Culture of Asia

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The culture of Asia encompasses the collective and diverse customs and traditions of art,
architecture, music, literature, lifestyle, philosophy, politics and religion that have been practiced and
maintained by the numerous ethnic groups of Asia since prehistory. Identification of a specific culture
of Asia or universal elements among the colossal diversity that has emanated from multiple cultural
spheres and three of the four ancient River valley civilizations is complicated. However, the continent
is commonly divided into six geographic sub-regions, that are characterized by perceivable
commonalities, like religion, language and relative ethnic homogeneity. These regions are Central
Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and West Asia.[1]
As the largest, most populous continent and rich in resources, Asia is home to several of the world's
oldest civilizations, that produced the majority of the great religious systems, the oldest known
recorded myths and codices on ethics and morality.[2][3]
However, Asia's enormous size separates the various civilizations by great distances and hostile
environments, such as deserts and mountain ranges. Yet by challenging and overcoming these
distances, trade and commerce gradually developed a truly universal, Pan-Asian character. Inter-
regional trade was the driving and cohesive force, by which cultural elements and ideas spread to
the various sub-regions via the vast road network and the many sea routes.[4]

Contents
[hide]

 1Multiple cultural centres

o 1.1East Asia
o 1.2South Asia
o 1.3Southeast Asia
o 1.4Western Asia
o 1.5Central Asia
o 1.6North Asia
 2Architecture
o 2.1China
 o 2.2India
o 2.3Indonesia
o 2.4Japan
o 2.5Malay Peninsula
o 2.6Western Asia
 3Art
o 3.1Martial arts
 4Languages
 5Literature
o 5.1Arabic
o 5.2Chinese
o 5.3Hebrew and Diaspora Jewish
o 5.4Indian
o 5.5Japanese
o 5.6Korean
o 5.7Pakistani
o 5.8Persian
o 5.9Turkish
o 5.10Modern literature
 6Family
 7Philosophy
 8Religions
 9Festivals and celebrations
 10Sports
 11Cuisine
 12Culture by people
 13See also
 14Notes
 15References
o 15.1Bibliography
 16Further reading
 17External links

Multiple cultural centres[edit]

Asia's various modern cultural and religious spheres correspond roughly with the principal centres of
civilisation. West Asia and Central Asia have their cultural roots in the pioneering civilisations of
the Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia.[5] South Asia, India and the Indosphere emanate from
the Indus Valley Civilisation.[6]The East Asian cultural sphere developed from the Yellow River
civilization.[7] Southeast Asia's migration waves of more varied ethnic groups are relatively recent.
Commercial interaction with South Asia eventually lead to the adoption of essential cultural elements
from India and to a lesser extent from China.[8][9]North Asia's harsh climate and unfavorable soil
proved to be unsuited to permanently support large urban settlements and only permits the presence
of a pastoral and nomadic population, spread over large areas. Nonetheless, North Asian religious
and spiritual traditions eventually diffused into more comprehensive systems such as
Tibetan Buddhism that developed its own unique characteristics (e.g. Mongolian Buddhism).[10]
East Asia[edit]
Main articles: East Asian cultural sphere and East Asia
East Asian cultural region

