Linear Maps: Kevin James

Introduction
Rank-Nullity Theorem and Consequences

Algebra of Linear Maps
Transpose Maps
More Algebra of Linear Mappings
Linear Maps
Kevin James
Kevin James Linear Maps

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
A linear map (or mapping, transformation, or operator) between
vector spaces X and U over K is a function T : X → U that
satisfies:
1 T (x + y ) = T (x) + T (y ), for all x, y ∈ X ;
2 T (ax) = aT (x), for all x ∈ X , a ∈ K .
The domain space is X and the target space is U.
Example
1 Any isomorphism;
d
2 X = U = {f (x) ∈ K [x] | deg(f ) < n}, T = ds .
3 X = U = R2 , T = rotation about the origin by θ radians.
4 X any vector space, U = K , T any ` ∈ X 0 .
R1
5 X = U = C ((−1, 1)), (Tf )(x) = −1 f (y )(x − y )2 dy .
Introduction
Transpose Maps
Example (cont.)
n
X
6 X = Rn , U= Rm , u = Tx, where ui = tij xj ,
j=1
i = 1, . . . , m.

7 X = U = piecewise cont. [0, ∞) → Z
∞
f (t)e −st dt.

R of “exponential order” , (Tf )(s) =
0
“Laplace transform”
R∞
8 X = U = functions with −∞ |f (x)| dx < ∞ ,
Z ∞
(Tf )(ξ) = f (x)e iξx dx. “Fourier transform”
−∞

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem
Let T : X → U be a linear map.
1 The image of a subspace of X is a subspace of U.
2 The preimage of a subspace U is a subspace of X .
Definition
The range of T is the image RT := T (X ). The rank of T is
dimK RT .
The nullspace of T is the preimage of 0:
NT := T −1 (0) = {x ∈ X : Tx = 0} .
The nullity of T is dimK NT .

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem (Rank-Nullity Theorem)

Suppose that X and U are vector spaces over a field K . Let
T : X → U be a linear map. Then
dimK (NT ) + dimK (RT ) = dimK (X ).
Corollary
Suppose dimK U < dimK X . Then Tx = 0 for some x 6= 0.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Example
Take X = Rn , U = Rm , with m < n. Let T : Rn → Rm be any
linear map.
Since m = dimK U < dimK X < n, Corollary A implies that the
system of m equations
n
X
tij xj = 0 i = 1, . . . , m
j=1
has a non-trivial solution, i.e., not all xj = 0.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Corollary
Suppose dimK X = dimK U and the only vector satisfying Tx = 0
is x = 0. Then RT = U.
Example
n
X
Take X = U = Rn , and T : Rn → Rn given by tij xj = ui , for
j=1
i = 1, . . . , n.
n
X
If the related homogeneous system of equations tij xj = 0, for
j=1
i = 1, . . . , n, has only the trivial solution x1 = · · · xn = 0, then the
inhomogeneous system T (x) = u has a unique solution for all
u1 . . . , un .
[Reason: T : Rn → Rn is an isomorphism.]
Introduction
Transpose Maps
Application: Polynomial interpolation

Take X = {p ∈ C[x] : degp < n}, U = Cn , and let s1 , . . . , sn ∈ C
all be distinct. Define

T: X →U, Tp = p(s1 ), . . . , p(sn ) .
Suppose Tp = 0 for some p ∈ X . Then p(s1 ) = · · · = p(sn ) = 0,

which implies that p = 0 because nonzero polynomials of degree
< n have at most n − 1 distinct roots.
Therefore NT = {0}, and so Corollary B implies that RT = U.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Application: Average values of polynomials

Let X = {p ∈ R[x] : degp < n}, U = Rn , and I1 , . . . , In be
pairwise disjoint intervals on R.
The average value of p over Ij is the integral
Z
1
pj := p(s) ds .
|Ij | Ij
Define T : X → U by Tp = (p1 , . . . , pn ).
Suppose Tp = 0. Then pj = 0 for all j, and so p (if nonzero) must
change sign in Ij .
But this would imply that p has n distinct roots, which is possible
only if p = 0.
Thus, NT = {0}, and so RT = U.
Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
Let T , S : X → U be linear maps of vector spaces X , U over a field
K . Define
• (T + S)(x) = Tx + Sx for each x ∈ X .
• (aT )(x) = aT (x) for each x ∈ X , a ∈ K .
Fact
The set of linear maps from X → U, denoted L(X , U), or
Hom(X , U), is a vector space.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem
1 If T ∈ L(X , U) and S ∈ L(U, V ), then S ◦ T ∈ L(X , V ).
2 If P, T ∈ L(X , U) and R, S ∈ L(U, V ), then
(R + S) ◦ T = R ◦T +S ◦T and
S ◦ (T + P) = S ◦ T + S ◦ P.
Exercise 3
Prove the theorem.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
A linear map T is invertible if it is 1–1 and onto (-i.e. if it is an
isomorphism). Denote the inverse by T −1 .
Exercise
If T ∈ L(U, V ) is invertible, then TT −1 = IdV and T −1 T = IdU
are both identity maps.
Theorem
1 If T ∈ L(U, V ), then T −1 ∈ L(V , U).
2 If S ∈ L(U, V ) and T ∈ L(X , U) are invertible, then ST is
invertible and (ST )−1 = T −1 S −1 .

