Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Laboratory Manual
HRT-202 (1+1)
Production Technology for Ornamental Crops,
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Landscaping
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
2017-18
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
CERTIFICATE
Marks: ___________________
Date: ________________
Suggested Readings
1. Arora JS. 2006. Introductory Ornamental Horticulture. Kalyani.
2. Bhattacharjee SK. 2006. Advances in Ornamental Horticulture. Vols. I-VI. Pointer Publ.
3. Lauria A & Ries VH. 2001. Floriculture – Fundamentals and Practices. Agrobios.
4. Prasad S & Kumar U. 2003. Commercial Floriculture. Agrobios.
5. Randhawa GS & Mukhopadhyay A. 1986. Floriculture in India. Allied Publ.
6. Sheela VL. 2007. Flowers in Trade. New India Publ. Agency.
7. Valsalakumari PK, Rajeevan PK, Sudhadevi PK & Geetha CK. 2008. Flowering Trees. New
India Publ. Agency.
8. Alice Kurian and Asha Shankar, M. 2007, Medicinal Plants, New-Delhi Publishing Agency,
New-Delhi.
9. Baby P. Skaria, Joy, P.P., Samual Mathew, Grey Mathew, Ancy Joseph and Bagina Josesh,
2007, Aromatic Plants. New India Publishing Agency, New-Delhi.
10. Purohit, S.S. and Vyas, S.P., 2007, Medicinal Plant Cultivation. Agrobios (India) Jodhapur.
11. Farooqui, A.A., B.S. Sreeramu, Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops University Press,
Hyderabad.
12. Anonymous (NIIR, Board), Herbs cultivation and their utilization, Asia Pacific Press, New-Delhi
CONTENTS
27. Garden Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus Tropaeolaceae 30-60 Seeds Orange, Yellow Hanging basket, beds
RW
28. Petunia Petunia hybrida Solanaceae 30-45 Seeds YR All Beds, border, pots
29. Phlox Phlox drummondii Polemoniaceae 30-45 Seeds RW All Beds, pots
30. Garden pinks Dianthus chinensis Caryophyllaceae 30-40 Seeds W All Beds, Pots
31. Salvia (red) Salvia splendens Lamiaceae 30-90 Seeds YR Red, Purple, White Bed, Rockery, Borders
32. Salvia (Blue) Salvia farinacea Lamiaceae 60-90 Seeds YR Deep blue, White Bed, Rockery, borders
33. Sweet William Dianthus barbatus Caryophyllaceae 15-30 Seeds W Pink, Red Bed, Borders
34. Verbena Verbena hybrida Verbenaceae 25-30 Seeds YR Pink, Yellow, Blue, White Pots, Beds, Edging, rockery
35. Zinnia Zinna elegans Asteraceae 15-90 Seeds YR Red, Yellow Beds, borders
36. Gladiolus Gladiolus spp Iridaceae 30-90 Cormels RW All Beds, Pots, cut flowers
Table 2. Foliage Shrubs and Herbs
Sl Method of
Botanical Name Family Description
No. propagation
1. 2 3 4 5
1. Acalypha wilkesiana Euphorbiaceae Cuttings Copper coloured leaves
2. Acalypha hamiltoniana Euphorbiaceae Cuttings Green foliage with yellow edges
3. Araliaceae sp. Araliaceae Cuttings Digitate leaves on long stalks
4. Coleus sp. (Solenostemon) Lamiaceae Cuttings Leaves reddish brown sometimes with yellow margin. Different variegated
colours are also seen
5. Costus ignons Zingiberaceae Cuttings Oblong leaves, dark green, above red tinged underneath orange coloured flowers
6. Crinum bulbispermum Liliaceae Bulbs Sword shaped leaves with beautiful inflorescence
7. Cyclanthus palmata Cyclanthaceae Cuttings Plant grows up to 9-12 ft. high with divided green leaves of 2-3 ft. long
8. Clerodendrum inerme Verbenaceae Cuttings Has vigorous growth habit which stand severe pruning
9. Codiaeum variegatum Euphorbiaceae Cuttings & Ornamental shrubs with varying multicoloured leaves.
(Croton) Layers
10. Dracaena fragrans Liliaceae Cuttings & Ornamental shrubs with varying multicoloured leaves.
Layers
11. Durantha plumieri Verbenaceae Seeds/ Small thorny shrub with light yellow leaves makes an attractive hedge.
Cuttings
12. Eranthemum sp. Acanthaceae Cuttings Medium sized shrubs with coloured leaves
13. Fittonia sp. Acanthaceae Cuttings Variegated leaves suitable for rockeries dark leaves with white or red veins
14. Graptophyllum hortense Acanthaceae Cuttings Compact shrubs with large ovate leaves
15. Phyllanthus nivosus Euphorbiaceae Cuttings A bushy shrub up to 2 m high leaves brown or white or variegated
16. Sanchezia nobilis Acanthaceae Cuttings Quick growing shrub with showy foliage green leaves with light yellow veins.
17. Strobilanthes dyerianus Acanthaceae Cuttings Colourful foliage shrub growing up to 1 m. high leaves tints of blue and lilac
