Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AC Chapter PDF
AC Chapter PDF
FOCUS ON MATHEMATICS
REFERENCES
• Stephan J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill,
1999.
• Stephan J. Chapman, Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals, McGraw-
Hill, 2002.
• Bosels, Electrical Systems Design, Prentice Hall.
• James H. Harter and Wallace D. Beitzel, Mathematics Applied to Electronics,
Prentice Hall.
1
2 Chapter 12
12.1 INTRODUCTION
AC unlike DC flows first in one direction then in the opposite direction. The
most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform. Sine waves are
the signal whose shape neither is nor altered by a linear circuit, therefore, it is
ideal as a test signal.
In discussing AC signal, it is necessary to express the current and voltage in
terms of maximum or peak values, peak-to-peak values, effective values, average
values, or instantaneous values. Each of these values has a different meaning and
is used to describe a different amount of current or voltage. Figure 12-1 is a plot
of a sinusoidal wave. The correspondence mathematical form is
RMS value
Peak value
Peak-to-peak
1 cycle
C
2π = (12.2)
R
360
1 rad = ≈ 57.3o (12.3)
2π
and,
2π
1 deg = ≈ 0.017453 rad (12.4)
360
4 Chapter 12
The following comparative table of degree and radian provides measure for
some angles we often deal with:
0 A
Where Vav is the average voltage for one alteration, and Vmax is the maximum
or peak voltage. Similarly, the formula for average current is
Where Iav is the average current for one alteration, and Imax is the maximum or
peak current.
The effective or rms value (Ieff) of a sine wave of current is 0.707 times the
maximum value of current (Imax). Thus, I eff = 0.707 × Imax. When I eff is known, we
may find Imax by using the formula Imax = 1.414 × Ieff. We might wonder where the
constant 1.414 comes from. To find out, examine Figure and read the following
explanation. Assume that the DC in Figure is maintained at 1 A and the resistor
6 Chapter 12
temperature at 100°C. Also assume that the AC in Figure is increased until the
temperature of the resistor is 100° C. At this point it is found that a maximum AC
value of 1.414 A is required in order to have the same heating effect as DC.
Therefore, in the AC circuit the maximum current required is 1.414 times the
effective current.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistance, the resulting current is
also a sinusoidal. This follows Ohm’s law which states that current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage. Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s law, and the various
rules that apply to voltage, current, and power in a DC circuit also apply to the
AC circuit. Ohm’s law formula for an AC circuit may be stated as
Veff
I eff = (12.8)
R
Importantly, all AC voltage and current values are given as effective values.
12.2.6 Frequency
If the signal in the Figure makes one complete revolution each second, the
generator produces one complete cycle of AC during each second (1 Hz).
Increasing the number of revolutions to two per second will produce two
complete cycles of ac per second (2 Hz). The number of complete cycles of
alternating current or voltage completed each second is referred to as the
“frequency, f” or “event frequency”. Event frequency is always measured and
expressed in hertz. Because there are 2π radians in a full circle, a cycle, the
relationship between ω, f, and period, T, can be expressed as
2π
ω = 2πf = radians/second (12.9)
T
Where ω is the angular velocity in radians per second (rad/s). The dimension
of frequency is reciprocal second. The frequency is an important term to
understand since most AC electrical equipment requires a specific frequency for
proper operation.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 7
Example 12-1
Solution:
Example 12-2
a) 80 rad in 10 s
b) 2.5 krad in 50 s
c) 400 rad in 200 s
d) 40 Mrad in 10 s
Solution:
a) ω = 80/10 = 8 rad/s
b) ω = 2500/50 = 500 rad/s
c) ω = 400/200 = 2.0 rad/s
d) ω = (40×106)/10 = 4.0 rad/s
Example 12-3
a) 60 Hz
b) 500 Hz
c) 10 kHz
d) 1 MHz
8 Chapter 12
Solution:
12.2.7 Period
The period of a waveform is the time required for completing one full cycle. It
is measured in seconds. In Figure 15-1, the sinusoidal waveform is plotted as a
function of the argument ωt, and the periodic nature of the sine wave is evident.
