Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Andrejs Treibergs
University of Utah
0.54 ∼
= P(collide edge-to-edge) > P(collide corner-to-face.) ∼
= 0.46.
The mobile line L(p, θ) may be thought of as moving the fixed line
L(0, 0) by the translation (x, y ) 7→ (x + p, y ) followed by the rotation
about the origin by angle θ.
The first task is to find a measure on a set of lines that is invariant under
rigid motions. This measure will be called KINEMATIC MEASURE.
8. Kinematic measure.
The kinematic measure for lines in (p, θ) coordinates is given by
dK = dp ∧ dθ.
To check that this measure is invariant under rigid motions, let us first
determine how (p, θ) in the equation of the line (1) is changed by a rigid
motion M. We express (x, y ) in terms of (x 0 , y 0 ) using (2)
p = cos(θ)x + sin(θ)y
= cos(θ) cos(α)(x 0 − x0 ) + sin(α)(y 0 − y0 )
dp 0 ∧ dθ0 = |J| dp ∧ dθ
where 0
∂p 0
∂p
∂(p , θ ) ∂p
0 0 ∂θ 1 ∗
J= = =
0 1 = 1.
∂(p, θ) ∂θ0 0
∂θ
∂p ∂θ
Thus we have shown that the kinematic measure is invariant under rigid
motions.
10. Differential forms version of the same computation.
dθ0 = dθ.
= dp ∧ dθ.
11. The measure of lines that meet a curve.
S = {(L, Z ); L ∩ C 6= ∅, Z ∈ L ∩ C }.
(p̃, η) ∈ (−∞, ∞) × [0, π) are same lines as (p, θ) ∈ [0, ∞) × [0, 2π). So
d p̃ = ẋ(s) cos η + ẏ (s) sin η ds + −x(s) sin η + y (s) cos η dη.
Changing to (s, η), using tangent direction (ẋ, ẏ ) = (cos φ(s), sin φ(s)),
∂p̃ ∂p̃
cos φ cos η + sin φ sin η ∗
∂s ∂η
d p̃ dη = ds dη = ds dη
∂η ∂η
0 1
∂s ∂η
L(∂ω)
P= .
L(∂Ω)
16. Another application to Geometric Probability.
Corollary
Let C be a piecewise C 1 curve contained in a compact convex set Ω. Of
all random lines that meet Ω, the expected number of intersections with
with C is
2 L(C )
E(n) = . (4)
L(∂Ω)
Hence, there are lines that cut C in at least 2 L(C )/ L(∂Ω) points.
R
{L:L∩C 6=∅} n dK 2 L(C )
Proof. Since Ω is convex, E(n) = R = .
{L:L∩Ω6=∅} dK L(∂Ω)
The maximum of n exceeds the average.
For θ ∈ [0, 2π), the support function, h(θ), is the largest p such that
L(p, θ) ∩ Ω 6= ∅. The width is w (θ) = h(θ) + h(θ + π).
18. Another corollary: Mean projected width or Quermassintegral.
Z Z 2π Z h(θ)
L(∂Ω) = dK = dp dθ
{L:L∩Ω6=∅} 0 0
Z 2π Z π
= h(θ) dθ = h(θ) + h(θ + π) dθ
Z0 π 0
Figure: Augustin Louis Cauchy
1789–1857
= w (θ) dθ.
0
19. Area in terms of support function.
Theorem
Suppose Ω is a compact, convex
domain with a C 2 boundary. Then
Z2π Z2π
1 1
A(Ω) = h ds = h(h+ḧ) dθ.
2 2
0 0
(6)
An experimental determination of π.
2` 2` n
π= ≈ · ,
Pd d x
where x is the number of times needle touches crack in n trials.
Wolf, in Zurich (1850), tossed 5000 needles and found π ≈ 3.1596.
A Scotsman, Smith (1855), repeated with n = 3204 and found
π ≈ 3.1553.
22. Crofton’s Formula.
Observe that for the line L(p̃, θ) we have χD∩L (q) = 1 if and only if the
point in the plane corresponding to (p̃, q) lies in D, namely
thus
χL(p̃,θ)∩D (q) = χD (x, y ).
Now we think of S another way. First pick Z ∈ D and then L is any line
through Z .
1 2π ∞ ∞
Z Z Z
I= χD∩L (q) dq d p̃ dθ
2 0 −∞ −∞
1 2π ∞ ∞
Z Z Z
= χD (x, y ) dx dy dθ
2 0 −∞ −∞
1 2π
Z
= A(D) dθ
2 0
= π A(D).
26. Application to Geometric Probability
2π A(Ω)
P= .
L(∂Ω)2
Proof. Let L1 (p1 , θ1 ) and L2 (p2 , θ2 ) be two random lines whose invariant
measure is dK1 ∧ dK2 = dp1 ∧ dθ1 ∧ dp2 ∧ dθ2 .