A Confucian ritual ceremony in Jeju, South Korea

The term East Asia defines the geographical region and/or the common cultural sphere
of China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan and,
variously Vietnam and Mongolia.[11] Ethnically and linguistically very closely related, shared artistic
traditions, written language and moral values suggest that most East Asian peoples are descendants
of the Yellow River civilization, that emerged in the flood plains of northern China around 10.000
years B.P.[12][13]
China has occupied the prominent, central role in East Asia for most of recorded history, as it
"deeply influenced the culture of the peripheral countries and also drew them into a China-
centered [...] international order", that virtually remained in effect until the early 20th century. Highly
ritualized, the Imperial Chinese Tributary System, based on the religious and philosophical idea of
submission to celestial harmony[14] was also recognized by nations beyond, in Southeast Asia in
particular. Ceremonies were presided over by the Emperor of China as the Son of Heaven and
curator of the Mandate of Heaven.[15][16] In elaborate ceremonies both, the tributary state and the
various Chinese dynasties agreed to mutually favorable economic co-operation and beneficial
security policies.[17][18]
Defining East Asian cultural characteristics are the Chinese language influences and traditional
writings systems,[19] as well as shared religious and ethic ideas, that are represented by the Three
teachings Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism.[20][21][22][23] The Chinese script is one of the oldest
continuously used writing systems in the world, and has been a major unifying force and medium for
conveying Chinese culture in East Asia. Historically used throughout the region and it is still in use
by ethnic Chinese throughout the world, as well as in Japan and to a small and waning extent in
South Korea.[24][25]
However, as Chinese writing concepts were passed on to Korea, Japan and Vietnam, these nations
developed their own characteristic writing systems as the cultural expression of their language
families, such as Vietnamese, an Austro-Asiatic language; Japanese, a Japonic language; and
Korean, a Koreanic language. Whereas Chinese is still found in the historical roots of many
borrowed words, modern Chinese has been influenced by other Asian languages, such as by
modern technical and political terms created in Japan to represent western concepts known
as Wasei-kango.[26]
Apart from the unifying influence of Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese characters and numerous
other Chinese Cultural Influences, East Asian national customs, architecture, literature, cuisines,
traditional music, performing arts and crafts also have developed from many independent and local
concepts, they have grown and diversified as many rank among the most refined expressions of
aesthetic, artistic and philosophical ideas in the world. Notable among others are Japanese
gardens and landscape planning, Heian literature, Vietnamese Water puppetry and the artifacts of
the Dong Son culture.[27][28][29][30] Modern research has also focused on the several nations pivotal role
on the collective body of East Asian Buddhism and the Korean influence on Japanese
culture.[31][32] Constricted for a long time by ethnic nationalism and antagonism, the nature of mutual
cultural interchange in East Asia is only partly known.[33][34]
South Asia[edit]
Main article: Ethnic groups of South Asia
Language families in South Asia

Traditional Rajasthani garments from Jaipur, Rajasthan

Evidence of Neolithic culture has been found throughout the modern states Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka that represent South Asia or
Southern Asia (also known as the Indian subcontinent). Since 3.300 B.C. in modern-day
northeastern Afghanistan, in Pakistan and northwestern India a sophisticated Bronze Age cultural
tradition emerged, that after only a few centuries fully flourished in urban centers. Due to the high
quality of its arts, crafts, metallurgy and buildings, the accomplishments in urban planning,
governance, trade and technology etc. it has been classified as one of the principal Cradles of
civilization. Referred to as the Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation it thrived for almost
2.000 years until the onset of the Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 B.C.).[35][36] The great significance of
the Vedic texts (that don't mention cities or urban life) for South Asian culture, their impact on family,
societal organisation, religion, morale, literature etc. has never been contested. The Indus Valley
Civilisation on the other hand has only come to light by means of 20th century archaeology.
Scholars, who employ several periodization models argue over whether South Asian tradition is
consciously committed to the Harappan culture.[37][38]
Declining climatic conditions, (aridification) and population displacement (Indo-Aryan migration) are
regarded as to have caused the fatal disruption of the Harappa culture, that was superseded by the
rural Vedic culture.[39][40]
Main articles: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Aryan migrations, and Vedic period

Following the Indo-Aryan settlement in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the establishment of the
characteristic social groups (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras) in the caste
system based on the Jāti model in the Varna order, the tribal entities variously consolidated into
oligarchic chiefdoms or kingdoms (the 16 Mahajanapadas), beginning in the sixth century B.C. The
late Vedic political progress results in urbanization, strict social hierarchy, commercial and military
rivalries among the settlers, that have spread all over the entire sub-continent. [41][42] The large body of
Vedic texts and literature, supported by the archaeological sequence allows researchers to
reconstruct a rather accurate and detailed image of the Vedic culture and political organisation.
The Vedas constitute the oldest work of Sanskrit literature and form the basis of religious, ethic and
philosophic ideas in South Asia. They are widely, but not exclusively regarded the basics and
scriptural authority on worship, rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, meditation, philosophy and spiritual
knowledge for the future Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Commentaries and discussions also focus
on the development of valid political ideas and concepts of societal progress and ethic conformity.[43]
See also: History of Hinduism § Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE-1200 CE)
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism are major world religions that originate in South Asia.
These arguably represent the furthest reaching, most profound and permanent South Asian ideas on
other cultural spheres. After a long and complex history of cosmological and religious development,
adoption and decline, the Hindu-synthesis[44] and the late but thorough introduction of Islam about
80% of modern day Indians and Nepalis identify as Hindus.[45] In Sri Lanka and Bhutan most people
adhere to various forms of Buddhism.[46] Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan,
the Maldives (99%), Pakistan (96%) and Bangladesh (90%).[47][48][49]