The function repeats itself every 2π radians, and its period is therefore 2π radians.
The relationship between time (T) and frequency (f) is indicated by the formulas
1
T= (12.10)
f
Example 12-4
a) 500 Hz
b) 90 kHz
c) 900 MHz
d) 5 Hz
a) T = 2 ms
b) T = 1/(90×103) = 11.11 µs
c) T = 1/(900×106) = 1.11 ps
d) T = 0.2 s
12.2.8 Phase
When two sinusoidal waves, such as those represented by Figure 12-3, are
precisely in step with one another, they are said to be in phase. To be in phase,
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 9
the two waves must go through their maximum and minimum points at the same
time and in the same direction.
To further describe the phase relationship between two sinusoidal waves, the
terms lead and lag are used. The amount by which one sine wave leads or lags
another sine wave is measured in degrees. According to Figure 12-3, the sinusoid
VP sin (ωt + θ) occur θ rad, θ degrees seconds, earlier. In this case we say VP sin
(ωt + θ) leads VP sin ωt by θ. Also, we may say that VP sin ωt lags VP sin (ωt + θ)
by θ.
In general, it is possible for one sine wave to lead or lag another sine wave by
any number of degrees, except 0° or 360°. When the latter condition exists, the
two waves are said to be in phase. Thus, two sine waves that differ in phase by
45o, for example, are actually out of phase with each other, whereas two sine
waves that differ in phase by 360° are considered to be in phase with each other.
To determine the phase difference between two sine waves, locate the points
on the time axis where the two waves cross the time axis traveling in the same
direction. The number of degrees between the crossing points is the phase
difference. The wave that crosses the axis at the later time (to the right on the
time axis) is said to lag the other wave.
The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 90o phase
difference. For example, sin ω t = cos (ωt – 90o). Multiples of 360o may be added
to or subtracted from the argument of any sinusoidal function without changing
the value of the function. To realize this, let us consider
leads
by 150o. It is also correct to say that v1 lags v2 by 210o, since v1 may be written as
VP
ωt
θ
-VP
Figure 12-3 The sine wave VP sin (ωt + θ) leads VP sin ωt.
12.3 PHASORS
We have learnt from the previous section how to define and express in a single
equation the magnitude, frequency, and phase shift of a sinusoidal signal. Any
linear circuit that contains resistors, capacitors, and inductors do not alter the
shape of this signal, nor its frequency. However, the linear circuit does change the
amplitude of the signal (amplification or attenuation) and shift its phase (causing
the output signal to lead or lag the input). The amplitude and phase are the two
important quantities that determine the way the circuit affects the signal.
Accordingly, signal can be expressed as a linear combination of complex
sinusoids. Phase and magnitude defines a phasor (vector) or complex number.
The phasor is similar to vector that has been studied in mathematics.
Figure 12-4 shows how AC sinusoidal quantities are represented by the
position of a rotating vector. As the vector rotates it generates an angle. The
location of the vector on the plane surface is determined by the magnitude
(length) of the vector and by the generated angle.
Representing sinusoidal signals by phasors is useful since circuit analysis laws
such as KVL and KCL and familiar algebraic circuit analysis tools, such as series
and parallel equivalence, voltage and current division are applicable in the phasor
domain, which have been studied in DC circuits can be applied. We do not need
new analysis techniques to handle circuits in the phasor domain. The only
difference is that circuit responses are phasors (complex numbers) rather than DC
signals (real numbers).
In order to work with these complex numbers without drawing vectors, we
first need some kind of standard mathematical notation. There are two basic
forms of complex number notation: polar and rectangular.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 11
3 3
4 4 2
2
9 5 1
1 5
9
6 6
7
7
(a) (b)
Figure 12-4 (a) Magnitude of a sine wave. (b) A vector with its end fixed at the
origin and rotating in a counterclockwise (CCW) direction representing the
varying conditions of the AC signal.
