Mechani

csoff
ibr
ousst
ruct
ure(
TMF-
334)
Fi
neness(
t):

I
tisdef i
neasmassperunitlengthorl engt
hperunitmassbuttheor
eti
cal
l
y
i
tisthicknessmeasur
ableornot .
itisusual
lydenot
edby(t)
.i
tisdependon
t
hesy stem weused(di
rectorindirect
)

Forsi
ngl
efi
ber
:

t
=mf/
L equ.
1

Forcomposi
te:

t
=m/
L

Rel
ati
onbet
weenf
iberf
inenessandl
i
nerdensi
ty:

L=mf/
Vf=m /V f
orbot
hfi
berandassembl
y

Mf
=ρVf , M=ρV

Putv
aluesi
neq.1

t
=ρVf/L=ρV/
L

now,

Vf/
L=Af f
orf
ibr
e

V/
L=A f
orassembl
y

So,

t=ρs f
orf
ibr
eandassembl
y

i
ffi
brei
sconsi
deri
sci
rcul
art
hen:

Vf=Af*L f
orf
ibr
e
 V=A*L f
orassembl
y

Forci
rcl
e,

Af=πd2/
4 f
orf
iber

A=πd2/
4 f
orassembl
y

Vf=πd2/4*
L , Vf/L=πd2/4 f
orf
iber

V=πd2/4*
L , V/L=πd2/4 f
or
assembl
y

Repl
aci
ngi
nfi
rstandsecondequat
ions,
wegetal
ter
nat
eexpr
essi
on.

As,

t
=mf/L= ρVf/L so,

=ρ*πd2/4
t

t
hedi
amet
eroff
ibercannowbecal
cul
atedasbel
ow.
:

“
transposi
ngf
ord”

d=√4t
/ρπ

f
orf
iber
,fori
nst
rumentofmass,
samecanbeequat
ed.

Butas t
=ρs

so, d canal
sobe:

d=√(
4t)
/(t*
π/s)

d=√(
4π/
s)

d=2√4π/
s)
Equi
val
entf
ibr
edi
amet
er(
d):

consi
derci
rcul
arcr
oss-
sect
ionasi
n(a)f
orci
rcl
eweknow,

S=πd2/4 ,
tr
ansposi
ngf
or‘
d’

d=√(
4S/
π)

f
rom pr
evi
oussect
ionweknow

t
=sρ , s=t
/ρ

nowr
epl
ace ‘
s’

d=√4t
/ρπ , πd2/
t=( 4t)
*ρ

f
orf
iberwi
thshapeasi
n(b)
,wet
akeequi
val
entdi
amet
er‘
d’

ofci
rcl
einscr
ibet
heact
ual
fibershape.

Foranyci
rcul
arassembl
yandf
iber

Vf=S*L f
orf
iber

V=S*
L f
orassembl
y

So,

L=πd2/4*
Vf=S* L , πD2/4*
L

Pr
act
ical
measur
ementoff
inenessf
orcot
ton&sy
nthet
icf
iber
:

I
nst
rument
:Shef
fi
eldmi
cron-
air

Measur
e:m/
L,μg/
inch Mi
cval
ue(
2-5)

Ai
r-
fl
owmet
hod(
micr
on-
airi
nst
rument
):

Ther esi
stanceof
fer
edtothefl
owofai
rthr
oughaplugoffi
bersi
s
dependentuponthespeci
fi
csurf
acear
eaofthef
iber
s.Fi
nenesst
est
erhas
beenev
olv
edont
hispr
inci
plef
ordet
ermi
ningf
inenessofcot
ton.

Pr
inci
ple:

I
nthismethod,fi
berf
inenessismeasuredbyairf
low.Ifl
argeamountofai
r
i
sblown,t
hef i
berwil
lbecoarseandifsmallamountofairisbl
own,t
he
f
iberwi
ll
bef i
ne.Themet hodbasedonthispri
nci
ple.

Pr
ocedur
e:

Thisisanindi
rectmethodofmeasur
ingfi
berf
inenesswhi chi
sbasedon
thefactthatt
heair
fl
owatagivenpressur
edif
ferencethroughauni
formly
dist
ri
butedmassoff i
bersi
sdeter
minedbythetotalsur
faceareaofthe
fi
bers.