and rosy purple beneath
18. Panax spp Araliaceae Cuttings Small leaflets midrib greenish white
19. Pendanes sunderiana Pandanaceae Suckers Leaves long and arching with very minute marginal spines.
Table3. Flowering Shrubs and Herbs
Sl Flowering Method of
Botanical Name Family Flower colour Description
No. Season Propagation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Artabotrys Annonaceae Yellow Winter Seeds layers Evergreen hardy shrub, flowers are highly
odoratissimus fragrant
2. Barleria cristata (day Acanthaceae Blue/Yellow/White YR Seeds, Cutting Bushy small shrub
queen)
4. Cestrum diurnum Solanaceae White RS Layers cuttings Soft woody shrub, flowers fragrant during
(Day king) morning
5. C. nocturnum (night Solanaceae Creamy white SR Cuttings Evergreen shrub with shining leaves
queen) highly fragrant flowers
6. Gardenia florida Rubiaceae Orange YR Layering Bushy shrub with small green and greenish
bronze leaves medium sized shrub with
fragrant flowers
7. Hamelia patens Rubiaceae White S Layering Medium shrub with abundant flowers
8. Ixora parviflora Rubiaceae Orange YR Layering cutting Dwarf spreading shrub
9. Jasminum sambac Oleaceae Creamy white S Cutting Dwarf spreading shrub
10. Lagerstroemia indica Lythraceae Pink white, Mauve S Cutting Medium sized deciduous shrub
11. Lantana camara Verbenaceae Yellow, white YR Cutting Hardy shrub
12. Pentas carnea Rubiaceae Pale lavender, pink YR Cutting Var. Alba white flowers, Var. Kermesina-
crimson Var. Lilacina-mauve
13. Mussaenda philippica Rubiaceae White, Red YR Cutting/layer Hardy medium shrub
14. Hibiscus rosa- Malvaceae White, red, pink YR Cuttings Hardy plants
sinensis
15. Caesealpinia Fabaceae Red, Yellow RS Seeds Medium sized shrub
pulcherrima (Peacock
flower)
16. Stachytarpheta rosea Verbenaceae Rose Red YR Cuttings Medium sized soft wooded shrubs
17. Tecoma stans Bignoniaceae Yellow RS Seeds Tail, shrub suited for hedge
Sl Flowering Method of
Botanical Name Family Flower colour Description
No. Season Propagation
18. Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae White SR Cuttings Evergreen hardy shrub
coronaria
19. Thevetia nereifolia Apocynaceae Yellow YR Cuttings, Seeds Tall evergreen shrubs
20. Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae Red, Yellow YR Cuttings Tall evergreen
pulcherrima
21 E. leucocephala Euphorbiaceae White YR Cuttings Tall evergreen
22. Holmskioldia Verbenaceae Yellow YR Cuttings Medium high plants
sanguinea (Cup and
saucer)
23. Justicia carnea Acanthaceae White YR Cuttings Grown as edge
24. Nerium oleander Acanthaceae Multicolour YR Cuttings Medium to heavy shrub
25. Vinca rosea Apocynaceae White, Pink YR Seeds Light shrub
26. Calliandra spp. Mimosaceae Red, White Rainy Cutting Seeds Very hardy shrubs
27. Beloperone guttata Acanthaceae Red YR Cuttings Very hardy shrubs
28. Cassia biflora Fabaceae Yellow YR Seeds Small shrub with yellow colour flower
year round
29. Canna indica Cannaceae Many colours YR Rhizomes Leaves resembles those of banana and
green or bronze coloured
30. Pelargonium sp. Geraniaceae White ,Red YR Cuttings Small herb
15. Coral tree Erythrina crista-galli Fabaceae Seed Bright red Oct.-April, Deciduous
16. Erythrina/ Flame tree Erythrina indica Fabaceae Stem cuttings/Seed Red Mid spring, Deciduous
17. Gliricidia/Mother of Gliricidia maculata Fabaceae Seed Pale pink Feb.-April, Tree is leafless when in
cocoa flower, Deciduous
18. Jacaranda /Brazilian Jacaranda mimosifolia Bignoninaceae Seed/Cuttings Blue-violet March-April, Deciduous
rose wood
19. Pride of India Lagerstroemia speciosa Lythraceae Cuttings/Air- White to Summer, Deciduous
layering purple/Pink
20. Michelia (Sampige) Michelia champaca Magnoliaceae Grafting/Seed Orange, Flower in spring, Evergreen. Grown
yellow, or for their flowers, both on the tree and
creamy white as cut flowers. Champak flowers are
flowers also used to produce an essential
oil for perfume
21. Sky Jasmine/Cork tree Millingtonia hortensis Bignoniaceae Root suckers/ White Oct-Dec., Deciduous
(Akash Mallige) Cuttings/ Seed
22. Copper pod tree Peltophorum Fabaceae Scarified seeds, Bright Nov-Feb., Semi-deciduous
ferrugineum cuttings, branch yellow
stakes
23. Temple tree Plumeria alba Apocynaceae Cuttings/Layers White Throughout the year, deciduous
24. Gulmohr/ Flamboyant Delonix regia = Fabaceae Seeds Orange red, April-June, Evergreen/Deciduous
Poinciana regia spotted with
yellow and
white/Yellow
25. Chogache/White dragon Sesbania grandiflora Fabaceae Seeds/Stem White, yellowish, Early deciduous
tree cuttings rose-pink or red
26. Potato Tree Solanum macranthum Solanaceae Seeds/Stem Flowers are March-Nov., Evergreen
(ornamental brinjal) cuttings/Grafting fragrant and
change their
colour from
white to pink
to lavender.
