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INFLUENCE OF CHILD LABOR ON ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AMONG

JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN CALABAR
EDUCATION ZONE – COUNSELING INTERVENTION

Dr. (Mrs.) Pauline Ekpang

Department of Guidance and Counseling,
Faculty of Education,
University of Calabar
paulinekpan@gmail.com
+2347039477609

S. B. Esuabana
Department of Guidance and Counselling,
Faculty of Education, University of Calabar,
Calabar.

ABSTRACT
The study examined the influence of child labor on anti-social
behavior among junior secondary school students in Calabar
Education Zone of Cross River State. Survey design was adopted
for the study using ex-post facto. A total sample of 730 Junior
Secondary School class 3 students (JSS3) consisting of 425 male
and 305 female were selected from 6 secondary schools in the
area. Questionnaire instrument was used for data collection. The
data collected was subjected to statistical analysis of one-way
analysis of variance. The hypothesis was subjected to testing at
0.05 level of significance with relative degrees of freedom. The
findings revealed that, there is a significant influence of child labor
on anti-social behavior among junior secondary school three
students. It was further recommended that policy makers should
make appropriate laws to curb and ameliorate child abuse.
Parents, care-givers and other significant figures in the life of the
students should listen, hear, support, encourage, motivate, care
and love their students. Above all, the government should
establish counseling centre in schools in order to ensure
adequate and appropriate counseling of students. This could
foster good and acceptable behavior among the students as a
buffer against anti-social behavior.

KEYWORDS: Child labor, Anti-social Behavior, Junior Secondary School Students

Calabar Education Zone

INTRODUCTION
Child abuse is an issue of serious concern globally and mostly among African countries
in the contemporary times. In Nigeria, it has become a burning issue of prime concern in the
media and also in the minds of the people. Various researchers have defined child abuse in
various ways. According to Reuters (2011), child abuse is any act of failure to act by a parent or
other caregivers that result in actual or potential harm to a child. It includes physical abuse,
sexual abuse, psychological abuse or neglect, and can occur in a child's home or in the
organization, school or in the community. The child needs care, love, affection and attention
necessary for a healthy personality development. Today childhood faces great danger, United
Nations International Children's Emergency Funds (UNICEF, 2006).
Physical, psychological and sexual abuse involves acts of commission whereas neglect