Fi
g:Fi
berFi
nenessi
smeasur
edbyt
heAi
rf
lowMet
hod

Thesur f
acear eaofaf iber(lengthXcircumfer
ence)ispropor ti
onaltoi t
s
di
amet erbutforagi venwei ghtofsampl ethenumberoff ibersincreases
wit
ht hef i
berf i
nenesssot hatt hespecifi
csurf
acear ea( areaperuni t
weight
)i si nversel
y pr oporti
onalt ofiberdiameter
;Fi g.shows t hi
s
di
agrammat icall
y.Becauset heairfl
owvarieswi
thpressuredi f
ferenceitis
therat
ioofai rfl
ow t
odiff
erent
ialpressur
ethatisdeter
minedbythefi
ber
diameter.Theref
orethemethodcanbeusedt omeasureeit
hert
heair
fl
ow
atconstantpressur
eorthepressuredropatconst
antair
fl
ow.

Shapef
act
or(
q),
per
imet
er(
p)andcr
osssect
ionoff
iber
Shapef
act
or(
q):
Shapefact
orisaactualshape/ per
imet eroffiberenclosedactualfi
ber
cross-
sect
ionasinacircle.theperimeterofequivalentcir
cleis‘
πd’.aswe
knowbygeomet rycir
cleist heshortestcurveenclosinggivenareait
’sa
rati
ooftor
sional
rigi
dit
yofr ealfi
bertot hatoffi
berwi thci
rcul
arcross-
secti
onandsamecr oss-sectionarea.(alsodenotedbyC)
I
fact
ual
shapeoff
iberi
scl
oset
oci
rcl
ewewr
it
eit1.
Per
fectci
rcl
ehav
eval
ueofq=1.
P1=P2
I
fshapef
act
ori
sless,
great
eri
ncl
i
nat
ionf
rom act
ual
sur
face.
I
fshapef
act
ori
sgr
eat
er,
lessi
ncl
i
nat
ionf
rom act
ual
sur
face.

P≥πd
Tr
ansposi
ngt
hei
nequal
i
ty:
P/
πd≥1
Shapef
act
ori
srat
ioofact
ual
per
imet
ert
oper
imet
erofequi
val
entci
rcl
e
,t
hen:
 q=P/
πd-
1≥0
wecani
gnor
e‘>0’
becauser
ati
oisguar
ant
eedt
obegr
eat
ert
han‘
0’
q=P/
πd-
1
P=πd(
1+q)
Par
amet
eri
nter
m ofshapef
act
or
Theaboveequati
oncangiveusper
imeterofact
ualfi
bercr
oss-
secti
on.as
perf
iberi
nst
it
uteq=0forperf
ectcy
li
nderwhil
eitishi
gherf
orfi
berswit
h
devi
ati
ngshapes.

Shapeofcr
oss-
sect
ion f
act
or

Ci
rcl
eideal 0

Ci
rcl
ereal 0-
0.07

Tr
iangl
eideal 0.
29

Tr
iangl
ereal 0.
09-
0.12

Mat
urecot
ton 0.
20-
0.35

I
rr
egul
arshape >0.
06

Not
e:
Thesedayscomputersar
ebei
ngusedformeasurementof‘
P’and‘
q’
.val
uesfr
om abovetabl
ecanbeputi
ntoequat
ionfor‘
P’tocal
cul
ate
peri
mrt
er.
Way
stocal
cul
ateshapef
act
or:
1.
text
il
emi
croscope(
speci
ali
zed)
2.
tensi
l
etest
ingf
ort
ext
il
e.
Compar
ison:
Regul
arshape Mor
est
rengt
h

homogenei
ty Mor
est
rengt
h

ev
endensi
ty Mor
est
rengt
h

I
rr
egul
arshape Lessst
rengt
h

Nonhomogenei
ty Lessst
rengt
h

Unev
endensi
ty Lessst
rengt
h

Aspectr
ati
o(Ω)
:
I
tisdefi
nedastherat
ioofl
engt
htodi
amet
er/
thi
ckness.
aspert
ext
il
e
mater
iali
tis1:
1000
Ω=L/
d
 Forj
utemat
eri
ali
tis1500
 Forcot
tonmat
eri
ali
tis2000-
2500
 Forwool
mat
eri
ali
tis>3000
Forgoodaspectr
ati
o:
I
f; St
apl
elengt
hishi
gh
 Mat
eri
alquant
it
yishi
gh
Then;
Aspectr
ati
owi
l
lbehi
gh
Forexampl
e:
 Ty
pical
pipesi
ze1cm di
amet
erand20cm l
engt
h.
L=20cm d=1cm