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Example
d
1 Take X = U = V = R[s], with T = ds and S =
multiplication by s.
2 Take X = U = V = R3 , with S a 90◦ -rotation around the x1
axis, and T a 90◦ -rotation around the x2 axis.
In both of these examples, S and T are linear with ST 6= TS.
(Which are invertible?)

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
Suppose that T ∈ L(X , U). We define the transpose T 0 : U 0 → X 0
of T as
T 0 (`) = `T .
Theorem
1 T 0 ∈ L(U 0 , X 0 ),
2 (`, Tx) = (T 0 L, x),

3 (ST )0 = T 0 S 0 ,
4 (T + R)0 = T 0 + R 0 ,
5 (T −1 )0 = (T 0 )−1 .,
6 Through the identification of X 00 with X and U 00 with U we
have T 00 = T (Exercise # 8).

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Example
N
X
Let X = RN , U = RM , and Tx = u, where ui = tij xj .
j=1
X = RN x_
m m
( (
6 =R
K T (`, u) = (m, x)
T
6
` - `
U = RM u
By definition, for some `1 , . . . , `m ∈ K ,
M M N
! M X
N
X X X X
(`, u) = ì ui = ì tij xj = ì tij xj
i=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
N M
! N
X X X
= ì tij xj = mj xj
j=1 i=1 j=1
This gives us a formula for m = (m1 , . . . , mN ), where (`, u) = (m, x).

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem
The annihilator of the range of T is the nullspace of its transpose,
i.e., RT⊥ = NT 0 .
Corollary
The range of T is the annihilator of the nullspace of T 0 , i.e.,
RT = NT⊥0 .
Theorem
For any linear mapping T : X → U, we have
dimK (RT ) = dimK (RT 0 ).
Corollary
Let T : X → U be linear with dimK (X ) = dimK (U). Then
dimK (NT ) = dimK (NT 0 ).
Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
An endomorphism of a vector space X is a linear map from X to
itself.
We denote the set of endomorphisms of X by L(X , X ) or
Hom(X , X ) or End(X ).
Remarks
1 L(X , X ) is a vector space, but we can also “multiply” vectors.
That is, L(X , X ) is an algebra.
2 The Algebra L(X , X ) is an associative but noncommutative
algebra, with unity I , satisfying Ix = x.
3 L(X , X ) contains zero divisors: pairs S, T such that ST = 0
buth neither S nor T is zero.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Proposition
If A ∈ L(X , X ) is a left inverse of B ∈ L(X , X ) [i.e., AB = I ], then
it is also a right inverse [i.e., BA = I ].
Proof
Homework
Definition
The invertible elements of L(X , X ) form the General Linear Group,
denoted GL(n, K ), where n = dimK (X ).
Every S ∈ GL(n, K ) defines a similarity transformation of
L(X , X ), sending M → MS := SMS −1 , for each M ∈ L(X , X ).
We say M and MS are similar.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem
Every similarity transform is an automorphism
[“structure-preserving bijection”] of L(X , X ):
(kM)S = kMS , (M + N)S = MS + NS , (MN)S = MS NS .
Moreover, the set of similarity transformations forms a group under

(MS )T := MTS , called the inner automorphism group of GL(n, K ).
Theorem
Similarity is an equivalence relation.
Note
If M is invertible and similar to K , then K is also invertible and
K −1 is similar to M −1 .
Introduction
Transpose Maps
Theorem
If either A or B in L(X , X ) is invertible, then AB and BA are
similar.
Proof
Homework.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Definition
Given any A ∈ L(X , X ) and polynomial
p(s) = aN s N + · · · + a1 s + a0 , we have the polynomial
p(A) = aN AN + · · · + a1 A + a0 I .
Fact
The set of polynomials in A is a commutative subalgebra of
L(X , X ).
Definition
• A linear map P : X → X is a projection if P 2 = P.
• The commutator of A, B ∈ L(X , X ) is [A, B] := AB − BA,
which is 0 iff A and B commute.

Introduction
Transpose Maps
Example
• If X = {f : R → R, contin.}, then the following maps
P, Q ∈ L(X , X ) are projections:
f (x) + f (−x)
• (Pf )(x) = ; this is the even part of f .
2
f (x) − f (−x)
• (Qf )(x) = ; this is the odd part of f .
2
Note that f = Pf + Qf for any f ∈ X .

Linear Maps: Kevin James

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Introduction

Rank-Nullity Theorem and Consequences

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

The nullity of T is dimK NT .

Kevin James Linear Maps

Theorem (Rank-Nullity Theorem)

dimK (NT ) + dimK (RT ) = dimK (X ).

Kevin James Linear Maps

has a non-trivial solution, i.e., not all xj = 0.

Kevin James Linear Maps

Application: Polynomial interpolation

Suppose Tp = 0 for some p ∈ X . Then p(s1 ) = · · · = p(sn ) = 0,

Kevin James Linear Maps

Application: Average values of polynomials

Kevin James Linear Maps

2 If P, T ∈ L(X , U) and R, S ∈ L(U, V ), then

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

2 (`, Tx) = (T 0 L, x),

Kevin James Linear Maps

This gives us a formula for m = (m1 , . . . , mN ), where (`, u) = (m, x).

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

(kM)S = kMS , (M + N)S = MS + NS , (MN)S = MS NS .

Moreover, the set of similarity transformations forms a group under

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

Kevin James Linear Maps

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