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involves act of omission, and it is defined as failure by a caregiver to meet a child's basic
physical, emotional, medical/dental or educational needs. Wisdom, Zaja & Dutton (2014) and
Franks, Mata, Wofford, Briggs Le Blanc & Carr (2013). Among children confirmed as victims by
Child Protective Services (CPS) agencies in 2011, 681000 children were victims of abuse and
neglect nationwide. Overall, 78.5% of victims had experienced neglect and this was the most
common form of child maltreatment and 9.1% of the victims had been sexually abused. Franks,
Mata, Wofford, Briggs, Le Blance, & Carr (2013) and Stoltenborgh, Bakermans-Kranenburg, &
Van Ijzendoorn (2013.
Child abuse also refers to the harm that is done to children, which impedes the child's
development. Childhood represents a sensitive period that requires handling with greater care
and attention, child abuse has grave consequences. For one, it can lead to emotional distress,
dejection and frustration. It could also lead to uncontrollable aggression, bitterness, anger,
depression, disorderliness of life style, and unfulfilled dreams (Ogunbuyi, 2014). The World
Health Organization (WHO, 2016), defines child abuse and maltreatment as ""all forms or
physical, and/or emotional ill treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or
commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health,
survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship, trust or power. Ebigbo (2000)
states that child abuse includes child labor: This involves street hawking, as well as children
working as domestic helpers, sexual abuse, child battering, child prostitution, sexual harassment
among other social/institutional abuses.
Commenting on child labor, Isangedighi (2005) observes that child labor is the worst form
of child abuse. He noted that in streets and corners of towns and cities in Nigeria, hundreds of
children are seen selling variety of things ranging from groundnuts, vegetable oil, garri, rice,
plantain, beans, yams and pure-water when they should be in the school. Therefore, child labor
as an aspect of child abuse may predispose the child to truancy in the school especially, where it
involves hawking during school hours. Truancy which may be considered as an aspect of anti-
social behavior within the school system may be exhibited by the student due to his absenteeism
from school resulting in his dodging class sessions.
Sophisticated schemes were promulgated where children in these colonies between the
ages of 5 - 14 were hired as an apprentice without pay in exchange for learning a craft. A system
of apprenticeship came into practice in the 19th century where the colonial master neither
needed the native parents' nor child's approval to assign a child to labor, away from parents, at a
distant farm owned by a different colonial master Douglas (2009).
Other schemes include earn and learn programmes where children would work and
thereby learn. Britain for example passed a law, the so-called masters and servants Act of 1899,
followed by tax and pass law, to encourage child labor in colonies particularly in Africa. These
laws offered the native people the legal ownership to some of the native land in exchange for
making labor of wife and children available to colonial government's needs such as in farms and
picannins. Beyond laws new taxes were imposed on colonies. One of these taxes was the head
tax in the British and French colonial empires. The tax was imposed on everyone older than 8
years, in some colonies. To pay these taxes and cover living expense, children in colonial
households had to work Jack (2011), Karen (2008) and Jane (1980).
Child labor takes different dimensions including domestic or home labor, agricultural
labor and commercial labor. For the purpose of this study, the researcher intends to limit his
study to commercial and agricultural labor. Commercial labor is mostly prevalent in urban areas
where agricultural farming is not pronounced, while agricultural labor prevails in rural areas.
Experienced has shown that most children in the urban areas are made to sell in shops or
kiosks, hotels or bars, restaurants even during school hours. Some of the children also go about
hawking instead of being in school.
A study on child labor was carried out in Okigwe metropolis in Imo State (Nnachi & Uba,
2003), using a random sample of 143 teachers (128 females and 15 males). Percentages and
rank order were used to analyze the data. The result revealed a high prevalence rate of 34.27%
for child labor, and also indicated that 30% of the children were involved with unacceptable
behaviors, which include stealing, ganging, truancy and absenteeism from school.
In a similar development, a survey of prevalence child abuse through hawking as
perceived by parents and guardians was conducted by Enobong (2001) in Calabar municipality,

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Cross River State. The finding showed that most children were abused in one way or the other.
That out of 500 students, 360 were abuse emotionally, psychologically, physically, morally,
intellectually and socially. That in the early hours of the day, children are seen selling things such
as fruit juice, pure water, and so on. It was revealed also that such students are affected by a
variety of anti-social behaviors like rudeness (bullying), hostility and a host of others.
A research study on child labor was conducted by International Labor Organization (ILO)
(2002). The organization used interview technique to obtain data from 200 hawkers at Abidjan.
The result revealed that that employment of children to perform odd jobs has affected their
behaviors conduct, emotionally, socially and most of them are truants and bullies in school.
A study on child labor and its effects on the child was conducted by Moses (2005). He
used 250 respondents as his sample. Simple random sampling was adopted for the child
selection of the sample. Data were collected through questionnaire. Pearson product moment
correlation analysis was used to analyze the data. He lamented that child labor still remains a
serious problem in many parts of the world even when the United Nations Conventions on Right
of the Child (UNCRC) states clearly that government activities include street trading 43.6%,
selling in kiosks and in shops 25.4% and farming 23.6%. The girls were more often involved in
labor activities. Child labor was also significantly associated with increasing number of children in
family size. A higher prevalence rate of child labor was observed among children living with
parents and relations than among those living with unrelated guardians. Moreso, the study
indicated that smaller family size parental education, economic enhancement, would reduce the
pressure on parents to engage their children in labor activities that would deny their children full
educational participation leading to truancy and absenteeism in school.
A research study on child labor was conducted by International Labor Organization (ILO)
(2002). The organization used interview technique to obtain data from 200 hawkers at Abidjan.
The result revealed that that employment of children to perform odd jobs has affected their
behaviors conduct, emotionally, socially and most of them are truants and bullies in school. A
study on child labor and its effects on the child was conducted by Moses (2005). He used 250
respondents as his sample. Simple random sampling was adopted for the child selection of the
sample. Data were collected through questionnaire. Pearson product moment correlation
analysis was used to analyze the data. He lamented that child labor still remains a serious
problem in many parts of the world even when the United Nations Conventions on Right of the
Child (UNCRC) states clearly that government should recognize that right of the child be
protected from economic exploitation and performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or
harmful to the child's development or those that interfere with the child's education (Parekh,
2001). The implication of this is that when children are not given adequate basic educational
attention by the parents or care-giver as students, some may likely indulge themselves with bad
or anti-social behaviors, such as, hostility bullying or stealing among others, since the children do
not have enough time to read their books.
Similarly, Denga and Denga (2007), also suggested that there should be workshops,
seminars, conferences, churches, social works offices to create awareness on the right of the
child to live, be educated, express himself, play and be catered for. The involvement of students
in economic activities side by side with their educational engagement may breed truancy,
examination malpractice since the affected children could hardly be steady or regular in school.
The resultant effect is cheating in continuous assessment and in the main examination as to also
pass the examination which is an aspect of anti-social behavior. Therefore, child labor that
involves giving a child tasks which are above his/her age is seen by educationists as a way of
exploiting the child. It could thwart the child's physical emotional and psychological development.
Over laboring a student (child) always, may make him too weak and unable to cope with his
academic challenges which may result to cheating m assessment tests, class assignments and
even being involved in examination malpractice, which are all forms of anti-social behaviors.
Still on child labor, according to the United Nations international Children's Emergency
Funds (UNICEF, 1997), exploiting of a child means employing a person below the age of 15
years and paying him or her less than the minimum standard wage. Trafficked children are made
to work as hawkers and petty traders, beggars, car washers, bus conductors, farm hands or
cattle rearing. The use of children as hawkers, beggars and bus conductors is widespread in the
urban areas. Other worst forms of child labor include street Hawking, drug-peddling, herding of