I
fwehavet
wosi
desobj
ecti
snotdef
orm duet
odi
sper
sionofmechani
cal
f
orce.

Fi
berspeci
fi
car
easur
face(
a):
Consi
derf
iberbel
ow:
Aspert
hisv
aluesar
eai
sA=P*
L
Actualareai
ncl
udescr
oss-
sect
ionofbot
hfacesandsur
facear
eofpi
ece
contai
ningL
Astheseareaar
esmallascompar
edt
ocy
li
ndr
ical
sur
facesoer
rorar
eso
smallandcanbeignor
ed.
Fr
om pr
evi
ousequat
ion:
P=πd(
1+q) but Af=P*
L p
Af=a=πd(
1+q)*L butf
orassembl
y
A=NAf =πd(
1+q)*NL=πd(
1+q)*L L

Forci
rcul
arcr
oss-
sect
ion,
andoccupy
ingdensi
tyequat
ioni
nvi
ew.
wehav
e:

πd2/
mf=Vfρ=( 4)Lρ f
orf
iber
πd2/
m=Vfρ=( 4)Lρ f
orassembl
y
bydefini
ti
on,
fi
berspeci
fi
csurf
acear
eai
ssur
facear
eaperuni
tmass
.appl
yi
ngaboveequati
on,weget:
a=Af/
mf
a=(πd(
1+q)*L)/((
πd/
4)ρL)
a=4(
1+q)/dρ
asweknow,
d=√(
4t/
πρ)

so,
repl
aci
ngv
alues,

a=4(
1+q)/(
√(4t
/πρ)*
ρ)

f
ibersur
facechar
act
eri
sti
csef
fect
sendusesl
i
kehandl
eet
c.

Fi
bersur
facear
eaperuni
tvol
ume(
ɤ):

Rat
io offi
bersur
face ar
ea and f
iberv
olume i
s used f
orgeomet
ri
c
cl
assi
fi
cat
ion.

ɤ=Af/Vf

=A/V

=πd( πd2*
1+q)L/( L/4)

ɤ=4(
1+q)/d

ɤ=4(
1+q)/d

ɤ=4(
1+q)/√(
4t/
πρ)

compar
ingabov
eequat
ionwi
th a=4(
1+q)/(
√(4t
/πρ)*
ρ)

ɤ=a*
ρ

Fi
bercr
osssect
ionar
ea(
S):

 Regul
arcr
osssect
ion(
hav
ingpr
opergeomet
ryl
i
keci
rcl
e,t
ri
angl
e,
 r
ect
angl
e)

I
rr
egul
arcr
osssect
ion(
hav
ingpr
opergeomet
ry,
anyr
andom shape)

Forr
egul
arshapes:

Asweknow,

Af=πd2/
4*L=Vf

Af=t
/ρv
ali
dforr
egul
arshapes

I
ffi
ber
sar
eequi
val
entusedi
amet
eroff
ibert
omeasur
ecr
osssect
ionar
ea.

Fori
rr
egul
arshapes:

Asweknow,

V=L*
A

Vf=L*
Af

Vf=L*
S

t
eVf/L=S=t
/ρ

Appr
oxi
mat
elyequal
toeachot
her
.

Tensi
l
est
ress(
σ):

Mechani
calst
ress,for
ceappli
edperunitareaofcross-
secti
on‘(σ*
)’
.i
n
t
exti
l
e,speci
fi
cstressisusedforappl
i
edr ati
owithli
nerdensit
y.

