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Lime Columns PDF
Lime Columns PDF
Bengt B. Broms
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
0. SUMMARY
0.1. Applications of Lime and Lime/Cement Columns
Soft normally consolidated clays and organic soils with a low shear strength are
usually stabilized in Sweden and Finland by lime or lime/cement columns manufactured
by mixing the soil in-situ with lime, cement, fly ash, gypsum or granulated blast furnace
slag. This soil stabilization method is mainly used to increase the stability and to reduce
the settlements of embankments constructed on soft clay and to stabilize trenches required
for sewer lines, heating ducts or water mains.
The diameter and the length of the columns have increased gradually since 1967
when the method was first introduced and the time required for the manufacture of the
columns has been reduced significantly as well as the costs due to the development of
efficient machines for the installation of the columns. Methods have been developed to
check in-situ the shear strength and the stiffness of the columns.
Lime and lime/cement columns have also been used to reduce traffic vibrations, to
improve the stability of steep slopes and deep excavations. Gypsum, fly ash, granulated
blast furnace slag and other waste products have been added to increase the shear strength
and to reduce the costs. It has been possible to improve organic soils, primarily peat with
cement in combination with granulated blast furnace slag.
2.1. General
2.1.1. Applications in Sweden and Finland.
Lime/cement (50% lime and 50% cement) are mainly used in Sweden and
Finland to increase the stability and to reduce the settlements of road and railroad
embankments constructed on soft soil. Not less than 85% of all lime and lime/cement
columns manufactured in Sweden the last few years are for this purpose as illustrated in
Fig.1. Only the dry method is used in Sweden and Finland to stabilize soft inorganic
clays, silty clays or soft organic soils.
Lime and lime/cement columns have been found to be competitive in Sweden
and Finland compared with other soil stabilization methods such as embankment piles,
excavation and replacement and preloading. An additional advantage is that the stabilized
soil can often be used as fill. The costs can frequently be reduced by combining lime and
lime/cement columns with other soil stabilization methods such as lightweight fills,
preloading with and without vertical drains and berms.
3
as discussed by Askmar and Henningsson (1998) to stabilize the embankments for a large
road interchange (“Åbymotet”) where the soil consists of gyttja (organic clay) with an
undrained shear strength of 8 to 13 kPa down to a depth of 7 m. The water content was
high, 100% to 200%.
Lime and lime/cement columns have to a large extent replaced other soil
improvement and soil stabilisation methods in Sweden and Finland including piles.
Lime and lime/cement columns can be combined with other soil stabilisation
methods to increase the stability and to reduce the settlements. Lime columns have also
been combined with a lightweight fill (Bjerin et al, 1984) and with berms (Carlsten and
Ouacha, 1993).
4
progressive failure. It is also important to check the stability by a slip surface below the
columns where the shear strength of the partly remoulded soil often is low.
The bearing capacity of the columns is reduced when the columns are
displaced laterally and the shear strength is high due to the low failure strain of the
columns. Centrifuge tests by Miyake et al (1996) and by Kitazume et al (1996a) indicate
that the bearing capacity of the columns located within the shear and the passive zones
outside an embankment is low compared with the columns located in the active zone
below the embankment. The strain at the peak shear strength could be as low as 0.5% to
2% for lime, lime/cement and cement columns, when the shear strength exceeds about
300 kPa. The failure strain has a tendency to decrease with increasing shear strength.
The lateral displacements of the columns can be reduced and the bearing
capacity be increased by placing one or several layers with high strength woven geofabric
within or just below the embankment or in narrow trenches just above the columns as
illustrated in Fig. 3 (Broms, 1993). Thereby the transfer of load from the embankment to
the columns is improved. The soft upper part of the columns as well as any loose soil
above the columns should be excavated and replaced by compacted granular fill.
Otherwise the settlements could be excessive since the columns are terminated 0.5 to 1.0
m below the ground surface to prevent blowouts during the manufacture of the columns.
5
2.2.4. Breakwaters and Quay Walls.
Kawasaki et al (1981) have described a case where up to 40 m long cement
columns were used as foundation for an 18.9 m high quay wall. The undrained shear
strength of the stabilised soil was 200 kPa.
Breakwaters have been stabilised by cement columns as discussed by Porbaha
et al (1998b). A shear strength of 2 to7 MPa could be obtained at a cement content of 150
kg/m3.
Cement columns have been used, for example, to increase the bearing
capacity of a 20 m thick silt layer at the Yantai Port in China (Min, 1996). The
unconfined compressive strength was 2.5 MPa after 90 days at a c/w-ratio of 1.3. The
required cement content was 170 to 190 kg/m3. The in-situ shear strength, which
increased with time, was 1.5 to 1.7 times the shear strength of laboratory samples. The
unconfined compressive strength after 90 days was 1.4 to 1.5 times the 28-day strength.
6
walkways. Lime/cement and lime columns can also provide a smooth transition from the
buildings to the surrounding unimproved ground.
The excavated soil from trenches and other excavations can be used as
fill due to the high shear strength and permeability of the soil when stabilised with lime
or cement. The cost for the transport of the excavated soil and the environmental
problems associated with the dumping of soft soil are then decreased (Paus, 1998).
7
Fig.5. Lime and Lime/Cement Columns for Stabilisation of Trenches
The stability can be improved by inclining the columns. The maximum depth
is increased to about 1.8 m at an inclination of 1H:3V for 0.5 m diameter columns The
maximum depth is 2.2 m when the side slope is 1H:2V (Åhnberg and Holm, 1991).
Blom (1992) has described a case at Kållekärr on the Island Tjörn not far
from Gothenburg in Sweden where cement columns were used to stabilize a deep trench.
The soil consisted from the ground surface of gyttja down to a depth of 5 m and of 25 m
with soft to very soft clay. Short overlapping columns with 5 m length were placed as
arches with 4 m diameter next to the trench (Fig. 52). The length of the columns was
increased to 15 m below the bottom of the trench to improve the stability with respect to
bottom heave.
2.4.2. Excavations
Lime, cement and lime/cement columns have been used in Sweden to
stabilize deep excavations as illustrated in Fig. 6 and to increase the stability with respect
to bottom heave. The columns located behind the sheet pile wall will reduce the lateral
earth pressures as well as the settlements. The columns in front to the wall increase the
stability and the factor of safety with respect to bottom heave.
Skauerud and Finborud (1984) used lime columns in Norway to stabilize a 4
to 6 m deep excavation supported by anchored sheet piles. A shear strength of 125 kPa
could be obtained with 7% to 10% quicklime in spite of the low initial shear strength of
the clay, 10 to 20 kPa, and the high sensitivity, above 100. The remoulded soil flowed up
around the columns as a fluid during the installation due to the high sensitivity of the
clay. The shear strength of the stabilized soil was 100 to 200 kPa two weeks after the
installation and over 350 kPa after four weeks compared with a required shear strength of
90 kPa. It was observed that the shear strength of the columns was higher than the shear
strength of samples prepared in the laboratory.
Sahlberg (1979a, 1979b) has described a case in Sweden where a 3.0 to 4.5 m
deep excavation in soft clay was stabilized successfully by 0.5 m diameter lime columns.
The shear strength of the untreated soil was low, 10 kPa. The water content was 70% to
8
80% and thus higher than the liquid limit. The cost was reduced by 30% to 40%
compared with the costs for sheet piles.
9
excavation when the depth of the excavation was 3.5 m. The initial stability of the
excavation was low.
Adestam (1996) has described a case, where lime/cement columns (50/50) were used
successfully to stabilize a 4.5 to 5.0 m deep excavation in soft clay where the inclination
of the slope was 1.0V/1.5H. The undrained shear strength was low, about 10 kPa. The
ground water table was located 1.0 m below the ground surface. The factor of safety of
the slope could be increased to 1.6 when overlapping columns were placed in rows
perpendicular to the excavation. A local slip occurred outside the stabilized area during
the excavation, which showed that the initial stability was low. Lime/cement columns
have also been used to stabilize a deep excavation at Arlanda. The slope of the stabilized
excavation was steep, 1V:1.5H (Redlund, 1995).
Cement columns with 1.0 m diameter were used to stabilize an up to 20.9 m deep
excavation at the Tokyo International Airport (Shiomi et al, 1996; Miyahara et al, 1991,
Tanaka, 1993). The overlap of the columns was 200 mm.
The columns can be reinforced to increase the moment resistance and thus the
stability of column walls with respect to overturning (Kitazume et al, 1996a, 1996b).
Bamboo has been used in Shanghai, PRC as reinforcement to increase the moment
capacity (Chen et al, 1996). There up to 8-m deep excavations in soft clay have been
stabilized by double column rows. The reinforcement should be placed in the columns
just after the installation, when the shear strength of the stabilized soil still is low. The
columns can also be connected at the ground surface as proposed by Dong et al (1996)
10
Austria have been stabilized successfully by lime columns (Brandl, 1973). The column
diameter was small, 0.08 to 0.5 m.
11
Fig. 7. Lime and Lime/Cement Columns for Pipe Jacking
12
below the abutments. The stabilized soil was preloaded for three months by a load, which
corresponded to the total weight of the bridge. The maximum settlement after the
preloading was less than 5 mm.
Also Bengtsson et al (1991) have described a case where lime columns were used
to support a rigid frame bridge. The settlement of the bridge after one year was 30 to 80
mm. The costs for the lime columns in 1992 was about 50% of the costs for driven
precast concrete piles.
Lime and lime/cement columns could be combined with preloading, which should be
carried out as soon as possible after the installation of the columns to reduce the time
required for the consolidation of the soft clay between the columns. Lime and possibly
lime/cement columns will function as vertical drains. Thereby the time required for the
consolidation is reduced. There is some uncertainty, however, about the function of
lime/cement columns as drains because of the reduction of the permeability with cement.
The preloading should correspond to at least the weight of the bridge or of the
approach fill to reduce the differential settlement between the bridge and the fill behind
the abutments. A surcharge load in addition to a preloading, which corresponds to the
weight of the structure, is sometimes required to reduce the time for the consolidation and
the creep settlements.
2.8.Tunnels.
2.8.1.Stabilization of Tunnels.
At the Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Project, where two bored tunnels with 14.1 m
diameter and a length of 9.5 km have been constructed, the soft clay was stabilized by
cement columns (Unami and Shima, 1996; Uchida et al, 1994, 1996; Tatsuoka et al,
1996, 1997; Kamon, 1997). The maximum depth of the soft clay was 60 m. The water
content was high, 80% to 120%. Up to eight slurry shield machines were used at the same
time for the construction of the tunnels. Totally 3.77 Mm3 of the soft clay were improved
using cement slurry with a water/cement ratio of 1.0. The cement content was 140 kg/m3
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and 70 kg/m3. A relatively low cement content was used to limit the maximum shear
strength of the stabilized soil to 500 kPa. The area ratio of the treated soil was high, over
0.99. It was specified that the shear strength of the stabilized soil as determined by
unconfined confined compression tests should be between 0.3 and 1.5 MPa down to a
depth of 30 m. It was expected that the stabilized soil could be difficult to excavate when
the unconfined compressive strength exceeded 1.5 MPa. The lower limit, 0.3 MPa, was
governed by the required stability of the tunnels. The diameter of the overlapping
columns was large, 1.1 m. The spacing of the columns was 0.83 m, which corresponded
to an overlap of 0.37 m.
It has been proposed by Broms (1986) that overlapping lime, lime/cement and
cement columns could possibly be used instead of jet grouting to increase the stability of
tunnels constructed in soft clay. The columns could be installed as blocks or rows
perpendicular to the tunnel axis. Some of the columns should extend down to an
underlying firm layer in order to reduce the settlements. The shear resistance of the block
or of the column rows should be sufficient to resist the total overburden pressure. The
required spacing of the column rows is usually three to four column diameters.
A drilling machine has been developed in Japan (Suguki and Maeda, 1996) where the
soft soil can be stabilized by horizontal cement columns. The diameter of the boreholes,
which can be varied, is up to 0.8 m. The maximum length of the boreholes is 22 m.
2.9. Traffic Vibrations and Vibrations Caused by Blasting and Pile Driving.
2.9.1.Reduction of Traffic Vibrations.
Lime and lime/cement columns have been used to reduce traffic vibrations in soft
clay (Beigler, 1982; Boman and Tholén, 1979; Massarsch and Sanaee,1993) as well as
cement columns (Takemiya et al, 1996). Double column rows or grids with overlapping
columns are usually required for safety. The reduction of the vibration level has been
found to increase with increasing number of columns. The reduction is generally larger
for point bearing than for floating columns.
It has been possible, for example, to reduce the maximum vibration velocity caused
by traffic vibrations by about 50% in soft clay with lime columns for a two-story building
located about 20 m from a heavily trafficked road. Massarsch and Sanaee (1993) have
reported a reduction by 45% of the maximum vibration velocity 10 days after the
installation of lime/cement columns. Boman and Tholén (1979) observed that the
vibration level with lime columns was reduced by 30% to 50% at Skå-Edeby close to
Stockholm in Sweden. A large reduction of the maximum velocity has also been reported
by Takemiya et al (1998). The reduction was the largest at frequencies between 4 and 20
Hz.
Cement columns have also been tried close to Kungsbacka, Sweden to reduce the
vibrations of a railroad embankment constructed on a 5 to 13 m thick clay layer (Ekström,
1992). A special mixing toll was developed to inject cement slurry close to the bottom of
the mixing toll. Overlapping columns with 0.8 m diameter were used to increase the
efficiency of the columns. The unconfined compressive strength with 70 kg cement per
meter was 500 to 1000 kPa. The reduction of the vibration level was almost as good as by
a pile supported concrete deck. The columns also contributed to the stability of the
embankment and to a reduction of the settlements (Ekström, 1992).
14
The excavated material from trenches stabilized by lime columns has been used
successfully as fill. The lime content of the columns has been sufficient to increase
substantially the shear strength and the permeability and to reduce the water content. The
savings of both time and money have been considerable since it was not necessary to
transport and to dump the excavated soft clay.
3.1.3. Density.
15
The unit weight of organic soils, quick clay and peat increases with increasing lime
and cement content, when the initial water content of the soil is high while the density of
inorganic soils, clay and silt, often is reduced.
16
Åhnberg et al (1995a) have reported that the shrinkage of silty soils both with lime
and with cement has been much larger than for other soil types. It has also been observed
that the permeability of lime and lime/cement columns has been much higher than the
permeability of laboratory samples probably because of cracking during the slaking of the
quicklime in the columns. The columns could be separated from the unstabilized soil
around the perimeter close to the ground surface due to shrinkage after the initial
expansion by the slaking. It is well known that concrete shrinks during the curing. Open
cracks in and around the columns will likely close after a few weeks or months. It has
been observed that the average permeability of the columns decreases with time.
Volume changes have been observed at both drained and undrained triaxial tests.
After an initial increase of the volume the partly saturated samples has a tendency to
dilate. The dilatancy decreases with increasing confining pressure. The dilatancy
contributes to the high friction angles φu,col and φ´col, which have been observed at both
undrained and drained triaxial and direct shear tests.
.
Fig. 8. Stabilization with Unslaked Lime
17
The increase of the short-term shear strength depends mainly on the reduction of the
water content during the slaking, on the increase of the plastic limit and the reduction of
the plasticity index while the long-term shear strength with lime and cement is mainly
governed by pozzolanic reactions in the soil as illustrated in Fig. 8.
where φu,col is the undrained angle of internal friction of the stabilized soil, which varies
with the soil type and with the water content and cu,col is the undrained cohesion A value
on φu,col = 30 degrees can be used up to a normal pressure of 150 to 250 kPa for lime and
lime/cement columns. It should be noted that an estimated undrained shear strength cu,col
= 0.5 qu,col is too high when the normal pressure is less than 150 to 250 kPa since
The ratio 2 cu,col / qu,col is shown in Table 2.1 as a function of the friction angle φu,col.
It should be noted that the ratio 2 cu,col / qu,col could be less than 1.0 and that the cohesion
cu,col will be less than 0.5 qu,col which is the value, which is generally assumed in the
analysis of the unconfined compression test. At e.g. φu,col = 30 degrees and σf,col = 0 then
2 cu,col / qu,col = 0.577. The shear strength is in this case only 57.7% of the assumed shear
strength,
When φu,col = 0, the critical normal pressure σf,crit is equal to
σf,crit / qu,col = (0.5 – cu,col / qu,col)/ tan φu,col = 0.5 (1 - K a ) / tan φu,col (3.3)
18
It can be seen in Table 2.1 that the ratio σf,crit/qu,col decreases with increasing value on
qu,col. The critical value on σf,crit as calculated in Table 2.1 varies from 69.6 kPa at φu,col =
25 degrees to 150 kPa at φu,col = 45 degrees when qu,col = 150 kPa. This normal pressure
corresponds to the total overburden pressure at a depth of 4.35 m with respect to a
horizontal slip surface at φu,col = 25 degrees and 9.38 m at φu,col = 45 degrees.
In Table 2.1. is also shown the shear resistance τfu,col which increases from 69.9 kPa
at φu,col = 25 degrees to 150 kPa at φu,col = 45 degrees when qu,col = 150 kPa. The ratio cu,col
/ 0.5 qu,col, which corresponds to the relative increase of the shear strength caused by φu,col
is 0.906 at φu,col = 25 degrees and 0.707 at φu,col = 45 degrees. The undrained shear
strength is thus 9.4% to 29.3% lower than the shear strength as determined by unconfined
compression tests, qu,col, when the normal pressure on the failure plane is 150 kPa.
φu,col cu,col / 0.5 qu,col σf,crit / qu,col 150 tan φu,col τfu,col / 0.5 qu,col
The increase of the undrained shear strength of remoulded clay from cuo to cu1 caused
by a reduction of the water content by ∆ω can be estimated by the following equation
where PIo is the plasticity index. When the reduction of the water content is e.g. 0.15 PIo
then log cuo/cu1 = 0.3 and cu1 = 2cuo. The undrained shear strength of the remoulded soil is
thus doubled by a reduction of the water content by 0.15 PIo (Fig. 9).
The shear strength of the remoulded soil is also affected by an increase of the plastic
limit from wpo to wp1 and by a reduction of the plasticity index from PIo to PI1.
where ωLo is the initial liquid limit and ω1 is the water content. At e.g. PIo = 40, PI1 = 20,
ω1 = 65%, (ωp1 -ωpo) = 20, and ωLo = 80 then cu2 = 5.62 cu1. The shear strength is thus
expected to increase from e.g. 10 kPa to 56.2 kPa at a reduction of the plasticity index
from 40 to 20.
19
Fig. 9. Effect of a Reduction of the Water Content on the Undrained Shear Strength
of a Remoulded Clay
The undrained shear strength of the remoulded clay is also affected by a change of
the liquid limit from ωLo to ωL1 and by an increase of the plasticity index from PI1 to PI2
(Fig. 10).
where ω1 is the water content and ωp1 is the plastic limit. At e.g. PI2 = 25, PI1 = 20, ω1 =
65% and ωp1 = 60 then cu3 = 1.26 cu2. The shear strength is expected to increase by 26% in
this case.
20
Fig. 10. Effect of a Change of the Plastic Limit on The Undrained Shear Strength
of a Remoulded Clay
21
Fig.11. Shear Strength of Lime, Lime/Cement and Cement Columns
(after Åhnberg et al, 1995a)
The design of lime, lime/cement and cement columns is usually based on the
estimated shear strength 28 days after the installation of the columns. The shear strength
of lime columns is often underestimated since a large part of the long-term increase of the
shear strength occurs after 28 days. It is therefore proposed for lime columns, that the
design strength should be the estimated shear strength after 90 days
A relatively high friction angle φu,col has been reported for lime and lime/cement,
which has been attributed to dilatation when the confining pressure is low (Serra et al,
1983). A negative pore water pressure can therefore be expected when the load is applied
rapidly and the confining pressure is less than about 20 kPa (Åhnberg et al, 1995a). A
high undrained friction angle φu,col > 0 can also be caused by air present in the columns,
since compressed air is used to force the lime and the cement into the columns during the
installation. It is expected that the degree of saturation will increase and that φu,col might
decrease with time. After a few months it is expected that the stabilized soil will be fully
saturated and that the shear strength of the unstabilized soil around the columns will
increase with time as well as the lateral earth pressure when the columns are loaded. The
undrained friction angle φu,col decreases with increasing confining pressure It is expected,
however, that the friction angle φu,col = 0, when the soil is fully saturated.
22
Åhnberg et al (1994, 1995a) have found that the undrained shear strength as
determined by unconfined compression tests on cores from actual columns has been about
the same as the undrained shear strength of samples prepared in the laboratory when the
undrained shear strength is 100 to 200 kPa. The laboratory samples often indicate a lower
shear strength than the average shear strength of the columns, when the shear strength is
low.
When the shear strength exceeds about 200 kPa, the shear strength of laboratory
samples is often higher than the in-situ shear strength. Kamon (1991, 1997) has reported
that the in-situ shear strength of cement columns for on-shore projects was only one-half
to one-fifth of the shear strength of laboratory samples. The difference increased in
general with increasing shear strength of the stabilized soil.
A relatively high friction angle φu,col has been reported for soils stabilized by lime and
lime/cement, when the confining pressure is low The stabilized soil has a tendency to
dilate at a low confining pressure as pointed out by e.g. Serra et al (1983). A negative
pore water pressure can therefore be expected when the load is applied rapidly and the
confining pressure is low. A negative pore water pressure has been reported by e.g.
Balasubramaniam and Buensuceso (1989).
The undrained friction angle φu,col decreases with increasing confining pressure when
the degree of saturation of the soil increases. Tatsuoka (1983) and Åhnberg et al (1995a)
have e.g. reported that the increase of the shear strength is small when the confining
pressure is high. It is expected that the friction angle φu,col = 0, when the soil is fully
saturated and the total normal pressure on the failure plane exceeds 150 to 250 kPa.
Shear strengths of 140 to 280 kPa have been reported by Baker et al (1997) from in-
situ field tests while laboratory tests indicated a shear strength of 220 to 420 kPa. The
laboratory values were almost twice the in-situ shear strength. The difference increases in
general with increasing shear strength of the stabilized soil.
The shear resistance of the stabilized soil in the overlapping zone has been low.
Yoshida (1996) has reported that the shear strength as determined by vertical direct shear
tests (σf = 0) was 23.3% of the unconfined compressive strength. Similar observations
have been made in Sweden. This reduction of the shear strength had to be considered in
the design of column walls.
24
well as the increase caused by an increase of the plastic and liquid limits by Eqs. (3.5) and
(3.6).
Green and Smigan (1995) have reported values on φu, col of 30 to 40 degrees
determined by direct shear tests for soils stabilized with lime/cement (50/50 and 80/20)
while values of 41 and 33 degrees were obtained by triaxial tests. Kivelö (1996) obtained a
value of 45 degrees by triaxial tests and by direct shear tests (UU-tests).
Axelsson and Larsson (1994) obtained an average angle of internal friction (φu,col),
which at direct shear tests was 42 degrees for lime/cement columns from two different
locations and for different orientation of the samples. A friction angle (φυ,col) of 43 to 45
degrees was determined by Björkman and Ryding (1996) and by Kivelö (1996) at direct
shear tests. The friction angle determined by undrained and drained triaxial tests (UU-
and CD-tests) was 41 and 40 degrees, respectively.
The cohesion cu,col has been found by Kivelö (1996) to be lower at direct shear tests
than at triaxial tests, 160 kPa and 210 kPa, respectively. The shear strength as determined
by triaxial tests has in general been higher than the shear strength by direct shear tests.
Yoshida (1996) has reported that the shear strength from triaxial tests with soils stabilized
with cement was 1.57 times the shear strength from direct shear tests.
The variation of the reported undrained angle of internal friction φu,col has been large
since the quality of the columns and of the investigated samples has often been low. Also
the variations of the shear strength and of the lime/cement content over the cross-section
and along the columns have been large as well as the variation of the soil conditions.