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livestock, used by the physically deformed beggars along busy streets and sneaking (this is a
method where armed robbers and thieves engage young children to pass through small inlets
into their areas of operation), child trafficking, child prostitution, slavery practices, particularly in
the fishing industry, child domestic servitude, exploitation of children in mines and customary
servitude.
Child hawking exposes the child to a lot of hazards like sexual defilement, sexual
assaults, neglects and threat of punishment for speaking out or complaining. The consequences
of these acts usually result in an unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases,
psychological problems and a gradual withdrawal from a healthy relationship with the opposite
gender (United Nations International Children's Educational Funds (UNICEF, 2000).
Vinolia and Fubara (1990) conducted a study on child hawking as an aspect of child labor
and its effect on the child. They selected 210 respondents among the hawkers through the
stratified random sampling technique for the study. The data collected were analyzed using
Pearson product moment correction analysis. They founded from their studies that historically
and traditionally, Nigerians place value on children but in spite this, children are treated by some
parents as commodities. They further commented that child rearing practices in Nigeria have for
long been based on their philosophy that children are seen and not heard. This has encouraged
parents and caregivers to engage then children'' students in street hawking. Thus, denial of a
child of his or her basic needs including adequate education, supervision, medication good
nutrition and so forth, due to the student's involvement in street hawking may encourages
truancy, examination malpractice and even stealing from their colleagues at school, all of which
are indices of anti-social behaviors.

METHODOLOGY

Research design
The study utilized ex-post facto design which is an empirical study that the researcher
does not in any way control or manipulate the independent variable because the situation for the
study already existed or has already taken place. Ex-post facto or "after - the - fact" research, is
a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without
the interference from the researcher. The researcher decides to adopt this design in view of the
fact that these sets of variables: child labor, child neglect, and child physical abuse on anti-social
behavior among students are already in existence in the natural state and that their independent
variables could not be manipulated because the influence had already taken place before the
researcher embarked on the study.