σ=F/t=F/
sρ=σ*
/ρ put F/
s=σ*
/
Tensi
l
etest
ing:
Ty
pes:
1.
singl
eyar
n/f
ibr
est
rengt
h
2.
bundl
eyar
n/cumul
ati
vest
rengt
h
Av oi
djawbr
ake(
brakenearj
aws)wi
thi
n5-
10mm.i
tsconsi
derawr
ong
test.

Forsi
ngl
eyar
n/f
ibr
etest
ing:
Upperj
aw(
stat
ionar
y)

(
singl
eYar
n/f
ibr
e)

Lowerj
aw(
mov
eabl
e)
Doi
ngt
hist
estatCPE(
const
antr
ateofex
tensi
on)
Forl
eat
est
ing:
Upperj
aw(
stat
ionar
y)

Leaofy
arn

Lowerj
aw(
mov
eabl
e)

Doi
ngt
hist
estatCPE(
const
antr
ateofex
tensi
on)
I
nst
rumentusef
ort
hist
est
ingi
scal
l
edt
enso-
lab,
tenso-
jet,
tensi
l
e
t
est
er
C.
S.Pofy
arn:
i
tisdef
ineast
hest
rengt
hofy
arnwi
thr
espectt
ocount
.
C.
S.P=St
rengt
hofy
arni
npoundxCounti
nEngl
i
shsy
stem.
C.
L.S.
Pofy
arn:
MeasuretheCountLeaSt
rengthProduct(
CLSP).TheLeastrength
of
 yar
n i
soneoft hemaj
orproper
ti
esonwhi cht
hesuitabi
l
ityof 
yarn 
fori
ts
ul
ti
mateendusedepends.Iti
sthestandardmethodofmeasur i
ngthe
st
rengt
hoft he 
yarn.
Tenaci
ty:
Val
ueofst
ressatwhi
chf
iberbr
eaksi
scal
l
edt
enaci
ty.

Br
eaki
ngl
engt
h:
Lengt
hatwhichy
arnorf
iberbr
eaksunderi
tsownwei
ght.
it
sbr
eaki
ng
l
engthis‘
R’t
henL=R
F=Rtg
Rtg/
t=Rg
σ=F/t wher
e σ=0.
981(
km/
N)

Loadi
ng:

Appl
i
cat
ionofext
ernal
for
ceonbody
/mat
eri
alkeepi
ngi
tsi
ntegr
it
y.

Ty
pesofl
oadi
ng:

 Cont
inuousl
oadi
ng(
regul
ar)

 Non-Cont
inuousl
oadi
ng(
ir
regul
ar)

 Per
iodi
cloadi
ng(
properi
nter
val
)

 Non-Per
iodi
cloadi
ng(
impr
operi
nter
val
)

Bendi
ng:

Thedef
ormat
ionpr
oducedi
nthebody
/mat
eri
ali
nther
esul
tofl
oadi
ng.
Swel
l
ing:

Changei
nli
nearorsect
ional
shapei
scal
l
edswel
l
ing.I
tmeansL+∆L

 Li
nearSwel
l
ing=∆L/L

 Sect
ional
swel
l
ing=∆S/S

 Vol
umet
ri
cswel
l
ing=∆V/V

L=πd2/4*
Vf=S* L

L=Vf*
4/πd2

√d2=√(
Vf*
4/πL)

d=√(
Vf*
4/πL)

d=2√(
Vf/πL)