View Λ1 = L(p1 , θ1 ) ∩ Ω as a subset. By (4), the average number of
times that a random line L(p2 , θ2 ) meets Λ1 given that it meets Ω is
2σ1 Ω ∩ L(p1 , θ1 )
E(n) = .
L(∂Ω)
1 Uniform distance
R from origin and uniform angle (proportional to dK )
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} σ1 dK π A(Ω)
E(σ1 ) = R =
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} dK L(∂Ω)
28. Bertrand Paradox.
1 Uniform distance
R from origin and uniform angle (proportional to dK )
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} σ1 dK π A(Ω)
E(σ1 ) = R =
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} dK L(∂Ω)
2 Uniform point on boundary and uniform angle
Z L(∂Ω) Z π
1
E2 (σ1 ) = σ1 dθ ds
π L(∂Ω) 0 0
28. Bertrand Paradox.
1 Uniform distance
R from origin and uniform angle (proportional to dK )
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} σ1 dK π A(Ω)
E(σ1 ) = R =
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} dK L(∂Ω)
2 Uniform point on boundary and uniform angle
Z L(∂Ω) Z π
1
E2 (σ1 ) = σ1 dθ ds
π L(∂Ω) 0 0
3 Two uniform random points on the boundary
Z L(∂Ω) Z L(∂Ω)
1
E3 (σ1 ) = σ1 ds1 ds2
L(∂Ω)2 0 0
28. Bertrand Paradox.
1 Uniform distance
R from origin and uniform angle (proportional to dK )
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} σ1 dK π A(Ω) πR
E(σ1 ) = R = =
{L:L∩∂Ω6=∅} dK L(∂Ω) 2
2 Uniform point on boundary and uniform angle
Z L(∂Ω) Z π
1 4R
E2 (σ1 ) = σ1 dθ ds =
π L(∂Ω) 0 0 π
3 Two uniform random points on the boundary
Z L(∂Ω) Z L(∂Ω)
1 4R
E3 (σ1 ) = 2
σ1 ds1 ds2 =
L(∂Ω) 0 0 π
29. Kinematic density for a moving curve.
Γ0 = Ma,b,φ (Γ).
x 0 = x cos φ − b sin φ + a
y 0 = x sin φ + y cos φ + b
dK = da ∧ db ∧ dφ.
29. Kinematic density for a moving curve.
Γ0 = Ma,b,φ (Γ).
x 0 = x cos φ − b sin φ + a
y 0 = x sin φ + y cos φ + b
dK = da ∧ db ∧ dφ.
29. Kinematic density for a moving curve.
Γ0 = Ma,b,φ (Γ).
x 0 = x cos φ − b sin φ + a
y 0 = x sin φ + y cos φ + b
dK = da ∧ db ∧ dφ.
30. Poincaré’s Formula.
We show the formula for C 1 curves and add to get it for piecewise C 1
curves. We give two computations of the integral over the “flag” subset
S = {(Γ0 , X ) : C ∩ Γ0 6= ∅, X ∈ C ∩ Γ0 }.
For the second equivalent way, we pick a point Z common to both curves
first and then the angle ψ between the tangents of C and Γ0 .
32. Finish the proof of Poincaré’s Formula.
Let s be arclength along C from the origin and t arclength along Γ from
the origin corresponding to the common point Z ∈ C ∩ Γ0 . Let α(s)
denote the tangent angle at (x(s), y (s)) ∈ C and β(t) the tangent angle
at (u(t), v (t)) ∈ Γ. The coordinates (x, y ) of Z are given in two ways
x(s) = a + u(t) cos φ − v (t) sin φ
y (s) = b + u(t) sin φ + v (t) cos φ
ψ = φ + β(t) − α(s)
33. Finish the proof of Poincaré’s Formula-.
Change to (s, t, ψ) coordinates for S. Differentiating the defining
equations,
ẋ(s) ds = da + u̇(t) cos φ − v̇ (t) sin φ dt − u(t) sin φ + v (t) cos φ dφ
ẏ (s) ds = db + u̇(t) sin φ + v̇ (t) cos φ dt + u(t) cos φ − v (t) sin φ dφ
dψ = dφ + β̇(t) dt − α̇(s) ds
Using (cos α, sin α) = (ẋ, ẏ ) and (cos β, sin β) = (u̇, v̇ ), the kinematic
density is thus da ∧ db ∧ dφ
h i
= ẋ(s) ds − u̇(t) cos φ − v̇ (t) sin φ dt + u(t) sin φ + v (t) cos φ dφ
h i
∧ ẏ (s) ds − u̇(t) sin φ + v̇ (t) cos φ dt − u(t) cos φ − v (t) sin φ dφ
h i
∧ dψ − β̇(t) dt + α̇(s) ds
= −ẋ u̇ sin φ + v̇ cos φ + ẏ u̇ cos φ − v̇ sin φ ds ∧ dt ∧ dψ
= − sin(ψ) ds ∧ dt ∧ dψ.