Area of the study

This study was carried out in Calabar Education Zone which is one of the three education
zones in Cross River State, Nigeria. The zone is made up of seven Local Government areas.
These are Akamkpa, Akpabuyo, Bakassi, Biase, Calabar Municipality, Calabar South and
Odukpani. It is bounded by Akwa Ibom and Abia State to the South and West, Abi and Yakurr
Local Government Area to the North-West, Obubra, Ikom and Etung Local Government Areas to
the North and the Republic of Cameroun to the East. The zone consists of 79 public secondary
schools and a good number of Government Primary Schools. The zone, as the heart of
educational activities in the state, has two universities which include University of Calabar and
Cross River University of Technology. It has one college of education and a College of Health
Technology.
The population of this study comprised all the 7,452 junior secondary school three (JSS
III) students in public secondary school in Calabar education Zone of Cross River State (State
Secondary Education Board, Planning, Research and Statistics Unit, August, 2015). The sample
consisted of 730 junior secondary school three (JSS III) students in public secondary schools in
Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State, Nigeria, which represent 10% of the estimated
population from the seven Local Governments in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River State.
Sampling techniques: Stratified random sampling was adopted. From the seven local
government areas (strata) in Calabar education zone, Simple random sampling was used to
obtain the required sample. The students were arranged and each was assigned a number in

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that particular school. These numbers which were written on separate pieces of paper with 'YES"
or "NO" inscription were put in a container and thoroughly mixed. Each student was made to pick
out a number from the container. Those who picked "Yes" were used as sample for the study.
This was done in all the selected public secondary school in the zone until the required number
of sample- 730 students from the population of 7,452 students was obtained.
To ascertain the validity of this form of instrument, the appropriateness of the content
must be validated and this was done through, content validity. The split-half reliability method
was applied to test the reliability of the instrument. Instrument on child abuse and anti-social
behaviors of junior secondary school in Calabar Educational Zone of Cross River State was
developed. The questionnaire was the main instrument used for data collection and was
administered in each of the sampled secondary school. The questionnaire consisted of 54 items
spreading through three sections (A-C). Section ‘A’, consisted of respondents personal data;
section ‘B’ was structured with 30 items that measured Child Abuse among Junior Secondary
School Students (CAAJSSS) in five sub-independent categories: child labor, child neglect, and
child physical abuse, with scoring key that ranged from Strongly Agree(SA) to Strongly
Disagree(SD). Section ‘C’ was made up of 24 item which elicited information on anti-social
behaviors (ASBAJSSS) of the students, with scoring key ranging from Most Often (MO) to Never
(N).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES

The study was carried out to ascertain the influence of child abuse on anti-social
behaviors of the junior secondary school students in Calabar Education Zone of Cross River
State. The independent variables include child labor, child neglect and child physical abuse. The
main dependent variable is anti-social behaviors. The mean and standard deviation of the major
variables are calculated and presented in Table 1. A total sample of 730 students was used for
the study as presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1
General description of data (N=730)
S/N Variables No of Percentage
respondents (%)
1 Male 425 58.2
Female 305 41.8
Total 730 100
2 Age
10-14 years 245 33.6
15-19 years 242 33.2
20 years and above 243 33.3
Total 730 100
Variables Category N X SD
Child Low 145 8.25 2.87
Labour Moderate 343 16.43 4.05
High 242 21.25 4.61
Low 245 9.81 3.13
Child Moderate 290 15.71 3.96
Neglect High 195 20.43 4.52
Low 234 10.26 3.20
Physical Moderate 204 14.94 3.86
Abuse High 292 19.62 4.43

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Low 188 9.47 3.08

Table 1 shows that 425 (58.2%) of the total respondents were male, while 305 (41.8%)
were female. For age, 245 (33.6%) are between 10-14 years, 242 (33.2%) are between 15-19
years. While 243 (33.3%) were between 20 years and above. In terms of variables, the
independent sub-variables were categorized into three levels of Low, moderate and High with
their corresponding means and standard deviations.

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULT

Hypothesis: This hypothesis posited that there is no significant influence of child labor on anti-
social behaviors among junior secondary school three students. The independent variable in this
hypothesis is child labor, while the dependent variable is students' anti-social behaviors. The
result of the analysis is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: One-Way Analysis of Variance of Influence of Child Labor on Anti-Social Behaviors (N =

730)

Variables Category N X SD
Child labor Low 145 8.25 2.87
Moderate 343 16.43 4.05
High 242 21.25 4.61
Source of variation SS Df MS F P
Between group 15,324.009 2 7,662.005 467.402* 0.000
Within group 11,917.525 727 16.393
Total 27,241.534 729
*p<05; df = 2, 727; crit F = 4.62

The analysis on Table 2 revealed that the calculated F-ratio of 467.402 was found to be
greater than the critical F-ratio of 4.62 when tested at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and 727
degrees of freedom. This shows that the result is significant. This result implies that there is a
significant effect of child's labor on the anti-social behavior of students in secondary school.
Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected while the alternate hypothesis is accepted.