27. Fountain tree Spathodea Bignoniaceae Seed/Grafting Red Dec.-Jan., Evergreen/Deciduous
campanulata
28. Tabebuia/Silver Tecoma argentea Bignoniaceae Seed/Layering Bright Late winter, Deciduous
Trumpet Tree yellow
9. Aonla Banarasi, Budding- June-July -Tropical fruits 20-25 t/ha Whole fruit;Vitamin C Liver tonic
Phyllanthus emblica Chakaiya, 500plants/ and sub tropical Phyllemblin Component of triphal
Euphorbiaceae Krishna, ha churna
Kanchan Laxative and diuretic
10. Stevia - Stem Acidic to neutral soils, Leaves 3 months after planting Stevioside Natural sweetener
Stevia rebaudiana cuttings- semi humid and thereafter at 90 Rebaudioside-A; Insulin balancing
Asteraceae 110000/ha subtropical conditions days interval. rebaudioside B properties
11. Coleus K 8, Aisiri Terminal Red sandy soils. Tuberous 135-150 days after Forskolin Hypertension
Coleus barbatus (C. cuttings - Tropical and roots planting; 1500 kg/ha Asthma
forskohlii) 84000/ha subtropical climate dry tuber Heart ailments
Lamiaceae Restoration of grey hairs
12. Kalmegh CIM Megha Seed-400 Hardy crop; Cooler Whole First after 90-120 days Andrographolides Chronic malaria
Andrographis kg/ha climate with well herb from planting and Jaundice
paniculata distributed rainfall second after 60 days loss of appetite
Acanthaceae from first harvest bitter tonic
2000-2500kg dry herb/ha
13. Ocimum CIM Ayu, CIM Seeds (75- Wide range but well Whole 90 days after planting in 1. Linalool 1. Cough and cold
Ocimum sanctum Angana, CIM 250 g/ha drained loamy soils; herb annuals. In perennials 2. Camphor 2. Perfume
Kanchan Tropical and subtropical once in 65-75 days upto 6- 3. methyl eugenol
climate 7 years
BRIEF INFORMATION FOR IMPORTANT AROMATIC PLANTS
Common name, Varieties/types Commercial Planting Economic part Harvesting time Major Uses
botanical name, method of season/soil/climate and yield (ha) chemical
family propagation constituents
1. Mints 1. MAS-1 Stolons of 4-5 Jan-Feb; well Leaf 105-110 days 1. Menthol 1) Commercial
a)Japanese mint 2. Hybrid-77 cm long with 2- drained loamy soils after planting 20- 2. Carvone menthol source
Mentha arvensis 3. Siwalik 4 growing rich in humus; 40 t/ha of herb 3. Linalyl 2) Medicine for
b) Pepper mint 4. MSS-1 points temperate and which gives 100- acetate cold and coughs
Mentha piperita 5. MSS-5 subtropical climate 150 kg oil per ha 4. Linalool 3) Cosmetics
4) Confectionary
c) Spear mint 6. Koshi (cool summers)
5) Alcoholic
Mentha spicata 7. Himalaya
drinks
d)Bergamot mint 6) chewing gum
Mentha citrata and toothpaste
Lamiaceae
2. Lemon grass 1. OD-19 2-25 kg/ha May-June; well Leaf and 25-30 t/ha of fresh Citral , citron a) Perfumes
a) East Indian (sugandhi) seeds and drained sandy inflorescence leaves from 4-5 ellal b) Flavoring
lemon grass
2. Pragathi rooted slips loams; warm cuttings per year foods
Cymbopogon
flexuosus 3. Nima 25000/ha tropical climate which yield 100- c) Medicine
b) West Indian 4. Praman 150 kg oil d) Soaps and
Lemon grass C. 5. Kaveri detergents
citratus
c) Jammu Lemon 6. Krishna
grass 7. Chirharit
C. pendulusPoaceae
3. Citronella grass 1. Manjusha Rooted slips Ma-June; rich Leaves and 6t/ha from single Citronellal, a) Cosmetics
Cymbopogon 2. Mandakini 25000/ha loamy soils; warm inflorescence harvest; 50 kg oil Citronellol, b) Perfumes
winterianus 3. Bio-13 tropical climate per single harvest Geraniol c)
Poaceae 4. Jorlab-2 Insect/repellent
5. Manjari
6. CIM Jeeva
7. Medini
4. Geranium 1. Algerian Softwood Jan-Feb, June-July Leaves and tender 15-18 qn of Citronellol 1. Cosmetics
Pelargonium 2. Reunion cuttings ;red sandy loams; shoots herb/ha which geraniol 2. Perfumes
graveolens 3. PG-7 (27000- wide range of yields 15-20kg oil
Geraniaceae 4. Egyption 37000/ha) climate but grows
5. Bourbon well in subtropical
6. CIM Pawan climate
5.Vetiver Sugandha, Slips – June-July;. Red Roots During dry vetiverols 1. Perfumes
Chrysopogon Kesari, Gulabi,75000/ha lateritic with good season.; 18 2. Fixatives
zizanioides Dharini organic matter.; months after 3. Cosmetics
Syn. Vetiveria CIM Vridhi Tropical and planting;. 3000- 4. Soil binder
zizanioides subtropical climate 4000 kg dry
Poaceae roots/ha
5. Palmarosa or 1. PRC 1 For May-June; Loamy Leaf and 450-550 q/ha of Geraniol a) Cosmetics
Rosha grass 2. Trishna transplanting soils rich in organic inflorescence fresh herb from b) Perfumes
Cymbopogon 3. Jam-rosa seeds at 2-25 matter; tropical 15 months crop in
martini var. motia 4. Tripta kg/ha. climate two cuttings
Poaceae which yield 200
kg oil
6. Patchouli 1. Johore Terminal stem Oct-Nov; well Leaves and tender 5 months after patchouli 1. Cosmetics
Pogastemon 2. Singapore cuttings or drained loamy soils shoots planting; later alcohol, b- 2. Perfumes
patcholi syn. P. 3.CIM Samarath, shoot tip rich in organic once in every 3-4 patchoulene, 3. Fixative in
cablin 4.CIM Saksham. cuttings matter; tropical and months up to 2-3 a-guaiene, perfumes
(27000/ha) subtropical climate years 1500-2000 caryophyllene,
Lamiaceae (cool summers) g dried herb/ha a-patchoulene
which yield 60-
65kg oil
7. Davana No known Seeds 1.5 kg/ha Nov.-Dec;; well Leaves and flowers Harvest at 50% sesquiterpene 1. Garlands
Artemisia varieties drained rich sandy flowering stage; ketone called 2. perfumes
pallens Asteraeae loams; warm 15 t of fresh as cisdavanone 3. Cosmetics
winters and cool herb/ha which and artemone 4. Flavouring of
summers yield 15-16 kg foods
oil/ha 5. Medicinal
EXERCISE NO. 3. DATE:
ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN
1. Major elements: plants and water
2. Minor elements: Stones, bricks, tiles, tar, metal, grass, plastic, wood, sculpture etc.,
3. Other elements: Light, sound, smell, touch, food etc.,
Major elements:
Classification of plants based on utilities and functional value:
1. Aesthetic purpose:
a) Avenue planting- flower parade
b) Ground planting
c) Shrubbery, rockery, topiary, hedges, edges
d) Potted plant, flower beds, boarders
e) Ground cover
f) Water garden
2. Functional purpose:
a) Control pollution
b) Reduces noise
c) Control soil erosion
d) Wind break
e) Deciduous plants can utilize to increase temperature during winter
Criteria for selection of plants:
Morphological character should be considered while selecting the plants;
1. Height of the plant
2. Types of branches- upright, drooping, horizontal
3. Spread and width of the plant
4. Form of the plat
5. Type of plant- evergreen, deciduous
6. Colour of the plant
7. Texture of the plant- smooth, rough
8. Flowering time of the plant
I. Water: water has the ability to change form, at low temperature water freezes, evaporates
at high temperature and liquefies at moderate temperature
i. Aesthetic use:
Water falls- cascade type, fountains, streams, lakes, ponds, Nappe, Chadar, chute.