Kivelö (1994a) found that the water content of the soft soil around the lime/cement
columns was reduced. The water content was 32% at a distance of 10 to 30 mm from the
surface of the investigated column, 37% at 50 to 80 mm, 39% at 80 to 120 mm and 45%
at a distance exceeding 0.5 m. The reduction of the water content was thus large, up to
13% (45% - 32%) next to the columns. This reduction of the water content increases
substantially the shear strength of the unstabilized soil next to the columns.
26
3.2.8. Undrained Shear Strength with Rice Husk Ash.
Ali Jawaid (1997) has found that silty clay could be stabilized with 10% rice husk
ash and 6% lime. The required lime content is thus low. It might be possible to use rice
husk ash to stabilize also other soil types since the silica content of the ash is high. In
India over about 10 Mt rice husk ash is produced annually. The available amount is thus
very large
27
Brookes et al (1997) found that φ´col was 30 to 42 degrees by consolidated-drained triaxial
tests with Gault Clay from the U.K. at a lime content of 5% to 15%. The friction angle φ´col for
the unstabilized Gault Clay was 23 to 25 degrees. For London Clay it was reported that the
friction angle φ´col was 31 to 41 degrees with 5% to 15% lime. The highest friction angle, 41
degrees, was observed with 5% lime. The friction angle for the unstabilized weathered London
Clay was 17 to 23 degrees.
28
10 to 14 kPa for the weathered Gault Clay. Reiment (1978) has reported that the cohesion
intercept cu,col was 25 kPa.
where τfou is a reference shear strength of the stabilized soil as determined by unconfined
compression tests after 28 days at a w/c-ratio of 1.0 including the initial water content of
the soil. It is thus expected from Eq. (3.8), that the increase of the shear strength is about
100% when the water/cement ratio is reduced by 50% e.g. from 8 to 4.
Edstam (1997) indicates, however, that there is no definite increase of the undrained
shear strength with decreasing water/cement ratio, when the water content is low possibly
due to poor mixing. The scatter of the results is large. Also the organic content and the
pH-value of the pore water have been found to affect the increase of the shear strength.
The unconfined compressive strength is often 2 to 4 MPa at a water/cement ratio of
1.0 (Asano et al, 1996; Matsuo et al, 1996a). When the water/cement ratio is 1.2 to 1.5
the expected unconfined compressive strength is about 1 MPa. Holm (1994) has reported
that the shear strength increases approximately linearly with increasing cement content
and that an unconfined compressive strength of 2 MPa can be expected at a cement
content of 200 kg/m3.
29
Fig. 12. Peak and Residual Undrained Shear Strength as Determined by Direct
Shear Tests (after Kivelö, 1996)
The residual shear strength is typically 70% to 80% of the peak shears strength
(Hansson, 1991). A residual shear strength, which was 74% to 100% of the peak shear
strength, has been reported by Göransson and Larsson (1994). Kivelö (1996) and
Björkman and Ryding (1996) found that the residual shear strength was 50% to 70% of
the peak shear strengths as determined by undrained direct shear tests with samples from
lime/cement columns (Fig. 13) and 80% to 90% of the peak shear strengths at triaxial
tests (UU-tests). The reduction of the shear strength has been larger at direct shear tests
than at triaxial tests. The difference decreases with increasing normal pressure at the
direct shear tests and with increasing confining pressure at the triaxial tests. The reduction
is typically 50% at drained triaxial tests when the confining pressure is 160 kPa and about
70% at a confining pressure of 80 kPa for soils stabilised with lime/cement (Åhnberg et
al, 1996).
Axelsson and Larsson (1994) found for lime/cement columns, that the residual shear
strength as determined by undrained direct shear tests (UU-tests) varied between 60% and
96% of the peak shear strength and that the behavior of the soil was similar as that of an
overconsolidated clay. The reduction increased rapidly with increasing shear strength.
When the undrained shear strength exceeds 500 kPa the reduction can be as high as 80%
to 90% when the confining pressure is low as reported by Åhnberg et al (1996). Åhnberg
et al (1994) have indicated that the residual strength for clayey silt is typically 50% to
30
60% of the peak undrained shear strength when the shear strength is low. The reduction
of the shear strength is generally relatively small, 10% to 30%, when the shear strength is
less than 100 to 150 kPa.
Fig. 13. Direct Shear Tests with Lime/Cement Columns and Unstabilised Clay
(after Kivelö, 1996)
Unami and Shima (1996) observed at undrained triaxial tests that the residual shear
strength was about 85% of the peak shear strength, 600 kPa. Similar results have been
reported by Bergwall and Falksund (1996). Tatsuoka and Kobayashi (1983) found that the
residual undrained shear strength is typically 75% to 100% of the peak shear strength. A
residual shear strength of 600 kPa has e.g. been reported by Holm (1994) for a soil
stabilized with lime/cement with a peak shear strength of 5 MPa. The reduction was
almost 90%.
The reduction of the effective cohesion c´col has a large effect on the shear strength
when the confining pressure is low. Åhnberg et al (1995) have reported values on c´col of
10 to 30 kPa for soils, which had been stabilized with lime, lime/cement and cement. The
reduction of the angle of internal friction φu,col and φ´col is relatively small, less than 5
degrees.
Steensen-Bach et al (1996) have proposed that φ´col could be assumed to be the same
as the residual angle of internal friction φ´col, res when the residual cohesion c´col, res is
31
equal to zero, due to the reduction of the bonding at large deformations of the stabilized
soil.
1 MPa for soils stabilized with cement. A failure strain of only 0.77% has e.g. been
reported by Holm (1994) at a peak shear strength of 5.0 MPa.
The failure strain has been 0.7% to 0.8% for lime/cement columns with an
unconfined compressive strength of 520 to 760 kPa (Kivelö, 1994a). Ekström (1994b)
found that the failure strain at unconfined compression tests with lime/cement columns at
a shear strength of 130 kPa was 1.8% to 2.2%. Above 1.0 MPa εf was about 1%.
The failure strain of column cores has generally been less than the failure strain of
laboratory samples (Ekström, 1994b). The failure strain is often higher for organic than
32
for inorganic soils due to the low shear strength when the soil is organic. Åhnberg et al
(1996) have reported a failure strain of up to 17% for clayey gyttja.
The axial strain at the peak shear strength increases with increasing confining
pressure. Tatsuoka and Kobayashi (1983) have reported that the failure strain increased
from less than 1.1% to more than 15% when the confining pressure was increased from
20 kPa to 686 kPa. Terashi and Tanaka (1981) found that the failure strain increased from
1.5% at a confining pressure of 50 kPa to about 8% at 400 kPa. Balasubramaniam et al
(1989) has reported that the failure strain for soils stabilized with lime increased from
2.5% at a confining pressure of 50 kPa to about 10% at a confining pressure of 400 kPa.
Rogers and Lee (1994) indicated that the failure strain increased with 3% lime from about
2% to about 13% when the confining pressure was increased from 0 to 600 kPa. Ekström
(1994b) has reported for lime/cement columns that the failure strain increased from 7.5%
when the confining pressure was 60 kPa to more than 11% when the confining pressure
was 200 kPa.
The failure strain is about the same for lime, lime/cement and cement columns at the
same shear strength (Ekström, 1994b). The failure strain εf is usually higher for lime
columns than for lime/cement and cement columns because of the high shear strength of
lime/cement and cement columns. The failure strain at the wet method is often higher
than the failure strain at the dry method at the same cement content due to the higher
shear strength with the dry method. The failure strain increases with increasing water
content due to the reduction of the shear strength with increasing water content. The
failure strain has also a tendency to decrease with time since the shear strength increases
with time (e.g. Brandl, 1995; Sandros and Holm, 1996).
The failure strain is also low for soils stabilized with fly ash (Brandl, 1995) even
when the unconfined compressive strength of the stabilized soil is low. Kujala and
Nieminen (1983) have e.g. reported that the strain at the peak shear strength was reduced
from 4.1% with lime to 1.4% with lime and gypsum.
A failure strain of 5% is recommended in the design of lime columns when the
undrained shear strength is less than 100 to 150 kPa and 3% when the shear strength
exceeds 150kPa. For lime/cement and cement columns a failure strain of 1% can likely be
used. The failure strain can be estimated by triaxial tests (CU- or CD-tests) with a
confining pressure, which corresponds to the in-situ total overburden pressure.
3.3.10. Increase of the Shear Strength with Time of Lime/Cement and Cement.
The shear strength increases in general faster with lime/cement and cement than with
lime. When finely ground cement is used, the shear strength increases rapidly the first
month after the installation. However, after three months the shear strength could for
many inorganic soils be lower with lime/cement and cement than with lime even when
the shear strength one month after the mixing is low. The increase of the shear strength by
consolidation of the cement treated soil is similar to that of the unstabilised soil (Kohata
at al, 1996).
34
3.3.11. Increase of the Shear Strength with Time for Gypsum, Fly ash, Lime and Other
Additives.
With gypsum (CaSO3) and lime the shear strength increases very fast the first two to
three months after the mixing (Nieminen, 1978). The long term undrained shear strength
is often higher than the shear strength with only lime. Holm et al (1983a) found that the
increase of the shear strength was relatively slow at a high lime/gypsum ratio. The ratio of
lime and gypsum is usually 3:1 to 1:1.
Kujala and Nieminen (1983) and Kujala (1983b) have reported for lime and gypsum
that the shear strength one month after the mixing has been two to four times the shear
strength with only lime. After one year the shear strength with lime and gypsum has been
about twice the shear strength with only lime. The shear strength of the stabilized soil was
up to 200 kPa. The initial shear strength of the unstabilized clay was low, 6 to 7 kPa and
the water content was high, up to 160%. The proportion of gypsum and lime was 1:1 and
1:2.
It has been possible with lime and gypsum to stabilize soils with an initial water
content of up to 140% (Holm et al, 1983a; 1987). Kuno et al (1989) have reported, that
slaked lime and gypsum could increase the shear strength of soils with an initial water
content as high as 300% to 400%.
Gypsum increases the rate of the chemical reactions in the soil. The needlelike
ettringite particles, which are formed when the SO4-ions in the gypsum react with the clay
particles, contribute to the high shear strength of the stabilized soil (Nieminen, 1979;
Kujala, 1983b; Holm et al, 1983a). Thereby the water content is reduced.
The increase of the shear strength with lime and gypsum can be attributed at least
partly to the volume increase caused by the needle-shaped ettringite particles and by the
resulting increase of the lateral pressure around the columns. An increase of the lateral
pressure by 200 to 500 kPa has e.g. been reported by e.g. Kujala and Nieminen (1983).
However, the shear strength of high-strength columns with low ductility could even be
reduced by the volume increase. Ettringite is only stable, however, when pH >7. The long
term shear strength and bearing capacity of the columns could thus be reduced if the pH-
value of the soil is reduced. It is therefore recommended that gypsum should not be used
to increase the long-term stability of embankments, slopes and excavations.
Cement and gypsum as well as fly ash and cement have been used in Finland to
stabilize peat with a water content as high as 1250% to 1670% (Ravaska and Kujala,
1996). The required amount of stabilizer is high, when the water content is high.
Nieminen (1979) has reported that the cement content could be reduced with fly ash,
blast-furnace slags and gypsum. Blast-furnace slag and fly ash contribute to the
pozzolanic reactions in the soil.
In Japan and India fly ash and gypsum have been used to stabilize peat (Asano et al,
1996; Mishra and Srivastava, 1996). Fly ash has been found to be effective in silty and
clayey soils, where the clay content has not been sufficient (Nieminen, 1979; Holm and
Åhnberg, 1987). The fly ash particles are spherical, which affects the consistency during
the mixing. The long-term shear strength can be even higher with fly ash and cement than
with only cement. With fly ash the permeability of the stabilized soil is reduced.
Also sand has been found to be effective. Axelsson et al (1996) have reported that the
shear strength was increased by about 30% when 100 kg sand was added per m3. Other
additives have been investigated by Pradines and Bredenberg (1981).
35
3.4.1. General
The available information about the long-term performance of lime, lime/cement and
cement columns is very limited compared with the long-term performance of lime-
stabilized subgrades in road construction.
36
shear strength. It is expected that the effective angle of internal friction φ’col will not be
affected by the cyclic loading.
The stabilized soil is expected to dilate when the stress level is high. The resulting
gradual increase of the volume reduces the bearing capacity and the shear strength of the
columns. Mainly the cohesion c’col is affected. The reduction of the bearing capacity of
the columns can be large.
It is expected that the shear resistance with respect to dynamic loads will be higher
than the static shear resistance since the shear strength of clay increases in general with
increasing loading rate.
The compression modulus Mcol is equal to 1.35 Ecol when Poisson‘s ratio νcol is 0.3 up
to about 50% of the ultimate bearing capacity of the columns. The compression modulus
Mcol is equal to 2.14 Ecol when νcol is 0.40. It should be noted that Mcol is larger than the
modulus of elasticity Ecol and that Mcol increases rapidly with increasing value on νcol.
The compression modulus Mcol is normally used to estimate the settlement of lime,
lime/cement or cement columns and the load distribution. The compression modulus is
generally determined by oedometer tests, where the applied load is increased every 24
hours. The consolidation tests can also be carried out at a constant deformation rate
(CRS-tests).
The initial compression modulus Mi as determined by CRS-tests is about constant
with lime up to about 0.8 to 1.6 times the undrained shear strength of the soil according to
Åhnberg et al (1995a) as shown in Fig. 15. After the modulus has been reduced to Mmin at
an axial strain of 2% to 3% the compression modulus M´ increases approximately
linearly with increasing consolidation pressure. The compression modulus M´ is equal to
the compression modulus of the unstabilized soil Msoil (M´ = Msoil). The bonding of the
soil caused by cementation is destroyed when the deformations are large.
37
Fig. 15. Effect of Cementation on the Compression Modulus
(after Åhnberg et al, 1995a)
Terashi and Tanaka (1983a) and Okumura and Terashi (1975) report that the
compression modulus was reduced at about 1.3 times the unconfined compressive
strength, which corresponds to the apparent preconsolidation pressure of the stabilized
soil. With lime/cement and cement the apparent preconsolidation pressure is
approximately 2.0 to 2.9 times the undrained shear strength at a shear strength of 100 kPa.
At 1000 kPa the preconsolidation pressure is about 0.3 to 0.6 times the undrained shear
strength. Kohata et al (1996) have reported that the apparent preconsolidation pressure for
cement columns is about 1.2 to 1.7 the unconfined compressive strength. When the shear
strength of the stabilized soil is relatively low the preconsolidation pressure is about 1.7
times the unconfined compressive strength at a c/p´-ratio of 0.30 and about two times the
unconfined compressive strength at a c/p´-ratio of 0.25
The initial compression modulus of the stabilized soil as determined by CRS-tests is
typically 40 MPa for cement columns and 10 to 30 MPa for lime/cement columns about
two months after the installation (Ekström, 1992). Göransson and Larsson (1994)
determined a confined modulus Mcol of 20 MPa from load tests with lime/cement
columns. Close to the ground surface the compressibility of the stabilized soil was high
and the compression modulus was low.
38
A low compression modulus, 20 to 30 MPa, has been reported by Arnér et al (1996)
for lime/cement columns at 4 m depth for a test embankment at Norrala. Values of 5 to 10
MPa were measured for the upper part of the columns where the shear strength was low
as reported by Svensson and Jonsson (1996). The columns were installed during the
winter when the air and the ground temperatures were low. A compression modulus Mcol
of 120 to 150 MPa has been reported by Kivelö (1994b) for 0.5 m diameter lime/cement
columns at half of the ultimate bearing capacity. The lime/cement content was 20 to 25
kg/m (100 to 125 kg/m3). The undrained shear strength was 200 to 300 kPa, which
corresponds to a Mcol /cu,col-ratio of about 500.
Baker et al (1997) have reported from in-situ measurements of lime/cement columns
that Mcol was 110 to 170 MPa with a mean value of 145 MPa. Unconfined compression
tests on samples from the columns tested in the laboratory indicated a compression
modulus of 45 to 110 MPa with a mean value of 70 MPa. The compression modulus as
determined by unconfined compression tests was low, about 50% of the values from in-
situ measurements. The in-situ undrained shear strength was 140 to 280 kPa. The
laboratory values were about twice as high, 220 to 420 kPa. The ratio Mcol/cu,col as
determined by field tests was about 700.
The ratio Mcol/cu,col increases in general with increasing shear strength. Deformation
measurements indicate a compression modulus for lime/cement columns of at least 100
MPa at an undrained shear strength of 250 kPa, which corresponds to a compression
modulus Mcol of 400 cu,col.. Åhnberg et al (1995a) have reported that Mcol as determined
by oedometer tests (CRS-tests) was 60 cu,col to 300 cu,col. up to the preconsolidation
pressure. This ratio is somewhat lower for lime and gypsum, 50 cu,col to 70 cu,col
The compression modulus is often lower for lime columns than for lime/cement and
cement columns at the same undrained shear strength. For lime, lime/cement and cement
columns it is common to assume that Mcol = 50 to 150 cu,col, Mcol = 100 to 200 cu,col and
Mcol = 150 to 250 cu,col, respectively (Ekström, 1992). Rogbeck and Tränk (1995) have
recommended that a compression modulus of 50 to 150 cu,col can be used for lime/cement
columns. The lower value, 50 cu,col, is for organic soils and the higher value, 150 cu,col, is
for silty clay.
The compression modulus as determined by oedometer tests has in general been
lower than the in-situ compression modulus. The compression modulus from oedometer
tests can therefore be considered as a lower limit (Åhnberg et al, 1995a). Also Ekström et
al (1994c) have observed that the compression modulus at oedometer tests has been much
lower than the back-calculated modulus. The in-situ modulus was five times higher than
the oedometer values.
It is expected that Mcol will increase with increasing time after the installation due to
the increase of the shear strength. The lateral confining pressure will be higher for lime
than for lime/cement columns due to the volume increase caused by the slaking of the
lime. The compression modulus is generally higher for lime/cement and cement columns
than for lime columns.
39
Lahtinen and Vepsäläinen (1993) back-calculated the average modulus of elasticity to
15 to 25 MPa for lime columns. Similar results have been reported by Vepsäläinen and
Arkima (1992) for cement columns below a 2 m high embankment. The initial shear
strength of the clay was 10 to 15 kPa. The water content was 65% to 90%. The variation
of the modulus of elasticity was large.
Steensen-Bach et al (1996) have reported values on E50 of 45 to 105 MPa from
undrained triaxial tests with lime/cement columns. The undrained shear strength of the
stabilized soil was 127 to 225 kPa at a confining pressure of 20 kPa. The drained modulus
was only 30 to 50 MPa and thus lowers than the undrained modulus.
The ratio E50/cu, col can be assumed to about 200 for lime/cement columns and to
about 250 to 300 for cement columns according to Carlsten and Ekström (1995, 1997).
Ou and Wu (1996) have reported that E50/cu,col varied between 200 and 500. Asano et al
(1996) found that the ratio E50/qu varied between 140 and 500 for cement columns and
between 50 and 300 for soils stabilised by fly ash, gypsum and cement. Björkman and
Ryding (1996) have reported values of 150 to 200 MPa on Ecol for lime/cement columns
at Norrala with an unconfined compressive strength of about 1100 kPa, which
corresponds to E50/cu,col = 270 to 360.
Kohata et al (1996) and Tatsuoka et al (1997) have pointed out that the bedding error
at column load tests can be large, which will reduce the observed values on Ecol especially
when the shear strength of the stabilized soil is high. It is therefore preferable to measure
the deformations of the columns some distance away from the end caps.
The Ecol/cu,col -ratio has been higher for cement than for lime and lime/cement
columns. This ratio is also higher for cores, than for samples prepared in the laboratory.
Ekström et al (1994) have reported that the modulus as determined by unconfined
compression tests on samples prepared in the laboratory has always been higher than the
modulus determined for cores obtained in-situ from actual columns. Ekström (1994b)
recommends that Ecol should not be determined from laboratory samples.
In Japan the modulus of elasticity Ecol is often estimated as 0.7 N in MPa
(Babasaki and Suzuki, 1996) where N is the penetration resistance in blows/0.3 m at SPT.
The secant modulus of elasticity decreases rapidly with increasing axial deformation.
Typically the Emax / qu,col -ratio is reduced from about 1,000 at ε = 0.1% to 100 at ε = 1%.
This ratio has a tendency to increase with increasing shear strength. The Emax/cu,col-ratio is
generally larger for cement than for lime and lime/cement columns. It is also higher for
samples from actual columns than for samples prepared in the laboratory. The scatter of
the results is, however, large. It is usually not possible to estimate the shear strength cu,col
from Emax because of the difference in strain level.
3.7. Permeability
3.7.1. General
The permeability is usually determined in the laboratory by constant or by falling
head permeability tests or by triaxial and oedometer tests. Relatively small samples
obtained in-situ are used or compacted laboratory samples. The permeability of laboratory
samples can be very different from the in-situ permeability where cracks and fissures in
the columns affect the results. The results from laboratory tests can therefore be
misleading.
It is desirable to determine the permeability of lime, cement/lime and cement
columns and the efficiency of the columns as drains by measuring the pore water pressure
during the consolidation at the bottom of the columns. The flow velocity can be estimated
from the settlement rate.
40
3.7.2. Permeability with Lime.
The permeability of the soil stabilized in the laboratory with lime has been as low as
1.5 to 5 times the permeability of the unstabilized soil (Åhnberg et al, 1994). Also
Hansson (1991) has found that the permeability of laboratory samples was low with lime,
only twice that of the unstabilized soil.
Mitchell (1981) has e.g. reported that the permeability can be increased up to 1000
times with unslaked lime. Bengtsson and Holm (1984) have estimated that the
permeability with lime is 100 to 500 times the permeability of the unstabilized soil.
Brandl (1981) indicates that an increase of the permeability with lime by one to two
orders of magnitude is possible. Bengtsson and Holm (1984) found that kcol with lime is
about 100 ksoil while Pramborg and Albertsson (1992) have reported that the average
permeability with lime, was 225 times the permeability of the unstabilized soil. The
permeability of organic soils stabilized with lime is in general lower than the permeability
of inorganic soils.
The permeability determined in the laboratory, has in general been low compared
with the in-situ permeability. Åhnberg and Holm (1986) have reported a permeability,
which for lime columns was 10 to 100 times the permeability of the unstabilized soil.
The permeability of lime columns has been 5 to 10 times the permeability of laboratory
samples as reported by Ekström (1992). Åhnberg et al (1995a) have found that the
permeability depended on the soil type. A higher permeability has been observed for
clayey silt with lime than for clayey gyttja and clay.
Field tests indicate that lime columns function as vertical drains in the soil (Broms
and Boman, 1977a; Leminen and Rathmayer, 1979; Bengtsson and Holm, 1984). The
permeability of the stabilized soil often increases with time with lime possibly due to
shrinkage as reported by Broms (1985a).
Hansbo and Torstensson (1978) found that the lime columns, which were used to
stabilize the remoulded soft clay after the landslide at Tuve in Sweden, functioned as
drains and that the columns reduced the high excess pore water pressures in the soft clay,
which had been affected by the landslide. Also Soyez et al (1983) have reported that lime
columns function as vertical drains and that the time required for the consolidation of the
soil was reduced. The initial water content, which was 55% to 65%, was reduced to 41%
to 42% by the consolidation, which is close to the plastic limit of the soil.
Terashi and Tanaka (1983a) found for marine clay that the permeability decreased
with increasing lime content. Rogbeck and Tränk (1995) have reported that the
permeability of lime columns was 700 to 1000 times the permeability of the unstabilized
soil.
Carlsten and Ekström (1995, 1997) have proposed that a permeability, which is 1000
times that of the unstabilized soil can be used to estimate the consolidation rate for lime
columns. This proposed value is likely too high. It is proposed that a permeability, which
is 200 kv,clay, should be used instead.
The variation of the measured permeabilities has been large at both field and
laboratory tests. It is therefore possible that the reported field permeability could be too
high since the observed permeability could have been affected by water losses around the
packers, which were used to seal the borehole at the center of the columns at the in-situ
permeability tests. It is desirable to determine in the field the distribution of the pore
water pressures in the columns during the consolidation so that the hydraulic lag in the
columns can be determined.