180o 0o
270o
(a) (b)
Figure 12-6 (a) A vector (5.4 ∠ 326o) (b) A vector 5.4 ∠ -34o.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Figure 12-6a shows a
vector with positive angle (5.4 ∠ 326o), while Figure 12-6b shows a vector (5.4 ∠
-34o) with negative angle.
In electrical circuits, a sinusoidal voltage may be represented by
V = Vrms ∠θ (12.14)
Where the uppercase V, indicates that the quantity is a phasor, having both
magnitude and phase. The magnitude is usually RMS. The phase angle is in
degrees. The polarity is very important: + means that the signal leads the
reference; while – means that the signal lags the reference.
Example 12-5
Write the phasor form for the following signal and draw the phasor diagram. Use
a scale of 1 cm = 100 Vrms.
(
v = 300 V p sin 377t- 45o )
Solution:
Vp
Vrms =
2
300
= = 212.16 V
2
V = 212.16 ∠ - 45o
-45o
+Imaginary
4+j3
-Real +Real
-Imaginary
Figure 12-8 A point on the complex plane located by the phasor 4+j3 expressed
in the rectangular form.
14 Chapter 12
Focus on Mathematics
Complex Algebra
Example 12-6
Solution: Write
− 16 = - 1 × 16
− 16 = j 4
V = C ∠θ = A + jB (12.15)
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 15
C
B
A
Figure 12-9 Relation between polar and rectangular forms.
To convert from the polar to the rectangular form of a phasor, you must
convert C∠θ into A and B. From trigonometry, the cosine of an included angle
relates the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypotenuse.
Adjacent A
cos θ = =
Hypotenuse C
(12.16)
Opposite B
sin θ = =
Hypotenuse C
C = A2 + B 2
(12.17)
B
tan θ =
A
B
θ = tan -1 (12.18)
A
In general, any load in rectangular form may be converted into polar form as
the following
Z = R + jX L
(12.19)
X
Z = R 2 + X L ∠ tan −1 L
2
R
16 Chapter 12
Example 12-7
Convert each of the following polar phasors into their rectangular form.
Solution:
Example 12-8
Convert each of the following polar phasors into their rectangular form.
a) V = 2 Vrms ∠45o
b) V = 240 Vrms ∠ - 160 o
Solution:
Euler’s identity forms the basis of phasor notation. It is named after the Swiss
Mathematician Leonard Euler. It states, the identity defines the complex
exponential ejθ as a point in the complex plane. It may be represented by real and
imaginary components:
Figure 12-10 shows how the complex exponential may be visualized as a point
(or vector, if referenced to the origin) in the complex plane. The magnitude of ejθ
is equal to 1
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 17
sin θ
cos θ
e jθ = 1 (12.21)
since
Remember that writing Euler’s identity corresponds to equating the polar form
of a complex number to its rectangular form
(
A cos (wt + θ ) = Re A e j (wt + θ ) ) (12.24)
( ) (
A cos (wt + θ ) = Re A e j (wt + θ ) = Re A e jθ e jwt
) (12.25)
18 Chapter 12
Example 12-9
Draw the phasor digram of the following signal. Use a scale of 1 cm = 100 Vrms.
300 Vrms
150 Vrms
Focus on Mathematics
Adding Phasors
Example 12-10
Add 5 + j4 and 5 + j6
5 + j4
5 + j6
10 + j10
Focus on Mathematics
Subtracting Phasors
1. Change the sign of both the real and the imaginary part of the
phasor to be subtracted.
2. Add the phasors following the steps in the previous box.
Example 12-11
Subtract 10 - j4 from 15 + j8
Focus on Mathematics
Multiplying Phasors
Rectangular Form
1. Distribute the real part of the first complex number over the
second complex number.
2. Distribute the imaginary part of the first complex number over
the second complex number.