Water is used for creating reflection during night time along with lighting.
The use of water helps in reducing the temperature in the microclimate.
Sound of water makes a person feel comfortable.
Water may mask the over power unwanted sounds
ii. Functional use: Water will nourish the plant, increases growth and development
Minor elements
III. Stones:
For creating rockery, statues or sculptures, to imitate natural water falls, garden benches,
path/walks
Keep in mind that stone radiates heat and will have to be used carefully
IV. Bricks:
For creating garden walls, ponds
As paving material
For constructing plant boxes
V. Wood:
Wood adds colour and texture to the garden
Used for creating paths, steps, garden bridges, ornamental picket fence, country fences,
arches, pergolas
Wood should be coated with paints/ preservatives to prevent decay
VI. Metal:
For creating artistic features like garden bridges, arches, pergolas, Arbour, fence, light
stands, metal gardens
Used as a base material for plants to grow on, when used for topiary
Metals should be treated with anti corrosive materials before using in the out doors
VII. Sculptures:
Artistic material adds beauty to the garden with the use of stones, granites, sandstone,
marbles, metals
Sculptures includes birds, human being, animals etc
It can be kept in front, middle part, and in running streams of the garden
VIII. Glass: It includes mist chamber, green house, conservatory, terrariums and illumination
purpose
IX. Concrete: Used for creating drives, paths, walks, ground cover
X. Tar/ Asphalt: Creating drives
XI. Plastic: Drippers, sprinklers, pots, waste bin
Other elements:
XII. Lighting: Illumination, focusing the focal points, illuminating water
XIII. Sound: water falls, running streams, musical fountain, and wind chimes
XIV. Smell: planting of aromatic plants in different parts of the garden, trees,
Aromatic plants, annual beds can be used
XV. Touch: Texture of materials like plant surface, sculptures, paving,
Garden benches
XVI. Food: Created at out side boundary of the garden
EXERCISE NO. 3. (a) DATE:
GARDEN FEATURES
A component or feature in a garden can be a structure provides shade shelter or a place to
rest, or it can be a focal point positioned to create visual interest, to mark a transition between
different parts of the garden or to frame views. Although components are diverse in nature, have
a common element they attract attention and thus should always be well positioned, nearly
constructed and well maintained.
Some of the important garden components are as follows:-
HEDGE: Shrubs or trees planted at regular intervals to form a continuous screen is called
hedge. Many other plants such as succulents, cactus and palms can also be used.
Purpose: A hedge serves many purposes such as
1) A compound wall 2) To ensure privacy
3) A screen 4) Form a background for a floral displays
5) Separate one component of a garden from other
Selection of Suitable Plants:
In a garden a hedge is planted with two main objectives:
(i) For protection which means protection against theft, wind etc. For this category a hedge plant
should have the flowing characteristic:
Quick growing, hardy (drought resistant) thorny, dense should respond to frequent
pruning and clipping and can be raised quickly by seeds or cuttings. Attractive foliage and
flower will be an added attraction, though it is not a criterion in this category. e.g. Acacia spp,
Bougainvillea spp., Durantha, Cassia carandas, agave, Euphorbia spp (Cactus) Pendanus.
(ii) For ornamental purpose or screening: In this category hedge plants should have attractive
foliage and flowers, should be dense in growth habit stand regular clipping and generally low in
height e.g. palms, trees, conifers, shrubs and succulents.
EDGE: Lining of borders of lower beds, paths, lawn and shrubbery with brick concrete, living
plants, etc., is known as edging. Edging may be formal made of stone bricks, tiles et or informal
consisting of living plants (edge plants). Edge plants should grow very low as the purpose is not
for screening but to provide lining only, for the purpose of decoration of demarcation.
Informal Edging:
1. Grass Varges: A strip of grass, is a very attractive edging, especially in front of flower
beds. A grass verge should not be less than 60 cm in width for using lawn mower.
2. Other informal edging: Plant for edging is very good these are kept a low height and
maintained by neat and proper trimming.
Foliage plants: Plant with alternative foliage, which can withstand heavy pruning/clipping are
most suited e.g.: Altenanthera, Coleus, Eupatorium cannabinus, iresine, durantha, pilea.
Flowering Plants: Many of the flowering annuals and some perennials are also used for edging.
Eg: Amaryllis, Gerbera, Verbena, Miniature roses, dwarf marigold salvia.
ARCHES: A garden may need some arches for training climbers or ramblers. They are
generally constructed near gate or over path in a garden. An arch should be at least 2-2.5 m high
and breadth not less than 1 m or depends on path over which it is constructed. They can be
constructed with wood, stone pillar, iron angle. Arch roof may be angular flat or arch shaped
and binding wire may be used for roof.
PERGOLA: For growing creepers in a row pergolas are ideal structures. A pergola is defined a
sense of arches joined together. Generally pergolas are constructed over pathways, which add
beauty to a garden. Like arches the support can be made of wood, stone iron angle or G.I. pipe.
The supporting pillars may be connected together by wooden rafter (strips) or iron rod. Over
this base strong wire mesh may be placed for the creepers to spread easily. Roof may be flat or
arch shaped. The width of pergolas is kept generally within 2-2.5 m and height little more than
that and length will depend up on area to be covered.