41
Åhnberg et al (1995a) have observed from laboratory tests that the permeability of
soils stabilized by lime or lime/cement was only slightly higher than the permeability of
the unstabilized soil and that the permeability was lower than the permeability, which is
generally assumed. A higher permeability has been observed for clayey silt than for
clayey gyttja or clay.
Arnér et al (1996) have reported for an eight-meter high-test embankment at Norrala,
Sweden, that the permeability of the stabilized soil in the columns was about the same as
the permeability of the unstabilized soil. Arnér et al (1996) found also that the excess
pore water pressures in the 5 to 6 m thick clay layer below the embankment had
dissipated fully after 5 months in spite of the low permeability of the columns. The length
of the columns was 6 to 8 m.
Baker et al (1997) indicate that the in-situ permeability of lime/cement columns can
be up to two orders of magnitude higher than the permeability of laboratory samples. The
average permeability for lime/cement columns in the field was 1.4x10-7 m/s. The average
permeability of the laboratory samples was only 2x10-9 m/s. Pramborg and Albertsson
(1992) have reported that the in-situ permeability of lime/cement columns was 200 times
the permeability of the unstabilized clay while Rogbeck and Tränk (1995) found that the
permeability was about 750 to 1000 times the permeability of the unstabilized clay.
The permeability of lime/cement columns has also been investigated by Baker et al
(1997). They found that the permeability of lime/cement columns decreased rapidly with
increasing confining pressure and with time. The reduction was small at a confining
pressure above 150 kPa. The in-situ permeability has a tendency to decrease with
increasing cement content and with time since cementation reduces the size of the pores
in the soil. The permeability decreases also with increasing curing time and with
increasing confining pressure.
Carlsten and Ekström (1995; 1997) and Carlsten (2000) have recommend that a
permeability of 200 to 600 times that of the unstabilized soil can be used for lime/cement
columns. These recommended values appear to be too high. It is recommended that a
permeability of 40 kv,clay should be used instead.
It is questionable if lime/cement and cement columns function as effective drains
due to the low permeability with cement and the high hydraulic lag when the length of the
columns is large. Band-drains might be required as a compliment to lime/cement or
cement columns to reduce the time for the consolidation of the soft clay between the
columns.
42
3.7.5. Permeability with Gypsum.
Gypsum increases in general the permeability due to the volume increase caused by
the formation of ettringite when gypsum reacts with the lime and the clay.
43
should be noted that the temperature has less effect on the increase of the shear strength
for cement columns than for lime columns as pointed out by Kujala and Lathinen (1988).
44
(Åhnberg et al, 1989, Jalali, 1994). This increase of the shear strength can possibly be
utilized to estimate the long-term increase of the shear strength.
The increase of the shear strength will be higher if the samples have been e.g. cured
the first 12 hours at 30oC, followed by 12 hours at 10oC compared with the increase of the
shear strength of samples, which have been cured for 24 hours at 20oC in spite of the
same average temperature as pointed out by Sherwood (1993). The increase of the shear
strength with lime is approximately linear with increasing temperature between 0oC and
30oC. Above 30oC the shear strength increase is faster than the corresponding temperature
increase. The effect of temperature is generally larger for lime than for cement columns.
45
maximum shear strength with lime is usually 200 to 300 kPa. A much higher shear
strength can usually be obtained with lime/cement and cement than with lime. Sodium
and potassium sulphate have a tendency to reduce the shear strength due to the formation
of ettringite.
The increase of the shear strength is often large with lime for clays with a high salt
content as pointed out by Nishida et al (1996) and by Rajasekaran et al (1996b). The
liquid limit is reduced when the salt content is high (Rajasekaran and Rao, 1996a). The
chloride ions (Cl-ions) have a tendency to increase the concentration of calcium ions (Ca-
ions) and thus the pozzolanic reactions. The increase of the shear strength for silt has in
some cases been small (Eriksson and Carlsten, 1995) due to the low clay content.
The increase of the ground temperature with unslaked lime contributes also to the
increase of the shear strength. The initial increase of the shear strength is often slow with
lime compared with lime/cement and cement. The increase of the shear strength is often
insignificant the first week after the initial increase caused by the reduction of the water
content and the increase of the plastic limit. However, for quickclays the increase of the
shear strength can be large the first few months with lime and for soft marine clays when
the salt content is high.
Halkola (1983) and Bryhn et al (1983) have reported that the in-situ shear strength of
lime columns can be lower than the shear strength of laboratory samples. In a few cases
the in-situ shear strength has been only 10% of the laboratory values. In most cases the in-
situ shear strength has been equal to or larger than the shear strength as determined by
unconfined compression tests of laboratory samples when the shear strength has been less
than about 200 to 300 kPa. This is probably due to the high confining pressure in-situ and
the large increase of the ground temperature with lime.
It is preferable to stabilize clay and silty clay with quicklime when the water content
is less than about 90% to 100%, the required shear strength is less than 100 to 150 kPa
and the organic content of the soil is low. A 10 to 20-fold increase of the shear strength
can normally be expected (Carlsten and Ekström, 1995, 1997). The increase of the shear
strength with lime is often small for silt and for clayey silt due to the low clay content.
Ekström, (1994b) has reported a maximum shear strength of 85 kPa with lime (80 kg/m3)
compared with about 500 kPa with cement (115 kg/m3).
The main advantage with lime is the high permeability of the stabilized soil and that
lime columns function as drains in the soil. The ductility of the columns is high when the
shear strength is low, less than 100 to 150 kPa. Lime is not very effective in organic soils
or silty soils especially when the salt and the clay contents are low. The shear strength can
also be low when the sulphide content is high.
46
the wet method at the same cement content compared with the dry method due to the
difference in water content.
Lime/cement and cement had to be distributed evenly over the column cross-section
and be mixed thoroughly with the soft soil compared with lime. The increase of the shear
strength is often 3 to 10 times faster with cement or lime/cement the first one to three
months after the mixing compared with lime (Åhnberg et al, 1995a). Thereafter the
increase is relatively slow. The shear strength of samples prepared in the laboratory is
often higher than the shear strength of cores obtained in-situ. Rogbeck (1997) has
reported that laboratory tests often indicate a higher shear strength than the strength
determined by column penetration tests, KPS and FOPS.
Lime affects mainly the clay fraction through ion exchange and reduces the water
content, while cement affects mainly the silt and sand fractions in the soil. It is thus
expected that lime/cement and cement will be more effective than lime to stabilize silty or
sandy soils when the clay content is low and organic soils. Lime together with industrial
waste; have also been used to stabilize soils (Kamon and Nontananandh, 1991).
The largest increase of the shear strength with lime/cement is expected for clays with
a low sensitivity and a water content between 40% and 80%. The undrained shear
strength before stabilization should be less than 10 to 20 kPa. Organic clays with an
undrained shear strength as low as 5 kPa have been stabilized successfully with
lime/cement and cement.
Cement and lime/cement columns have also been used to stabilize organic soils with
a high plasticity index and a high water content. However, the high peak shear strength of
lime/cement and of cement columns cannot in many cases be utilized in design (Kivelö,
1997, 1998). Cement and lime/cement columns and the unstabilized soil between the
columns cannot be considered as a composite material, when the shear strength of the
stabilized soil exceeds 100 to 150 kPa, the diameter of the columns is large and the length
of the columns is short.
Babasaki et al (1996) have reported that organic and acidic soils with a low pH-value
have been difficult to improve when the water content exceeds 200% even at a cement
content as high as 30% with respect to the dry weight of the soil The unconfined
compressive strength is usually low when the ignition loss exceeds about 15%.
At a cement content of 500 kg/m3, a shear strength of about 500 kPa can usually be
obtained according to Åhnberg et al (1995a). An unconfined compression strength of 3.5
MPa has e.g. been reported by Pettersson and Ulvehed (1992) when the water content was
135%. The initial shear strength was low, 10 to 15 kPa.
Lime/cement had to be mixed thoroughly with the soil compared with lime to
obtain the anticipated shear strength. Lime/cement and cement columns are brittle and the
ductility is low when the shear strength is high. Even a small lateral displacement of the
columns could reduce the bearing capacity due to the low failure strain. Full interaction of
the columns with the unstabilized soil between the columns can only be assumed when
the shear strength of the stabilized soil is low, less than about 100 to 150 kPa.
Lime/cement and cement columns have the advantage that a sufficiently high shear
strength can usually be obtained to make the method economical compared with other
soil improvement methods. Lime/cement and cement are mainly effective in silt, silty
clays and clayey silt (Eriksson and Carlsten, 1995, 1997). The in-situ shear strength of
cement columns has been much lower than the shear strength of samples prepared in the
laboratory (Kujala and Lathinen, 1988). The difference has been attributed to poor mixing
of the lime and the cement with the soil in the field. Kukko and Ruhomäki (1985) have
investigated the increase the shear strength with cement at different water/cement ratios.
47
They found that the unconfined compressive strength increased with increasing content of
organic material and with increasing content of fines.
It has been difficult to test lime/cement and cement columns in-situ using column
penetrometers, KPS or FOPS, when the shear strength is high, higher than 300 to 600
kPa. The behavior of high-strength columns is often brittle and the reduction of the shear
resistance can be large when the peak strength is exceeded.
48
4.1.6. Stabilization of Peat.
Peat is common both in Sweden and Finland. About 8% of Sweden is covered by
peat. Peat is generally classified in Sweden with respect to the decomposition of the peat
according to a scale (H1 to H10) proposed by von Post. Fibrous peat (H1 to H4) has a
distinct plant structure compared with amorphous peat (H8 to H10), where the plant
structure is indistinct. Peat often occurs together with soft clay and gyttja.
A high cement content is required to stabilize peat as discussed by Axelsson et al
(1996). The shear strength increases in general with increasing cement content and with
decreasing water content of the soil. An undrained shear strength of 30 to 50 kPa can
usually be obtained after 14 days with 200 kg/m3 cement. An increase of the shear
strength has also been observed for peat when water was added during the mixing
(Axelsson et al, 1996).
Huttunen and Kujala (1996a) have reported a shear strength of 305 kPa after 180
days for a slightly decomposed peat (H2) at a cement content of 400 kg/m3. The water
content was high, 1265%. For decomposed peat of grade H3 a shear strength of 112 kPa
was obtained after 180 days at a cement content of 400 kg/m3 and a water content of
981%. The shear strength with cement has been observed to decrease with increasing
decomposition of the peat and with increasing content of humic acid and fines (Kujala et
al, 1996).
Kuno et al (1989) have reported that peat with a water content less than 300% can be
stabilized with cement irrespective of the humus content. Hoikkala et al (1996) found that
the shear strength of peat was about 105 kPa after 30 days with 300 kg/m3 cement and 35
to 75 kPa with 150 kg/m3 cement. The shear strength can often be increased further with
gypsum and cement. Often the peat had to be excavated and replaced by compacted
granular material.
The largest increase of the shear strength is generally obtained for peat and gyttja
with cement and granulated blast furnace slag. A substantial increase of the shear strength
can be obtained even when the clay content and the ion exchange capacity are low. The
increase of the shear strength is generally small and slow for organic soils when the
content of humus is high and the pH-value is low. The variation of the shear strength is
often less with cement and lime/cement than with lime. The increase of the shear strength
using fly ash and lime has been poor (Axelsson et al, 1996).
Fine sand and silt has also been used to increase the effectiveness of cement and of
cement and granulated blast furnace slag in peat and gyttja. At Kyrkslätt close to
Helsingfors in Finland a large increase of the shear strength of peat and gyttja was
observed with rapid hardening cement and sand. The shear strength with 275 kg/m3 rapid
hardening cement and 100 kg/m3 fine sand was over 600 kPa. Several commercial
products are available in Sweden and Finland, e.g. Finnstabi and Lohjamix for
stabilization of peat and gyttja.
49
Fig. 17. Mass Stabilisation of Peat Using Cement or Cement/Slag and Geo-Fabric
Mass stabilisation has been tried in Sweden and Finland at about 10 different
locations where peat has been mixed with 150 to 250 kg/m3 standard Portland cement or
with rapid hardening cement and granulated blast furnace slag (50%/50%) as discussed by
Rathmayer (1997) and by Axelsson et al (1996). The increase of the shear strength has
been much faster with rapid hardening cement than with standard Portland cement. Also
the long-term shear strength with rapid hardening cement is often higher than with
standard Portland cement at the same cement content. The increase of the shear strength
with lime or fly ash alone has been small.
A special mixing device has been developed to mix cement and other stabilizing
agents such as blast furnace slag and gypsum (Finnstabi) with peat. Cement or
cement/slag columns are used in Fig. 17 to stabilize the soft soil. The undrained shear
strength of the peat, which was only 5 to 10 kPa before stabilization, could be increased
to 40 to 150 kPa one month after the stabilization. The final shear strength was up to 40
times the initial shear strength for the clay and up to 20 times for the peat. The
permeability was reduced with cement from 10-5 a 10-6 m/s to 10-8 m/s. The initial water
content, which was high, 1250% to 1670%, was reduced to 50% to 200%. Cement
columns were used to stabilize the underlying soft clay. The settlement of the 2.5 m high
test embankment was small, 0.32 m to 0.45 m after stabilization.
50
Mass stabilization has also been tried on Highway 601 at Råneå close to Luleå in
northern Sweden. The shear strength of the stabilized peat was 40 to 185 kPa and the
settlements were 50 to 200 mm after six months. The construction cost was 2.2 MSEK
(2.2 Million Swedish Crowns) or 220 SEK/m3 (Hoikkala et al, 1997; Parkkinen, 1997).
Andersson et al (1997) have investigated the increase of the shear strength for peat at
different contents of stabilizer (150 kg/m3 and 250 kg/m3) and with different stabilizers
(cement, lime and blast furnace slag). The unconfined compressive strength with 250
kg/m3 standard Portland cement and with rapid hardening cement was 61 kPa and 127
kPa after 14 days, respectively and 111 kPa and 162 kPa after 28 days. With 50%
standard Portland cement and 50% unslaked lime or 50% granulated blast furnace slag
the unconfined compressive strength was 56 kPa and 124 kPa after 14 days and 106 kPa
and 154 kPa, respectively with 250 kg/m3 stabilizer after 28 days. The largest increase of
the unconfined compressive strength was with 50% rapid hardening cement and with 50%
blast furnace slag. The unconfined compressive strength was 146 kPa after 14 days and
162 kPa after 28 days.
where φu,col is the undrained angle of internal friction, cu,col is the undrained cohesion
and σf is the normal total pressure on the failure plane passing through the columns.
where msoil is the stress concentration factor for the unstabilized soil and qo is the
applied unit load from e.g.an embankment. It has been assumed conservatively that the
initial lateral total pressure σho is equal to the total overburden pressure σvo
The increase of the undrained shear strength caused by consolidation will contribute
to the bearing capacity. The increase is estimated to 5.4 kPa (0,27x0.2x5x20) at a c/p´-
ratio of 0.2 when 27% of the weight of a 5 m high embankment is transferred to the
unstabilized soil. The bearing capacity of the columns is increased by 81 kPa (5x5.4x3)
when the friction angle φ´col is 30 degrees.
where qu,col is the unconfined compressive strength of the columns at the ground surface,
σvo is the initial total overburden pressure, cu,clay is the undrained shear strength of the
unstabilized clay, msoil is the stress factor for the unstabilized soil and qo is the applied
unit load.
The net bearing capacity, when φu,col is equal to 30 degrees, σh < 100 to 150 kPa and
the unit weight of the columns corresponds to the unit weight of the unstabilised soil, is
equal to
The term 5 cu,clay is usually not considered since a relatively large lateral
displacement is required of the columns to mobilize the shear strength of the unstabilized
soil.
52
q´col = qcol – ucol = 3.46 c´col + 3 (σvo+ 5 cu,soil + msoil qo - ucol) (5.6)
where c´col is the effective cohesion of the columns, σvo is the initial total overburden
pressure, cu,soil is the undrained shear strength of the unstabilized soil and ucol is the pore
water pressure in the columns.
It is interesting to compare the ultimate bearing capacity with and without the term
15 cu,soil at a depth of 5 m below a 5.0 m high embankment (qo = 100 kPa and γfill = 20
kN/m3) as calculated by Eq.5.4. The stress increase in the unstabilized soil by the
embankment is estimated to 27 kPa (0.27x100) at msoil = 0.27 which corresponds to an
area ratio a = 0.3 and a modular ratio Ecol / Msoil of 10. The ultimate bearing capacity qcol
for lime columns at 5 m depth when σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m3, φ´col = 30o, c´col = 20
kPa, cu,soil = 15 kPa, ucol = 40 kPa is estimated to 535 kPa (3.47x20+40+3{5x16+ 5x15-
40+27}) when the term 15cu,soil is considered. The ultimate bearing capacity is reduced to
310 kPa when the term 15cu,soil is neglected. This term, 15cu,soil, has thus a large effect on
the ultimate bearing capacity of the columns.
The ultimate bearing capacity at qu,col = 200 kPa is 382 kPa (200+5x16+5x15+27)
from Eq. 5.5, when φu,col = 0. At qu,col = 500 kPa the bearing capacity increases to 682
kPa. The bearing capacity of the lime columns at φu,col = 30o will be at least 40% higher
than the bearing capacity of lime/cement and cement columns at 5 m depth at φu,col = 0o
and an unconfined compressive strength of 200 kPa. At qu,col = 500 kPa and φu,col = 0o the
bearing capacity of lime/cement and cement columns is 27% higher than the bearing
capacity of lime columns. The hydraulic lag has thus a large influence on the bearing
capacity of the columns.
where Kp = (1 + sin φ´col)/(1 - sin φ´col). At σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m3, c´col = 0 kPa,
cu,soil = 15 kPa, φ´col = 30 degrees, ucol = 40 kPa the bearing capacity is reduced to 466 kPa
(3x80+3x5x15+3x27-3x40+40). The reduction, 69 kPa (535-466), of the bearing capacity
is relatively small.
The bearing capacity of a weak section at cu,col, red when φu,col,red = 0 can be estimated
by the following equation
where cu,col, red is the reduced undrained shear strength of the weak section. At e.g. cu,col,
3
red = 20 kPa, σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m , c´col = 0 kPa, cu,soil = 15 kPa and msoil qo = 27
kPa then qcol = 222 kPa (2x20+5x16+5x15+27). It can be seen from Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8)
that the reduction of the bearing capacity by a weak section is much larger for
lime/cement and cement columns than for lime columns due to the low permeability with
cement.
5.1.5. Residual Bearing Capacity
The residual bearing capacity of lime/cement and cement columns at c´col,res = 0 can
be calculated from
53
qcol,res = Kp σ´h = Kp (σvo + 5 cu, soil + msoil qo - ucol) + ucol (5.9)
where Kp = (1 + sin φ´col) / (1 – sin φ´col), σ´h is the effective confining pressure and
ucol is the pore water pressure. It is thus assumed that the residual bearing capacity of the
columns corresponds to the peak bearing capacity. At e.g. σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m3,
cu,soil = 15 kPa and msoil qo = 27 kPa then qcol,res = 446 kPa (3x80+3x75+3x27+40-
3x50+50).
The residual bearing capacity of lime columns at cu,col,res = 0 and φ´col,res = 30 degrees
can be estimated by the following equation
At σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m3, c´col = 0 kPa, cu,soil = 15 kPa, ucol = 50 kPa and
qu,res = 40 kPa then the residual bearing capacity of the columns qcol,res is equal to 446kPa
(3x5x16+3x5x15+3x27-3x50+50) compared with 382 kPa at qu,col = 200 kPa. The
reduction, 224 kPa (446-222), can thus be large.
when the effective cohesion c´col in Eq. (5.11) is reduced by 20% due to creep. For
lime/cement columns the creep strength qcol,creep is equal to
.
qcol,creep = 0.8 qu,col + σvo + 5 cu,clay + msoil qo (5.12)
The creep strength qcol,res for lime columns is 521 kPa (2.77x20+40+3{5x16x5x15-
40+27}) at 5 m depth as calculated by Eq. (5.12) when σvo = 80 kPa, γsoil = 18 kN/m3 ,
c´col = 20 kPa, cu,soil = 15 kPa and ucol = 40 kPa. The creep strength of lime/cement and
of cement columns is estimated to 342 kPa (0.8x200+5x16+5x15+27) by Eq. (5.12) at qu,
col = 200 kPa. The creep strength increases to 642 kPa at qu,col = 500 kPa.
54
Fig. 19. Assumed Slip Surfaces
in a total stress analysis using the total shear strength parameters φu,soil, cu,soil, φu,col, and
cu,col, has been assumed to extend from the embankment to the bottom of the column row
at the edge of the embankment. The horizontal slip surface in the shear zone may pass
through the remoulded clay below the column row, where the shear strength of the soil
has been reduced during the installation of the columns. The length of the slip surface in
55
the shear zone corresponds to the depth of the slip surface below the ground surface or to
the width of the embankment. In the passive zone, which is also inclined 45 degrees, the
assumed slip surface passes through the unstabilized soil from the bottom of the column
row up to the ground surface.
It is possible to determine the failure modes for both single columns and for column
rows in the different zones. The bearing capacity of the unstabilized soil with respect to
the assumed failure surface is 5 cu,soil at an undrained analysis. This bearing capacity is
about 3% lower than the calculated bearing capacity for a circular failure surface, 5.14
cu,soil when the shear resistance between the different zones is neglected.
The inclination of the slip surface in the active zone is assumed to (45o + 0.5 φ´soil) in
an effective stress analysis when the effective shear strength parameters φ´soil, c´soil, φ´col
and c´col are used. The slip surface is horizontal in the shear zone and (45o - 0.5 φ´soil) in
the passive zone. The length b of the slip surface in the shear zone corresponds to the
depth of the slip surface below the ground surface or to the length of the sloping part of
the embankment which is 2H where H is the height of an embankment when the slope is
1V:2H..
The main function of the single columns in the active zone is to transfer the weight of
the embankment through the assumed slip surface. The failure modes for the columns
located in the active zone is shown in Fig. 20. The stabilizing effect of the columns
depends mainly on the axial load in the columns at the location of the slip surface and less
on the transverse shear resistance Tcol of the columns. The stabilizing effect of lime,
lime/cement and cement columns is thus different from that of embankment piles where
the total weight of the embankment had to be carried by the embankment piles. The axial
load and the efficiency of the columns are affected by the load transferred to and from the
columns by end bearing top and bottom of the columns as expressed by the stress factor
mo,col of the columns and by shaft resistance above the assumed slip surface. The column
loads are also affected by the shaft resistance below the slip surface and by the point
resistance at the bottom of the columns. The maximum column load is governed by the
creep strength of the columns as discussed in the following. The shear resistance will be
low if the axial column load is low or when the axial load corresponds to the creep
strength of the columns since the moment resistance of the columns will be small in that
case.
56
Fig. 20. Failure Modes for Single Columns in the Active Zone
The shear resistance of single columns will be low due to the low moment capacity
of the columns. Single columns should therefore be used only in the active zone below
the center of an embankment where the axial load in the columns will be high. The lateral
displacement of the columns will be small in that case. Single columns should not be used
in the shear or in the passive zones due to the low lateral resistance of the columns and
the low efficiency of the columns. The stabilizing effect of the columns in the active zone
is two to three times higher than for the columns located in the shear or in the passive
zones.
57
with increasing diameter of the columns.
When the dry crust is thin or is poorly developed the average shear strength and the
average shaft resistance could be as low as 10 kPa close to the ground surface. The
transfer length is then increased to 10d or 6 m for a 0.6 m diameter column. This could be
the case when the disturbed soil around the columns has not been excavated and replaced.
A transfer length of 3.2 m, which corresponds to 5.3d for a column with 0.6 m diameter,
has been reported by Holm et al (1983b).
58
The transfer length will decrease with time as the shear strength of the unstabilized
soil is increased due to consolidation. However, the time required for the consolidation
can be large for lime/cement and for cement columns due to the low permeability of the
columns. The time required for 90% consolidation is estimated to about 10 months for a
1.0 thick surface layer at cv = 1 m2/year.
The axial load in the columns had to be transferred from the columns to the soil
below the columns. The transfer length can be large for floating columns. It should be
noted that the shear strength of the remoulded soil below the columns is reduced during
the installation of the columns.