3. Replace j2 with –1.
4. Combine like terms.
5. Form the product as a phasor written in rectangular form.
Example 12-12
Multiply 3 + j2 and 4 – j5
12 – j15 + j8 + 10
22 – j7
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 21
Focus on Mathematics
Multiplying Phasors
Polar Form
Example 12-13
Multiply by magnitudes:
4 × 6 = 24
Focus on Mathematics
Dividing Phasors
Rectangular Form
Example 12-14
15 + j10
2 + j1
40 j 5
+
5 5
The answer is 8 + j1
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 23
Focus on Mathematics
Dividing Phasors
Polar Form
Example 12-15
30
=5
6
Focus on Mathematics
Power of a Phasor
Example 12-16
Solve (30∠25o)2
Example 12-17
Solve (3 + j4)2
Vtotal = V1 + V2 (12.26)
V1 = A1 + jB1
V2 = A 2 + jB2
To complete the process, add the real parts together and the imaginary parts
together
Example 12-18
Find the total voltage across the terminals of the circuit shown in Figure 12-12.
The circuit contains two sources connected in series: 3 V with 0o and 4 V with 0o.
3 V, 0o 4 V, 0o
+ 7 V, 0o -
Example 12-19
Find the total voltage across the terminals of the circuit shown in Figure 12-13.
The circuit contains two sources connected in series: 3 V with 0o and 4 V with
180o.
Solution:
3 V, 0o 4 V, 180o
+ 1 V, 180o -
If vectors with uncommon angles are added, their magnitudes (lengths) add up
quite differently than that of scalar magnitudes:
5 V, 53.13o
4 V, 90o
3 V, 0o
Figure 12-14 Addition of two complex values.
If two AC voltages, 90o out of phase, are added together by being connected in
series, their voltage magnitudes do not directly add or subtract as with scalar
voltages in DC. Instead, these voltage quantities are complex quantities, and just
like the above vectors, which add up in a trigonometric fashion. For example, in
Figure 12-14, a 3 V source at 0o added to a 4 V source at 90o results in 5 V at a
phase angle of 53.13o.
There is no suitable DC analogy for what we're seeing here with two AC
voltages slightly out of phase. DC voltages can only directly aid or directly
oppose, with nothing in between. With AC, two voltages can be aiding or
opposing one another to any degree between fully-aiding and fully-opposing,
inclusive. Without the use of vector (complex number) notation to describe AC
quantities, it would be very difficult to perform mathematical calculations for AC
circuit analysis.
Example 12-20
Add the following phasors in rectangular form and then express the total in polar.
Z1 = 2 + j 3 Ω
Z 2 = 3 - j2 Ω
Example 12-21
Subtract the following phasors and express the result in polar form.
Solution:
In a DC circuit, there is one basic type of load, which is resistive. This is not
true in AC circuit. AC circuits have three different types of loads: resistive,
inductive, and capacitive. Each of these loads produces a different circuit
condition. Voltage divided by current in DC circuits is called resistance.
However, for AC circuits it is called impedance. The impedance is the opposition
an element offers to a sinusoidal current. It is a phasor quantity.
A circuit having pure resistance would have the AC through it and the voltage
across it rising and failing together. The current and voltage may not have the
same amplitude, but they are in phase. Any time that a circuit contains resistance,
heat will be produced.
Voltage and current are in phase with each other in a pure resistive circuit as
shown in Figure 12-15 (a). True power can be produced only when both current
and voltage are either positive or negative. When like signs are multiplied, the
product is positive and when unlike signs are multiplied the product is negative.
Since the current and voltage are either positive or negative at the same time, the
product, watts, will always be positive.
The impedance in AC circuits is defined through Ohm’s law
V
Z= (12.26)
I
Voltage
Current
IP VP
(a) (b)
Figure 12-15 (a) Voltage in phase with current. (b) Phase angle between voltage
and current is 0o.
v(t ) = i (t ) × R (12.27)
where
then
Now convert the above equation from time domain form into phasors
V = R × ( I rms ∠0 o )
Z=
(R × I ∠0 )
rms
o
(I ∠0 )
rms
o
30 Chapter 12
Z = R∠0 o (12.28)
The impedance of a resistor has the magnitude of the resistor. Therefore, its
units are ohms. The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current
through the resistor since the phase angle is 0o. The 0o phase shift indicates that
the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. The
impedance of resistor has no imaginary part.