Badshahi Mosque built under the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan

Afghanistan and Pakistan are situated at the western periphery of South Asia, where the cultural
character has been made by both, Persia, a civilization rooted in Mesopotamia and
the Indosphere.[50] Pakistan is split with its two western regions of Baluchistan and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa sharing a greater Iranic heritage due to the native Pashtuns and Baloch people of the
regions. Its two eastern regions of Punjab and Sindh share cultural links to Northwest
India. Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal share a common heritage and culture based
on the Bengali language. The Culture of India is diverse and a complex mixture of many
influences. Nepal is culturally linked to both India and Tibet and the varied ethnic groups of the
country share many of the festivals and cultural traditions used and celebrated in North and East
India and Tibet. Nepali, the dominant language of Nepal uses the Devanagari alphabet which is also
used to write many North Indian languages.[51][52] Bhutan is a culturally linked to Tibet with significant
influences from India. Tibetan Buddhism is the dominant religion in Bhutan and the Tibetan
alphabet is used to write Dzongkha, the dominant language of Bhutan. There is a cultural and
linguistic divide between North and South India. Sri Lanka is culturally tied to both India
and Southeast Asia.[53] Sinhalese, the dominant language in the country is written in the Sinhalese
alphabet which is derived from the Kadamba-Pallava alphabet, certain cultural traditions, and
aspects of its cuisine, for example, show South Indian influences. Cultural festivals, aspects of its
cuisine and Theravada Buddhism, the dominant religion in Sri Lanka, show a Southeast
Asian affinity.[54]
Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in Pakistan, Sinhalese of Sri Lanka and most of North, West and
East India and Nepal. Dravidian languages are spoken in South India and in Sri Lanka by
the Tamil community. Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken in the North and North East India. Iranic
Languages are spoken in Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan. The main languages of
Afghanistan are Pashto and Dari.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Southeast Asia divides into Mainland Southeast Asia, that
encompasses Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma and West Malaysia,
and Maritime Southeast Asia, that includes Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East
Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Christmas Island.[55][56] At the crossroads of the Indian and
East Asian maritime trade routes since around 500 B.C., the region has been greatly influenced by
the culture of India and China. The term Indianised Kingdoms is a designation for numerous
Southeast Asian political units, that had to a varying degree adopted most aspects of India's
statecraft, administration, art, epigraphy, writing and architecture. The
religions Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam gradually diffused into local cosmology. Nonetheless, the
Southeast Asian nations have very diversely adapted to these cultural stimuli and evolved their
distinct sophisticated expression in lifestyle, the visual arts and most notably in architectural
accomplishments, such as Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Borobudur in Indonesia.[57][58]
Buddhist culture has a lasting and significant impact in mainland Indochina nations (Burma,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam); most Buddhists in Indochina practice Theravada
Buddhism. In the case of Vietnam, it is also influenced much by Confucianism and the culture of
China. Myanmar has also been exposed to Indian cultural influences. Before the 14th
century, Hinduism and Buddhism were the dominant religions of Southeast Asia. Thereafter, Islam
became dominant in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. Southeast Asia has also had a lot
of Western influence due to the lasting legacy of colonialism. One example is the Philippines which
has been heavily influenced by America and Spain, with Christianity (Catholicism) as the dominant
religion. East Timoralso demonstrates Portuguese influence through colonialism, as it is a
predominantly Christian nation.
A common feature found around the region are stilt houses. These houses are elevated on stilts so
that water can easily pass below them in case of a flood. Another shared feature is rice
paddy agriculture, which originated in Southeast Asia thousands of years ago. Dance drama is also
a very important feature of the culture, utilizing movements of the hands and feet perfected over
thousands of years. Furthermore, the arts and literature of Southeast Asia is very distinctive as some
have been influenced by Indian, Hindu, Chinese, Buddhist, and Islamic literature.
Western Asia[edit]