The undrained shear strength for a normally consolidated clay (OCR = 1.0) increases
with increasing effective overburden pressure. The shear strength at e.g. a depth of 10 m
is estimated to 16 kPa at cu/ pv´ = 0.22. The transfer length is estimated to 3.2 m (4d) for a
0.8 m diameter column at an axial load of 200 kN (400 kPa). At an axial load of 100 kN
(200 kPa) the transfer length is 1.6 m (2d).
The load transfer and the stress distribution between single lime and lime/cement
columns and the surrounding untreated soft clay has been investigated for long term
conditions by Liedberg et al (1996a, 1996b) using the finite element program PLAXIS
and an effective stress analysis. Also Bengtsson and Holm (1984) used FEM to
investigate the stress distribution. The reduction of the settlements at full interaction was
55% and 35% when the spacing of the columns was 1.0 and 1.5 m, respectively at an
undrained shear strength of the stabilized soil of 70 kPa.
The load distribution between the columns and the unstabilised soil depends on the
load transferred to the columns from e.g. an embankment by end bearing and by shaft
resistance and on the stiffness of the columns and of the unstabilized soil. Also weak
layers or patches in the columns also affect the load distribution.
59
columns through end bearing (Fig. 22). The end bearing at the bottom of the columns can
be low due to the remoulding of the soil below the columns during the installation.
The main function of the columns is to transfer the load (Qs,a + Qp,a) across the
failure surface when the point resistance at the bottom of the columns is high. For floating
columns the shaft resistance Qs,c and the point resistance at the bottom of the columns
Qp,b below the failure surface will govern due to the low point resistance. Then a load,
which corresponds to (Qs,b + Qp,b), will be transferred across the failure surface.
The stabilizing effect of the columns located in the active zone corresponds to the
axial load in the columns above the assumed failure surface. It should be noted that the
axial column load (Qp,a + Qs,a) at the location of the slip surface corresponds to the sum
of the load transferred to the column by end bearing at the top of the columns Qp,a and by
shaft resistance Qs,a above the assumed failure surface as shown in Fig. 23. For floating
columns the sum of the point and the shaft resistances below the assumed failure surface
is (Qp,b + Qs,b).
The columns will reduce the load from the embankment, which is carried by the
unstabilized soil between the columns. The load carried by the column corresponds to the
smallest of the two loads (Qp,a + Qs,a) and (Qp,b + Qs,b). The maximum long term bearing
60
capacity of the columns is governed by the creep strength of the columns, Qcol,creep (Fig.
23), which is
61
The axial load in the columns, which are located in the shear or in the passive zones,
will be low as well as the shear resistance of the columns. The contribution of the
unstabilized soil between the columns is small since the relative vertical displacement of
the unstabilized soil is small. The effectiveness of the columns in the shear zone can be
increased by a berm placed at the toe of the embankment. It is also important to reduce
the lateral displacement of the columns in the shear zone with geofabric or geo-anchors.
Then the columns will carry only part of the embankment. The remaining part and e.g.
traffic loads had to be resisted by the unstabilized soil between the columns.
62
for the columns which have been installed by the wet method when cement slurry was
used compared with the dry method. The lateral displacements increased with increasing
number of columns as could be expected. At the dry method the maximum lateral
displacement was about 40 mm at the ground surface 3 m from the columns. The
diameter of the cement columns was 1.0 m and the length was 27.3 m. The area ratio was
0.785 for the column rows and thus relatively high. The lateral displacements were
negligible at a distance of 1.5L from the columns where L is the column length. At the
wet method the maximum displacement was 400 mm when a third row of columns was
installed.
It has been possible to reduce the lateral displacements by 50% by a 4 m deep trench
next to the columns and by 4 m deep 0.45 m diameter air recovery holes spaced 1.5 m
apart (Uchiyama, 1996). The air recovery holes were filled with crushed stones with a
perforated PVC pipe at the center. Also 0.6 m diameter deformation absorption holes
filled with bentonite slurry have been used to reduce the lateral displacements (Ito et al,
1996).
63
The different failure modes for single columns depend on the location of the failure
plane as shown in Fig. 25. For a shallow failure or slip surface the displaced soft flows
past the rigid columns as illustrated in Fig. 25a. The moment capacity of the columns is
sufficient in this case to resist the mobilized lateral earth pressure. The lateral resistance
of the soft soil depends on the relative displacement of the soil with respect to the
columns. Only a very small displacement, a few mm, is required to mobilize the shear
strength along the two sides of the columns. A relatively large relative displacement,
0.05d to 0.10d, is required to mobilize the maximum shear resistance of the soft soil, 9 cu
to 11 cu.
The failure mode when the depth of the failure plane is increased is shown in Fig.
20b. This failure mode occurs when one plastic hinge develops at the location of the
maximum bending moment in the column. The moment resistance of the column, which
depends on the axial load in the column, has been exceeded in this case. This failure
mode is caused by excessive lateral displacement of the columns at the ground surface.
The failure modes of the columns, when two plastic hinges develop at the location of
the maximum bending moments in the columns, are shown in Figs, 25c, 25d and 25e. The
columns will fail when the maximum moments in the column exceeds the moment
capacity of the column section. The failure mode for a column which extends into a firm
layer is shown in Fig. 25f. This failure mode occurs when the slip surface is located close
to the bottom of the column. In Fig. 25g is shown the failure mode for a column, where
the slip surface is located close to the bottom of the column. The column moves in this
case through the soft soil as a rigid member. The shear resistance depends on the
mobilized shear resistance of the soil. It should be noted that the shear resistance of the
column is the same as that for the column in Fig. 25a. The failure mode when the shear
strength of the column section governs is shown in Fig. 25h. The shear resistance is in
this case governed by the shear resistance of the stabilised soil. A compression failure of
the column is illustrated in Fig. 25i. The bearing capacity of the failed section is governed
by the shear resistance of the stabilized soil as well as by the shear strength of the
64
unstabilized soil around the columns, the depth below the ground surface and by the load
transferred to the unstabilized soil. The columns located in the passive zone, as shown in
Fig. 25j, is governed by the tensile strength of the columns, which is low.
5.1.14. Failure of Cantilever Single Columns
It has been observed by Miyake et al (1991a, 1991b) that cement columns, which
were located at the toe of an embankment failed by bending. Also Kitazume et al (1996b)
have reported that the cement columns failed by bending at the centrifuge tests as shown
in Fig. 24.
The moment resistance of a laterally displaced column, when the effective cross-
section of a column with a square cross-section has been reduced from B2 to ηB2 is 0.5 η
B2 (1 - η) qu, col and the tensile strength of the stabilized soil is neglected. The internal
moment arm is 0.5 B (1 - η) as shown in Fig. 26. The effective height of the compression
block of the column cross-section is ηB. It is also assumed, that the axial stress at failure
qu,col of the column is constant over the cross-section (ηB2). The difference in moment
capacity is small if the side B of the equivalent square cross-section is assumed to 0.95d
where d is the diameter of the columns.
The depth where the maximum moment occurs in the column is 2f as shown in Fig.
26. The distance f can be evaluated by the following equation
where 0.5 Qcol B (1 -η) is the moment capacity of the columns Mcol.
At Qcol = η B2 qu,col and cu,soil /qu,col = α then
The lateral earth pressure on the columns caused by the displaced soil is k1cu,soil B.
The coefficient k1 is equal to 9 to 11, when the shear strength of the soft soil around a
single column is fully mobilized and the relative displacement of the soft soil with respect
to the column is relatively large, 0.10B to 0.15B. Only a small relative displacement, a
fem mm, is required to mobilize the shear resistance, 2cu,soilB, on both sides of the
columns. The lateral earth pressure has been assumed to be uniformly distributed along
the columns.
65
Fig. 26. Lateral Displacement of Single Column
Failure Mode b
When the difference of the axial strain on both sides of the column decreases from εf
at the location of the plastic hinge to zero at a distance equal to βηB from the hinge, the
angular rotation of the column is βεf and thus independent of the size of the column. The
lateral displacement at the top of the column is 2f β εf, when the plastic hinge is located
2f below the top of the column.
The lateral displacement is only 22.1 mm which is required to fail a 0.6 x 0.6 m
lime/cement or cement column (d = 0.6 m), when the axial load is 25% of the unconfined
compressive strength (η = 0.25), the axial strain at failure is 1% (εf = 0.01), α = cu, soil /qu, col
= 1/20 and k1 = 2.0 (α k1 = 0.1). The lateral displacement of a 0.8x0.8 m column is 29.5 mm.
The lateral displacement at failure is thus expected to decrease with increasing diameter of the
columns.
It is likely that the failure strain in-situ for a column will be larger than the failure
strain at unconfined compression tests. It is expected that the failure will increase with
increasing depth below the ground surface and with increasing confining pressure. If e.g.
the failure strain for a laterally loaded column is three times the failure strain at
unconfined compression tests then the estimated lateral displacement at failure of the
column is increased from 22.1 mm to 58.7 mm at εf = 0.03, η = 0.25, α k1 = 0.1, d = 0.6
m as shown in Fig. 27. The lateral displacement is increased 170%, which is somewhat
less than the increase of the failure strain. The analysis shows that the maximum shear
strength of the soft soil around the columns is not fully mobilized at failure due to the
small lateral displacement of the columns at failure.
66
Fig. 27. Lateral Displacement at Failure
(Failure Mode b)
A relatively large lateral displacement is required to fail a lime column due to the
high failure strain. The lateral displacement, when the axial column load corresponds to
25% of the unconfined compressive strength, is estimated to 106.8 mm at qu,col = 200 kPa,
cu,soil = 10 kPa, k1 = 5, B = 0.6 m and εf = 0.1 (10%).
Large horizontal displacements, up to 400 to 500 mm, have been reported by Hirai et
al (1996) next to an excavation. The displacements extended about 0.8L from the cement
columns to stabilize the soil, where L is the length of the columns. It was estimated by
Hirai et al (1996) that the lateral displacements was reduced by 65% to 85% by removing
the soil above the mixing unit during the installation of the columns.
Lateral displacements have also been observed by Kakihara et al (1996) for cement
columns. The lateral displacements were found to be large for the columns, which had
been manufactured by the wet method. At the dry method the maximum lateral
displacement was about 40 mm at the ground surface 3 m from the columns. The lateral
displacements were negligible at a distance of 1.5L. The diameter of the cement columns
was 1.0 m and the length was 27.3 m. The area ratio was 0.785.
where Mcol is the moment resistance of the column, k1 is a factor, which depends on the
mobilized shear strength, cu,soil is the undrained shear strength of the unstabilized soil and
d is the diameter of the columns (Fig. 28).
The dowel force calculated by Eq. 5.15 is governed by the moment capacity and thus
by the axial load in the columns since the tensile strength of the stabilized soil is low. The
moment capacity of the columns will be small as well as the dowel force Tcol when the
67
axial load in the columns approaches the ultimate or the creep strength of the columns,
B2qu, col or B2qu, creep.
The effect of a lateral load on the bearing capacity of a column with a square cross-
section has been analyzed in Fig.28. The lateral displacement δf at failure is equal to 2εf f
where f is the distance to the point in the column where the moment is equal to zero. The
length f can be estimated by the following equation
At Qcol = 0.25 qu,col B2, k1 = 5, cu,soil = 10 kPa, qu,col = 200 kPa and εf = 0.1 then f /
B = 0.920. The lateral displacement of the column is in this case 124.0 mm. For
lime/cement and cement columns the lateral displacement of the columns is reduced to
14.6 mm at k1 = 2.0 and εf = 0.01 (1%) as shown in Fig, 29. The lateral displacement of
lime/cement and cement columns is thus small at failure compared with lime columns.
68
Fig. 29. Lateral Displacement of a Single Column at Failure by Dowel Action
The shear resistance Tcol is equal to 33.5% and 24.4%, respectively of the shear
resistance of the column cross-section B2 cu,col . The shear resistance of the columns will
in this case be less than 35% of the estimated shear resistance of the column cross-section
when the stabilized soil is considered as a composite material with an average shear
resistance equal to the weighted average shear strength of the stabilized soil. The shear
resistance Tcol of the columns will be lower than B2 cu,col when the unconfined
compressive strength of the columns is only slightly larger than the shear strength of the
unstabilized soil around the columns.
The axial column strength qu,col has a large effect on the shear resistance of the
columns. The coefficient k1 affects the shear resistance as well as the shear strength of the
soil around the columns. However, the lateral resistance is reduced by even a small lateral
deflection of the columns, when the axial load on the columns is high. The lateral
resistance is negligible when the axial load corresponds to the creep strength of the
columns. The lateral resistance of the columns can thus be neglected in the design of
lime, lime/cement and cement columns when the axial bearing capacity is fully utilized
.
5.1.16. Shear Resistance of Laterally Displaced Point Bearing Single Columns
The shear resistance of point bearing columns is estimated below when one plastic
hinge develops in the columns at the level of the maximum bending moment. The
distance f can be estimated by the following equation
69
(f / B)2 + 2 (f / B) ηβ εf / k1 α = η (1 − η)/ k1 α (5.19)
Eqs. 5.18 and 5.19 are the same as Eqs. 5.13 and 5.14.
The shear resistance of lime columns is 33.5% of the shear resistance of the column
section cu,col B2 at e.g. Qcol = 0.25 qu, col B2, k1 = 5, cu, soil = 10, qu, col = 200 kPa and εf =
0.1 as shown in Fig. 31. The corresponding lateral deflection of a 0.6 m diameter lime
column is 124.0 mm.
The lateral resistance of a lime/cement or a cement column is reduced to 24.4% at
Qcol = 0.25 qu, col B2, η = 0.25, k1 = 2, α = 0.1, cu, soil = 10 kPa, qu, col = 200 kPa and εf
= 0.01. The lateral displacement at failure of the column is 22.1 mm.
70
Fig. 31. Shear Resistance of a Point Bearing Column, Failure Mode f.
71
Fig. 32. Effect of Horizontal Weak Layers
72
5.2. Progressive Failure of Single Columns
5.2.1. Progressive Failure of Lime and Lime/Cement Columns
There is a risk that the bearing capacity of lime, lime/cement and cement columns can be
reduced by progressive failure when the shear strength of the columns is high and the ductility
is low. Test results indicate that the ductility of the columns decreases with increasing shear
strength. Unconfined compression tests by e.g. Åhnberg et al (1995) have shown that the
failure strain could be as low as 1% to 2% when the unconfined compressive strength is larger
than 200 to 300 kPa. For high strength cement columns the failure strain can be as low as
0.1%.
The estimated bearing capacity of the columns with an unconfined compressive
strength of 300 kPa is 614 kPa when the shear strength of the unstabilised soil just below
a 1.0 m thick crust is 20 kPa instead of 10 kPa. When the unconfined compressive
strength of the weak section of a column is reduced to 40 kPa (2x20) the bearing capacity
of the section is estimated to 158 kPa (40+5x20+18). The reduction is about 75%. The
required transfer length is in this case 2d or 1.2 m for a 0.6 m diameter column.
A stress redistribution will occur next to a weak section, when the axial load is
reduced as discussed by Liedberg (1996a, 1996b). The reduction depends mainly on the
overburden pressure. The transfer length is reduced from 3d to d, when the shear strength
of the unstabilized soil is 20 kPa instead of 10 kPa.
An attempt is made in the following to estimate the possible reduction of the ultimate
bearing capacity of the columns due to progressive failure based on several simplified
assumptions with respect to the stress-strain properties of the stabilized soil in the columns and
of the unstabilized soil between the columns.
In Fig. 34 is shown the failure of an embankment where the underlying soft soil has been
stabilized by lime, lime/cement or cement columns. The embankment is assumed to fail along
a cylindrical slip or failure surface. The center of rotation is located above the mid-point of the
sloping side of the embankment. The failure load is 5.5 τfu, where τfu is the average undrained
shear strength of the soft soil. The angle θm at the center of the circular slip surface is equal to
134 degrees, when the shear strength of the soft soil is constant with depth. The radius R is
governed by either the depth of the soft clay H when the depth is small or by the width B of
the embankment.
The settlements just below the embankment will increase as the soil rotates around the
center of the rotation. The settlement of the embankment is zero just below the center of
rotation. The maximum displacement sfθm occurs below the embankment at the location of the
slip surface as shown in Fig. 34.
73
Fig. 34. Progressive Failure of Columns
The following analysis indicates that Column 4 will be subjected to the largest lateral
displacement and that the lateral displacements of the adjacent columns decrease rapidly with
increasing distance from Column 4. Columns 4, 3 and 2 will fail as shown, when two plastic
hinges develop in the columns at the location of the maximum bending moments. The bearing
capacity of the columns is reduced as the lateral displacement of the columns is increased.
Columns -1, -2, and -3 fail in tension if the initial axial load in these columns is small
since the soil around the columns is displaced mainly upward. Thereby the axial load is
reduced in these columns. However, a berm will increase the axial load. Thereby the tension in
the columns is reduced. The columns fail when one or two plastic hinges develop due to the
lateral displacement of the columns caused by the embankment.
The lateral displacement of the columns has been analyzed in Fig. 35. The figure shows
that the lateral displacement of the soft soil will vary along the assumed slip surface due to the
axial compression of the soft soil. The displacement will decrease along the slip surface from
sfθm at the central angle θm just below the embankment where the applied load is qf / sin θm /2
to sfθ at the angle θ at the location of Column 2. The maximum unit load is qf below the
embankment in the direction of the displacement. The displacement sfθ will be less than sfθm
due to the compression of the soft soil between Column 5 and Column 2. The horizontal
displacement of the soil, which affects Column 2, is sfθ cos (θ − θ m /2).
74
Fig. 35. Lateral Displacement of Column
The lateral displacement of Column 2 is sufficiently large to develop two plastic hinges.
As a result the bearing capacity of the column is reduced when the column is displaced
laterally. The bearing capacity is e.g. reduced by 50% when the lateral displacement (2δh) is
35.6 mm at a failure strain of 1% for a 0.6x0.6 m column. The bearing capacity is reduced by
50% when the axial displacement is 162.4 mm when the failure strain is 10%. The failure
strain has thus a large influence on the reduction of the bearing capacity of the columns with
increasing lateral displacement.
75
It has been assumed that the shear stress caused by the applied load corresponds to the
shear strength τfu and that the elastic displacement, which is required to mobilize the shear
strength of the soft soil can be neglected.
At the applied load q which is less than the failure load qf, the stress increase qθ at
Column 3 can be calculated as shown in Fig. 36 by the following equation
The displacement just below the embankment sfθm can be estimated from the following
equation assuming an average modulus of elasticity of E50
However q /qf = 1 / Fs
The horizontal component 2δh of the displacement sθ is of interest since this component
affects the bearing capacity of the columns
Then
2δh / sfθm = (1/ Fs - 1 + θ / θm)2 cos ( θ − θm / 2) (5.28)
The horizontal displacements have been calculated in Fig. 37 for nine locations of the
columns (-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) which corresponds to the following values on the angle θ =
33.5 o, 45.4 o, 56.4 o, 67 o, 77.6 o, 88.6 o, 100.5 o, 114.4 o and 134 o. It can be seen that 2δh /sfθm
varies along the slip surface. The largest horizontal displacement occurs at Column 4. It
should be noted that the displacements decrease rapidly with increasing distance from Column
4. It can also be seen that the horizontal displacements decreases rapidly with increasing
factor of safety. At Fs = 1.5 the maximum displacement of Column 4 is less than half the
displacement at Fs = 1.0
The displacement at failure sfθm can be estimated by the following equation when the
shear strength is fully mobilized along the assumed slip surface
since qf is the applied load in the direction of the displacement sfθm. Then from Eqs. 5.29 and
5.30
The radius R is governed by the width B of the embankment when the shear strength τfu
is constant with depth or by the depth H of the soft soil. When the width B governs then
R = 1.09 B (5.32.)
77
The radius R is related to the depth H of the soft soil by the following relationship
H = 0.609 R (5.33)
In the case H = 6 m then R = 10.46 m. From Equ 5.31 and τfu / E50 = 1 /100 the maximum
displacement sfθm is estimated to 0.105 m.
The horizontal displacement along the slip surface is shown in Fig. 38 for this case. From
the scale at the far left of the figure it can be seen that the displacement of Column 4 is 0.0517
m or 51.7 mm at failure of the embankment. This lateral displacement is sufficient to fail
78
a 0.6x0.6 m column at a failure strain εf = 1%. The lateral displacement is increased to 248
mm when the failure strain is 10%.
The failure of a road embankment located on the Island of Orust /Road 178) about 80 km
north of Gothenburg in the south-western part of Sweden, which was supported by
lime/cement columns has been analyzed assuming that the failure was progressive. The failure
occurred during the final stage of the construction when the height was about 6 m (Jacklin and
Larsson, 1994). The observed maximum settlement exceeded 1.0 m. The unit weight of the
rock waste, which was used for the construction of the embankment, was 20 kN/m3.
The soil below the embankment consisted of a 1 m thick crust, of 7 to 20 m of soft marine
clay and of bedrock. There was a thin sand layer below the soft clay. The undrained shear
strength as determined by fall-cone tests and by field vane tests, was 12 kPa just below the stiff
crust and about 20 kPa at 15 m depth. The water content, which varied between 80% and
100% was close to the liquid limit, 60 to 100. The sensitivity was 15 to 30. The ground water
table was located close to the ground surface. An average shear strength of 14 kPa has been
used in the following analysis of the stability of the failed embankment.
The 0.6 m diameter lime/cement columns were installed in a square pattern at a spacing
of 1.0 m and 1.8 m. The columns extended into a sand layer below the soft clay or the
columns were terminated at a depth of 15 m. The lime/cement content was 92 kg/m3 (50/50).
The unconfined compressive strength of the stabilized soil in the columns increased from
79
about 800 kPa close to the ground surface to about 2,000 kPa at 8 m depth (Jacklin and
Larsson, 1994). The variation of the unconfined compressive strength of the columns was thus
large. The average unconfined compressive strength of cores obtained in-situ from the
lime/cement columns was 1600 kPa. This average value on the unconfined compressive
strength was used
in the following analysis. The factor of safety of the unstabilised embankment without
lime/cement columns was 0.64 (5.5x14/120).
In Figs. 39 and 40 are shown the calculated lateral displacement of the columns located
below the embankment at two different values on the τfu / E50-ratio, 1/ 100 and 1/200. The
80
failure surface has been assumed to extend down to a maximum depth of 7 to 8 m below the
ground surface.
The calculated maximum settlement just below the embankment is 1.42 m and 0.71 m as
shown. The lateral displacements have been calculated for different factors of safety for the
soft marine clay, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0. It can be seen from Figs. 39 and 40 that the lateral
displacements decreased rapidly along the assumed slip surface with increasing distance from
the embankment. At Fs = 2.0 for the soft marine clay the calculated lateral displacement
outside the embankment was negligible. The coefficient k1, which governs the lateral pressure
on the columns, has been assumed to 2.0. A value on α = 1/100 (qu,col /cu,soil = 1600/16) has
been used in the calculation of the column loads. A relatively high value has been used on the
unconfined compressive strength of the columns, 1600 kPa. A relatively long transfer length
will be required if the column load is transferred to the columns by the shaft resistance alone.
At a shaft resistance of 14 kPa the required transfer length is 28d (1600/4x14) or 17.1 m for
the columns with 0.6 m diameter.
81
The bearing capacity of the columns has been calculated for different failure strains, 1%,
2% and 5%, as the columns are displaced laterally. It can be seen that the bearing capacity of
the columns decreases rapidly as the columns are displaced laterally.
The relative bearing capacity of the columns is estimated to 0.532 (0.90, 0.79, 0.64, 0.32,
0.0) at Fs = 1.5 for the soft marine clay and a failure strain εf = 5%. The contribution of the
columns to the bearing capacity of the embankment is 58.8 kPa (0.532x1600x0.28x0.8/1.82) at
a spacing of the columns of 1.8 m. The contribution of the soft marine clay is 51.3 kPa
(5.5x14/1.5). The total bearing capacity is 110.1 kPa (58.8 + 51.3), which corresponds to a
factor of safety of 0.919 (110.1/120).