char
act
eri
sti
csoff
ibr
ousassembl
i
es
packi
ngdensi
ty:
consi
derassembl
ysecti
onbecomesav ol
umeoccupiedbyassemblyisYc
.the‘
V’i
sv ol
umeoccupi
edbyfiber
.Thenthecompactnessofassemblyi
s:
µ=V/Yc µϵ<0,
1>
I
ntext
il
e‘µ’
iscal
l
edpacki
ngdensi
ty.
I
nchemi
cal
technol
ogyi
tiscal
l
edv
olumef
ract
ion.
Textil
emat er
ial
scontai
nhugeamountofairbetweenfiber
s.Thisi
mpar
ts
softness,
porosit
y,handl
eanddrapabi
li
tyet
c.thismeansbay i
ngabal
eof
cottonwool makesuspayfor97%airand3%ofact ual
mat er
ialt
obe
purchased.
BASI
CTERMS
For
ce:
Aforceisaninteract
ionthatcausesanaffect
edobjecttobepushedor
pul
ledinacertaindir
ecti
on.Thisresul
tsinanalter
ati
ontothestat
eoft
he
obj
ect'
smoment um.Forcescausesobjectstoacceler
ate,
addtothe
obj
ectsoveral
lpressure,
changedi r
ecti
on,orchangeshape.
Uni
toff
orcei
sNewt
on
St
ress:
Thest r
essappliedtoamat er
iali
sthef orceperuni
tareaappli
edtothe
mat er
ial(
int
ernally)
.Themaximum stressamat eri
alcanstandbeforei
t
breaksiscall
edt hebreaki
ngstr
essorul ti
matetensi
lestr
ess.Tensil
e
2
meanst hemat eriali
sundert
ension.Unitofstr
essisN/m
St
ress=f
orce/
uni
tar
ea

St
rai
n:
Ther
ati
oofext
ensi
ontoori
ginall
engt
hiscall
edstrai
nithasnouni
tsasi
t
i
sarati
ooft
wolengthsmeasuredi
nmeters.Str
ainhasnounit
.

Pr
essur
e:
Pressureisanexpressi
onofforceexer
tedonasurf
aceperuni
tarea
(ext
ernall
y).Thest
andardunitofpr
essurei
sthePascal
(Pa)
,equi
val
entt
o
oneNewt onpermet ersquar
ed(N/m 2orN.
Modul
us:
Anel asticmodul
usisaquant
itythatmeasuresanobj
ectorsubst
ance'
s
resistancetobei
ngdefor
medel asti
call
ywhenastr
essisappl
iedtoi
t.The
elasticmodulusofanobj
ecti
sdef inedasthesl
opeofi
tsstr
ess–str
ain
curv eintheel
ast
icdef
ormati
onr egion.
St
ress=F/
A
St
rai
n=∆Lf
/Lf
 Modul
us=st
ress/
str
ain
Ty
pesofmodul
usofel
ast
ici
ty:
 Young' smodulus(E)describestensi
l
eelast
ici
ty,
orthetendency
of anobjecttodeform al
onganaxi swhenopposingforcesare
appliedalongthataxi
s; i
tisdefi
nedastherati
oof t
ensi
lestressto
tensilest
rain.I
tisoft
enr ef
erredtosi
mplyastheelast
icmodul us.
Yf=F/
A*Lf/∆Lf
 Thebulkmodulus( K)descr
ibesvolumetri
celasti
cit
y,ort
het endency
of 
anobjectt
odef orminalldir
ect
ionswhenuni formlyl
oadedi nall
di
recti
ons;i
tisdefi
nedasv olumetri
cstressovervolumetr
ic
st
rain,
 
andistheinverseofcompressibil
it
y.Thebulkmodul usisan
ext
ensionof 
Young'smodulust othreedimensions.
Bf=F/
A*Vf/∆Vf
 Theshearmodul usormodul
usofri
gidit
y(Gor
)descr
ibesanobject
’s
tendencytoshear(t
hedef
ormati
onofshapeatconst
antvolume)
whenact eduponbyopposi
ngfor
ces;iti
sdefi
nedasshearstr
ess
overshearstr
ain
Suppose:
 Lf=l
engt
hofsi
ngl
efi
ber
 Af=ar
eaofsi
ngl
efi
ber
 Vf=v
olumeofsi
ngl
efi
ber
 Mf=massofsi
ngl
efi
ber
Assembl
yoff
iber
s(f
orNf
iber
s):
 L=N*
Lf
 A=N*
Af
 V=N*
Vf
 m=N*
mf
 Alway
st akemar
gini
nmat er
ialsbecausei
tchangeswi
tht
het
ime.
for
exampleduri
ngmeasur
ingstresstake±2%
St
ress-
str
ainr
elat
ionshi
p:
TheHook'sl
aw,
stat
esthatwi
thi
ntheel
ast
icl
i
mit
sthest
ressi
s
propor
ti
onal
tot
hestrai
n.
I
tcanber
epr
esent
edas:
σ=Eε
St
ress-
str
aingr
aph:
St
ress-
str
ainr
elat
ionshi
pisdi
ff
erentf
ordi
ff
erentmat
eri
als.