The Grand Mosque in Kuwait City,one of the largest mosques in the region

Western Asia must be distinguished from the Middle East, a more recent eurocentric term, that also
includes parts of Northern Africa.[59] West Asia consists
of Turkey, Syria, Georgia, Armenia, Cyprus, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestini
an territories, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen. The
region where Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the 3 Abrahamic faiths originated. has its cultural roots
in the civilisations of the Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia. Other indigenous religions
include Zoroastrianism, Yazidism, Alevism, Druze and the Bahá'í Faith.
Today, almost 93% of Western Asia's inhabitants are Muslims and is characterized by political
Islamic, with the exception of Israel, a Jewish dominated state. At its north-western end, Armenia
and Georgia have an unmistakable Christian tradition, while Lebanon shares a large Christian and a
large Muslim community. Ethnically, the region is dominated by Arab, Persian, Kurdish, Azerbaijani,
and Turkish people. Among them smaller indigenous groups are
the Jews, Assyrians, Druze, Samaritans, Yazidis and Mandeans. Many Middle Eastern countries
encompass huge deserts where nomadic people live to this day. In great contrast, modern cities
like Abu Dhabi, Amman, Riyadh, Tel Aviv, Doha and Muscat have developed on the coastal lands of
the Mediterranean Sea, the Persian Gulf and at the periphery of the Arabian Desert.[60]
West Asian cuisine is immensely rich and diverse. The literature is also immensely rich
with Arabic, Jewish, Persian, and Turkish dominating.
Central Asia[edit]
Central Asia, in between the Caspian Sea and China, envelops five former Soviet Socialist
Republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
However, Afghanistan is sometimes included. Its strategic and historic position around the East-
West axis and the major trading routes guaranteed a steady influx of ideas and conflicting notions of
tribalism and traditionalism. However, the region was conquered and dominated by a variety of
cultures, such as the Mongols, Persians, Tatars, Russians, Sarmatians. As some Central Asian
areas have been inhabited by nomadic people, numerous urban centers have developed in a distinct
local character.[61][62]
North Asia[edit]
For the most part, North Asia (more widely known as Siberia) is considered to be made up of
the Asian part of Russia solely. The geographic region of Siberia was the historical land of
the Tatars in the Siberia Khanate. However Russian expansion essentially undermined this and thus
today it is under Russian rule. There are roughly 40 million people living in North Asia and the
majority is now Ethnic Russians while Indigenous Siberians have become a minority in North Asia.

Architecture[edit]

The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling

The Taj Mahal, Agra, India

A typical example of Dravidian architecture

Daian-ji temple at Nara, Japan

Borobudur, a Buddhist temple in Indonesia

Ancient ziggurat, Iraq

Asia is home to countless grandiose and iconic historic constructions, usually religious structures,
castles and fortifications or palaces. However, after several millennia, many of the greatest buildings
have been destroyed or dismantled such as the Ziggurats of Mesopotamia, most of the Great Wall of
China, Greek and Hellenistic temples or the royal cities of Persia.[63]
China[edit]
Main article: Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries as the structural principles
have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. An important
feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry, which signifies
balance. Bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in China, from
palace complexes to humble farmhouses.[64] Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a
major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
India[edit]
Main article: Architecture of India

See also: Dravidian architecture

Indian architecture is that vast tapestry of production of the Indian Subcontinent that encompasses a
multitude of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered
unique to the sub-continent, sometimes destroying, but most of the time absorbing.The result is an
evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity
across history.[65]
Indonesia[edit]
Main article: Architecture of Indonesia

The Indonesian architectute reflects the diversity of cultural, historical and geographic influences that
have shaped Indonesia as a whole. It ranges from native vernacular architecture, Hindu-Buddhist
temples, colonial architecture, to modern architecture.
Indonesian vernacular architecture is called rumah adat. The houses hold social significance in
society and demonstrate local ingenuity in their relations to environment and spatial
organisation.[66]:5 Notable examples include Rumah Gadang, Tongkonan, Balinese houses and
Javanese Joglo. Hindu-Buddhist temple monument called candi, with the best example
are Borobudur massive stone mandala-stupa and Prambanan Hindu temple dedicated
to Trimurti gods. By the 16th century, the Portuguese followed by the Dutch colonize Indonesian
archipelago, and developed European architecture technique and developed colonial architecture.
Japan[edit]
Main article: Japanese architecture

Japanese architecture is distinctive in that it reflects a deep ″understanding of the natural world as a
source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion″. Attention to aesthetics and
the surroundings is given, natural materials are preferred and artifice is generally being avoided.
Impressive wooden castles and temples, some of them 2000 years old, stand embedded in the
natural contours of the local topography. Notable examples include the Hōryū Temple complex (6th
century), Himeji Castle (14th century), Hikone Castle (17th century) and Osaka Castle.[67]
Malay Peninsula[edit]
Main article: Malay Architecture