Z R = R + j0
Example 12-22
Calculate the phasor current through a 100-Ω resistor assuming a voltage of (100
Vrms∠0o) applied across it.
I =
(100 V ∠0 ) = 1 A
rms
o
∠0 o
(100Ω∠0 ) o rms
12.6.1 Inductance
The inductance of an inductor (L) is measured in henries (H). It depends upon
the physical make up of the coil such as the length (l), cross-sectional area (A),
number of turns of wire (N), and the permeability of the material contained in the
core (µ). This is expressed mathematically as
N2µ A
L= (12.29)
l
(a)
(b)
Figure 12-16 (a) Magnetic field increases around the coil as current flows
through the coil. (b) Magnetic field decreases as current flow decreases.
32 Chapter 12
Applied Induced
voltage voltage
X L = ω L = 2πfL (12.30)
di
vL = L (12.31)
dt
where
i = I P sin (ω t ) = I rms ∠0 o
di
dt
(
= ω I P sin ω t + 90 o )
Substitute this into Equation (12.31)
(
v L = (ω L ) I P sin ω t + 90 o )
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 33
Voltage (v)
v
Current (i)
i
∠θ = 90 o
Figure 12-18 (a) Voltage leads the current when AC current passes through an
inductor. (b) Phasor diagram shows the lead by 90o.
The above equation shows that there is a phase shift of 90o. Figure 12-18 (a)
shows the voltage leading the current when AC current passes through an
inductor The current is at 0o and the voltage drop across the inductor is at + 90o
(leads) as shown in Figure 12-18 (b). The equation may be expressed as a phasor
(
v L = (ω L ) × I rms ∠90 o )
Applying Equation (12.26) to find the impedance
ZL =
(X L I rms ∠90 o )
( )
I rms ∠0 o
(
Z L = X L ∠90 o ) (12.32)
Z L = (0 + j X L )
34 Chapter 12
XL
Example 12-23
Solution:
X L = 2πfL
X L = 2 × 3.1416 × 60 × 1
X L = 377 Ω
V 120
I= = = 0.398 A
X L 377
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 35
dv
iC = C
dt (12.33)
where
v = VP sin (ω t ) = Vrms ∠0 o
dv
dt
(
= ω VP sin ω t + 90 o )
[
iC = C ω VP sin (ω t + 90 o ) ]
Rewriting this equation, we get
(
iC = (ω t ) VP sin ω t + 90 o ) (12.34)
Equation (12.34) shows that there is a phase shift of 90o. The voltage is at 0o
but the resulting current through the capacitance is at +90o (leads).
The current may be expressed in a phasor form
(
I C = (ω C ) × Vrms ∠90 o ) (12.35)
1
XC =
ωC (12.36)
36 Chapter 12
IC =
(V ∠90 o
rms )
XC
Vrms ∠0 o
ZC = (12.37)
Vrms
∠90 o
XC
Z C = X C ∠ - 90 o
-j 1 (12.38)
= =
ωC jω C
1
where = e -jπ / 2 = -j . Therefore, the impedance of a capacitor is a
j
frequency-dependent complex quantity, with the impedance of the capacitor
varying as an inverse function of frequency. The capacitor acts as a short circuit
at high frequencies, whears it behaves more as an open circuit at low frequencies.
Equation (12.28) indicates that the opposition a capacitor presents to a sinusoidal
voltage is inversely proportional to the size of the capacitor (C) and the value of
the frequency. The current is shifted 90o ahead of the voltage.
In rectangular form, the impedance of the capacitor contains a real and
imaginary component.
Z C = (0 - j X L ) (12.39)
XC
Example 12-24
1
XC =
2π f C
(a) When f = 0 Hz
1
XC = =∞
( )
2 π (0 ) 10 × 10 −6
1
XC = = 1.59 Ω
( )(
2 π 10 × 103 10 × 10 −6 )
(c) When f = 1 MHz
1
XC = = 0.016 Ω
( )(
2 π 1.0 × 10 6 10 × 10 −6 )
38 Chapter 12
The impedance parameters defined in the previous sections are very useful in
solving AC circuit analysis problems, because it makes possible to take
advantage of most of the network theorems developed for DC circuits by
replacing resistances with complex-valued impedances. Figure 12-21 depicts the
impedances of R, L, and C in the complex plane.