The factor of safety has been estimated in Fig. 40 at a τfu/E50-ratio of 1/200. The
corresponding maximum settlement of the embankment is 0.71 m as shown. The relative
contribution of the columns to the bearing capacity of the columns has been estimated to 0.896
(1.0, 0.98, 0.94, 0.84, 0.72) at a factor of safety Fs = 2.0 for the soft marine clay and a failure
strain εf = 1%. The contribution of the columns to the bearing capacity of the embankment is
99.1 kPa (0.896x1600x0.28x0.8/1.82) at a spacing of the columns of 1.8 m. The contribution
of the soft marine clay at Fs = 2.0 is 38.5 kPa (5.5x14/2.0). The estimated total bearing
capacity is 137.6 kPa (99.1 + 38.5), which corresponds to a global factor of safety of 1.15
(137.6/120).
The contribution of the columns at a failure strain of 5% and Fs = 1.2 for the soft marine
clay is 0.646 (0.87, 0.76, 0.62, 0.52, 0.46). The corresponding contribution of the columns is
64.2 kPa (5.5x14 / 1.2) at Fs = 1.2. The estimated total bearing capacity is thus 135.7 kPa (71.4
+ 64.2), which corresponds to a global factor of safety of 1.13.
τfu / E50 Failure strain Soft marine clay Column load Global factor of safety
εf , % Fs1 Qcol/B2qu,col Fs2
82
The soil consisted at the site from the ground surface of a 1 m thick surface crust, 3
m of organic silty clay, 4 to 5 m of soft clay and of dense sand at a depth of 7 to 9 m.
Half of the embankment was stabilized by 0.6 m diameter lime/cement columns while 0.8
m diameter lime/cement columns were used for the remaining half of the embankment.
The water content of the organic silty clay was 110% to 160% and 60% to 90% for the
underlying soft clay. The ground water table was located about 1 m below the ground
surface.
Singular columns were installed below the center of the embankment while column
rows were used below the sloping sides and outside the embankment. The spacing of the
single 0.6 and 0.8 m diameter columns was 1.1 m and 1.4 m, respectively. The
lime/cement content was 100 kg/m2.
The undrained shear strength of the columns as determined by triaxial and by direct
shear tests was 300 to 800 kPa (Ryding and Björkman, 1996). The variation of the shear
strength was thus large. The modulus of elasticity as determined by triaxial tests was 100
to 150 MPa. A geogrid was used to reduce the lateral displacement of the embankment
where 0.8 m diameter columns were used. The applied unit load by the embankment was
estimated to 152 kPa.
The total width of the embankment was 19 m. The width at the crest was 5 m, which
corresponds to an effective width of the embankment of 12 m. Since the depth of the soft
soil was 7 to 9 m the estimated radius of the most critical slip surface was 13.1 m
(8.0/0.610). The maximum settlement was estimated to 0.774 m
(2πxx5.06x134/360x1/100) at a τfu/E50 -ratio of 1/100. The relative displacement along
the assumed slip surface is shown in Fig. 41 for different values on the factor of safety Fs
for the soft soil, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5 and 2.0.
The relative column load at εf = 0.5%, k1 = 5, α = 1/110 (10/1100) and Fs = 2.0 is
estimated to 0.669 (0.99, 0.97, 0.88, 0.5, 0.0). The load carried by the columns at qu,col =
1100 kPa is 136.0 kPa (0.669x1100x0.28x0.8/1.12). The load carried by the unstabilized
soil between the columns is 27.5 kPa (10x5.5/2.0). The total bearing capacity of the
columns and of the unstabilised soil is 163.5 kPa (136.0+27.5), which corresponds to a
global factor of safety of 1.07.
The average column load is estimated to 0.928 (0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.88, 0.82) at εf = 1%,
k1 = 5, α = 1/110. The load carried by the columns is 189.0 kPa
(0.928x1100x0.28x0.8/1.12). The load carried by the unstabilized soil is 27.5 kPa
(10x5.5/2.0) at Fs = 2.0. The total bearing capacity is 216.5 kPa (189.0 + 27.5), which
corresponds to a global factor of safety of 1.42 (216.5/152). At εf = 2.5%, k1 = 5, α
=1/110 the average column load is 0.884 (0.97, 0.94, 0.89, 0.84, 0.80). The load carried
by the columns is 180.0 kPa (0.884x1100.0.28x0.8/1.12). The load carried by the
unstabilised soil is 36.7 kPa (10x5.5/1.5) at Fs = 1.5. The total bearing capacity is this
216.7 kPa, which corresponds to a global factor of safety of 1.43 (216.7 / 152).
The calculated factor of safety taking into account the reduction of the bearing
capacity caused by progressive failure is 1.07, 1.42 and 1.43 at a failure strain of 0.5%,
1% and 2.5%, respectively. It was reported that the failure strain as determined by triaxial
tests was 1% to 1.5% and that the columns were relatively brittle. It is thus likely that the
failure strain of the columns has been about 1% and that the failure of the columns has
been affected by progressive failure.
0.8 m diameter lime/cement columns spaced 1.4 m apart stabilized half of the
embankment. Due to the large diameter, the displacement of the columns is increased by
33%. The average column load at εf = 0.5%, k1 = 5, α = 1/110 is estimated to 0.810
(0.99, 0.98, 0.88, 0.70, 0.50). The load carried by the columns is thus 181.8 kPa
(0.810x1100x050x0.8/1.42). The corresponding load carried by the unstabilised soil is
83
27.5 kPa (10x5.5/2.0) at Fs = 2.0. The total bearing capacity is thus 209.3 kPa (181.8+
27.5), which corresponds to a global factor of safety of 1.38 (209.3/ 152).
It has been concluded that the global factor of safety was larger for the part of the
embankment stabilized by 0.8 m diameter lime/cement columns and that the failure strain
of the columns was about 1%. The global factor of safety was 1.07 for the part of the
embankment where 0.6 m diameter columns were used to increase the stability. It has been
concluded that progressive failure has contributed to the failure of the test fill.
84
6.1.1. Failure Modes
Column rows and caissons normally stabilize slopes, embankments and excavations
as shown in Fig. 42. The lateral resistance of a lime/cement or a cement column is
reduced 75.5% to 24.4% at Qcol = 0.25 qu,col B2, η = 0.25, k1 = 2, α = 0.1, cu,soil = 10
kPa, qu,col = 200 kPa and εf = 0.01. The lateral displacement at failure of the column is
22.1 mm.
85
The stability of a 5 m high test embankment supported by single cement columns and
by rows with overlapping cement columns using the dry method has been investigated by
Bergado et al (1996). With 10% cement the shear strength was 20 times the shear strength
of the unstabilized soil. The in-situ shear strength was about half the shear strength of
laboratory samples. The shear strength of the unstabilized soil increased linearly with
increasing depth from about 5 kPa close to the ground surface to about 20 kPa at 10 m
depth. It was observed that the lateral displacements and the settlements were less for the
column rows than for single columns. The column rows failed by sliding.
86
Fig. 43. Failure Modes of Column Walls
87
Fig. 44. Failure of a Column Row by Separation
Failure caused by separation of the individual columns in a column row, are shown in
Figs. 44 and 45. This failure mode occurs mainly for column rows, which are located in
the shear zone, when the slip surface is located close to the top or the bottom of the
columns. Failure by separation is caused by the low tensile resistance of the columns in
the overlapping zone or by a reduction of the width of the overlapping zone when the
columns are not vertical.
89
Yoshida (1996) has reported that the shear resistance of the stabilized soil in the
overlapping zone has been low, only two-thirds of the shear strength of the stabilized soil
in the columns. Wada et al (1991) have e.g. found that the shear strength of the stabilized
soil in the overlapping zone was 40% to 70% of the average shear strength of the
columns. Cone penetration tests at Norrala have shown that the shear strength of the
stabilized soil in the overlapping zone could be low due to insufficient mixing of the soil
or insufficient overlap (Larsson and Håkansson, 1998).
It is recommended that a reduced shear strength should be used to calculate the
stability. In the following it has been assumed conservatively that the average shear
strength of the overlapping zone is 50% of the shear strength of the columns.
It is generally required that the spacing of the overlapping columns should not exceed
0.8d for columns with 0.5 m or 0.6 m diameter and 0.9d for columns with a diameter
larger than 0.6 m so that the overlap will be sufficient. It should be noted that the width of
the overlapping zone is 0.5d for a single column row when the overlap is 0.133d and the
spacing of the columns is 0.87d. It is important that the columns are truly vertical since
even a small deviation has a large effect on the width of the overlap at the bottom of the
columns. If the overlap is not sufficient the columns will function as individual short
dowels with a low shear resistance.
The maximum permissible inclination is 15 mm/m (1/65) according to Carlsten and
Eriksson (1995, 1997). This allowable inclination corresponds to a maximum deviation of
150 mm at a depth of 10 m, which exceeds the overlap at the bottom of the columns. The
permissible inclination should thus be reduced especially for long columns when the slip
surface is located close to the bottom of the columns, which is usually the case in the
shear zone.
The shear resistance of the columns can be increased with geofabric or geo-anchors
placed at the bottom of the embankment. The stability can also be increased by a berm as
a counter-weight at the toe of the embankment. Thereby the axial load in the columns and
the moment resistance are increased.
The vertical shear force Tcol/b is equal to cu,soil b at β = 0.5, where β corresponds to
the location of the slip below the top of the column row. The vertical shear force Tcol/b is
equal to
The maximum shear force occurs at β = 1.0. Then Tcol/b = 2 cu,soil b. However, the
maximum shear stress 2 Tcol/db within the overlapping zone with the width d/2, had to be
less than qu,col /4. In that case 4 cu,soil b/d < qu,col / 4. At qu,col = 200 kPa and b = 5d, then
90
cu,soil < 2.5 kPa. At b = 10d the shear strength of the unstabilized soil cu,soil is reduced to
1.25 kPa.
At β = 0.1, when the horizontal slip surface is located just below the top of the
column wall, the shear force Tcol/b = 2 cu,soilbβ. At a maximum shear stress of qu,col / 4 in
the overlapping zone then the maximum shear resistance of the unstabilized soil cu,soil is
5 kPa at qu,col = 200 kPa. The maximum shear resistance cu,soil of the unstabilized soil is
reduced to 2.5 kPa at b = 10 d.
The shear strength of the stabilized soil in the overlapping zone will usually govern
the shear resistance of the column wall. This shear resistance increases with increasing
shear strength of the stabilized soil and with increasing overlap.
columns in each row. It is thus important that the moment resistance of the individual
column rows is sufficient so that the shear resistance of the columns along the assumed
failure surface through the columns or the shear resistance above the assumed slip surface
will govern rather than the moment capacity of the columns.
The axial load is 4 cu,soil β (1 – β) / b2 for the column located at the far side of a row
with point bearing columns when the column row rotates in the soil (Fig. 47). This axial
load should be less than the unconfined compressive strength qu,col. At q u,col = 200 kPa, β
= 1.0 and b = 5 d then cu,soil < 8 kPa. The maximum shear resistance of the unstabilised
soil is thus reduced to 4 kPa when qu,col = 400 kPa and d/b = 10. The bearing capacity of
91
the columns located at the far end of a column row will therefore govern the maximum
shear strength of the unstabilized soil, which can be resisted.
Reinforcing the column walls as shown in Fig. 48 could increase the shear resistance
of the column walls. The reinforcement should preferably be installed in the enlarged part
of the column wall just after the manufacture of the columns. The anchors should
preferably be preloaded to increase their efficiency. The maximum shear force along the
overlapping zone at the center of the column wall is then be resisted partly by the anchors
and partly by the increased shear resistance caused by the normal force N caused by the
anchors as indicated in Fig. 49.
block and that the shear strength is half of the unconfined compressive strength of the
stabilised soil (Kitazume et al, 1996b; Karastanev et al, 1997).
Terashi and Tanaka (1983a) have pointed out that the shear resistance of a cement
treated column block is reduced by progressive failure and that the calculation method
where full interaction is assumed, overestimates the bearing capacity of the block. It has
been proposed by Tatsuoka and Kobayashi (1983), that the residual shear strength of the
columns together with the undrained shear strength of the unstabilised soil between the
columns should be used in a slip circle analysis instead of the peak shear strength.
93
Fig. 50. Application of Lime and Lime/Cement Columns as Walls, Grids and Blocks
94
Fig. 51. Trench Barrier (after Blom, 1992)
95
8. SETTLEME'T OF BUILDI'GS A'D OF OTHER
STRUCTURES
8.1. Settlement Calculations
8.1.1. Settlement of Single Columns and Column Groups
The main purpose of soil stabilization in the 1960th and 1970th was to control the
total and the differential settlements of buildings and of other structures. The bearing
capacity of the unstabilized soil without lime, lime/cement or cement columns is often
sufficient to support 2-storey buildings without basement or a 1.5 m high fill when the
clay is normally consolidated or slightly overconsolidated. Most buildings can
accommodate relatively large settlements; 0.2 to 0.3 m or more, without structural
damage provided the differential settlements are not excessive. Much larger settlements
can be accommodated by embankments without serious damage.
The settlement of the soft soil located below a reinforced block is usually calculated
from the stress increase determined by the 2:1 method. It is generally assumed that the
total load is transferred to the bottom of the reinforced block without spreading of the
applied load.
The maximum settlement of a group with lime, lime/cement and cement columns is
usually calculated by assuming
1. that the axial deformations of the columns are the same as the deformations of the
surrounding unstabilised soil,
2. that the reinforced soil behaves as a composite material and
3. that the behavior is similar to that of an overconsolidated clay (Pan et al, 1994).
∆hqo
sgroup = ∑ aE col + (1 − a ) Msoil
( 8.1)
where ∆h is the thickness of the different layers, qo is the stress increase from e.g. an
embankment and a is the area ratio. It should be noted that Mcol would decrease with time
due to creep. Eq. 8.1 can thus underestimate the settlements if creep is not considered
(Hansbo, 1987, 1994).
It is generally assumed that the stress distribution is constant along the columns and
that it is no spread of load within the reinforced block. The observed settlement is
therefore often larger than the settlement calculated by Eq. 8.1.
The remoulded soft soil above the columns and the upper weak part of the columns
should be excavated and replaced by compacted granular soil since the columns are
terminated 0.5 m to 1.0 m below the ground surface.
96
determined by oedometer tests (Carlsten and Tränk, 1992). Rogbeck (1997) has reported
that the observed settlements for organic clays have been about 50% of the estimated
settlements down to about 10 m depth. The difference was much smaller when the results
from triaxial tests were used.
Soyez et al (1983) have found that the settlements were reduced by 50% with lime
columns compared with an unstabilized reference area. The spacing of the 0.5 m diameter
columns was 1.0 to 1.5 m. The reduction of the settlements was small when the spacing
was increased to 2 m.
Holm et al (1983b) have reported that the maximum settlement with lime columns
was 0.4 m after 2.6 years for an applied load of 50 kPa compared with a maximum
settlement of 0.8 m, when sand drains were used. The soil consisted of 7.5 m of soft to
very soft clay with an undrained shear strength of 6 to 9 kPa and a compression modulus
of 60 to 175 kPa. The shear strength of the stabilized soil after 2 years was 100 to 160
kPa. The lime content of the 0.5 m diameter columns was 7% to 12%. The spacing of the
columns was 1.4 m.
Carlsten and Ouacha (1993) have reported that the settlement of an embankment in
Karlstad, Sweden was larger than the settlement estimated by CRS tests assuming a
compression modulus of 75 cu,soil since some of the columns could not be installed. In
addition the height of the test embankment was 0.5 m to 0.8 m higher than assumed
(Nord, 1990). Carlsten and Ouacha (1993) have found that the agreement was satisfactory
between calculated and measured consolidation rates for lime columns supporting an
embankment constructed on an 8 m thick layer with soft clay. The diameter of the
columns was 0.5 m and the spacing was 1.1 m to 1.6 m.
Columns with 0.8 m diameter, which were spaced 0.62 m apart, were used to
stabilize a railroad embankment in Finland, which had been constructed on soft peat. The
maximum settlement after about two months was 175 mm (Hoikkala et al, 1997).
The maximum settlement of a group with lime, lime/cement and cement columns
depends mainly on the compression modulus of the stabilized soil and on the
preconsolidation pressure when the unstabilized clay is overconsolidated. Mainly the
modulus of elasticity of the upper part of the columns is important since the compression
modulus of the unstabilized soil usually increases rapidly with increasing depth. Carlsten
and Tränk (1992) and Ekström et al (1994) have back-calculated a compression modulus
of 8 to 10 MPa for cement columns at a surcharge load of 42 kPa while CRS-tests
indicated a modulus of only 1.5 to 2.5 MPa. The compression modulus as determined by
dilatometer tests was 2 to 5 MPa and thus 20% to 50% of the back-calculated values.
The difference between estimated and observed settlements increases in general with
increasing length of the columns. The settlements will in general be smaller for organic
soils stabilized by lime/cement than for lime columns mainly due to the higher shear
strength with lime/cement compared with lime.
The apparent preconsolidation pressure increases with increasing shear strength of
the stabilized soil and thus with increasing cement content (Bergado et al, 1996). The
settlements are also affected by the stress increase in the columns, which depends on the
transfer length and thus on the shaft resistance.
It is important to check that the assumed column load can be transferred from the
embankment to the columns within the dry crust or within the fill. The transfer length
depends on the diameter of the columns and on the shear strength of the unstabilized soil
between the columns. The load, which can be transferred to the columns, can be small,
when the dry crust is thin or poorly developed. In that case the transfer length could be
large.
97
At Norrala the maximum predicted settlement for a test embankment was 0.35 m
based on an estimated compression modulus. The observed maximum settlement was
small, 0.1 m. Triaxial tests by Steensen-Bach et al (1996) indicated an average
compression modulus Mcol at Norrala of 200 cu,col. The compression modulus varied at the
triaxial tests between 175 cu,col and 250 cu,col. The undrained shear strength of the columns
was 115 to 160 kPa.
A weak section in a column will increase locally the settlements and the transfer
length. The increase of the settlement is generally small and can be neglected except for
short columns when the area ratio is small. The settlement at the ground surface is
estimated to 8 mm when the reduction of the column load is 42 kPa, the shear strength of
the unstabilised soil cu, soil = 20 kPa and the transfer length is d.
The shear strength of the unstabilized soil around the columns has a large effect on
the settlements caused by an increase of the transfer length, when the shear strength is
low. A local weak section in a column will only increase slightly the settlements of an
embankment provided the weak sections do not occur at the same level and the column
load can be transferred to the adjacent columns.
The settlements at Norrala were up to ten times larger than estimated settlements
close to the ground surface. This local settlement, which accounted for 40% to 70% of the
total settlement (Arnér et al, 1996), was attributed to the low shear strength of the
columns close to the ground surface.
An alternative is to use high strength woven geofabric, which is placed above the
columns as lining in narrow trenches. The trenches are filled with compacted crushed
stone, gravel or any other coarse granular material as illustrated in Fig. 3. The main
purpose of the geo-anchors is to improve the transfer of load from the embankment to the
columns. The geo-anchors contribute also to the stability of the embankments.
98
Fig. 52. Settlements of Two Test Fills at Skå-Edeby
The average shear stress τav along the perimeter of the column group will decrease
with time as well as the shear modulus Gsoil. Test results (Broms and Boman, 1976)
indicate that the reduction of the average shear stress τav with time is often larger than the
corresponding reduction of the shear modulus Gsoil. The maximum angular rotation is
therefore expected just after loading of the column group.
99
where τav is the average shear stress along the perimeter of the reinforced block and
Gsoil is the shear modulus of the unstabilised soil. The shear modulus, which depends on
the Poisson´s ratio νsoil, is estimated to 0.3 Msoil at νsoil = 0.3. The short-term shear
modulus is estimated to about 100 cu,soil .
The maximum differential settlement usually occurs before consolidation just after
the stabilised column block has been loaded. The maximum shear stress and the
maximum differential settlement occur along the perimeter of the loaded reinforced
block. It is estimated that the average shear force along the perimeter of the loaded block
corresponds initially to about 80% of the total mass Wg of the structure or of an
embankment and that about 20% of the weight is transferred directly to the unstabilised
soil below the bottom of the column block.
Since a very small relative displacement is required to mobilize the shaft resistance
of the columns and the undrained shear strength of the unstabilised soil around the
perimeter of the block and that a large displacement is required to mobilize the point
resistance of the block, then
αmax = τav / Gsoil = 0.8 Wg / 2(B + A) Lcol Gsoil < 1/250 (8.3)
where B and A are the width and the length of the loaded area, respectively and Lcol is the
length of the columns.
At a maximum allowable angular rotation of 1/250 and Gsoil = 100cu,soil, then
However, the shear modulus for the unstabilised soil decreases rapidly with
increasing stress level. At a required partial safety factor of 1.5
100
Fig. 53. Settlement of Column Group
The length of the columns Lcol should be at least 1.25 B where B is the width of
the loaded area at e.g. B/A = 0.5 and q = 2 cu,clay.
The differential settlements were very small at Skå-Edeby compared with those of
the reference area (Broms, 1984a). The maximum inclination (angular rotation) after1.5
years was only 1:833 for the stabilized area compared with 1:84 for the reference area.
After ten years the maximum differential settlement for the reference area had increased
to 1:37 while the differential settlements were negligible for the stabilized area.
The settlements outside the loaded area were much larger for the stabilized area than
for the reference area indicating that the load from the stabilized area was transferred to
the surrounding soil along the perimeter of the stabilized block mainly through shaft
resistance.
The differential settlements can be reduced by increasing the length of the columns
around the perimeter of the column group. The settlements of the columns are generally
governed by the modulus of elasticity of the columns Ecol, while the settlements of the
unstabilized soil are governed by the compression modulus Msoil.
101
A maximum differential settlement of 1/130 has been reported by Kujala (1983b)
after 30 days for gypsum and lime columns and 1/92 for an area stabilized with lime
columns. The settlements stopped after the height of the embankment was reduced from
2.5 m to 1.5 m. These differential settlements are excessive for most buildings.
2
U = 1 - exp [-2 cvh t / R f (n)] (8.6)
n2 1 1 n 2 − 1 k clay L2col
f(n) = 2 [ln(n) - 0.75 + 2 1 − 2 ] + (8.7)
n −1 n n n2 k col r2
where n = R/r, R is the radius of influence, r = d/2 is the radius of the columns, kclay and
kcol are the permeability of the unstabilized soil between the columns and of the stabilized
soil, respectively, Lcol is the length of the columns, when the soil is drained on one side
only and half the length the when the columns are drained top and bottom. The diameter d
of the columns affects also the consolidation rate since d effects both n and Lcol /r. The
effect of smear around the columns can be neglected, however (Hansbo, 1987).
The settlement rate depends on the average compression modulus, the area ratio a,
the creep strength of the columns, the permeability of the stabilized soil as well as on the
length and the spacing of the columns. The radius of influence R is 0.56 S for a square
pattern of the columns and 0.53 S for a triangular pattern. The spacing S of the columns is
usually 0.8 m to 1.8 m. Silt and sand layers in the soft clay affect the consolidation rate
when the distance between the drainage layers is less than the spacing of the columns. It
is often economical to vary the length of the columns to take into account the variation of
the permeability of the soil and the increase of the compression modulus with depth.
The time required for the consolidation will be short for lime columns, normally a
few weeks, when the spacing of the columns is small. Several months or years are
required for lime/cement and cement columns depending on the permeability and the
spacing of the columns.
102
average compression modulus Mav. It should be noted that kh is often 3 to 5 times the
permeability of the soil in the vertical direction. Usually kh,soil is 2 kv,soil to 3 kv,soil.
103
Hansbo (1994) has pointed out that the well resistance cannot be neglected for
lime/cement columns. It should be noted that the well resistance decreases with
increasing diameter of the columns (Eq. 8.7).