34. Finish the proof of Poincaré’s Formula - -.
Z Z Z2π Z Z Z2π
I= da db dφ = | sin(ψ)| dψ dt ds = 4 L(C ) L(Γ).
C Γ 0 C Γ 0
35. Santaló’s Theorem for convex domains.
Z2π Z
= da db dφ
{Ω02 (φ):Ω1 ∩Ω02 (φ)6=∅}
0
Z2π Z2π
1 h i
= f (α) f (α) + f¨(α) dα dφ
2
0 0
Z2π Z2π
1 h(α) + g (α + π − φ)
= [h(α) + g (α + π − φ)] dα dφ
2 +ḧ(α) + g̈ (α + π − φ)
0 0
38. Proof of Santaló’s Theorem - -.
R 2π
Using Fubini’s theorem, Cauchy’s Formula (5) and 0 ḧ(α) dα = 0,
Z 2π Z 2π h i
2J = h(α) h(α) + ḧ(α) dα dφ
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π
+ g (α + π − φ) [g (α + π − φ) + g̈ (α + π − φ)] dα dφ
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π
+ h(α) [g (α + π − φ) + g̈ (α + π − φ)] dφ dα
0 0
Z 2π Z 2π h i
+ g (α + π − φ) h(α) + ḧ(α) dφ dα
0 0
= 4π A(Ω1 ) + 4π A(Ω2 )
Z 2π h i Z h 2π i
+ h(α) L(∂Ω2 ) + 0 dα + L(∂Ω2 ) h(α) + ḧ(α) dα
0 0
h i
= 4π A(Ω1 ) + 4π A(Ω2 ) + L(∂Ω1 ) L(∂Ω2 ) + L(∂Ω2 ) L(∂Ω1 ) + 0 .
39. Geometric Probability application of Poincaré’s and Santaló’s Formulæ.
Corollary
Let Ω1 and Ω2 be bounded convex planar domains. The expected number
of intersections of ∂Ω1 with a moving ∂Ω02 given that Ω02 meets Ω1 is
4 L(∂Ω1 ) L(∂Ω2 )
E(n) = n o .
2π A(Ω1 ) + A(Ω2 ) + L(∂Ω1 ) L(∂Ω2 )
If Ω1 ∼
= Ω2 are congruent, then E(n) ≥ 2 with “=” iff Ω1 is a circle.
If Ω1 ∼
= Ω2 are congruent, the isoperimetric inequality implies
4 L2 4 L2
E(n) = ≥ = 2 with equality iff Ω1 is circle.
4π A + L2 L2 + L2
40. Total curvature.
Among all domains in the plane with a fixed boundary length, the circle
has the greatest area. For simplicity we focus on domains bounded by
simple curves.
Theorem (Isoperimetric Inequality.)
4πA ≤ L2 . (9)
4πA ≤ 4π Â ≤ L̂2 ≤ L2 .
Furthermore, one may also argue that equality 4πA = L2 implies equality
4π Â = L̂2 in the isoperimetric inequality for convex sets so that K̂ is a
circle. But then so is K .
The basic idea is to consider the the extreme points ∂ ∗ K̂ ⊂ ∂ K̂ of K̂ ,
that is points x ∈ ∂ K̂ such that if x = λy + (1 − λ)z for some y , z ∈ K̂
and 0 < λ < 1 then y = z = x. K̂ is the convex hull of its extreme
points. However, the extreme points of the convex hull lie in the curve
∂ ∗ K̂ ⊂ C ∩ ∂ K̂ . K̂ being a circle implies that every boundary point is an
extreme point, and since they come from C , it means that C is a circle.
47. Isoperimetric Inequality for convex sets
There are many proofs of the isoperimetric inequality. We shall give two
integral geometric arguments due to Luis Santaló.
1 The first argument only establishes the inequality part 4πA ≤ L2 .
2 To show that the circle is the unique domain for which the
Isoperimetric Inequality is equality, we prove a strong isoperimetric
inequality (12) that follows from Bonnesen’s inequality (11). The
second argument is Santaló’s proof of Bonnesen’s inequality.
48. Santaló’s proof of the Isoperimetric Inequality for convex sets.
4πA ≤ L2 . (10)
mi = 0 if i is odd.
49. Finish Santaló’s proof of the Isoperimetric Inequality.
Subtracting,
Obvious. The strong isoperimetric inequality (12) implies part one of the
isoperimetric inequality (10), since π 2 (Rout − Rin )2 ≥ 0.
Subtracting,
2π s L(∂Ω) − A(Ω) − πs 2 = m4 + 2m6 + 3m8 + · · · ≥ 0,