Imaginary
ωL
ZL
R
Real
ZC
1
-
ωC
All the rules and laws learned in the study of DC circuits apply to AC circuits
including Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws, and network analysis methods. The only
qualification is that all variables must be expressed in complex form, taking into
account phase as well as magnitude, and all voltages and currents must be of the
same frequency (in order that their phase relationships remain constant).
It is necessary to emphasize that although the impedance of circuit elements is
either purely real (for resistors) or purely imaginary (for inductors and
capacitors), the general definition of impedance for an arbitrary circuit should
allow for the possibility of having both a real and imaginary part, since practical
circuits are made up of more or less complex interconnections of various circuit
elements.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 39
Example 12-25
Consider three AC voltage sources in series (Figure 12-22) and use complex
numbers to determine additive voltages.
22 V, -64o 12 V, 35o 15 V, 0o
Solution:
Vtotal = V1 + V2 + V3
Vtotal = 22∠ − 64 + 12∠35 + 15∠0
Graphically, the vectors add up in this manner: The sum of these vectors will
be a resultant vector originating at the starting point for the 22 V vector and
terminating at the ending point for the 15 V vector. This is shown in Figure 12-
23.
Resultant
Vector
22∠-64o
15∠0o
12∠35o
In order to determine what the resultant vector's magnitude and angle are
without resorting to graphic images, we can convert each one of these polar-form
complex numbers into rectangular form and add. Remember. These figures are
40 Chapter 12
added together because the polarity marks for the three voltage sources are
oriented in an additive manner:
In polar form, this equates to 36.80 V ∠ -20.50o. What this means in real
terms is that the voltage measured across these three voltage sources will be
36.80 V, lagging the 15 volt (0o phase reference) by 20.50o. A voltmeter
connected across these points in a real circuit would only indicate the polar
magnitude of the voltage (36.80 V), not the angle. An oscilloscope could be used
to display two voltage waveforms and thus provide a phase shift measurement,
but not a voltmeter. The same principle holds true for AC ammeters: they indicate
the polar magnitude of the current, not the phase angle.
This is extremely important in relating calculated figures of voltage and
current to real circuits. Although rectangular notation is convenient for addition
and subtraction, and was indeed the final step in our sample problem here, it is
not very applicable to practical measurements. Rectangular figures must be
converted to polar figures (specifically polar magnitude) before they can be
related to actual circuit measurements.
Example 12-26
Change the polarity of the three AC voltage sources given in Example 12-25
(Figure 12-24) and use complex numbers to determine additive voltages.
22 V, -64o 12 V, 35o 15 V, 0o
Solution: See Figure 12-25. Note how the 12 V supply’s phase angle is still
referred to as 35o, even though the leads have been reversed. Remember that the
phase angle of any voltage drop is stated in reference to its noted polarity. Even
though the angle is still written as 35o, the vector will be drawn 180o opposite of
what it was before: The resultant (sum) vector should begin at the upper-left point
(origin of the 22 volt vector) and terminate at the right arrow tip of the 15-V
vector: The connection reversal on the 12-V supply can be represented in two
different ways in polar form: by an addition of 180o to its vector angle (making it
12 V ∠ 215o), or a reversal of sign on the magnitude (making it -12 V ∠ 35o).
22∠-64o Resultant
Vector
-12∠35o
15∠0o
Etotal = E1 + E 2 + E 3
Etotal = (15 + j 0 ) + (− 9.82 − j 6.9 ) + (9.65 − j19.80) = 14.81 − j 26.65
S = P2 + Q2 (12.40)
Where:
P
PF = = cos (θ ) (12.41)
S
Q
RF = = sin (θ ) (12.42)
S
The power factor is a measure of how well the load is converting the total
power consumed into real work. A power factor equal to 1.0 indicates that the
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 43
load is converting all the power consumed into real work. However, power factor
of 0.0 indicates that the load is not producing any real work. In general, the power
factor of a load will be between 0.0 and 1.0.