Various cultural influences, notably Chinese, Indian and Europeans, played a major role in forming
Malay architecture.[68]Until recent time, wood was the principal material used for all Malay traditional
buildings.[69] However, numerous stone structures were also discovered particularly the religious
complexes from the time of Srivijaya and ancient isthmian Malay kingdoms.
Western Asia[edit]
Main articles: History of architecture and Architecture of Mesopotamia

The ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris–Euphrates river system dates back to the 10th
millennium BC and lead to the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and
ziggurats.[70] The basic and dominant building material was the mudbrick, which is still in use in the
region for the construction of residential structures. Kiln-burnt bricks were coated with a vitreous
enamel for purposes of decoration and bitumen functioned as cement. Palaces or temples were
constructed on terraces as rooms usually grouped round quadrangles, with large doorways and the
roofs rested on richly ornamented columns.[71]

Art[edit]

Detail of the Dragon Throneused by the Qianlong Emperor of China, Forbidden City, Qing dynasty. Artifact circulating in U.S. museums on

loan from Beijing

Middle Eastern dance has various styles and has spread to the West in the form known as
bellydancing. In the Punjabregion of India and Pakistan, Bhangra (dance)bhangra dance is very
popular. The bhangra is a celebration of the harvest. The people dance to the beat of a drum while
singing and dancing.
In Southeast Asia, dance is an integral part of the culture; the styles of dance vary from region to
region and island to island. Traditional styles of dance have evolved in Thailand and Burma. The
Philippines have their own styles of dance such as Cariñosa and Tinikling; during the Spanish
occupation of the Philippines, practitioners of Filipino martial arts hid fighting movements into their
dances to keep the art alive despite the fact that it was banned by the occupiers.
Martial arts[edit]
Main articles: Martial arts, History of martial arts, Origins of Asian martial arts, and Modern history of
East Asian martial arts

Martial arts figure prominently in many Asian cultures, and the first known traces of martial arts date
from the Xia Dynasty of ancient China from over 4000 years ago. Some of the best known styles of
martial arts in the world were developed in East Asia, such as karate and judo from
Japan, taekwondo from Korea and the various styles of Chinese martial arts known collectively as
kung fu. Many other styles of martial arts originated in Southeast Asia, including muay Thai from
Thailand, Vovinam from Vietnam, Arnis from the Philippines, and Pencak Silat from Indonesia. In
addition, popular styles of wrestling have originated in Turkey and Mongolia.
Development of Asian martial arts continues today as newer styles are created. Modern hybrid
martial arts systems such as Jeet Kune Do and Krav Maga often incorporate techniques from
traditional East Asian martial arts. Asian martial arts are highly popular in the Western world and
many have become international sports. Karate alone has 50 million practitioners worldwide.[72]

Languages[edit]
Main article: Languages of Asia

Asia is a continent with great linguistic diversity, and is home to various language families and
many language isolates. A majority of Asian countries have more than one language that is natively
spoken. For instance, according to Ethnologue over 600 languages are spoken in Indonesia while
over 100 are spoken in the Philippines. The official figure of 'mother tongues' spoken in India is
1683, of which an estimated 850 are in daily use. Korea, on the other hand, is home to only one
language.
The main language families found in Asia, along with examples of each, are:

 Austroasiatic: Khasi, Khmer, Mon, Santali, Vietnamese, Wa

 Austronesian: Bicolano, Cham, Ilocano, Javanese, Kapampangan, Kedayan, Malay (Indonesia
n & Malaysian), Minangkabau, Pangasinan, Sundanese, Tagalog, Tetum, Visayan (Cebuano, Hil
igaynon, Waray)
 Dravidian: Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu
 Indo-
European:Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Dhivehi, Gujarati, Hindustani (Hindi, Urdu), Kashmiri, K
urdish, Maithili, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Pashto, Persian(Tajik and Dari), Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi,
Sinhala, Armenian, Russian, Greek
 Japonic: Japanese, Ryukyuan
 Sino-
Tibetan: Hakka, Hokkien (Taiwanese), Mandarin, Wu (Shanghainese), Yue (Cantonese), Burme
se, Dzongkha, Lepcha, Meitei, Nepal Bhasa, Tibetan, Tshangla
 Tai–Kadai: Bouyei, Isan, Kam, Lao, Shan, Thai, Zhuang
 Turkic: Azeri, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Turkish, Turkmen, Uyghur, Uzbek
 Afro-Asiatic: Arabic, Aramaic, Hebrew
 Georgian
 Korean
 Miao–Yao: Hmong, Iu Mien
 Mongolic: Buryat, Mongolian
 Romance-based creoles: Chavacano, Macanese
 Dagestanian: Chechen, Ingush
 Circassian: Kabardian
 Tungusic: Manchu
 Uralic: Khanty, Mari, Nenets, Permics

