] [kPa]
80 6,376 0,0589 7,838 48,53 0,0076
90 7,839 0,0653 10,884 48,86 0,0062
100 11,416 0,0625 11,468 48,72 0,0043
120 14,623 0,0610 13,234 48,64 0,0033

Nevertheless, if the foam is compressed further, one may expect the contribution air flow may become
of significant importance. Therefore, the same analysis is done at a strain of 50%. The stress level at
this point is computed with
( )
σ * = σ el* + 0, 5 − ε el* Eel* (3.7)
The stress addition due to air flow equals 91,35 [Pa], using equation 1.19. With this, the results are
stated in table 3.16.

Table 3.16 - Contribution of air flow at ε = 0,5 with L = 50 mm and εɺ = 10 s-1

JC σ* [kPa] σg / mean σel* [-]
80 9,833 0,0093
90 12,570 0,0073
100 16,433 0,0056
120 20,433 0,0045

From this evaluation of the analytical expression (1.19), it can be concluded that the contribution of
air flow in the cells of the open-cell foam is small, even at this high strain level and with relative high
strain rates. In here, it must be remarked that a number of simplifications is used. Nevertheless, under
certain circumstances, e.g. smaller pore sizes, higher strain rates and larger specimen lengths, the air
flow can give a significant stress attribution.

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Conclusions and discussion
As stated in the introduction, the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams is determined
by a subtle interplay of the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and the complex
microstructure. In this survey, an open-cell elastomeric foam and an elasto-plastic foam with closed-
cell structure have been tested in uni-axial compression tests, in order to determine the effect of
phenomena, such as flow of air through cells in foams and the influence of intrinsic material
behaviour. In order to give a clear overview of the main results and conclusions, the next part is
separated in two parts for the two different foams. Afterwards, a short discussion is reported.

Closed-cell elasto-plastic foam: IMPAXX Energy Absorbing Foams

Increasing the relative density raises the foam’s Young’s modulus and plastic collapse stress. The
Young’s modulus is not significantly influenced by the specimen diameter or the applied strain rate,
so this parameter is fully determined by the interplay of the intrinsic behaviour of the polymer and the
microstructure (and thereby relative density). The Plateau modulus can slightly be influenced by
strain rate, but is mainly dependent on the complex microstructure. The effect of air compression in
closed cells attributes to the increasing stress level in the plateau region. It is supposed that the
pressure build-up in closed-cells mainly determines the Plateau modulus. Air flow can be neglected
for closed-cell foams, except when cell walls are thin and fail at low strains. The most interesting
effects show up at the plastic collapse stress. This parameter is influenced by strain rate rather well,
but it is assumed that this strain rate dependency originates from the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of
the polymeric material, because the effect of air compression in closed-cells is small at this point. The
specimen diameter doesn’t influence the plastic collapse stress. The material dependent behaviour of
the plastic collapse stress can be found in the double logarithmic plastic collapse stress-strain rate-
diagram, in which straight parallel lines can be drawn, equivalent to that of the solid cell wall
material, see 3.1.3.3.

Open-cell elastomeric foam: Johnson Controls foams.

This foam was expected to exhibit both a strain rate and a specimen size dependent material
behaviour, associated with the intrinsic constitutive behaviour of the polymeric material and the air
flow phenomenon. From the executed tests, it was found that for this open-cell foam, the Young’s
modulus increases for larger strain rates and larger specimen sizes. The influence of specimen size
could be due to size effects, giving lower stress responses at smaller length scales. A larger foam
density raises the Young’s modulus, Plateau modulus and elastic collapse stress. The Plateau modulus
is also increased by raising the strain rate, but specimen size doesn’t seem to affect this parameter. For
the elastic collapse stress again no clear dependency on specimen size was found. This indicates that
for the used specimen lengths, stress additions by air flow remain constant. Evaluating analytical
expressions showed that air flow didn’t contribute significantly to the stress level. This could originate
from test parameters - specimen length and strain rate - or the complex microstructure. More dense
packed open-cell foams (smaller pore sizes) or fluids with higher viscosity (than air) will raise the
stress contribution instigated by fluid (air) flow. Above this, it must be noted that the air flow
phenomenon is complex to analyse; knowledge of the complex microstructure is helpful. Further on,
the elastic collapse stress is influenced by strain rate, originating from the intrinsic behaviour of the
polymer. Again, the material dependent behaviour shows up in the double logarithmic diagram, see
3.2.3.2.

Finally, it must be remarked that the macroscopic constitutive behaviour of polymer foams can be
described with use of a great number of experiments and varying foam density, strain rate and
specimen size. With help of electron microscopy and computer tomography, it could be useful to
analyse the complex microstructure before executing experiments. Analytical expressions in
literature, stated in chapter 1, are useful to predict the material behaviour of the polymer foams - if
properties of the polymeric material of which the solid cell walls are made, are known. With this,
materials can be selected that are useful to describe the phenomenon that has to be studied.

32
Besides that, one should notice that in practice deformation of foams almost never will be fully uni-
axial. For example, in a car crashes different deformation regimes act on the foam. To fully describe
the material behaviour of foams, tests with other loading conditions have to be done. The material
behaviour of foams will be different for other loading conditions. Shear and tensile tests can be done
by gluing the specimen to the specimen fixing.

33
References
[1] P.R. Onck, E.W. Andrews, L.J. Gibson. Size effects in ductile cellular solids. Part I: modeling.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43, (2001) 681-699.

[2] E.W. Andrews, G. Gioux, P. Onck, L.J. Gibson. Size effects in ductile cellular solids. Part II:
experimental results. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 43, (2001) 700-713.

[3] Nigel Mills, Polymer Foams Handbook – Engineering and Biomechanics Applications and Design
Guide. Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier); ISBN 978-0-7506-8069-1 (2007).

[4] Lorna J. Gibson and Michael F. Ashby. Cellular solids - Structure and properties (second edition).
Cambridge University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-521-49911-9.

[5] Harold G.H. van Melick. Deformation and failure of polymer glasses (proefschrift). Technische
Universiteit Eindhoven, 2002; ISBN 90-386-2923-0.

[6] A.K. van der Vegt and L.E. Govaert. Polymeren - van keten tot kunststof, page 135-139. VSSD,
vijfde druk 2003/2005; ISBN 90-71301-48-6

[7] Tech Data Sheet - IMPAXX TM 300 Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical Company, can
be found at http://automotive.dow.com/materials/products/impaxx/product.htm

[8] Tech Data Sheet - IMPAXX TM 500 Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical Company, can
be found at http://automotive.dow.com/materials/products/impaxx/product.htm

[9] Product Safety Assessment - IMPAXX TM Energy Absorbing Foam, The Dow Chemical
Company, can be found at http://automotive.dow.com

[10] Ian Clemitson, Castable Polyurethane Elastomers, CRC Press, ISBN 978142006576 (2008)

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