Because only the resistive portion of an AC circuit dissipates power, we are
interested in the resistive part of the impedance. The ratio of the circuit resistance
to the amplitude of the circuit impedance is called power factor. This is expressed
mathematically as
S
Q
θ
P
(a)
Z
X
θ
R
(b)
R
Power factor = (12.43)
Z
S
Q
θ
P
(a)
P
θ
Q
S
(b)
Figure 12-27 (a) Power triangle for lagging power factor. (b) Power triangle for
leading power factor.
Example 12-27
a) Z = 100 ∠ -30o
b) 100 + j50 Ω
Solution:
a) θ = -30o
cos (θ) = cos (-30o) = 0.866
Power factor is 0.866.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 45
Example 12-28
A three-phase load consumes 100 kW, and 50 kVAR. Determine the apparent
power, reactive factor, and the power factor angle.
100,000
PF = = 0.8944
111,803
50,000
RF = = 0.4472
111,803
46 Chapter 12
V
I= (12.44)
Z
V∠0 o
IA = = I∠ − θ
Z∠θ
V∠ - 120 o (12.45)
IB = = I∠ − 120 o − θ
Z∠θ
V∠ - 240 o
IC = = I∠ − 240 o − θ
Z∠θ
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 47
iA(t)
vA(t) Z=Z∠θ
iB(t)
vB(t) Z=Z∠θ
iB(t)
vB(t) Z=Z∠θ
Volts
Figure 12-28 (a) Three phases of a generator with their loads. (b) Voltage
waveforms of each phase of the generator.
48 Chapter 12
Ia IL
a
Iφ
IN
N
Resistive
load
Ib
b
IC
c
The voltages between any two line terminals (a, b, or c) are called line-to-line
voltages, and the voltages between any line terminal and the neutral terminal are
called phase voltages.
Since the load connected to this generator is assumed to be resistive, the
current in each phase of the generator will be at the same angle as the voltage.
Therefore, the current in each phase will be given by
I a = Iφ ∠0o
I b = Iφ ∠ − 120o (12.46)
I c = Iφ ∠ − 240 o
It is obvious that the current in any line is the same as the current in the
corresponding phase. Therefore, for a Y connection
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 49
I L = Iφ (12.47)
The relationship between line voltage and phase voltage is given by the
following equation
VL = 3 Vφ (12.48)
Another possible connection is the delta (∆) connection, in which the three
generators are connected head to tail as shown in Figure 12-30. The ∆ connection
is possible because the sum of the three voltages VA + VB + VC = 0.
Ia IL
a
Vφ∠0o
Resistive
Ib load
b
Ic
c
VL = Vφ (12.49)
The relationship between line current and phase current can be found by
applying Kirchhoff’s current law at a nodes of the ∆
I L = 3Iφ (12.50)
50 Chapter 12
SUMMARY
1. A sinusoidal signal is mathematically represented in one of two ways: a time-
domain forms ( v (t ) = A cos (ω t + θ ) and a frequency-domain (phasor) form
( V ( jω ) = A e jθ = A∠θ ).
2. A phasor is a complex number, expressed in rectangular form and polar form.
3. In rectangular form, the phasor has both real and imaginary parts.
4. In polar form, the phasor consists of a magnitude equal to the peak amplitude
of the sinusoidal signal and a phase angle equal to the phase shift of the
sinusoidal signal referenced to a cosine signal.
5. The three basic types of AC loads are resistive, inductive, and capacitive.
6. In AC resistive load, the current and voltage are in phase with each other.
7. True power can be produced only during periods of time that both the voltage
and current have the same polarity.