Literature[edit]
Main article: Asian literature
Tang dynastyChinese poet Li Bai, in a 13th-century depiction by Liang Kai

Arabic[edit]
Main article: Arabic literature

Arabic literature is the writing, both prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language.
One of the most famous literary works of West Asia is One Thousand and One Arabian Nights.[73]
Chinese[edit]
Main article: Chinese literature

In Tang and Song dynasty China, famous poets such as Li Bai authored works of great importance.
They wrote shī (Classical Chinese: 詩) poems, which have lines with equal numbers of characters,
as well as cí (詞) poems with mixed line varieties.
Hebrew and Diaspora Jewish[edit]
Main articles: Hebrew literature and Jewish literature

Hebrew literature consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings in the Hebrew language. It is
one of the primary forms of Jewish literature, though there have been cases of literature written in
Hebrew by non-Jews.[74] Without doubt, the most important such work is the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh).
Many other ancient works of Hebrew literature survive, including religious and philosophical works,
historical records, and works of fiction.
Indian[edit]
Main article: Indian literature

The famous poet and playwright Kālidāsa wrote two epics: Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu) and
Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumar Kartikeya); they were written in Classical Sanskrit rather than
Epic Sanskrit some other examples of his plays are Abhigyanam Shakuntala . Other examples of
works written in Classical Sanskrit include the Pānini's Ashtadhyayi which standardized the grammar
and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. The Laws of Manu is an important text in Hinduism. Kālidāsa is
often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature, and one of the greatest poets in
Sanskrit literature, whose Recognition of Shakuntala and Meghaduuta are the most famous Sanskrit
plays. He occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Shakespeare occupies in English
literature. Some other famous plays were Mricchakatika by Shudraka, Svapna Vasavadattam by
Bhasa, and Ratnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works include Geeta Govinda by Jayadeva. Some
other famous works are Chanakya's Arthashastra and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra.
Japanese[edit]
Main article: Japanese literature

In the early eleventh century, court lady Murasaki Shikibu wrote Tale of the Genji considered the
masterpiece of Japanese literatures and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of
a novel. Early-Modern Japanese literature (17th–19th centuries) developed comparable innovations
such as haiku, a form of Japanese poetry that evolved from the ancient hokku (Japanese language:
発句) mode. Haiku consists of three lines: the first and third lines each have five morae (the
rough phonological equivalent of syllables), while the second has seven. Original haiku masters
included such figures as Edo period poet Matsuo Bashō (松尾芭蕉); others influenced by Bashō
include Kobayashi Issa and Masaoka Shiki.
Korean[edit]
Main article: Korean literature

Korean literature begins in the Three Kingdoms Period, and continues through
the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties to the modern day. Examples of Korean poetric forms
include sijo and gasa, with Jeong Cheol and Yun Seon-do considered to be the supreme Korean
poets. Examples of renowned Korean prose masterpieces include the Memoirs of Lady
Hyegyeong, The Cloud Dream of the Nine and the Chunhyangjeon.
Pakistani[edit]
Main article: Pakistani literature

Pakistani literature has a rich history, and draws influences from both Persian, Muslim and Indian
literary traditions. The country has produced a large number of famed poets especially in the
national Urdu language. The famous Muhammad Iqbal, regarded as the national poet, was often
called "The Poet of the East" (Shair-e-Mashriq).
Persian[edit]
Main article: Persian literature

Turkish[edit]
Main article: Turkish literature

Modern literature[edit]
The polymath Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali poet, dramatist, and writer from India, became in
1913 the first Asian Nobel laureate. He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose
works and poetic thought had on English, French, and other national literature of Europe and
the Americas. He also wrote Jana Gana Mana the national anthem of India as well as Amar Sonar
Bangla the national anthem of Bangladesh. Moreover, translation of his another song “Namo Namo
Matha" is the national anthem of Sri Lanka. This song was collected by his student Mr. Ananda
Samarakoon and M. Nallathamby translated in Tamil language. Other Asian writers won Nobel
Prizes in literature, including Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1966), and Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan,
1994). Yasunari Kawabatawrote novels and short stories distinguished by their elegant and spartan
diction such as the novels Snow Country and The Master of Go.

