1

Introduction

1.1 Historical
Dredging is an ancient art but a relatively young science. Traces of man's work involving
primitive dredging techniques have been discovered in many places, dating back to thou-
sands of years BC (Linssen, 1975). In such instances, the vessel was probably little more
than a raft and the excavating means a man with a bucket. The development of this method
of excavation into the spoon and bag dredger and the subsequent proliferation of dredging
machines has been well described (Gower, 1967).
With the development of powerful dredging machinery there was a corresponding
increase in the scope and complexity of engineering projects which could be executed by
dredging. For a considerable time the art of using this equipment was known only to small
groups of men who passed their knowledge and experience on from one generation to the
next. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, which transformed many arts into sci-
ences, the dredging process was subjected to greater scientific analysis.
The development of dredging methods has been influenced by geographical characteris-
tics. Whereas the major developments in mechanical excavating methods in the 19th century
probably occurred in the lowlands of Europe, the development of hydraulic dredging tech-
niques, using the centrifugal pump, was pioneered by the Americans. The latter had
numerous sites suitable for reclamation by pipeline dredgers, whilst the European sites were
more often confined, necessitating transport by barge to open sea. In due course, the slow
mechanical methods were largely replaced by suction dredgers and hydraulic dredging
became commonplace worldwide.
Other notable trends in dredging technology have been the development of rock cutter
suction dredgers in the 1970s to tackle the many rock dredging projects in the Middle East,
and the recent introduction of dredging machines specifically designed to be used within
strict environmental constraints. No doubt this latter trend will continue into the foreseeable
future as the dredging industry continues to adapt to the demands of the market.

1.2 Modern dredging practice

Dredging today is usually categorised as either capital or maintenance dredging. Capital
dredging normally denotes projects which involve dredging as a one-off operation, where-
as maintenance dredging is used to describe dredging which is of a recurrent nature.
2 Introduction

Dredging is carried out for a variety of reasons and by a number of different types of
dredger. However, the basic reason for dredging is usually to achieve one, or a combination,
of the following:
9 to excavate material from underwater, thereby creating a greater depth in a fiver, lake or sea;
9 to fill a void, either underwater or on land, with material excavated from underwater;
9 to replace material underwater, (i.e. to substitute poor quality material with good quality);
9 to win material for construction;
9 to win minerals;
9 to improve the environment.
Examples of the types of work where these results are achieved are:

Material excavation
For construction: to form new harbours, basins, entrance channels, canals; to excavate
trenches for foundations, immersed tube tunnels and for laying
pipelines and cables.
For navigation: to deepen or widen harbours, channels and rivers; to remove obstruc-
tions such as boulders, rock outcrops or sand banks.
For maintenance: to remove sediment from harbours, rivers and canals; to remove
material from lakes and reservoirs to restore water capacity.
Others: to alter seabed contours to modify the wave climate; to excavate
around wrecks to sink them into the seabed; to improve the hydraulic
efficiency of rivers and storage reservoirs.

Filling
For construction: to form new or improved land for ports, industry, agriculture, roads,
etc.; to place fill-in trenches for the foundations of breakwaters, cais-
sons, immersed tube tunnels and pipelines; to backfill around the
same.
For coast defence: to form dykes and new beaches; to recharge beaches with additional
sand or shingle.

Material replacement
For construction: to excavate and remove unsuitable material for foundations, or recla-
mation, and replace with suitable material.

Material winning
For construction: to obtain aggregate for making concrete; to obtain sand for reclama-
tion fill.

Mineral winning
For mining: to excavate minerals from the sea or river bed (manganese nodules,
tin, gold, etc.); to excavate, process and re-deposit materials contain-
ing minerals and mineral ores (gold, tin, rutile, etc.).
 Environmental aspects 3

Environmental improvement
For contaminants: to excavate and remove contaminated materials to a safe disposal
site, or for processing.
For capping: to excavate clean, inert material and place over contaminated mater-
ial as a sealing layer.
For habitat: to excavate and place appropriate materials to create or improve
habitats, such as wetlands.
In this book, with the exception of the mining processes, all these subjects are described in
more detail.

1.3 Definitions
In the text the following definitions are used:
Dredger: (in the USA, a dredge) a vessel, or item of floating plant, equipped
with means to move or excavate soil or rock underwater.
Dredge: to excavate or move soil or rock with a dredger.
Dredging: excavating or moving soil or rock by dredger.
Dredgemaster: the man in control of the dredging operation, not necessarily the mas-
ter of the vessel.
Dredging equipment: any piece of equipment (dredger or ancillary) which is required to
perform the act of dredging.

1.4 Environmental aspects

By its very nature every act of dredging has an environmental impact. The rationale for car-
rying out dredging work is to cause a permanent or temporary change in the topography of
the sea, lake or river bed. The same may be said of the site where the dredged material is to
be relocated.
When the act of dredging takes place, other effects are apparent. Some turbidity is nor-
mally seen near the dredger. In some types of dredging work turbidity is an unavoidable
effect of the dredging process. Noise and other environmental disturbances may also occur.
If the dredged material is contaminated there is the possibility of pollutants being released
to the surrounding environment. It is necessary to evaluate the impact of these effects.
The beneficial effects of dredging are numerous (see Section 1.2) and the uses to which
the dredged material may be put have been studied extensively (see PIANC, 1992). It is
important, therefore, that these benefits should be balanced with the environmental concerns
described above. There are many aspects of the environmental effects of dredging being
researched. Many of these have shown that the alarmist reactions to dredging activities are
at best misplaced. However, these reactions do indicate an ignorance of the processes
involved and their significance in the natural world. The need to understand and quantify
natural changes in the environment is a prerequisite to justifying the use of dredging
equipment.
In this revised edition of the book, environmental matters have been addressed in
Chapters 2, 5, 6, 13 and 14.
4 Introduction

1.5 Soils information

The dredging process is essentially concerned with the excavation and relocation of soils
and rocks. The behaviour of these materials during the process has a profound influence on
the ease with which a dredger can perform its task, the environmental effects of the work
and the characteristics of the relocated material. The need for comprehensive soils informa-
tion for dredging work cannot be too highly stressed.
In particular, the following geotechnical aspects of dredging work are fundamental to the
understanding of the dredging process and the evaluation of dredging projects:
9 the in situ characteristics of the material to be dredged;
9 the change in strength and volume of the material during the dredging and relocation
processes;
9 the behaviour of the material during pipeline and hopper transport;
9 the potential for change in material grading;
9 the behaviour of the material during and after placement in a relocation site.
In this revised edition of the book soils aspects are covered in Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 13.
Rock aspects are covered in Chapters 6 and 14.

1.6 Use of the book

This text is intended for two types of usage; as a general primer, for those unfamiliar with
the subject, and as a basic aide-mgmoire or handbook for practitioners. For the former it is
suggested that Chapter 2 should be used as the basic guide to understanding the subject and
implementing a project. The reader will find that he is referred to the other chapters as nec-
essary. The supporting Chapters 3 to 14 will provide a useful reference for those more
familiar with this type of work.

References
Gower, G.L. 1967. A history of dredging, Dredging Symposium, Institution of Civil
Engineers, London.
Linssen, J.G.Th. 1975. The performance and the future development of dredging equipment,
Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Dredging Technology, Canterbury,
England.
PIANC 1992. Beneficial uses of dredged material, Report of Working Group 19, Permanent
International Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC), Brussels.