8. The impedance of a resistor is simply its resistance.
9. Induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current.
10. Induced voltage is always opposite in polarity to the applied voltage.
11. Pure inductive load contains no true power.
12. The impedance of an inductor is jωL Ω.
13. The impedance of an inductor is 1/jωC Ω.
14. Once a circuit is represented in phasor-impedance form, all analysis
techniques practiced in resistive circuits (Chapter 11) apply once all elements
are replaced by their frequency-domain equivalents.
15. Phasor analysis can only be performed on single-frequency circuit.
Otherwise, principles of superposition must be followed.
16. The power factor is a measure of how well the load is converting the total
power consumed into real work.
17. The majority of electricity production is in the form of three-phase power.
18. Three-phase sources or loads can be either Y- or ∆-connected. Both types of
sources have three terminals, one for each phase; Y-connected sources have a
neutral connection as well.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 51
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between AC and DC electricity?
2. Find 5 electrical appliances around the house and determine their voltage,
current, and power requirements.
3. Identify an AC electrical device in an automobile.
4. How many degrees are the current and voltage out of phase with each other
in a pure resistive circuit?
5. How many degrees are the current and voltage out of phase with each other
in a pure inductive circuit?
6. To what is inductive reactance proportional?
7. What two factors determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor?
8. What is power factor and reactive factor?
9. What is meant by a leading and lagging power factor?
10. What types of connections are possible for three-phase generators and loads?
52 Chapter 12
PROBLEMS
12-1 Express each of the following frequencies in Hertz.
a. 40 cycles in 5.0 s.
b. 120 cycles in 100 ms.
c. 1000 revolutions on 0.5 s.
d. 500 rotations in 2.0 min.
12-2 Determine the value of the resistive load for a circuit having the phasor
diagram shown in Figure 12-31.
I = 1.0 A V = 120 V
12-3 Determine the inductance of the inductor in henries whose phasor diagram is
given in Figure 12-32. Assume the frequency as 2.4 kHz.
E = 100 V
I = 800 mA
12-4 Determine the capacitance of the capacitor in farads whose phasor diagram is
given in Figure 12-33. Assume the frequency as 2 MHz.
Fundamentals of Alternating Current 53
I = 20 mA
E = 40 V
12-5 Construct the phasor diagram for the circuit shown in Figure 12-34. Find the
value of E.
VR = 100 V
E VL = 150 V
VC = 120 V
12-7 Repeat Problem 16-6. Find the voltage across the capacitor and resistor, then
draw the voltage phasor diagram.
12-8 A 100∠0o-V (200 kHz) is applied across a parallel circuit consisting of 5.2-
kΩ resistance and a 3.2-H inductor. Find the current through each branch
component and find the source current.
54 Chapter 12
12-9 Repeat Problem 12-8. Replace the 5.2-kΩ resistance with a 3-µF capacitor.
12-10 Determine the circuit components used in each of the four series circuits
60 ∠ 30o
60 ∠ -30o
60 ∠ 0o
60 ∠ -90o
12-12 Determine the power factor for each of the following circuit conditions and
state if it is leading or lagging
a. R = 30 Ω; |Z| = 90 Ω
b. Z = 13 – j6 Ω
c. Z = 32∠-60o
12-13 Write the instantaneous equations for voltage and current for the phasor
diagram shown in Figure 12-35 at a frequency of 800 Hz.
I=2A
θ = -50o
E = 20 V
12-14 Calculate the magnitude of the line current for the following loads:
• One of the following is not a right format to express the sinusoid V cos ωt.
a. V cos (2πft)
b. V cos (2πt/T)
c. V cos (t – T)
d. V sin (2πft – 80o)
a. 6
b. j6
c. –6
d. -j6
e. 6
f. j6
g. –6
h. -j6
a. Resistance
b. Reactance
c. Impedance
d. Inductance
a. Resistance
b. Reactance
c. Admittance
d. Conductance
56 Chapter 12
• In the circuit shown in Figure 12-36, what is the voltage across the
capacitor?
a. 16∠10o
b. 12.7∠10o
c. 16∠-80o
d. 12.7∠100o
e. None of the above. The answer is
a. Reactive power
b. Power ratio
c. Power factor
d. Phase angle