Family[edit]
Families in Asia has a very strong family value. They teach their kids that the family is their
protection and the major source of their identity. They expect loyalty from their children. Parents
define the law and the children are expected to obey them. This is called filial piety, the respect for
one's parents and elders.[75] They are expected to have self-control, thus making it hard for them to
express emotions, they are also expected to show respect through their motions and the way they
speak. Children are expected to look after their parents when they grow older.[76] Sons are expected
to stay home, while daughters go and live with their husband's family.

Philosophy[edit]
Main article: Eastern philosophy

See also: Indian philosophy and Chinese philosophy

Asian philosophical traditions originated in India and China, and has been classified as Eastern
philosophy covering a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings, including those popular
within India and China. The Indian philosophy include Jain, Hindu and Buddhist philosophies. They
include elements of non-material pursuits, whereas another school of thought Cārvāka, which
originated in India, and was propounded by Charvak around 2500 years before, preached the
enjoyment of material world. Middle Eastern philosophy includes Islamic philosophy as well
as Jewish and Persian philosophy.
During the 20th century, in the two most populous countries of Asia, two dramatically different
political philosophies took shape. Gandhi gave a new meaning to Ahimsa, and redefined the
concepts of nonviolence and nonresistance. During the same period, Mao
Zedong’s communist philosophy was crystallized.

Religions[edit]
Main article: Religion in Asia
A picture depicting Mahavira in deep meditation

A stone image of the Buddha

The Syriac Orthodox Saint Ahoadamah Church was a 7th-century church building in the city of Tikrit, one of the oldest in the world until its

destruction by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant on 25 September 2014.

Asia is the birthplace of many religions such

as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Taoism,
and Zoroastranism. All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are
constantly emerging. The largest religions in Asia are Islam and Hinduism, both with approximately
1.1 billion adherents. In 2010, the Pew Research Center five of the ten most religiously diverse
regions in the world to be in Asia.[77]

Dome of the Rock, an Islamic shrine in Jerusalem.

Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, a country of South Asia. In East Asia,
particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism, Zen Buddhism and Shinto took shape. Other
religions of Asia include the Bahá'í Faith, Shamanism practiced in Siberia, and Animism practiced in
the eastern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Over 60% of the global Muslim population is in Asia.[78] About 25% of Muslims live in the South Asian
region, mainly in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and the Maldives. If Afghanistan is counted, this
number is even higher. The world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one
nation) is in Indonesia.[79] There are also significant Muslim populations in the Philippines, Brunei,
Malaysia, China, Russia, Central Asia and West Asia.[78]
In the Philippines and East Timor, Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion; it was introduced
by the Spaniards and the Portuguese, respectively. In Russia, Georgia, and Armenia, Orthodox
Christianity is the predominant religion. Eastern Christian sects are the most dominant denomination
in Asia, having adherents in portions of the Middle East (the Levant) and South Asia. Eastern
churches include Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Maronite Church, Syriac
Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church and Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, among
others. Judaism is the major religion of Israel.
Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:

Religion Image Adherents Followers in Asia ref(s)

Bahá'í Faith 7 million 3,433,000 [80]

Buddhism
520 million >400,000,000 [81][82]

 Mahayana Buddhism
 Theravada Buddhism
 Vajrayana Buddhism

Hinduism 984 million >900,000,000 [81][83]

Judaism 14 million 6,373,700 [81][84]

Islam

1.6 billion 960,000,000 [85][78]

 Ahmadiyya Islam
 Shia Islam
 Sunni Islam

Christianity:

 Syriac Christianity
2.4 billion 286,100,000 [81][86]
 Eastern Orthodox
 Oriental Orthodox
 Roman Catholic
 Protestantism

Jainism >4.2 million >4,200,000 [87]

Shinto Unknown Unknown

Sikhism 25 million Unknown [81]

Taoism ~173 million ~173 million [88]

Zoroastrianism 190,000 Unknown [89]

Shamanism Unknown Unknown

Animism — Unknown Unknown

Festivals and celebrations[edit]