TOPLARY: The art of clipping and shearing shrubs and small trees or herbaceous perennials in
to different shapes is known as topiary. Shapes like globe, done or cube can be given without
the help of any pre-fabricated moulded wire model. But difficult shapes such as bird animals
etc., need rough outline with wires and then training the shrub along the frame. Plants which
have numerous, dark green foliage and stand frequent clipping and shearing are suitable for this
work. Eg: Clerodendron inerme, Durantha, Bougainvillea, Hibiscus, Thuja, Polyalthia
longifolia, Cupressus.
ARBOURS: There are small cool places of resort in the garden. They are usually open on all
the sides. Roofs covered with dry typha grass or straw over that some height climbers can be
trained. They should be either placed at corners so that one can enjoy privacy and quietness or it
may be placed from where good view of garden can be seen.
CARPET BEDDING: Covering an area preferably a bed or a series of beds with dense low
growing herbaceous plants according to a set design in known as carpet bedding. In such places
designs like figures, letters or maps are cut with plants having different growth habit and
different coloured leaves.
SHRUBBERY: This is an essential feature of any garden. Shrubs are of permanent nature and
once planted will become a permanent feature. If plants are properly selected, the shrubbery will
provide flowers throughout the year. The beds meant for shrubberies need not be very formal
but should appear more natural. It is used for biding portion of a garden besides adding beauty.
BORDERS: Beds which are more in length than breadth and contain plants of a heterogeneous
character are known as borders. There are different kinds of borders and these are named
according to the kind of plant material grown in them. They are herbaceous border annual
mixed border and mixed boarder.
Borders may be placed against a wall a fence, shrubs, a hedge, or form a double border.
These are also used to mark a division between one part of a garden and another.
Other feathers of a garden are steps, terraces, drives and paths lawn flower bed rockery
water garden, marsh or bad garden etc.
STUDY QUESTION
1) What is shearing of hedge and edge? Explain briefly.
2) What is paved garden and crazy path?
3) What is difference between herbaceous and annual mixed border?
4) List the plants suitable for water garden and bog garden.
EXERCISE NO. 04 DATE:
PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF GARDEN
A garden is a work of art. It is the pleasure ground of civilization. A ere collection of
plants will not make a garden. It is the skilful arrangement and disposition of plants over the
area, making a design or pattern or picture to have a naturalistic effect. Therefore, gardening
necessitates are artistic taste and on the part of gardener apart from the science knowledge of
plants and their culture.
The elements or design line direction shape, size, texture value and colour and the
principles of composition balance, rhythm, harmony and dominance serve as guidelines for the
creation of art.
A formal garden in laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern. In this garden the
design is stiff as everything is done in a straight and narrow way. In such gardens everything is
planted in straight lines. The flower beds borders and slobbery are arranged in geometrically
designed beds.
In informal garden the whole design looks informal as the plants and the features are
arranged in a natural way without following any hard and past rules.
Material Required:
1) Drawing 2) Graph paper 3) Soft lead pencils
4) Good rubber or nylon eraser scale 5) All drafting equipment
Procedure:
Mark the outline
Plot the imaginary line (main and minor axial lines)
Plot the entrance roads, paths along the axial lines
Mark the intersected area for fountains/statue
Decide the plants for outer lines
Decide the plants for inner demarcation
Plot the specimen trees and shrubs
Demarcate the areas for playgrounds, benches, flower beds, and for other use areas
Draw everything in pencil first so that alterations can be made if needed
Fallow a uniform scale of 1 : 15 or 1 : 20
Precautions:
Avoid planting items requiring much maintenance
Take care of underground sewage lines and over head electric and telephone wires
Don’t use materials like iron wood etc., for construction of garden benches
Prepare the design and take to the spot and make changes if any
Use pencil for initial design
EXERCISE NO. 05 DATE:
LAYOUT OF DIFFERENT STYLES OF GARDENS
Besides the term “landscape gardening” the other two familiar terms in gardening are the
Formal and Informal gardens.
1. Formal Gardens: A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern. In
this garden the design is stiff as everything is done in a straight and narrow way. In such
gardens everything is planted in straight lines. Also if there is a plant on the left hand side of
a straight road, a similar plant must be planted at the opposite place on the right hand side i.e.,
mirror image of each other. The flower beds, borders, and shrubbery are arranged in
geometrically designed beds. Trimmed formal hedges, Cypress, Ashoka trees, and topiary are
typical features of a formal garden. Ex: Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles
2. Informal Gardens: In an informal garden, the whole design looks informal, as the plans
and the features are arranged in a natural way without following any hard and fast rules. But
here also the work has to proceed according to a set and well-through-out plan; otherwise the
creation will not be artistic and attractive. The idea behind this design is to imitate nature.
Ex: English and Japanese gardens
1. Wild Garden:
A comparatively recent style of gardening, namely, “Wild Garden” was expounded
by William Robinson in the last decade of the nineteenth century. His idea was
revolutionary and found many admirers to follow this. The concept of wild garden is not only
against all formalism but it also breaks the rule of landscape styles. His main idea was to
naturalize plants in shrubberies. He also preached that grass should remain unmowed, as in
nature, and few bulbous plants should be grown scattered in the grass to imitate wild scenery.
He also suggested that passages should be opened in the woodland, and trees, shrubs, and
bulbous plants should be planted among the forest flora to fulfill his idea of a wild garden.
His other idea was to allow the creepers to grow over the trees naturally imitating those of the
forests.
Before someone starts to venture into designing a garden it will be wise to get an idea
abut the major gardening styles of the world. This will pen up a window to this knowledge on
gardening and help him design his own garden by adapting the best from each or any of these.