The last term in Eq 8.7 takes into account the well resistance caused by the low
permeability of the stabilized soil. For a normally consolidated clay, 57%, 34% and 19%
consolidation will be reached after 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 year, respectively at S = 1.5 m, R =
0.84 m, r = 0.3 m, cvh = 3 m2/year, kcol / kh,soil = 100 and Lcol = 10 m. At kcol / kh,soil = 1000
then 99%, 98% and 85% consolidation is obtained after 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 year,
respectively. Thus the permeability ratio kcol / kh,soil has a large effect on the consolidation
rate. Bengtsson and Holm (1984) have indicated that about one year is required to reach
80% consolidation at kcol / kh,soil = 100. About 10 years is required at kcol / kh,soil = 1.0.
The consolidation rate depends on the time lag, which can be appreciable due to the
low permeability of lime/cement and cement columns. The consolidation rate for lime
columns at kcol>1000 kh,soil is mainly governed by the permeability of the unstabilised soil
between the columns. At kcol / kh,soil = 100 the reduction of the consolidation rate is to a
large extent caused by the time lag in the columns.
When the coefficient of consolidation cvh is increased from 3 to 10 m2/year then 94%,
75% and 50% consolidation is reached after 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 years, respectively at S =
1.5 m, R = 0.84 m, r = 0.3 m, kcol / kh,soil = 100 and Lcol = 10 m. At kcol / kh,soil l = 300 and
cvh = 10 m2/year 99%, 98% and 85% consolidation is obtained after 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25
year. It is required that kcol / kh,soil > 1000 for a soft normally consolidated clay if the
columns should function as vertical drains in the soil.
The time lag, which is caused by the low permeability of lime/cement and cement
columns, can possibly be reduced by providing the columns with a hole at the center (Fig.
54). Thereby the drainage path is reduced. The time lag can also be reduced by band
drains, which are installed between the columns. The costs for the band drains and for the
installation of the drains have decreased considerably during the last few years.
The largest uncertainty with presently used design methods is the permeability of
lime, lime/cement and cement columns and the change of the permeability with time. It is
anticipated that the permeability will decrease when the width of cracks and fissures in
the stabilised soil are reduced. The permeability may increase when the soil becomes
saturated. It is therefore important to monitor the settlement rate when lime, lime/cement
or cement columns are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the columns as drains.
104
that nearby buildings as well as buried services and other structures are not damaged
during the installation of the columns. Buildings and other structures are often damaged
by an angular rotation, which exceeds 1/300 to 1/400.
that the short and long-term environmental impact of lime, lime/cement and cement
columns is negligible.
9.1.2. Cost.
Lime and lime/cement columns have been found to be very cost effective for large
jobs in Sweden and Finland compared with other soil improvement methods when only a
105
marginal improvement of the settlements or of the bearing capacity is required. The
establishment costs are relatively high, in Sweden SEK 30,000 to SEK90,000 which
makes the method relatively expensive compared with many other soil stabilization and
soil improvement methods such as preloading with or without vertical drains, excavation
and replacement, light-weight fill and embankment piles.
One disadvantage with lime columns is the relatively high cost for finely ground
quicklime compared with the cost for cement. In Sweden the cost for cement is about
65% of the cost for lime (Ekström, 1992). The difference in total cost between lime and
lime/cement columns is often small since less lime is required than lime/cement to obtain
a certain shear strength when the organic content of the soil is low. Longer time is
required for the installation of lime/cement and cement columns than for lime columns
due to the high content of stabilizer required with lime/cement and the low retrieval rate
of the mixing tool. The total cost for lime columns to stabilize inorganic clays with a high
sensitivity or a high salt content could therefore be less than the total costs for
lime/cement or cement columns.
The difference in cost between Portland cement, quicklime and hydrated lime is
usually small. There is, however, a large difference in the costs between quicklime and
hydrated lime with respect to the available content of CaO2 (CAE). The price for the
available CaO2 in hydrated lime is about 30% higher than for quicklime. The price in the
UK in 1989 was about £61 per ton for hydrated lime and about £63 per ton for quicklime
(Sherwood, 1993).
The relative costs for lime and lime/cement columns compared with precast concrete
piles has gradually been reduced. The cost in Sweden in 1985 was 30 to 40 SEK/m for a
0.5 m diameter lime column, which corresponds to 150 to 200 SEK/m3. The cost in
Norway in 1984 was 45 NKr/m for lime columns with 0.5 m diameter or 225 NKr/m3
(Skauerud and Finborud, 1984). The cost in Sweden in 2002 is about 55 to 65 SEK/m for
lime/cement columns with 0.6 m diameter, which corresponds to 195 to 230 SEK/m3.
The costs for lime/cement columns with 0.8 m diameter are about 75 to 90 SEK/m, which
corresponds to 150 to 180 SEK/m3. The cost for lime and cement columns has not
increased much in Sweden or Norway since 1984.
The cost/m3 decreases rapidly with increasing diameter of the columns. It is therefore
economical to use columns with as large diameter as possible since the cross-sectional
area of the columns is increased from 0.2 m2 to 0.5 m2 or by 150%, when the diameter is
increased from 0.5 m to 0.8 m. The corresponding increase of the costs/m is 37%.
About 60% to 70% of the total cost at mass stabilisation is for the stabilizer. To be
competitive it is important to reduce the amount of stabilizer as much as possible as
pointed out by Hoikkala et al (1996). For single columns and for column rows the cost for
the stabilizer is about 50% of the total cost.
A comparison by Nord (1990) and by Carlsten and Ouacha (1993) has shown that
the costs for the stabilisation of embankments with lime columns have only been one-
third of the costs for embankment piles, which was the alternate method.
The reduction of the costs for the railroad road embankments at Norrala in the
northern part of Sweden using lime/cement columns (50% lime and 50% cement) has
been estimated to about 50% compared with other soil stabilization methods (Swedish
Deep Stabilisation Research Center, 1995; Kivelö, 1995a; Svensson and Jonsson, 1996).
106
shear strength of the stabilized and of the stabilized soil depending on the loading rate and
on the permeability ratio kcol/kh,soil. The lowest short-term bearing capacity and shear
resistance are usually obtained by a combined analysis, where the undrained shear
strength is used to analyze the shear strength of the unstabilized soil and a drained
analysis of the columns. Both the undrained and the drained shear strengths of the
columns depend mainly on the axial column load.
The long-term bearing capacity, which is determined by an effective stress-analysis
of both the columns and of the unstabilized soil between the columns could for an over-
consolidated clay be lower than the bearing capacity as evaluated by a total stress-
analysis.
107
Fig.55. Proposed Design Method for High Strength Columns
108
underlying layer with a high bearing capacity to prevent failure along a failure or slip
surface passing below the columns.
109
9.1.9. Required Content of Fly Ash, Gypsum, Blast Furnace Slag, Coal Ash and other
Stabilizers.
Fly ash and gypsum have also been tried in addition to lime and cement to improve
organic soils and silts (Åhnberg and Holm, 1984; Holm and Åhnberg, 1987b;
Stepkowska, 1994; Asano et al, 1996). The ratio of lime and fly ash has been 1:1 to 1:4.
For 0.5 m diameter columns about 22 kg/m is required for clay and 33 kg/m for organic
soils at a ratio of 1:4 (20/80). Also fly ash and cement have been used. Mainly the cement
has been found to be effective (Asano et al, 1996). The optimum content of stabilizer is
about 12% (Mishra and Srivastava, 1996).
The increase of the shear strength with fly ash varies greatly depending on the
composition of the fly ash. The major constituents are SiO2 (50%) and Al2O3 (about
20%). Fly ash is an inert material, which is effective in combination with lime. Axelsson
et al (1996) have reported for peat and gyttja that the increase of the shear strength with
fly ash has been low. The stabilizing effect of fly ash has also been investigated by Mishra
and Srivastava (1996) and by Joshi and Nagaraj (1985). Extensive laboratory and field
tests are required to determine the shear strength of the stabilised soil due to the large
variation of the composition of the fly ash.
The largest increase of the shear strength has been obtained for peat with 50% rapid
hardening cement and 50% granulated blast furnace slag. The increase of the shear
strength has been relatively slow for blast furnace slag especially when the ground
temperature is low.
Coal ash has been used together with cement (Asano et al, 1996) mainly to reduce the
swelling. The optimum content of coal ash is about 7.5%.
110
columns in fibrous peat could decrease with time due to the low pH-value and the
relatively high permeability of the stabilized soil. Additional columns could in that case
be required.
The shear strength could also be reduced when the pH-value of the ground water is
low, less than 5, and there is a continuous flow of ground water through pervious sand
and silt layers next to the columns. It is expected that the reduction of the bearing capacity
will be less for lime/cement and cement columns than for lime columns due to the low
permeability with cement or lime/cement.
For high embankments the lateral displacement of the columns could be excessive
also for inorganic clay and silty clay when the global factor of safety is less than 1.5 to
2.0. An even higher factor of safety might be required for organic soils where the lateral
displacements can be large due to creep.
by locating the columns in the active zone of potential failure surfaces below the
center of the embankment,
by reinforcing the embankment with geofabric or geo-anchors and
by preloading the columns and the soft soil between the columns.
It should be noted that high strength lime/cement columns behave as piles when the shear
strength is high (Åhnberg et al, 1996).
It might be possible to utilize columns with an undrained shear strength larger than
100 to 150 kPa
by placing the columns in blocks or in double rows in the active zone below an
embankment
by designing the columns to carry the full weight of the embankment
111
by replacing the soft or loose soil above the columns and the weak upper part of the
columns by compacted granular material so that the weight of the embankment and the
traffic load can be transferred to and from the columns without excessive settlements
by resisting the maximum lateral earth pressure in the embankment by one or several
layers with geofabric or by geo-anchors
where cu,c is the characteristic undrained cohesion, φu,c is the characteristic undrained
angle of internal friction and σf is the normal total pressure acting on the failure plane. It
is assumed that the shear strength τfu,c increases linearly with increasing normal pressure
up to 150 to 250 kPa. The friction angle φu,c which is equal to 25 to 35 degrees for lime
columns, when the confining pressure is low, decreases gradually to zero with increasing
confining pressure. A characteristic undrained shear strength τfu,c of up to 100 to 150 kPa
can usually be obtained with lime/cement when the initial water content is about 25% and
about 75kPa when the water content is about 100%.
.
9.1.14. Characteristic Drained Shear Strength
The characteristic drained shear strength τfd,c, which governs the long term bearing
capacity can be evaluated by the following equation
where c´c is the characteristic drained cohesion, σ´f is the effective normal pressure on the
failure plane and φ´c is the characteristic effective angle of internal friction. Both φu,col and
φ´col are at least 30 and 35 degrees for lime and lime/cement columns, respectively
A friction angle φ´c of 30 degrees is normally used in design (Liedberg et al, 1996a,
1996b. The effective cohesion c´c,col has been 25% to 50% of the in-situ undrained shear
strength for 0.6 m diameter columns since mainly the effective cohesion is increased by
cementation. The average effective cohesion c´c,col is about 35% of the undrained shear
strength. A value of zero should be assumed on cu,col for the passive zone, 0.1 cu,col for
the columns in the shear zone and 0.3 cu,col for the columns in the active zone to take into
account the reduction of the shear resistance caused by progressive failure according to
Carlsten and Ekström (1995, 1997).
The increase of the pore-water pressure has generally been small at unconfined
compression and triaxial tests since the stabilized soil is partially saturated so that φu,col is
about equal to φ´col (Bergwall and Falksund, 1996). However, the pore water pressure has
been negative at failure due to dilatancy of the stabilized soil
9.1.15. Ductility
112
A reduction of the shear resistance and of the bearing capacity can be expected when
the peak shear strength of the columns is exceeded. The reduction can be large when the
residual shear strength of the stabilized soil is low, which is often the case when the peak
shear strength is high and the confining pressure is low. It is expected that the reduction
will be large for the columns, which are located in the shear or in the passive zones
outside an embankment.
The ductility of the columns decreases with time when the shear strength is
increased. By loading the columns just after the installation, the reduction of the bearing
capacity and of the shear strength of the columns can be prevented or be greatly reduced.
The weak parts of the columns gradually gain strength so that the difference in bearing
capacity between the weak and strong parts is reduced.
τfu,av = a τfd,col + (1 -a) τfu,soil = a (σ´f,col tan φ´col + c´col) + (1 - a) cu,soil (9.3)
A weighted average shear strength τfd,av is normally used to evaluate the long-term
stability of embankments and slopes when failure occurs along a slip surface through the
columns.
The shear strength of the columns τfd,col and of the unstabilized soil τfd,clay are
evaluated by an effective stress analysis
= a(σ´f,col tan φ´col + c´col) + (1 - a) (σ´f, soil tan φ´soil + c´soil) (9.4)
In this equation φ‘clay and c´clay are the effective angle of internal friction and the effective
cohesion, respectively.
Eqs. 9.3 and 9.4 can only be used for lime columns, when the columns fail in shear
along a slip or failure surface through the columns and the shear strength is less than 100
to 150 kPa. It is possible that full interaction can be assumed also for lime/cement and
cement columns.
The maximum undrained shear strength τfu,col of the columns is limited in Sweden to
100 to 150 kPa. In Japan the maximum shear strength is 100 kPa to 250 kPa. The
undrained shear resistance of the unstabilized soil between the columns corresponds to
the axial strain at the peak shear strength of the stabilized soil (Matsuo et al, 1996a,
1996b; Kitazume et al, 1996c). The shear strength of the unstabilized soil between the
columns is reduced in Japan to evaluate the stability of steep slopes and deep excavations.
The stabilizing effect of the columns in the active zone below an embankment can be
taken into account by considering the columns as piles. It is proposed that the design load
for the columns should be the residual bearing capacity at φ´col equal to 35 degrees for
lime and lime/cement columns and 40 degrees for cement columns. It is also possible to
calculate the stability using the peak shear strength of the stabilized soil.
113
9.1.17. Failure Modes
A single column fails when two plastic hinges develop at the locations of the
maximum bending moment in the columns as shown in Fig. 26. The shear resistance at
failure of a column with a square cross-section BxB can be calculated from Eq.9.5, where
Tcol/B2 = 2k 1 cu, soil M col d when the axial load in the columns is neglected. The lateral
resistance is equal to zero when the axial load is zero. The moment capacity Mcol is equal
to qu, col B3 η(1 - η), where ηB is the width of the compression zone.
The shear resistance of the columns when two plastic hinges develop in the columns
at failure can be evaluated by the following relationship
The shear resistance had to be larger than τfu,col or τfd,col depending on the drainage
conditions. Otherwise the shear resistance as evaluated by Eqs. 9.3 and 9.4 will govern.
At τfu,col = 0.5 qu,col then qu,col / cu,soil < 4 k1 η (1 - η). At k1 = 5 and η = 0.1 and 0.9 then
qu,col / cu,soil < 1.8. When the moment resistance reaches a maximum at η = 0.5 where
qu,col / cu,soil < 5. At qu,col/cu,soil = 20 then Tcol /B2 = 0.25 qu,col. The axial load affects the bearing
capacity of the columns when the columns are displaced laterally. The shear resistance of the
columns decreases rapidly with increasing lateral displacement when the axial load is high.
The shear resistance of the columns is half the bearing capacity of the column cross-
section (qu,col B2) at φu,col = 0. Thus the shear resistance at failure of a single column will
almost always govern the shear resistance, when two plastic hinges develop in the columns
∆h ∆q
sgroup = ∑ aE col + (1 − a ) Msoil
(9.6)
where sgroup is the settlement of the column group, ∆h is the thickness of the layer, ∆q is
the stress increase for the layer and a is the area ratio. When there is no stress transfere to
the soil around the column group then ∆q = qo.
Carlsten and Ekström (1995) have proposed that Mcol = 50 cu,col can be used for
gyttja, 100 cu,col for clays and 150 cu,col for silty clays. These values can be used to
estimate the maximum settlement if the results from field or laboratory tests are not
available. It should be noted that the average settlement could be much smaller, 40% or
less when these values are used to calculate the settlements.
At e.g. Mcol/Msoil = 20 the estimated stress increase in the columns will be twenty
times the stress increase in the unstabilized soil between the columns The stress increase
in the columns will thus be 400 kPa at a stress increase of e.g. 20 kPa for the unstabilized
soil. At an area ratio a = 0.10 the average unit load carried by the columns and by the
unstabilized soil between the columns is 40 kPa and 18 kPa, respectively. The total
applied unit load, 58 kPa (40+18), corresponds to the stress increase by a three to four
story building or by a 3.1 m high fill with a unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The total load
carried by the columns will in this case be more than twice the load carried by the
unstabilized soil between the columns. The columns will reduce the settlements by about
65% since the stress increase in the unstabilized soil is reduced by about 65% provided
the transfer lengths are not excessive.
The effectiveness of the columns to reduce the settlements increases with increasing
compression modulus of the unstabilised soil. The reduction of the settlements with
floating columns increases with increasing length of the columns.
The settlements of single columns or of groups with lime, lime/cement and cement
columns are usually calculated by assuming that the axial deformation of the columns is
the same as the deformation of the surrounding unstabilised soil except for the lower and
upper parts of the columns where the load is transferred to and from the columns. Large
settlements have, for example, been observed locally just above the columns for the test
embankment at Norrala (Anér et al, 1996). The settlements will be reduced if the soft or
loose soil above the columns is removed and replaced by compacted granular soil.
The estimated settlements within the transfer length Ltr is 0.5qo Ltr / Msoil, where Msoil
is the compression modulus of the unstabilized soil. The transfer length depends mainly
on the shear strength of the soil around the columns, which is expected to increase with
time due to consolidation.
The length and the spacing of the columns can be varied to take advantage of the
increase of the compression modulus of the columns with depth. Thereby the costs for the
columns and the project can be reduced. The length of the lime/cement columns
supporting the embankments for the “Svealand” railroad line was varied, 5, 10 and 15 m
(Rogbeck, 1997). However, the load transferred to the few columns, which extend down
to a stiff or a hard layer can be very high especially when the shear strength of the
stabilized soil in the columns is high. These columns may fail if the bearing capacity of
the stiff or the hard layer is larger than the compressive strength of the columns. The
115
assumed bearing capacity of the columns could be reduced down to the residual strength
of the columns, when the settlements are large. The large settlements, which have been
observed, when the length of the columns was varied, can possibly be attributed to failure
of the columns, which extend into a layer with a high bearing capacity.
It is often preferable to terminate the columns just above a stiff or a hard layer so that
the point resistance will be less than the bearing capacity of the columns. The resulting
increase of the settlements will in most cases be small even for normally consolidated
clays except when the length of the columns is small and the area ratio is high.
The settlements caused by creep and secondary consolidation can often be eliminated
by a surcharge load, which is 1.2 to 1.5 times the weight of the embankment. The
construction period is increased, however, by the preloading, which had to be considered
in the planning. Eriksson (1997) has indicated that a preload of 120% will be sufficient to
eliminate the secondary settlements for many types of clay.
For normally consolidated clays with a liquid limit exceeding 150% the required
preload could be twice the weight of the embankment. For preloaded soil a weighted
average compression modulus of 300 τfu,av can be used to estimate the settlements, where
τfu,av is the weighted average shear strength of the unstabilized clay.
116
of the weight of the embankment to the columns by end bearing as expressed by the
transfer factor mo,col and by the shaft resistance. The axial load in the columns will be low
when the surface crust is missing or is poorly developed, which is often the case when the
ground water table is located close to the ground surface.
The injection of lime and cement is terminated 0.5 to 1.0 m below the ground surface
to prevent blowouts. The shear strength of the soil located above the columns is reduced
by the installation of the columns. The remoulded soil should be excavated and replaced
by compacted granular soil, such as sand, gravel or crushed rock.
The contribution of the columns to the stability of a high embankment assuming full
interaction is uncertain for point bearing columns. The shear resistance of the columns is
reduced when the columns behave as short dowels. This would be the case when the shear
strength of the columns is high and the ductility and the moment capacity of the columns
are low. The shear resistance of the columns could in that case be considerably lower
than the peak shear strength of the stabilised soil.
The stability of embankments should also be checked with respect to a horizontal slip
surface passing through the remoulded soil layer below the columns. The outside columns
could be subjected to a high lateral force as the unstabilized soil is displaced between the
columns. The columns may fail when they are displaced laterally since the failure strain is
low in tension.
Preloading if required should be carried out immediately after the manufacture of the
columns when the bearing capacity and the shear strength are still low in order to
consolidate the remoulded soil below the columns and to consolidate any weak layers or
pockets in the columns. It is important, however, to limit the axial load during the
preloading so that the bearing capacity of the columns is not exceeded. It should be noted
that the ductility of the columns is low when the shear strength is high.
The shear resistance of the columns in the passive zone is governed by the tensile
strength of the columns and by the moment capacity of weak layers in the columns. It
should be noted, however, that the tensile strength of the columns could be exceeded by
even a very small lateral displacement, a few mm. Therefore the tensile resistance of the
columns in the passive zone cannot be taken into account in design.
The stability of embankments and steep slopes can be increased by berms at the toe
of an embankment or at the toe of a slope. This is often a very economical method when
sufficient space and excess fill are available. The berms will also increase the column
loads as well as the efficiency of the columns located in the shear zone. Thereby the shear
resistance of the columns as well as the moment capacity are increased. Berms will,
however, increase the settlements. Increasing the number of columns below the
embankment and thus the area ratio can reduce this increase.
Lightweight fill can be used to reduce the weight of an embankment and the
settlements. Replacing some of the fill in the embankment by lightweight materials such
as expanded shale, styrofoam blocks, compressed peat bundles, seashells, sawdust or bark
can also increase the stability.
The back-calculated shear strength of the columns supporting an embankment on the
Island Orust in Sweden, which failed, was only 60 to 85 kPa and thus about 10% of the
shear strength of cores obtained in-situ from the columns. The thickness of the soft clay
below the embankment, with an initial water content of 70% to 80%, was 15 m. The
initial undrained shear strength was low, 10 to 20 kPa. The maximum length of the 0.5
and 0.6 m diameter columns, which were spaced 1.0 to 1.8 m apart, was 15 m. The
lime/cement content (50/50) was 26 kg/m for the 0.6 m diameter columns and 18 kg/m
for the 0.5 m diameter columns. The failure strain εf was 1% to 5%. The global factor of
117
safety was close to 1.0. Jacklin and Larsson (1994) indicate that the bearing capacity of
the lime/cement columns had been reduced by the lateral displacements caused by the
embankment.
Large lateral displacements, up to 0.145 m, of lime/cement columns with 0.6 m
diameter were observed at Norrala, Sweden (Kivelö, 1995). These large displacements
indicate that the stability of the 8 m high embankment was low. The lateral displacements
of the part of the embankment, which was supported by 0.8 m diameter columns and
reinforced by a geo-net, were small. The spacing of the 0.8 and 0.6 m diameter single
columns was 1.3 m and 0.6 m, respectively. The spacing of the column rows was 2.6 m
and 1.6 m. The initial water content of the soil was high, 100% to 140 % and the shear
strength was low, 10 to 30 kPa. The sulphide content at the bottom of the 6 m layer with
soft soil was relatively high. The design shear strength was 100 and 150 kPa for the 0.6 m
and 0.8 m diameter columns, respectively. The measured shear strength for the upper part
of the investigated columns exceeded 500 kPa. The shear strength as determined by direct
shear tests and by triaxial tests varied between 300 and 800 kPa. The factor of safety was
1.5 for the critical circular slip surface when a weighted average shear strength was used
to evaluate the stability. The factor of safety without the columns was low, about 0.5. The
stability of the test embankment has also been analyzed taking into account the reduction
of the bearing capacity of the columns caused by progressive failure. A global factor of
safety of 1.07 was calculated at εf = 1%. The high sulphate content has likely limited the
shear strength of the stabilised soil as well as the stability of the embankment.
9.2.2. Trenches.
The calculation methods, which are utilized to analyze the stability of gravity
retaining walls, can also be used to analyze the stability of trenches. Failure of the column
rows by sliding or by overturning should also be investigated. The total stability should be
calculated with respect to a circular failure surface through or below the columns.
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Fig.56. Stabilization of a Trench Using Lime or Lime/Cement Columns
Unreinforced vertical column walls often fail by overturning, when a horizontal crack
develop through the column wall at the bottom of the excavation. The overturning
moment acting on the wall will be high, when the cracks behind and through the column
wall at the bottom of the excavation are filled with water during a heavy rainstorm.