 L=t
hel
i
mitofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty,
Hooke’
slawappl
i
esupt
othi
spoi
nt.
 E=el ast
icli
mi t
,beyondthispointthemat eri
alispermanentl
ystr
etch
anditwillnotgobackt oit
sor i
ginallength.Elasti
cbehaviori
swhena
material
returnstoitsori
ginall
ength, pl
asticbehav i
oriswhenthe
str
etchedmat eri
aldoesnotr et
urnt oitsor i
ginall
ength.
 Y=yiel
dpoint
,beyondthi
spoi
ntsmal
li
ncr
easesi
nfor
cegi
vemuch
bi
gincr
easesinl
ength.
 B=br
eaki
ngpoi
ntt
hemat
eri
albr
eaksatt
hispoi
nt.
Hy
groscopi
cit
y:
Hy groscopi
cityi
sthetendencyofasol i
dsubstancetoabsorbmoist
ure
from thesurroundi
ngatmospher e.Thepr ocesscantakeonanumberof
forms.Manycel l
ulosi
cmat eri
als,includi
nghair,cot
tonandwool,
are
hy gr
oscopicandchanget heirphy sicaldi
mensionsasar esul
toft
hetake-
upofwat er
.
I
sot
ropi
c:
I
sotr
opycomesf
rom t
heGreekwordsisos(
equal)andt
ropos(way)and
meansuni
for
minal
ldir
ect
ions.I
sot
ropicmater
ial
sli
keglassexhi
bitt
he
samemat
eri
alpr
oper
ti
esi
nal
ldi
rect
ions.
Ani
sot
ropi
c:
Ani
sotropyistheproper
tyofbeingdirecti
onallydependent,whichi
mplies
di
ff
erentpropert
iesindi
ffer
entdirect
ions.Itcanbedef i
nedasadi f
ference,
whenmeasur edalongdif
ferentaxes,i
namat eri
al'
sphysicalormechanical
pr
operti
eslikeabsorbance,ref
racti
veindex,conducti
vit
y,tensi
lest
rength,
et
c.
Duct
il
it
y:
Ducti
li
tyisameasureofamateri
al'
sabil
i
tyt
oundergosi
gni
fi
cantpl
asti
c
defor
mat i
onbef
oreruptur
e,whi
chmaybeexpressedasper
centel
ongati
on
orpercentar
eareduct
ionfr
om atensi
l
etest
.
I
not herwordsduct
il
it
yisaphysi
calpr
opert
yofamat
eri
alassociat
edwit
h
theabil
i
tyt
obehammer edt
hinorst
ret
chedint
owi
rewit
houtbreaki
ng.A
ducti
l
esubstancecanbedrawnint
oawi r
e.

Hy
drophobi
cit
y:
Hydr
ophobici
tyi
sthephy
sicalpr
oper
tyofamol
ecul
ethati
sseemi
ngl
y
r
epel
ledfr
om amassofwat er
.
I
tist
hepr
oper
tyofr
epel
l
ingwat
err
athert
hanabsor
bingi
tordi
ssol
vi
ngi
n
i
t.
Br
it
tl
e:
Amat eri
ali
sbri
tt
lei
f,whensubj ectedtostress,i
tbreakswithout
si
gnif
icantpl
ast
icdefor
mat i
on.Br i
ttl
emat eri
alsabsorbrel
ativ
elyl
it
tl
e
ener
gypr i
ortof
ract
ure,ev
ent hoseofhi ghstrength.
El
ast
ici
ty:
Elasti
cit
yistheabi
li
tyofabodytor
esistadistor
ti
nginf
luenceandtoret
urn
toitsori
ginalsi
zeandshapewhenthatinf
luenceorf
orceisremoved.
PLASTI CITY:
Plast
icit
ydescribest
hedefor
mationofamat
eri
alunder
goi
ngnon-
rever
siblechangesofshapei
nresponset
oappl
iedfor
ces.