But this does not mean that one should copy any garden style. For example, when a would-be
writer studies Shakespeare, Shaw, or Tagore it does not mean that he will translate their ideas
in his work of literature. He only studies the styles of writing and forms his own ideas suiting
to the situation and time. Similarly, a garden enthusiast has to study the different styles only
to gain knowledge to help him form his own ideas suiting the local condition and limitations
such as a available space, funds, etc.,
Though in India from history and ancient literature we find that gardening was quite in
vogue in olden times, but unfortunately there is no garden style called “Indian garden”, which
can claim a place in the major gardening styles of the world. The famous garden style of
India the “Mughal Gardens” are nothing but a replica of the ancient Persian Gardens.
The major garden styles are; Mughal Gardens, Persian gardens, Italian gardens, French
gardens, English gardens and Japanese gardens
Out of these, the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of
formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal
style of gardening.
EXERCISE NO. 06 DATE:
PROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
The living organisms reproduce by producing off-spring or by multiplying themselves.
In nature plants propagate themselves by seeds and vegetative parts. The gardener has to learn
the different methods of propagation to replace the old or the diseased stocks and to meet the
increasing demand of a growing garden.
Methods of Propagation
There are different methods of plant propagation, which can be classified under two
heads: (A) Sexual Propagation (B) Asexual or vegetative propagation.
(A) Sexual Propagation
Plants are propagated sexually by seeds and spores. Actually, a s[pre (as in ferns) is an
asexual body. But, when this falls on a moist surface it produces small plant bodies (prothallia),
which develops the sex organs (archegonia and antheridia) and these in due course develop sex
elements (gametes), which fuse and resulting body develops into the fern plant.
It is generally observed that plants raised from seeds are more vigorous in growth than
those raised by vegetative methods. A seedlings may not be an exact replica of the parents as a
result of natural cross-fertilization or segregation of characters, whereas plants raised by
vegetative means resemble the mother plant in all plant characters unless the plant part used for
propagation turns out to be a natural ‘sort’. Propagation by seed is necessary to obtain new
plants or hybrids. One disadvantage of propagation from seeds is that the seedling may take
years to produce flowers. For example, an orchid seedling may take 5-8 years to produce
flowers. But a plant raised by vegetative propagation from another mature plant flowers within a
season or between 1 and 2 years.
(B) Vegetative Propagation: By vegetative propagation is meant the production of a complete
plant from one vegetative bud or several such buds. This definition includes all asexual methods
such as cutting, layering, division, separation, budding and grafting. Tissue culture method of
propagation is also included under this.
Cutting : This may be defined as a process by which a plant is produced by severing a
vegetative portion from the plant and rooting it in a favorable medium under optimum
conditions. The plant parts that are used for this purpose are stems, toots leaves, and modified
stems such as tubers, corms, rhizomes, runners, and bulbs. In general, propagation by cutting is
the cheapest and the most convenient method and hence this is used more popularly to raise new
plants. It is probably possible to raise most of the species of plants by one method of cutting or
the other, but in the case of annuals, biennials, and some perennials some other methods such as
seed age, layering and grafting are easier and more economical.
(1) Stem cuttings: Stem cuttings are of three types (a) soft wood or herbaceous (b) semi-
hard wood, and (c) hard wood. Experimental evidence shows that cuttings, with a few leaves at
the top, root better than leafless cuttings.
(a) Soft wood cuttings; soft wood stem cuttings may again be separated into two
distinct categories: (i) those taken from herbaceous plants such as carnation, chrysanthemum,
coleus, dahlias, delphiniums, petunia etc. and (ii) the un ripened tips of woody plants such as
most o9f the ornamental shrubs and some tees. Soft wood cuttings are taken from below a node
and the bottom leaves are removed.
(b) Semi-hard wood cuttings: The portions of the stems which have passed the soft
wood stage but re not yet nature are referred to as semi-hard wood cuttings. Semi-hard wood
cuttings are used and the bottom leaves are removed.
(c) Hard wood cuttings; these are cuttings of shrubs and trees taken from mature current
years growth. The length of cuttings varies with the type of plants and weather conditions. One
meter to one and a half meters long hard wood cuttings of some trees and shrubs such as Ficus
benghalensis, Citharexylon, Gliricidia maculate, and species of erythriana, when planted out in
the open, root easily. But, generally, hard wood cuttings are 15-30 cm long. The soft wood or
herbaceous cuttings are generally 2.5 cm to 10 cm long.
The water – shoots, which are over-vigorous and over-luxuriant growths from the base,
do not make good cuttings. Similarly, in carnation the basal cuttings re not good, as these
produce more vegetative growth than flowering. The cuttings of middle portions and tips are
better in carnation. In some plants, the terminal tip cuttings produce better plants.
EXERCISE NO. 07 DATE:
PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES IN MEDICINAL PLANTS
1) Aloe: The plants are generally propagated by root sucker or rhizome cuttings.
2) Ashwagandha: The crop can be grown by directly sowing the seeds into the field as
well as by raising seedlings and transplanting then.
3) Opium poppy: Opium poppy is propagated by seeds. The capsules are placed by hand
and the seeds are separated after breaking the capsule. A day capsule weight bout 7 g and
it contains 11 to 12 thousand seeds weighing about 3.5 to 4.0 gm. Treating 1 kg of seeds
with 4-5 g of Thiram or Brassicol before sowing protects the seed from soil some disease
4) Geranium: it can be propagated through Softwood cuttings
5) Isabgol: The crop can be raised by seeds. For huge percentage of germination the seeds
should be taken from the crop harvested at the end of the proceeding season. Old seeds
tend to lose viability under ordinary storage condition. The seeds are small and light, hence
seeds must be mixed with sand or FYM before sowing. Mercurial seed dresses at the rate
of 3 g/ kg seed may b used to protect the seedlings from a possible attack of damping off.
5. Coleus : Coleus can be propagated by seeds as well as by stem-cuttings. However ,
propagation through seed is like difficult and slow and should be used only for the
breeding of new varieties. Whereas propagation by cuttings is very easy and economical
to raise this crop on a large scale terminal cuttings of 10-12 cm long with 3-4 plants of
lower are sown in already prepared nursery beds. The cutting establish well in the
nurseries and there is no problem in their rooting.