119
corresponds to an allowable column load of 87.3 kN for a 0.6 m diameter column and
60.6 kN for a 0.5 m diameter column.
The bearing capacity of the unstabilized soil is estimated to 46 kPa (4.6 cu, soil/ 1.5)
before the installation or of lime or lime/cement columns at an average undrained shear
strength of 15 kPa and an area ratio of 0.3. Thus a net unit load of 54 kPa (5x20-46)
caused by the embankment had to be carried by the columns. The required spacing of the
columns with 0.5 m diameter is 1.06 m ( 60.6 / 54 ) at an allowable load of 60.6 kN. The
difference between the total weight of the embankment above the columns hfillγfill /S2
(5x20/S2) and the bearing capacity of the unstabilized soil had to be carried by the
columns. The calculated spacing of the columns is conservative since the residual bearing
capacity of the columns is somewhat higher than assumed.
It is also possible to estimate the required column spacing from the creep strength of
the columns qcol, creep and a reduced undrained shear strength of the unstabilized soil
between the columns. The creep strength of the columns is 552 kPa (0.8x200+3.67x42.5
+183x7.5-2.67x25+3.67x0.27x100) at an area ratio of 0.2 and a required spacing of 1.27
m for 0.6 m diameter columns at an allowable load of 87.3 kN and a reduced shear
strength of 7.5 kPa for the unstabilized soil. The unconfined bearing capacity of the
columns quo,creep is estimated to 200 kPa. The allowable column load for lime and
lime/cement columns with 0.5 m diameter is 54.1 kPa (0.196x552/2.0).
The bearing capacity of the soft unstabilized soil between the columns with a
characteristic average shear strength of 7.5 kPa is estimated to 23 kPa (4.6x7.5/1.5) at a
required factor of safety of 1.5 with respect to the reduced undrained shear strength for
the unstabilized soil. The load to be carried by the columns is 77 kPa, the difference
between the weight of the embankment, 100 kPa, and the bearing capacity of the soft soil,
which is estimated, to 23 kPa. The required spacing of the columns with 0.5 m diameter
is 0.84 m ( 54.1 / 77 ). This spacing is smaller than that at the residual bearing capacity of
the columns. Thus the residual shear strength of the columns and the undrained shear
120
strength of the unstabilized soil between the columns will govern. The required spacing
of the 0.5 m diameter columns is thus 1.06 m.
The lateral resistance Tcol of the columns has not been considered in the evaluation of
the bearing capacity of the stabilized soil. It should be noted that the lateral resistance Tcol
of the columns is small since the moment capacity of the columns Mcol is small when the
axial column load is small or weak layers or pockets are present in the columns. It is
therefore proposed that the lateral resistance Tcol should be neglected in the design of lime,
lime/cement and cement columns.
The pore water pressure around the columns is also increased when the unslaked lime
and the cement react with the water drawn from the soft soil around the columns and the
columns expand. The resulting excess pore water pressures dissipate rapidly after the
installation of the columns.
9.2.3. Slopes
The stability of steep slopes can be increased with lime, lime/cement or cement
columns (Terashi et al,1987). It is also possible to increase the stability of steep slopes by
flattening the slopes, by excavating the soil at the top of the slope or by placing a berm at
the toe of the slope. The long-term stability can be improved by lowering the ground
water table with surface or vertical drains.
Three different cases should be considered in the design of lime, lime/cement and
cement columns. For short-term conditions it is proposed to use the undrained shear
strength of the unstabilized soil together with either the undrained or the drained shear
strength of the stabilized soil, depending on the permeability of the stabilized soil and on
the loading conditions.
A high pore water pressure during the manufacture of lime and lime/cement columns
could reduce the shear strength of the unstabilized soil between the columns, since the
volume of added material, lime, cement and other additives, is large compared with the
volume of the columns. It is important to monitor the pore water pressures during the
installation of the columns since a high air pressure is used to inject the lime and the
cement. The pore water pressure could be increased in pervious sand or silt layers during
the manufacture of the columns, which reduces the stability of nearby slopes.
9.2.4. Excavations.
Lime and lime/cement columns will reduce the active earth pressure on sheet pile and
retaining walls. The passive earth pressure is increased which reduces the risk of toe failure of
the wall.
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Fig. 58. Soil-Mixed Wall
Lime/cement columns have been used in Oslo, Norway to increase the stability of a 7 m
deep excavation supported by anchored sheet piles (Long and Bredenberg, 1997, 1999). The
lime/cement columns were installed as a 2.0 m wide block at the bottom of the excavation
next to the sheet pile wall and as 4.0 m long column rows in front of the column block. The
spacing of the column walls was 3 m. An analysis of the stability of the sheet pile wall using
PLAXIS indicated that the lime/cement columns reduced the settlements behind the sheet pile
wall by up to 55% compared with a sheet pile wall without lime/cement columns. The heave
at the bottom of the excavation was reduced by 80% to 95% 2 m in front of the wall. The
long-term lateral displacements were reduced by 60% while the calculated reduction of the
short-term lateral displacements was 30%. It was estimated that the lime/cement columns
reduced the bending moments in the sheet piles by up to 66%. The maximum reduction of the
anchor force was estimated to17%.
Tanaka (1993) has proposed that a stability factor Nt = 4 to 5 can be used to evaluate the
stability with respect to bottom heave. The stability of a deep excavation can be improved by
single columns or by blocks or rows with overlapping columns behind or in front of the sheet
pile wall. The columns behind a sheet pile wall will reduce the active earth pressure while the
columns in front of the wall increase the passive earth pressure and thus the stability of the
sheet pile wall with respect to toe failure.
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Fig. 59. Anchored Sheet Pile Wall
123
cohesive soils. A piston sampler should be used to sample soft cohesive soils since high
quality samples are required to determine the shear strength and the compressibility.
Representative soil samples of characteristic layers are required to calculate the increase
of the shear strength with different stabilizers at different times after the mixing. It is also
important to determine with penetration tests and borings if there are boulders, stones,
roots, old timber piles or old fills as well as sewer lines, water mains, buried electric or
telephone cables at the site which could affect the installation of the columns. The ground
water level and its changes should be determined with open standpipes or hydraulic or
pneumatic piezometers.
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10.1.2. Laboratory Tests.
The shear strength, which can be obtained with different stabilizers, lime, cement,
gypsum, granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash and coal ash, is generally determined in the
laboratory by mixing the soil with different amounts of possible stabilizers. The main
factors, which affect the shear strength of the stabilized soil are water content, plasticity
index, sulphide and humus contents. The shear strength of the stabilized soil is
determined by unconfined compression tests at different times after the mixing e.g. after
1, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days. A relatively large number of samples are therefore required for
the testing.
The laboratory testing is usually carried out in two stages. During the first stage the
shear strength is determined after e.g. 7 days to obtain a preliminary indication of the
shear strength with different stabilizer, e.g. lime, cement, gypsum, fly-ash and granulated
blast furnace slag. During the second stage the increase of the shear strength is
determined for one or two of the most promising stabilizers.
The undrained shear strength of the stabilized soil is usually determined by
unconfined compression tests, by triaxial or by direct shear tests (UU-tests) or by fall-
cone tests. Each significant layer should be investigated separately (Ekström, 1994b).
Also the grain size distribution, water content, liquid and plastic limits as well as the
content of humus and sulphide should be determined separately for each layer.
125
Fall-cone tests often indicate an undrained shear strength, which is 1.5 to 3.0 times
higher than the shear strength as determined by unconfined compression tests. Also
triaxial tests as well as fall-cone and laboratory vane tests indicate a shear strength, which
often is higher than the shear strength determined by unconfined compression tests. The
undrained shear strength as determined by unconfined compression tests of samples cut or
cored in-situ from actual lime columns is often too low due to fissures and cracks in the
stabilized cores. The shear strength as determined by vane and fall-cone tests had to be
reduced, when used in stability calculations. The required reduction depends mainly on
the consistency limits of the soil and on the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) as pointed out
by Bjerrum (1972), Helenelund (1977) and by Aas et al (1986). The required reduction is
large for organic soils especially when the water content is high.
126
Standard Piston Sampler, are pushed into the stabilized soil after the mixing (Edstam and
Carlsten, 1999). The uniformity of the compacted samples is high.
127
It may be possible to reduce considerably the time, which is required to determine the
increase of the shear strength with time by storing the samples at a higher temperature
than the ground temperature (Åhnberg and Holm, 1987). However, there might be an
upper limit on the storage temperature. Åhnberg et al (1995) indicate that the maximum
storage temperature is 50oC to 60oC for soils with a high water content and 30oC to 40oC
for soil with a low water content.
In Finland (Viatek, 1997) the temperature during the storage of the samples is often
varied to correspond to the variation of the ground temperature in-situ. The soil, which is
stabilized with lime should be stored at 50oC during the first 2 hours, at 22o C during the
following 46 hours and at 8oC thereafter. Soils stabilized by lime/cement and cement
should be stored for 48 hours at 22oC and at 8oC thereafter. The storage temperature
proposed by Viatek (1997) appears to be reasonable. It is recommended that a variable
storage temperature should be used in Sweden.
An axial load has also been applied during the storage to simulate the stress
conditions in-situ. Axelsson et al (1996) used an axial load, which corresponded to the
effective overburden pressure caused by a 1.0 m thick layer with granular fill.
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11. I'STALLATIO' OF LIME, LIME/CEME'T A'D
CEME'T COLUM'S
11.1. Installation Methods.
11.1.1. General.
At the dry method dry lime, cement or lime/cement is mixed in-situ with the soft soil
during the installation of the columns using e.g. the mixing tool shown in Fig. 61. Single
columns are generally installed in a rectangular, a square or a triangular pattern. The
spacing of the columns is usually 0.8 to 2.0 m depending mainly on the diameter of the
columns (Edstam, 1997).
The columns can also be installed in rows. Every second column is usually installed
during the first phase of the installation and the remaining columns during the second
phase. It is important that the overlap of the columns is sufficient so that the high shear
force, which occurs at the center of the column rows, can be resisted. The spacing of the
column rows is usually 1.6 to 3.0 m and the diameter of the columns is normally 0.6 m in
Sweden and Finland. Also larger diameter columns are used. Inclining the columns can
reduce the shear force. The maximum inclination is 1H:5V.
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11.1.2. Lime, Lime/Cement and Cement Column Machines.
There are three contractors in Sweden and Finland namely Fundator, Herculus
Grundläggning and LC Markteknik, which can install lime and lime/cement columns
(Bredenberg, 1999). The capacity of the machines used in Sweden is about 400 to 1000 m
in eight hours under favorable conditions. About 30 to 40 lime/cement columns with a
length of 10m can normally be installed during an eight-hour shift. The time required for
the manufacture of one lime column is about 60% to 70% of the time required for a
cement column at the same length of the columns and the same rotational velocity of the
mixing tool since a higher retrieval rate can be used for lime compared with cement
columns. The capacity of the machines increases in general with increasing length of the
columns.
The capacity of the machines, which are used on land in Japan, is 100 to 150 m3
per day, which is about the same as the capacity of the machines in Sweden. Two
columns are generally installed simultaneously in Japan while in Sweden only one
column is installed at the same time. The capacity of the floating machines which are
used in Japan for marine works is very high, more than 1000 m3/day. Up to eight
overlapping columns are installed at the same time.
Buried utilities (water, sewer and gas lines, telephone and electric cables) affect the
installation of the columns especially in urban areas. Sometimes the location of some of
the columns had to be changed. Often the columns had to be complemented by berms to
provide sufficient stability of an embankment or of a slope (Carlsten and Oucha, 1993).
Stones, boulders, old timber piles and tree roots in the soil will reduce the capacity
as well as a stiff surface crust or a thick granular fill. The capacity is reduced by about
50% when the penetration resistance at the Swedish weight-sounding test (WST) is 20
ht/0.2 m (Carlsten and Eriksson, 1995). It is also difficult to install the columns during the
winter when the thickness of the frozen ground exceeds about 0.1 m (Eriksson, 1998).
The weight of the lime and the lime/cement column machines in Sweden is high, up
to 39 metric tons, when fully loaded. The height of the mast is 12 to 22 m. The maximum
inclination of the mast is 70 degrees. The contact pressure for most machines is about 24
to 38 kPa. The undrained shear strength of the soft soil to be stabilized should be at least
5 to 7 kPa to ensure that the bearing capacity is sufficient (qult = 5 cu, soil ). The ground
should preferably be level during the installation of the columns. The maximum
inclination is about 1H:10V. The machines are difficult to move when the slope exceeds
about 1V:7H to 1V:11H. This limits the installation of the columns in steep slopes.
The container for the storage of the lime and the cement has one or two
compartments. With only one compartment it is necessary to mix the lime and the cement
before the stabilizers are placed in the storage tank. When the storage tank has two
separate compartments the lime and the cement are mixed during the installation of the
columns. Two different systems are required to monitor separately the amount of lime
and cement, which is injected.
Compressed air is used to force the lime and the cement through the kelly and the
mixing tool into the soil about 0.3 to 0.4 m above the tip during the retrieval of the
mixing tool. The columns are usually terminated 0.5 m to 1.0 m below the ground surface
to reduce the risk of blowouts. There is no lime or cement in the disturbed soil above the
columns down to 0.5 to 1.0 m depth below the ground surface.
The amount of lime and cement, which is added, is recorded at the storage tank
about 20 to 40 m from the mixing tool. Therefore the recorded amount does not
130
correspond to the depth of the mixing tool indicated on the chart as pointed out by
Ekström (1994b). It is therefore desirable to control and to measure the amount of
stabilizer at the mixing tool rather than at the storage tank.
131
the configuration of the mixing tool had to be adjusted to the soil type and the shear
strength of the soil. An investigation of the efficiency of the different mixing tools that
are used today (2001) is needed and how the efficiency can be improved.
LC Markteknik (1996) has investigated the effect of the configuration of the mixing
tool on the shear strength of lime/cement columns. It was found that a change of the
configuration of the mixing tool could increased the shear strength of lime/cement
columns by 20% to 30% compared with the shear strength with the conventional mixing
tool shown in Fig. 61. Tränk and Edstam (1997) report, however, that the configuration
of the mixing tool has little effect on the shear strength of the stabilized soil.
It is expected that the effectiveness of the mixing tool will increase with increasing
number of arms or paddles. In Sweden, Finland and Japan the number of arms, which are
used, varies. In Japan 4 to 6 arms are common. However, it is difficult to penetrate a
granular fill, a stiff surface crust or a sand or gravel layer when the number of arms is
large. It is also difficult to penetrate a layer with frozen soil when the thickness of the
frozen layer exceeds about 0.1 m.
The trailing edge of the arms could be serrated in order to increase the mixing as
discussed by Ekström and Tränk (1986) and by Larsson (1997). The leading edge could
be provided with teeth in order to improve the penetration. The pitch of the arms also
affects the penetration rate and the mixing. The mixing can probably be improved by
increasing the inclination of the arms or of the paddles.
The mixing can also be improved if two overlapping mixing tools are used instead
of a single tool. The direction of the rotation of the two mixing units should be different
as pointed out by Larsson (1997). It is also important to distribute the lime and the cement
evenly over the cross-section. The distribution of the stabilizer especially for long and for
large diameter columns can likely be improved if the lime and the cement are injected just
below the mixing arms. It is also possible that an increase of the rotational velocity can
improve the distribution over the cross-section when the diameter of the columns is large,
0.8 or 1.0 m.
The extent of the mixing on the shear strength of the stabilized soil has been
investigated. Test results indicate that the shear strength as determined by unconfined
compression tests 21 days after the mixing increased with increasing extent of the mixing.
The distribution of lime and cement became more uniform over the cross-section and
along the samples. The required extent of the mixing is larger for cement than for lime
columns
Also Locat et al (1990) and Nishida et al (1996) have reported that the shear
strength of the stabilized soil increases with increasing extent of the mixing. The required
mixing was found to be less for clays with a high sensitivity ratio to obtain the required
shear strength compared with clays with a low sensitivity ratio. The sensitivity ratio of the
stabilized clay increased gradually with time to about 10 after 300 days (Locat et al,
1990).
The required mixing also increases with increasing plasticity of the clay and with
increasing shear strength of the soil. It is expected that the mixing will be improved and
the required extent of the mixing will be reduced at the wet method using cement slurry
when the initial shear strength of the soil is high and the water content is low compared
with the dry method due to the reduced shear strength of the remoulded soil when the
water content is increased. Layers with pure lime and cement have been found in silt and
silty clay in the columns at the dry method when the shear strength of the unstabilised soil
was high and the sensitivity was low.
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The distribution of stabilizer over the cross-section will improve with increasing
water content and with decreasing shear strength of the remoulded soil. The high shear
strength of quick clays, which has been stabilized with lime is at least partly caused by the
improved mixing due to the low shear strength of the remoulded soil.
The shear strength of the stabilized soil increases in general with increasing number
of revolutions of the mixing tool and with decreasing retrieval rate. The shear strength has
been found to increase almost linearly with increasing rotation speed and with decreasing
rise/revolution up to about 4 mm/rev. A better mixing and a higher shear strength have
been obtained when the rise/revolution is small (Dong et al, 1996).
A higher shear strength has been obtained when the blades of the mixing tool were
thin compared with the shear strength with relatively thick blades. Johansson and Jons
(1995) have found that a mixing tool with reversed inclination of the blades gave uniform
columns also close to the ground surface. The experience with presently used mixing
tools has in general been satisfactory when the sensitivity of the clay has exceeded 10 and
the liquid limit has been larger than 50 (Eriksson, 1998).
The shear strength of the stabilized soil generally varies along the columns and over
the cross-section even when the mixing had been done thoroughly. Sometimes there has
been a concentration of lime and cement at the center of the columns (e.g. Johansson and
Jons, 1995). There the shear strength has been low with lime (Broms, 1984a). With
lime/cement and cement the shear strength is often high at the center of the columns,
which affects the evaluation of the shear strength especially at reversed penetration tests
(FOPS). There is also a tendency for lime and cement to be concentrated at the periphery
of the columns due to the high air pressure, which is used during the installation of the
columns (Axelsson and Larsson, 1994). Also the proportion of lime and cement can vary
over the cross-section as indicated by Holm et al (1987a).
Measuring the increase of the temperature of the stabilized soil just after the mixing
can check the mixing. It is possible that the effect of the mixing on the shear strength of
the unstabilized soil can be expressed in terms of the rapidity index Rn as proposed by
Söderblom (1974) or by the disturbance ratio as proposed by Massarsch (1976).
It has also been observed that the diameter of some of the excavated columns has a
tendency to decrease with increasing depth (“carrot shape”) possibly due to the increase
of the confining pressure and of the shear strength of the soft soil with increasing depth. It
may not be possible to distribute the lime and the cement uniformly over the cross-section
when the confining pressure is high as discussed by Larsson (1997). It is expected that a
more uniform distribution can be obtained by the wet than by the dry method when the
initial shear strength is high.
Aggregation is expected with quicklime during the mixing because of the reduction
of the water content of the unstabilized clay locally next to the layers with quicklime. It is
expected that the shear strength of the clay will be high next to a lime layer, where the
reduction of the water content is large. Local pockets with soft clay can therefore be
expected in the columns.
Lime and cement are usually injected during the retrieval of the mixing tool. In
Japan cement slurry is injected either during the penetration or during the withdrawal.
Yoshizawa et al (1996) indicate that is it difficult to use penetration injection for long
columns since the shear strength of the stabilized soil increases very rapidly during the
mixing and that it is difficult to retrieve the mixing tool when the shear strength is high.
The mixing will be reduced, however, if lime or cement is injected during the withdrawal
instead of during the initial penetration. The coefficient of variation will increase in that
case.
133
The lime and the cement contents can be low at the bottom of the columns because
the lime and the cement are injected 0.3 to 0.4 m above the tip of the mixing tool.
Eriksson (1998) has described a case where the stabilizing material was injected close to
the bottom of the mixing tool and where the shape was adjusted to fit the slope of the
underlying steeply sloping rock surface. It was then possible to eliminate the layer with
unimproved soft soil below the columns.
The mixing tool can also be moved up and down a few times at the bottom of the
columns in order to improve the point resistance. According to Eriksson (1998) the
bottom of the columns will be 0.1 to 0.2 m below the hole for the injection of the
stabilizer. The stabilized soil is compacted during the retrieval of the standard mixing tool
since the blades are scewed
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In Norway a rotational velocity of at least 150 rpm is specified for columns with 0.5
and 0.6 m diameter (Statens Vegvesen, 1995). The rotational velocity for large diameter
columns should be at least 175 rpm. In Japan the rotational velocity is low, usually 20 to
60 rev/min. Yoshizawa et al (1996) have reported that the mixing and the shear strength
of the stabilized soil increased with increasing rotational velocity. A retrieval rate of 2.0
m/min and a rotational velocity of 60 rev/min correspond to a retrieval rate of 33 mm/rev,
which is higher than the retrieval rate used in Sweden and Finland (15 to 25 mm/rev). A
relatively high retrieval rate is thus used in Japan due to the efficient mixing units, which
are used there. The number of mixing arms or blades in Japan is high, 4 to 6, and thus
higher than in Sweden.
There is some uncertainty about the distribution of lime and cement over the cross-
section and thus of the uniformity when the rotational velocity of the mixing tool is very
high especially for large diameter columns. In Japan it is common practice to treat the soil
at the bottom of each column for about 2 to 8 minutes to ensure that the mixing is
sufficient. Also in Sweden it is common to rotate the mixing tool for several minutes at
the bottom of the columns. The practice varies between the different contractors.
135
with 0.363 at the center. The undrained shear strength was about the same. Also
Wananabe et al (1996) has described a mixing unit, which can manufacture columns with
a rectangular cross-section.
Inclined lime, lime/cement and cement columns can be used to increase the
efficiency when they are used to stabilize trenches for sewer, water or heating pipes. It
should be noted that the lateral earth pressure on a column wall decreases rapidly with
increasing inclination of the wall. The maximum inclination is about 1H:1V.
The maximum length of the columns has gradually increased and today (2002)
columns with a length of up to 15 to 20 m can be installed by most machines. The
maximum length of lime and lime/cement columns is 26 m (Ekström, 1992). In the
1970´s the maximum length was 10 m.
The column length can be varied depending on the soil conditions, the required
shear strength and the maximum allowable total and differential settlement. In many cases
it is not necessary that the columns extend down to a firm or a stiff layer if the shear
resistance and the factor of safety along a slip surface passing through or below the
columns are sufficient. The shear strength of a normally or slightly overconsolidated clay
increases with increasing depth while the compressibility of the soil is reduced. The
largest settlement usually occurs close to the ground surface.
136
The shear strength of the soil stabilised with cement has been found to decrease
with increasing storage time for the cement. The reduction can be as large as 30% after
six months and 50% after two years.
It is particularly important to check that the overlap and the shear strength of the
stabilized soil is sufficient in the overlapping zone for column rows located in the shear
zone of the assumed slip surface The maximum permissible inclination of the columns
which governs the overlap, is 15 mm/m (1/65) according to Carlsten and Eriksson (1997).
This inclination corresponds to a deviation of up to 150 mm at a depth of 10 m, which
exceeds the required overlap, 50 mm.
138
to determine the possible variation of the shear strength and of the bearing capacity of the
columns. Usually the longest columns are investigated.
It is not always necessary to check in Sweden and Finland the shear strength and
the bearing capacity of the columns for small jobs when the total length of the columns is
less than about 5,000 m and the factor of safety Fs > 1.0 without the columns (Carlsten
and Ekström, 1995, 1997). It is often less expensive for small jobs to increase the number
of columns than to check the shear strength and the bearing capacity of a few columns.
For medium size jobs, when the total length is between 5,000 m and 50,000 m, about 1%
of the total number of columns should be investigated when Fs > 1.0 without the columns.
When the total length of the columns exceeds 50,000 m, at least 0.5% of all columns
should be investigated when Fs > 1.0. Viatek (1997) recommends that 1% should be
tested when the total length exceeds 40,000 m.