Table 3: Bonferroni Post-hoc test of intergroup multiple comparison of the influence of child labor
on anti-social behavior among junior secondary school three students. These comparisons use
the Bonferroni correction to adjust for multiple comparisons.

Confidence intervals
Comparison Mean 1 – mean2 95% CI of difference
1: Low vs Moderate -8.18 -9.14 to -7.22
2: Low vs High -13.00 -14.02 to -11.98
3. Moderate vs High -4.82 -5.64 to -4.00

Statistical Significance

Comparison Significant (p<0.05?) t

1: Low vs Moderate Yes 20.396
2: Low vs High Yes 30.574
3. Moderate vs High Yes 14.181

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Review of the data you entered

Comparison mean1 mean2 n1 n2

1: Low vs Moderate +8.25 +16.43 145 343

2: Low vs High +8.25 +21.25 145 242
3. Moderate vs High +16.43 +21.25 343 242
Mean Square =16.393; dF= 727; t = 1.960

A post-hoc analysis using Bonferroni correction to adjust for multiple comparisons was
conducted to determine intergroup interaction. The result is presented on Table 3. The post-hoc
analysis on Table 3 revealed the t- values of 20.396, 30.574 and 14.181 and they are higher than
critical t of 1.960 Low vs Moderate, Low vs High and Moderate vs High pairs compared. This
implies that there are significant differences in the influence of child labor on antisocial behavior
of students.

DISCUSSION
The result of the finding shows that there is a significant influence of child labor on anti-
social behaviors among junior secondary school three students in Calabar education zone. This
finding is in line with the view of Enobong (2001) whose finding showed that most children that
were abused by their parents or guardians exhibited anti-social behaviors, such that out of the
500 students, 360 were abused emotionally, psychologically, physically, morally, intellectually
and socially. Such children are seen in the early hours of the day, selling things such as fruit
juice, pure water, and so on. It was revealed also that such students were affected by a variety
of negative behaviors like rudeness, hostility and a host of others.
Similarly, Isangedighi (2005) was of the opinion that child labor is the worst form of child
abuse. He observed that in streets and corners of towns and cities in Nigeria, hundreds of
children are seen selling variety of things ranging from groundnuts, vegetable oil, garri, rice,
plantain, beans, gain and pure-water, when they should be in the school. Therefore, child labor
as an aspect of child abuse may predispose the students to truancy in the school especially,
where it involves hawking during school hours. Truancy which may be considered as an aspect
of anti-social behavior within the school system may be exhibited by the students due to his
absenteeism from school resulting in his dodging class session.

CONCLUSION / COUNSELING INTERVENTION

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that child abuse significantly
influenced anti-social behavior among junior school students in Calabar Education Zone of Cross
River State. This is however due to negligence of parents and care-givers which create enabling
environment for anti-social behavior among students. Therefore, there is need for policy makers
to make appropriate laws to restrain child abuse. Parents and care-givers should listen, support,
encourage and motivate their students. This could foster good and acceptable behavior among
the students as this may check anti-social behaviors among them. The government should put
essential services in place to ensure sincere and active implementation of the child Rights act of
2003 as to ensure strict observance of the child's right by parents and other caregivers.
Parents'/teachers' association meetings should be held at least three times per term.
Parents and care-givers should be intimated on the negative behaviors of their students. They
should also be educated on what mostly brings about anti-social behaviors among their students.
There should be a total involvement of the educational governing council by creating educational
programs that are geared towards social values. Above all, the government should establish
counseling centres in schools in order to ensure adequate and appropriate counseling that could
guide the students on behavioral ethics. This would help the students to understand themselves
better by providing solutions to their immediate problems and maintaining personal stability.

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