6) Senna: The crop is raised from seeds, which possess hard and tough seed coat. To
moderate the hard seed rate for better germination, pre-germination seed treatment is
essential. This can accomplished by pounding the seeds lightly with course sand in a
mortar.
7) Rauvolfia : Rauvolfia is propagated by seeds. It can also be propagated by vegetative
means like root cuttings, root stumps, stem cuttings and leaf cuttings. Fresh seeds
collection from ripe fruits are immediately sown, show a higher percentage of germination.
The viability of the seeds drops markedly was the increase in the interval of time between
8) Periwinkle (Vinca): It is commercially propagated by seeds. For transplanted crops,
500 g seeds are used in nursery to raise seedlings for one hectare. Seedlings emerge after
ten days of sowing and at 60 days, the seedlings are ready for field planting when it
attains a height of 15-20 cm, planted at 30 cm distance in rows spaced at 45 cm.
9) Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia) : The crop can be raised both by vegetative (root cuttings, stem
cuttings, root stumps) and seed propagation. Seed propagation is the best method for raising
commercial plantation.
10) Belladonna - The plants could be propagated by seeds, shoot cutting or root cutting.
However, raising of seedlings in nursery of direct broad casting of seeds in field are
recommended for raising a commercial crop
EXERCISE NO. 08 DATE:
Harvesting in Chrysanthemum:
Decorative types are harvested when the petals in the centre of the topmost flower is almost
fully developed.
In standards, harvesting is generally done when outer ray florets ceases to further develop.
Pot-mums are sent to the market with half to fully opened flowers.
Spray mums are generally harvested at the two thirds to three-fourths open stage; standard
mums at the three-fourths to full open stage of development.
Yield start from 3-4 months after planting.
Main crop duration 6 months.
Ratoon crop 4 months. Total duration (6+4) 10 months.
The lower leaves are stripped off up to 15-20 cm and bundled in units of 5 stems and secured
with a rubber band.
PACKING in Chrysanthemum
Most often standard chrysanthemum are placed in sleeves and packed in display boxes
measuring 91 x 43 x 15cm.
They are placed in the boxes according to the grades.
For bulk packing of the spray chrysanthemums, 10, 15 or 20 stems are placed in sleeves
according to the grades.
Six sleeves, three at each end, are generally packed in each box, measuring 80 x 50 x 23cm.
STORAGE in Chrysanthemum
Chrysanthemum cut flowers can be wrapped in plastics and stored dry for 6 to 8 weeks at a
temperature of 0.5oC.
Temperature for truck shipments across the country ranged between 2o and 4oC.
The stems in the buckets (after grading) are given a cut using sharp blade and pre cooled at 1°C
minimum of 2 hours before packing.
Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6 weeks period at 0-3°C.
VASE LIFE in Chrysanthemum
The use of proper preservative solution throughout the period of post-harvest handing is very
important to prolong the life of cut flowers.
Dipping of the stem for a very short period (5 seconds) in 1200-4800 ppm silver nitrate or
soaking the stems in 1000 ppm silver nitrate for 10 minutes.
Addition of 2 % sucrose to silver nitrate was found beneficial.
It increased the vase-life from 12 days to 20 days.
HARVESTING OF TUBEROSE:
Flowers are ready for harvest in about 3 to 3 ½ months of planting.
August-September is the peak period of flowering.
Depending on the purpose, harvesting is done by cutting the fully-opened spikes from the base
or single flowers are harvested as they open by day; the picking of individual flowers should be
completed by 8.00 a.m.
The flowers have a shelf-life of 3 days.
Flowers yield up to 17-18 t/ha can be expected from a well-maintained crop.
8 Counter-current Extraction
In counter-current extraction (CCE), wet raw material is pulverized using toothed
disc disintegrators to produce a ne slurry. In this process, the material to be extracted is
moved in one direction (generally in the form of a slurry) within a cylindrical extractor
where it comes in contact with extraction solvent. The further the starting material moves,
the more concentrated the extract becomes. Complete extraction is thus possible when the
quantities of solvent and material and their ow rates are optimized. The process is highly
efficient, requiring little time and posing no risk from high temperature. Finally,
sufficiently concentrated extract comes out at one end of the extractor while the marc
(practically free of visible solvent) falls out from the other end.
This extraction process has significant advantages:
i) A unit quantity of the plant material can be extracted with much smaller volume of
solvent as compared to other methods like maceration, decoction, percolation.
ii) CCE is commonly done at room temperature, which spares the thermolabile constituents
from exposure to heat which is employed in most other techniques.
iii) As the pulverization of the drug is done under wet conditions, the heat generated during
comminution is neutralized by water. This again spares the thermolabile constituents from
exposure to heat.
iv) The extraction procedure has been rated to be more efficient and effective than
continuous hot extraction.
9 Ultrasound Extraction (Sonication)
The procedure involves the use of ultrasound with frequencies ranging from 20
kHz to 2000 kHz; this increases the permeability of cell walls and produces cavitation.
Although the process is useful in some cases, like extraction of rauwolfia root, its large-
scale application is limited due to the higher costs. One disadvantage of the procedure is the
occasional but known deleterious effect of ultrasound energy (more than 20 kHz) on the
active constituents of medicinal plants through formation of free radicals and consequently
undesirable changes in the drug molecules
There are many advantages to the use of CO2 as the extracting uid. In addition to
its favorable physical properties, carbon dioxide is inexpensive, safe and abundant. But
while carbon dioxide is the preferred uid for SFE, it possesses several polarity limitations.
Solvent polarity is important when extracting polar solutes and when strong analyte-matrix
interactions are present. Organic solvents are frequently added to the carbon dioxide
extracting uid to alleviate the polarity limitations. Of late, instead of carbon dioxide, argon
is being used because it is inexpensive and more inert. The component recovery rates
generally increase with increasing pressure or temperature: the highest recovery rates in
case of argon are obtained at 500 atm and 150° C.