When Fs < 1.0 without the columns, about 2% of the total number of columns
should be tested irrespective of the size of the column installation. Special test columns
are required for large jobs (> 50,000 m). The Swedish National Rail Administration
requires that at least 1% of all columns should be tested. The percentage could be reduced
to 0.5% under favorable conditions when the main purpose is to reduce the settlements.
Additional checking might be required when large stones or boulders, old timber
piles etc. occur in the soil, which could affect the installation of the columns and when
the length of the columns is larger than expected. Additional testing is also required when
the deviation with respect to the location and the inclination of the columns is excessive
or the retrieval rate or the rotational velocity of the mixing tool has been excessive. The
bearing capacity of rejected columns should be checked in order to determine to which
extent these columns could be utilized (Eriksson, 1998).
In Japan every 10,000 m3 of the stabilized soil should be investigated for marine
works by borings while for projects on-land every 3,000 m3 should be checked (Okumura,
1996). The extent of the testing is thus less extensive in Japan than in Sweden and
Finland.
12.1.6. Documentation.
The date of the installation of each column should be recorded as well as the
sequence of the installation, the amount of lime and cement added, the type of machine
and mixing tool, which are used, the air pressure, the rotational velocity, the penetration
and the retrieval rates. The location, length and size of the columns as well as the weather
conditions and difficulties encountered during the installation of the columns if any such
as boulders, large stones, tree roots, old timber piles, etc. should also be recorded. It is
also important to document the deviations of the columns if any from the intended
locations. The maximum deviation of single columns is 100 mm while for column rows
the maximum allowable deviation is 50 mm. The maximum deviation from the specified
inclination is usually 20 mm/m. Under favorable conditions the maximum deviation is 10
mm/m. It is especially important for column rows and column grids that the deviation
from the specified location and inclination is as small as possible. Otherwise the overlap
might not be sufficient and the column rows might not behave as intended.
The amount of lime and cement, which is added during the mixing, should be
recorded as a function of the depth. It has been observed that the variation of the cement
and the lime content is often large both along and over the column cross-section, which
will affect the average shear strength and the bearing capacity of the columns. The
maximum allowable deviation is usually 10% or 2.0 to 3.5 kg/m for a 0.6 m diameter
column. The lime and the cement often occur as lenses in the columns, which will reduce
locally the shear strength.
139
It is also important to document all deviations of the location of the columns,
which do not meet the specifications as well as the location of replacement columns, the
heave and the lateral displacements if any within the site.
140
Fig. 62. Extraction of Column
Unconfined compression tests have been carried out with 1.0 m long column
segments cut from extracted 0.5 m diameter lime columns. The shear strength of the
excavated part can be determined by e.g. a pocket penetrometer, when the shear strength
is high, or by fall-cone or field vane tests, when the shear strength of the stabilized soil is
low.
141
shown in Fig. 63, is used when the shear strength is less than about 150 to 300 kPa and
the length of the columns is less than about 8 m. The best application of the method is
when the shear strength is less than 100 to 150 kPa and the length of the columns does
not exceed 8 to 10 m (Ekström, 1994b). KPS cannot be used in stiff to hard soils due to
the high penetration resistance.
The penetration rate should be about 20 mm/sec. The maximum deviation from the
desired rate is 50%. A force of 22.5 kN (2.25 t) is required to push down a 0.5x0.015 m
column penetrometer through a column with an undrained shear strength of 300 kPa. It is
often difficult to push down the column penetrometer further due to the high penetration
resistance and the required high reaction force.
The column penetrometer has a tendency to deviate from the columns when the
depth exceeds about 6 to 8 m (Ekström, 1992). The risk that the column penetrometer
will deviate is relatively small when the length of the columns is less than 8 to 10 m and
142
the shear strength is less than 100 to 150 kPa (Ekström, 1994b). It is often difficult to
determine if the measured low shear strength at KPS corresponds to the shear strength of
the stabilized soil in the columns or has been caused by the deviation of the probe outside
the column. Also the shaft resistance along the column penetrometer can affect the
results.
The width of the penetrometer wings is 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 m to check columns with
0.5, 0.6 and 0.8 m diameter, respectively. The thickness of the lower edge of the
penetrometer wings is 15 or 20 mm depending on the size of the wings. The penetration
rate is usually 20 mm/sec.
Typical results from KPS tests are shown in Fig. 64 for columns stabilized by
lime/cement. It can be seen that the penetration resistance is high compared with that of
the unstabilized soil and that the variation of the penetration resistance is large along the
column. The variation is often larger for lime columns than for lime/cement and cement
columns. The reason for the large variation for lime columns is probably aggregation and
the inhomogeneous structure of the columns. Water is drawn locally from the unstabilized
soft clay next to layers or pockets with unslaked lime. As a result the penetration
resistance of lime columns can locally be very high.
Often the hole after the kelly cannot be used to guide the penetrometer in
lime/cement columns since the shear strength of the stabilized soil at the center of the
columns usually is high. Predrilling can increase the maximum depth, which can be
investigated by KPS. The diameter of the predrilled hole is usually 50 to 65 mm. Ekström
(1994b) has reported that 80% of the predrilled holes have been successful down to a
maximum depth of 12 to 15 m in 2 to 4 weeks old lime/cement columns. It is important
that the columns are vertical and that the predrilling of the vertical holes is done very
carefully.
The undrained shear strength of the stabilized soil is calculated at KPS by the
following equation
cu = ap Q / Apen (12.1)
where Q is the measured penetration resistance and Apen is the cross-sectional area
of the penetrometer. The area of the penetrometer with 0.4 m and 0.5 m wide wings is
0.01 m2. A value of 0.1 is usually used for the column penetrometer factor ap which
corresponds to a bearing capacity factor Nc of 10. The shaft resistance is usually
neglected. The shaft resistance can be estimated by column penetration tests in the
unstabilized soil between the columns.
Test results indicate that the column penetrometer factor can vary between 0.09 and
0.13. Axelsson and Larsson(1994) found that ap varied between 0.10 and 0.092. Ekström
(1994a) has reported that the shear strength as determined by KPS was 76% to 126% of
the undrained shear strength determined by pressiometer tests at ap = 0.10 and 76% to
86% of the shear strength determined by in-situ screw plate tests. The variation of the
penetration resistance is often large (Almqvist and Erikmats,1994; Jendeby, 1994)
probably due to an uneven distribution of lime and cement over the column cross-section.
The volume of soil, which is tested at column penetration tests is small, less than
8% for a 0.6 m diameter column. There is thus considerable uncertainty about the
reliability of the results from column penetration tests (KPS) with respect to the average
shear strength and the average bearing capacity of the columns.
An improved column penetrometer is shown in Fig. 64, where the average
penetration resistance is measured for a length, which corresponds at least to the diameter
143
of the investigated column. The penetration resistance determined by the proposed
column penetrometer gives a better indication of the bearing capacity of the columns than
the presently used column penetrometer KPS. Local variations of the shear strength of the
columns will have less effect on the measured penetration resistance with the proposed
penetrometer than at KPS.
144
strength of about 600 kPa. The width of the penetrometer wings can be reduced when the
maximum shear resistance is high, larger than 600 kPa.
It is important to seal the penetrometer shaft carefully when the penetrometer unit is
installed at the same time as the column to prevent leakage of lime and cement through
the annulus at the bottom of the mixing tool during the manufacture of the columns. The
wire should be pulled about 0.1 m a few days after the installation of the penetrometer
unit to
145
free the wire from the column in order to reduce the shaft resistance, when the shear
strength of the stabilized soil in the columns is still low. The force to free the wire can be
high, higher than the force to pull the penetrometer unit up through the column. The force
can be up to 100 kN (Ekström, 1994b). The additional time, which is required to install
the penetrometer unit at the same time as the column is 10 to 15 minutes.
The penetrometer unit can be installed a few days after the installation of the
columns when the shear strength is still low. In that case the penetrometer unit can be
pushed down through the column by a steel pipe about 2 m below the column to be
tested. There the penetrometer unit is rotated 90 degrees. The penetrometer unit is left in
place until the testing. By measuring the penetration resistance when the penetrometer
unit is pushed down through the column it is possible to check if the penetrometer unit
has deviated from the investigated column.
A high strength steel wire with a tensile strength of about 180 kN is used at FOPS
to pull the penetrometer unit up through the column at a constant velocity, about 20
mm/sec. The shear strength of the stabilized soil as determined by column penetration
tests can be less than the shear strength of samples stabilized in the laboratory when the
undrained shear strength is high, larger than about 150 kPa as reported by Åhnberg et al
(1989). The difference can be large for cement columns, where the shear strength of the
stabilized soil can be 50% to 70% of the shear strength as determined by unconfined
compression tests with laboratory samples. The shear strength as determined by FOPS is
often 50% to 100% higher than the shear strength determined by CPT due to the high
resistance along the high strength steel wire at FOPS.
The shear strength as determined by unconfined compression tests on cores from
the columns has been about the same as the shear strength determined by FOPS. Ekström
(1994b) has reported, that the shear strength with CPT agreed closely with the results
from KPS with a cone factor of 20 at CPT. This value on Nk corresponds to the values,
which have been reported in the literature for stiff to hard clays.
Eq 12.1 is used to evaluate the undrained shear strength of the stabilized soil at
FOPS. However, the penetration resistance can be higher than 10 times the undrained
shear strength of the stabilized soil. The calculated shear resistance from FOPS can be
higher than the shear strength as determined by a conventional column penetration tests
(KPS) or by unconfined compression tests on cores obtained in-situ when the shear
strength is high. Axelsson and Larsson (1994) have observed that the penetration
resistance at FOPS was 70% times higher than the penetration resistance at KPS.
Rogbeck (1997) has reported that the penetration resistance at FOPS has been up to twice
the penetration resistance at KPS. The high penetration resistance at FOPS has been
partly attributed to friction along the preinstalled wire caused by leakage of lime/cement
at the bottom of the mixing tool during the installation of the columns. It is desirable to
install a few wires without the penetrometer unit in a few columns so that the friction
force along the wire can be determined separately. It is also desirable to supplement
FOPS by KPS or by load tests on excavated columns.
FOPS has several advantages compared with KPS since a larger force can be
applied at FOPS than at KPS to pull the penetrometer unit up through the columns. The
required reaction force can easily be provided at FOPS. The shaft resistance along the
wire is generally less with FOPS compared with the shaft resistance at KPS once the wire
has been freed. There is a risk, however, at FOPS to loose the penetrometer unit when the
shear strength at any level in the column is high. The costs for FOPS are about three to
four times the costs for KPS depending on the installation method used for the
penetrometer unit at FOPS.
146
The ultimate bearing capacity of the columns is generally lower than the undrained
shear strength as estimated by penetration or pressuremeter tests because of cracks and
fissures in the stabilized soil. The shear strength as determined by column penetration
tests using a value of 0.1 on column penetration factor ap is often 10% to 150% higher
than the shear strength as determined by unconfined compression tests.
147
12.1.15. Pocket penetrometer, Fall-Cone and Pocket Vanes
Pocket penetrometers and pocket vanes have been used to determine the variation
of the shear strength and of the lime and cement contents over the cross-section of the
excavated columns (Axelsson and Larsson, 1994; Johansson and Jons, 1995). These are
inexpensive and relatively rapid methods. They are often combined with column
soundings. Also fall-cone tests have been used to check the variation of the shear strength
along retrieved columns.
148
the two methods has varied between 0.7 and 1.4. The average ratio is close to 1.0
(Axelsson and Larsson, 1994).
Test results reported by Boman (1979) indicate that the thickness of the blades at
the field vane tests can affect the measured shear strength due to the disturbance of the
soil during the insertion of the vane into the columns. The field vane test has the
disadvantages that the method is relatively time consuming and that only part of the
cross-section of the columns is tested.
149
installation. At the dilatometer tests, which were carried out by Ekström (1994b), the
dilatometer deviated from the investigated columns at 3 to 5 m depth. The measured
compression modulus Mcol corresponded to 300 cu,col. The estimated shear strength was
25% to 50% lower than the shear strength determined by column penetration tests (KPS).
The shear wave velocity vs is related to the modulus of elasticity Ecol as follows
where Gcol and Ecol are the shear modulus and the modulus of elasticity of the stabilized
soil, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m2/sec) and γsoil is the unit weight of the
stabilized soil. The modulus of elasticity is related to the unconfined compressive
strength qu,col in MPa as follows
Nishikawa et al (1996) have reported, that the increase of the shear wave velocity
with increasing unconfined compressive strength and with increasing shear strength is
small compared with the large scatter of the results.
A sonic testing method has been used by Tamura et al (1996) to check the integrity
of cement columns by striking the top of the column by a light hammer. The response was
measured by a geophone or an accelerometer at the top of the column. The test results are
not very promising, however. Calibration is required for each soil type since the increase
of the compression and of the shear wave velocities (PS-logging) with increasing
unconfined compressive strength is small.
150
The shear wave velocity has also been measured in-situ in Sweden at different
depths of the investigated columns (Axelsson, 1996) by a probe, which is lowered into a
hole which is cored or drilled at the center of the columns. The hole is filled with water to
improve the transmission of the shear waves generated by the probe. There is
considerable uncertainty about the evaluation of the undrained shear strength from the
measured shear modulus since the dynamic shear modulus is affected by the strain level,
the strain rate and by the depth. The experience with the method is limited. Additional
field tests are required before the results can be used with confidence.
Resistivity and density logging have also been used to check the quality of the
columns. Hosoya et al (1996) indicate, however, that the correlation of the resistively
with the unconfined compressive strength of the stabilized soil in the columns is poor.
12.1.23. Coring.
Coring had to be used to check the stability, when the shear strength of the
stabilized soil exceeds 500 to 600 kPa and when it is not possible to check the columns
by column penetration tests, KPS or FOPS. However, the cost for the coring is high,
about 1000 to 1500 SEK/m. The cost is about 8 to 10 times higher than the costs for a
column penetration test.
Coring is common in Japan, where mainly cement columns with a high
compressive strength, are used. A double or triple tube sampler with 102 mm diameter is
used in Japan for the coring depending on the shear strength of the soil, while in Sweden
the diameter is usually 50 mm to reduce the costs. The coring is usually carried out away
from the center of the columns, where the shear strength is more representative of the
average shear strength than at the center where there is often a concentration of stabilizer.
The difference can be large, up to 40% according to Adén and Holm (1993).
The recovered samples are often cracked, which will reduce the measured
unconfined compressive strength (Hosoya et al, 1996) even when the diameter of the
cores is large. Coring has also been used in Sweden to check the shear strength, when the
shear strength of the stabilized soil is high, larger than 600 kPa. Coring cannot be used
when the shear strength is low since the cores have a tendency to fall apart during the
coring and the trimming. Axelsson and Larsson (1994) have reported that it was not
possible to test 90% of the cores from the lime/cement columns installed at Grundbro
along “Svealandsbanan”, a large railroad project in the middle of Sweden. The core
recovery as reported by Ekström (1994b) was 65% to 85%. There is therefore a tendency
to overestimate the shear strength of the columns by coring since only the cores with a
sufficient length and a relatively high shear strength are tested. The core recovery has
been 40% to 90% with a triple tube core barrel with 52 mm inside diameter.
Unconfined compression and triaxial tests (UU- and CU-tests) have been used to
determine the shear strength of the recovered cores. It is generally assumed in the
interpretation of the results from unconfined compression tests that the friction angle φu,col
= 0 and that the undrained shear strength cu,col = 0.5 qu,col. However, the undrained friction
angle φu,col can be high, about 30 degrees, which affects the evaluation of the shear
strength.
At triaxial consolidated-undrained tests (CU-tests) the effective shear strength of
the soil τfd can be determined when the pore water pressures are measured. Ekström
(1994b) has reported that the shear strength as determined by unconfined compression
tests on cores has been higher than the shear strength estimated from penetration tests.
Experience in Sweden indicates that the shear strength of recovered cores has been
lower than the in-situ shear strength of retrieved columns, by column penetration tests,
151
CPT and FOPS or the shear strength of column segments. The variation of the calculated
shear strengths has been large. The shear strength of samples from retrieved columns has
been up to 5 to 10 times higher than the shear strength of cores (Christensen et al, 1998a,
1998b).
It might be possible to sample the columns immediately after the installation using a
50 mm piston sampler, when the shear strength still is low and to store the samples in the
laboratory at the anticipated ground temperature until the samples are tested. In this way it
should be possible to obtain more representative values on the in-situ shear strength of the
columns.
The in-situ shear strength of cement columns has been found to correspond to the
unconfined compressive strength of laboratory samples (Chida, 1981). Mizutani et al
(1996) have reported, however, that the unconfined compressive strength of cores
obtained in-situ from columns has been as low as 60% to 75% of the shear strength of
laboratory samples. Nishida et al (1996) have observed that the shear strength could be
only 1/3rd of the shear strength of laboratory samples. This large difference has been
attributed to the difference in mixing energy between laboratory tests and the installation
of the columns. Ekström (1994b) has reported that the variation of the unconfined
compressive strength has been very large for cores compared with laboratory samples.
The unconfined compressive strength varied between 1/3rd to 3.0 times the strength of
the laboratory samples.
Bergado et al (1996) have reported that the in-situ shear strength with cement has
been about half of the shear strength of laboratory samples. Also Hermann and Eggen
(1992) have reported that the field shear strength has been considerably lower than the
shear strength of laboratory mixed samples. The shear strength of the stabilized soil was
300 to 500 kPa. The initial shear strength was 15 to 30 kPa and the sensitivity 5 to 40.
The water content was 30% to 40% .
In Japan cores of the installed columns are usually obtained 2 to 3 weeks after the
installation using a double-tube or a triple-tube sampler (Hosoya et al, 1997). The average
shear strength as determined by unconfined compression or by triaxial tests and the
coefficient of variation are used as a measure of the quality of the columns. Also the
penetration rate at the coring has been used in Japan to check the variation of the shear
strength and of the bearing capacity of the columns. However, the correlation between the
coring rate and the unconfined compressive strength had to be established for each site.
Also the core recovery ratio (RQD-value) is used to evaluate the quality of the
recovered samples. The RQD-value generally increases with increasing diameter of the
samples. However, the method of coring, the skill of the driller, the selection of the
samples to be tested and the preparation of the samples had to be considered in the
interpretation of the results. Only the “best” samples with the highest shear strengths are
usually investigated because the length of the cores is not sufficient when the shear
strength of the stabilized soil is low. The samples often fall apart during the preparation.
The in-situ shear strength as determined by unconfined or by triaxial tests on
samples obtained by coring is often affected by cracks caused by the coring when the
shear strength is high due to bending, locking and rotation of the samples during the
coring (Hosoya et al, 1997). Rogbeck (1997) has reported that the shear strength as
determined by unconfined compression tests has varied between a few kPa to a maximum
of 150 to 210 kPa.
Also the size of the samples affects the results. The unconfined compressive
strength (qu,col) of 60 mm diameter samples has been 87% of the unconfined compressive
strength of 400 mm diameter samples. However, Futaki et al (1996) and Hosoya et al
(1996) have found that the measured shear strength decreased with increasing size of the
152
investigated samples and that the bearing capacity of the columns was governed by weak
layers in the columns. The reduction can be 40% to 60% for large-size columns compared
with the shear strength of small-size samples.
It is recommended that the diameter of the recovered samples should be at least 150
mm since the reduction of the unconfined compression strength is small when the
diameter exceeds 150 mm. There is a need of a standard for unconfined compression tests
of soils stabilized by lime, lime/cement or cement.
It is often difficult to obtain undisturbed cores in-situ from the columns when the
shear strength is high. The measured shear strength will therefore vary with the size and
the location of the samples. The shear strength as determined by unconfined compression
tests on samples prepared in the laboratory is often used to estimate the in-situ shear
strength and the increase of the shear strength, which can be expected with time at
different lime and cement contents. The shear strength increases in general with
increasing time after the mixing and with increasing temperature during the storage of the
samples.
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13. REFERE'CES
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a = Area ratio
a = Constant
b = Width of loaded area, m
b = Width of column group, m
b = Constant
c´col = Effective cohesion of the stabilized soil in the columns, kPa
c´col,res = Effective residual cohesion of the stabilized soil kPa
c´soi = Effective cohesion of the unstabilized soil, kPa
cu, coil = Shear strength of stabilized soil in the columns, kPa
cu, soil = Shear strength of unstabilised soil, kPa
cuo, cu1, cu2, cu3 = Undrained shear strength, kPa
cu / p´v = Ratio of undrained shear strength and effective overburden pressure
cu, c = Characteristic undrained shear strength, kPa
cv = Coefficient of consolidation, m2/year
cvv = Coefficient of consolidation with respect to vertical drainage, m2/year
cvh = Coefficient of consolidation with respect to lateral drainage, m2/year
d = Diameter of columns, m
e = Void ratio
f = Distance to plastic hinge, m
fd = Cohesion and angle of internal friction to be used in design
fk = Characteristic strength of soil
f(n) = Factor (Eq.8.7)
h = Thickness of soil, m
hfil = Height of fill or embankment, m
kcol = Coefficient of permeability of the columns, m/s
172
kh = Permeability in the horizontal direction, m/s
ksoil = Coefficient of permeability of the soil, m/s
kv = Permeability in the vertical direction, m/s
k1 = Earth pressure coefficient
l = Length loaded area, m
m, mo = Stress factor
n = R/r
nc = Stress concentration ratio
p = Total pressure, kPa
pcr = Critical pressure, kPa
t = Time
q = Applied unit load, kPa
qcol, creep = Creep strength of column, kPa
qcol, res = Residual strength of column, kPa
qo = Unit load from embankment, kPa
qu = Unconfined compressive strength, kPa
qu, col = Ultimate bearing capacity of column, kN
quo, col = Ultimate unconfined bearing capacity of column, kN
r = Radius of column, m
w/c = Water/cement ratio
u = Pore water pressure, kPa
uo = Initial pore water pressure, kPa
w = Water content, %
wL = Liquid limit
wP = Plastic limit
∆w = Change of water content, %
z = Depth, m
15. CO'TE'T
0. SUMMARY
174
2.1.1. Applications in Sweden and Finland.
2.8.Tunnels.
2.8.1.Stabilization of Tunnels.
2.9. Traffic Vibrations and Vibrations Caused by Blasting and Pile Driving.
2.9.1.Reduction of Traffic Vibrations.
175
3.2. Shear Strength
3.2.1. General.
3.2.2. Undrained Shear Strength.
3.2.3. Undrained Shear Strength with Lime.
3.2.4. Undrained Shear Strength with Lime/Cement.
3.2.5. Undrained Shear Strength with Cement.
3.2.6. Undrained Shear Strength with Gypsum and Flyash.
3.2.7. Undrained Shear Strength with Blast Furnace Slag.
3.2.8. Undrained Shear Strength with Rice Husk Ash.
3.7. Permeability
3.7.1. General
3.7.2. Permeability with Lime.
3.7.3. Permeability with Lime/Cement.
3.7.4. Permeability with Cement.
3.7.5. Permeability with Gypsum.
176
3.8.2. Ground Temperature with Lime Columns.
3.8.3. Ground Temperature with Lime/Cement Columns.
3.8.4. Ground Temperature with Cement Columns
3.8.5. Ground Temperature with Granulated Blast Furnace Slag.
3.8.6. Effect of the Ground Temperature on Shear Strength.
177
6. BEHAVIOUR OF COLUM' ROWS
179
12.1.1. Extent of Testing.
12.1.2. Testing of Single Columns.
12.1.3. Checking of Column Rows, Blocks and Grids.
12.1.4. Checking of Column Groups.
12.1.5. Extent of Checking.
12.1.6. Documentation.
12.1.7. Retrieval of Columns.
12.1.8. Excavation of Columns.
12.1.9. Column Penetration Tests ( KPS).
12.1.10. Reversed Column Penetration Tests (FOPS).
12.1.11. Other Penetration Testing Methods.
12.1.12. Standard Penetration Tests (SPT).
12.1.13. Swedish Weight Sounding Method (WST).
12.1.14. Cone Penetration Tests (CPT and CPTU).
180