Asia has a variety of festivals and celebrations. In China, Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival,
and Mid-Autumn Moon Festival are traditional holidays, while National Day is a holiday of the
People's Republic of China.
In Japan, Japanese New Year, National Foundation Day, Children's Day, O-bon, The Emperor's
Birthday and Christmas are popular. According to Japanese syncretism, most Japanese
celebrate Buddhism's O-bon in midsummer, Shinto's Shichi-Go-San in November, and Christmas
and Hatsumoude in winter together.
In India, Republic Day and Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti are important national festivals
celebrated by people irrespective of faith. Important Jainfestivals include Mahavir
Jayanti , Paryushan and Diwali (Jainism). Major Hindu festivals of India include Diwali, Dussehra or
Daserra, Holi, Makar
Sankranti, Pongal, Mahashivratri, Ugadi, Navratri, Ramanavami, Baisakhi, Onam, Rathayatra, Gane
sh Chaturthi and Krishna Janmaashtami. Islamic festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, Sikh
festivals such as Vaisakhi, and Christian festivals such as Christmas, are also celebrated in India.
The Philippines is also tagged as the "Fiesta Country" because of its all-year-round celebrations
nationwide. There is a very strong Spanish influence in their festivals, thus making the Philippines
distinctively "Western", yet retaining its native Asian characteristics. Fiesta is the term used to refer
to a festival. Most of these fiestas are celebrated in honor of a patron saint. To summarize it all, at
least every city or municipality has a fiesta. Some prime examples
include Sinulogfrom Cebu and Dinagyang of Iloilo. Other famous Philippine festivals include
the MassKara Festival of Bacolod and Panagbenga Festival of Baguio.
Sports[edit]
Main article: Sports in Asia

Due to the vastness of Asia, popularity of sports varies greatly across the continent.
Association football is widely popular in Asia. Boxing, badminton, and table tennis are very popular
in East Asia. Baseball is popular in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Cricket is especially popular in
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

Cuisine[edit]

Indonesian Balinese cuisine

In many parts of Asia, rice is a staple food, and it is mostly served steamed or as a porridge known
as congee. China is the world largest producer and consumer of rice. While grain flatbread were
consumed in Middle East to Indian subcontinent.
Traditionally, many Asians eat using their bare hand; this is a common practice in Central, South,
and West Asia. However, western cutlery such as spoons and forks are currently being used
increasingly and have also become widely available. With the advent of western cutlery, it may be
viewed as rude in these nations to eat using the bare hands in some public places. In Indonesia and
the Philippines, people usually use western cutlery such as the spoon, fork, and knife. While in
China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Vietnam, people usually use chopsticks to eat traditional food, but
the shape of chopsticks are different in these countries. For example, Chinese chopsticks are long
and square; Vietnamese chopsticks are long, being thick at one end and then gradually getting
thinner at the other end, and are made of wood or bamboo; Japanese chopsticks are rounder, short,
and spiral, having been designed to eat bony fish easily; Taiwanese chopsticks are made of
materials such as bamboo, wood, and metal; Korean chopsticks are short, flat, and made of metal. It
is said that wood is rarer than metal on the Korean Peninsula[citation needed] and that metal chopsticks can
prevent poisoning. Fresh raw fish cuisines, such as sushi and sashimi are very popular in East Asia
(especially Japan. These raw fish dishes were influenced by two major cultures: Chinese and
Japanese.
In India, people often eat food with their hands, and many spices such as cardamom, cumin,
and fennel seeds are used in every dish. Most spices originated within the Indian
subcontinent. Durians are a common fruit in Southeast Asia, which, Alfred Russel Wallace, attested
to its delicious flavor as worth the entire cost of his trip there.
The cuisine of Indonesia possess rich and diverse collection of dishes and recipes with regional
cooking tradition flourished, such as Minang Sundanese to Balinese. Most Indonesians consume
steamed rice with flavorful meat, fish, and vegetables in one serving such as in Nasi
Padang and nasi campur. Other notable example include rendang, satay, soto, and nasi goreng.
In Filipino banquet, many unique dishes have arisen because of the country's long years of
colonization and interactions with other neighboring cultures and nations; it has inherited Latin,
Malay, Chinese, and American influences to its people's local blend.[90]


Chicken tikka, a well-known dish across the globe, reflects the amalgamation of South Asian cooking styles with those from Central
Asia.

Philippine cuisine

Kabsa also called Majboos, famous in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, and United Arab Emirates