11 Phytonics Process
A new solvent based on hydro uorocarbon-134a and a new technology to optimize
its remarkable properties in the extraction of plant materials offer significant environmental
advantages and health and safety benefits over traditional processes for the production of
high quality natural fragrant oils, flavors and biological extracts.
Advanced Phytonics Limited (Manchester, UK) has developed this patented
technology termed “phytonics process”. The products mostly extracted by this process are
fragrant components of essential oils and biological or phytopharmacological extracts
which can be used directly without further physical or chemical treatment.
The properties of the new generation of fluorocarbon solvents have been applied to the
extraction of plant materials. The core of the solvent is 1,1,2,2-tetra uoroethane, better
known as hydro uorocarbon-134a (HFC-134a). This product was developed as a
replacement for chloro fluorocarbons. The boiling point of this solvent is -25° C. It is not
ammable or toxic. Unlike chloro fluorocarbons, it does not deplete the ozone layer. It has a
vapor pressure of 5.6 bar at ambient temperature. By most standards this is a poor solvent.
For example, it does not mix with mineral oils or triglycerides and it does not dissolve plant
wastes.
DISTILLATION PROCEDURES FOR AROMATIC PLANTS
Steam and Hydro Distillation of essential oils
Steam distillation, the most common method of extracting essential oil, involves
the flow of steam into a chamber holding the raw plant material. The steam causes small
sacs containing essential oil to burst. The oil is then carried by the steam out of the
chamber and into a chilled condenser, where the steam once again becomes water.
(Hydro-distillation is a similar process where the plant material is boiled, with the
resultant steam being captured and condensed.)
The oil and water are then separated; the water, referred to as a 'hydrosol,’ can
be retained as it will have some of the plant essence. Rose hydrosol, for example, is
commonly used for its mild antiseptic and soothing properties, as well as its pleasing
floral aroma.
A number of factors determine the final quality of a steam-distilled essential oil.
Aside from the plant material itself, most important are time, temperature, and pressure,
and the quality of the distillation equipment. Essential oils are very complex products;
each is made up of many, sometimes hundreds, of distinct molecules which come
together to form the oil's aroma and therapeutic properties. Some of these molecules are
fairly delicate structures that can be altered or destroyed by adverse environmental
conditions. So, much like a fine meal is more flavorful when made with patience, most
oils benefit from a long, slow 'cooking' process.
The temperature of the extraction chamber cannot be too high, lest some
components of the oil be altered or destroyed. The same is true of the chamber's
pressure. Lavender, for example, should not be processed at over 245 degrees F and
three pounds per square inch of pressure (3 psi). Higher temperatures and/or pressures
result in a 'harsh' aroma – more chemical than floral – and lessen the oil's therapeutic
effects.
Also, the essential oil extraction period must be allowed to continue for a certain
period of time in order to flush ALL the oil's components from the plant, as some are
released more quickly than others.
Despite the drawbacks of aggressive processing, high temperatures and
pressures are often used to produce large quantities of oil in a short period of time.
These oils are usually destined for use in cosmetic and processed food manufacturing,
but are sometimes sold to final consumers as essential oils for use in aromatherapy.
These oils will be less expensive, but are of limited therapeutic value, and the difference
is apparent when the aromas are compared side-by-side.
Absolutes
Some plants, and particularly flowers, do not lend themselves to steam distilling.
They are too delicate, or their fragrance and therapeutic essences cannot be completely
released by water alone. These oils will be produced as 'absolutes' – and while not
technically considered essential oils they can still be of therapeutic value. Jasmine and
Rose in particular are delicate flowers whose oils are often found in 'absolute' form.
The processing of an absolute first involves the hydrocarbon solvent extraction
of a 'concrete' from the plant material, a semi-solid mixture of typically 50% wax and
50% volatile oil. The concrete is again processed using ethyl alcohol (the same alcohol
found in beer, wine, etc.) in which the wax is only slightly soluble.
The volatile plant oil separates into the alcohol and this mixture is removed. The
alcohol is then evaporated and the result is an almost pure plant extract – depending on
the care taken in the evaporation process, sometimes 2% or less of the ethyl alcohol may
remain. The use of solvents in the essential oil extraction process notwithstanding,
absolutes can have incredibly deep and complex aromas.
CO2's and SCO2's
And now for the most modern methods of extracting essential oils, Carbon
Dioxide and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide extraction. Both methods of extracting
essential oils involve the use of carbon dioxide as the 'solvent' which carries the
essential oil away from the raw plant material.
The lower pressure Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extraction involves chilling carbon
dioxide to between 35 and 55 degrees F, and pumping it through the plant material at
about 1000 psi. The carbon dioxide in this condition is condensed to a liquid.
Supercritical CO2 extraction (SCO2) involves carbon dioxide heated to 87
degrees F and pumped through the plant material at around 8,000 psi – under these
conditions, the carbon dioxide is likened to a 'dense fog' or vapor. With release of the
pressure in either process, the carbon dioxide escapes in its gaseous form, leaving the
essential oil behind.
These carbon dioxide methods of extracting essential oil have a couple of
advantages: Like steam distillation, there are no solvent residues left behind, and the
resultant product is quite pure. Like solvent extraction, there is no heat applied to the
plant material or essential oil to alter it in any way. The oil produced is very accurate
with respect to the original state of the plant.
The CO2 methods of extracting essential oil are also the most efficient, producing
the most oil per amount of plant (one of the reasons for the high cost of essential oils is
the low yield of oil from most plants – one ton of Rose petals produces less than 1
pound of oil, for example). The efficiency of CO2 extraction is particularly important
when rare or endangered plant species are involved, such as Indian Sandalwood – less
of the precious plant is needed to produce an equivalent amount of oil.
Cold Pressing
Finally, there is the 'cold pressing' of citrus oils from the peels of fruit, as is done
with Bergamot, Orange, Lemon, and the like. This method of extracting essential oil
involves the simple pressing of the rind at about 120 degrees F to extract the oil. Little,
if any, alteration from the oil's original state occurs – these citrus oils retain their bright,
fresh, uplifting aromas like that of smelling a wonderfully ripe fruit.