Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce B LG S, Anlamb L M, Ed MB L M Ve Söylem Çözümlemes) PDF

T.C.
ANADOLU ÜN‹VERS‹TES‹ YAYINI NO: 2421

AÇIKÖ⁄RET‹M FAKÜLTES‹ YAYINI NO: 1405
TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS,

PRAGMATICS
AND
DISCOURSE
(TÜRKÇE TÜMCE B‹LG‹S‹,

ANLAMB‹L‹M, ED‹MB‹L‹M
VE SÖYLEM ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Yazarlar
Doç.Dr. Ümit Deniz TURAN (Ünite 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Prof.Dr. Gül DURMUfiO⁄LU KÖSE (Ünite 6, 7)
Editör
Prof.Dr. Zülal BALPINAR
ANADOLU ÜN‹VERS‹TES‹
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UZAKTAN Ö⁄RET‹M TASARIM B‹R‹M‹
Genel Koordinatör
Prof.Dr. Levend K›l›ç
Genel Koordinatör Yard›mc›s›

Doç.Dr. Müjgan Bozkaya
Ö¤retim Tasar›mc›s›
Prof.Dr. Erhan Ero¤lu
Program Yöneticisi
Prof.Dr. Handan Yavuz
Grafik Tasar›m Yönetmenleri

Prof. Tevfik Fikret Uçar
Ö¤r.Gör. Cemalettin Y›ld›z
Ö¤r.Gör. Nilgün Salur
Ölçme De¤erlendirme Sorumlusu

Ö¤r.Gör. Ayflegül Tokbudak
Ö¤r.Gör. Mutlu Dönmez
Kitap Koordinasyon Birimi

Doç.Dr. Feyyaz Bodur
Uzm. Nermin Özgür
Kapak Düzeni
Prof. Tevfik Fikret Uçar
Dizgi
Aç›kö¤retim Fakültesi Dizgi Ekibi
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse

(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
ISBN
978-975-06-1094-3
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ESK‹fiEH‹R, Ocak 2013
‹çindekiler iii
‹çindekiler
Önsöz ............................................................................................................ vii
Syntax .......................................................................................... 1 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 3
SYNTAX ......................................................................................................... 3
GRAMMAR ..................................................................................................... 4
Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar?....................................................... 4
Mental Grammar............................................................................................ 4
Competence and Performance ..................................................................... 6
Grammaticality vs. Acceptability .................................................................. 7
Summary ........................................................................................................ 9
Self-test .......................................................................................................... 10
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................. 11
References ..................................................................................................... 12
Key to “it is your turn”.................................................................................. 12
The Internal Structure of Syntactic Categories: UNIT 2

Constituents ............................................................................. 14
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 15
CONSTITUENTS ............................................................................................ 15
Relationships Between the Members of a Constituent .............................. 18
Tests for Constituency .................................................................................. 21
Substitution Test ................................................................................... 21
Deletion Test ........................................................................................ 22
Moveability............................................................................................ 23
Summary ........................................................................................................ 24
Self-test .......................................................................................................... 25
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................ 27
References ..................................................................................................... 27
Key to “it is your turn” ................................................................................. 28
Sentence Structure And Phrase Structure .......................... 30 UNIT 3

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 31
SENTENCES AND CLAUSES ........................................................................ 31
Immediate Constituents of Clauses: Subjects and Predicates .................... 31
Subjects ......................................................................................................... 33
Subject-verb Agreement in Sentences ................................................ 34
Predicates ...................................................................................................... 34
PHRASES AND PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES ............................................ 34
NOUN PHRASES (NPs) ................................................................................ 36
POSTPOSITIONAL PHRASES ....................................................................... 39
ADJECTIVE PHRASES................................................................................... 41
ADVERB PHRASES AND ADVERBIALS ...................................................... 43
The Realization of Adverbials ..................................................................... 44
iv ‹çindekiler
VERB PHRASES ............................................................................................ 47

Types of Verbs in Turkish ........................................................................... 47
Why Are Object Complements Inside The VP? .......................................... 49
What Else is in VPs? ..................................................................................... 49
Copular Verbs ............................................................................................... 50
Summary ........................................................................................................ 54
Self-test .......................................................................................................... 55
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................ 56
References ..................................................................................................... 57
UNIT 4 Complex Sentences: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses,

Adverbial Clauses ................................................................... 60
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 61
TYPES OF CLAUSES ..................................................................................... 61
COORDINATION .......................................................................................... 64
SUBORDINATION ........................................................................................ 65
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES ............................... 65
NOUN CLAUSES............................................................................................ 65
The Internal Structure of Noun Clauses ...................................................... 67
Fact and Act Noun Clauses .......................................................................... 72
Independent Clauses That Function as Noun Clauses .............................. 73
ki .................................................................................................................... 74
Diye ............................................................................................................... 74
RELATIVE CLAUSES (RCs) ........................................................................... 74
Forming Relative Clauses in Turkish .......................................................... 74
NP Accessibility Hierarchy in RCs ............................................................... 75
RC Morphemes and Their Meanings ........................................................... 76
-En ................................................................................................................ 77
-DIk ........................................................................................................... 77
-(y)EcEk ........................................................................................................ 78
-mIfl ............................................................................................................... 79
Unproductive RC Morphemes ..................................................................... 80
-Ir and -mEz .................................................................................................. 80
-mE ............................................................................................................... 80
-Esl ............................................................................................................... 80
RCs as Independent Clauses ....................................................................... 80
TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES .................................................................. 81
Restrictive Relative Clauses (RRC) ............................................................ 81
Non-restrictive Relative Clauses (NRC) ....................................................... 81
Differences Between Restrictive and Non-restrictive Relative
Clauses .......................................................................................................... 81
Headless Relative Clauses ............................................................................ 82
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (Adv.C) .................................................................... 83
Summary ....................................................................................................... 86
Self-test ......................................................................................................... 87
‹çindekiler v
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................ 88

References ..................................................................................................... 89
Semantics ................................................................................. 92 UNIT 5

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 93
Denotation and Connotation ....................................................................... 93
Lexical Relations............................................................................................ 94
Hyponymy .................................................................................................... 94
Synonymy ...................................................................................................... 95
Antonymy ..................................................................................................... 95
Homonymy ................................................................................................... 96
Polysemy ...................................................................................................... 97
SENTENCE LEVEL SEMANTICS: BASIC CONCEPTS ................................... 98
Entailment ..................................................................................................... 98
Presupposition............................................................................................... 98
Summary ....................................................................................................... 100
Self-test........................................................................................................... 101
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................. 102
References...................................................................................................... 103
Key to It’s your turn...................................................................................... 104
Pragmatics................................................................................ 106 UNIT 6

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 107
DEFINING PRAGMATICS ............................................................................. 108
THE FEATURES OF PRAGMATICS .............................................................. 109
Context ........................................................................................................ 109
SPEECH ACTS................................................................................................ 111
Direct Speech Acts ........................................................................................ 111
Performative................................................................................................... 112
Performative Verbs.................................................................................. 112
Identifying Performatives ...................................................................... 113
Felicity Conditions................................................................................... 114
Indirect Speech Acts ............................................................................... 115
CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS (GRICEAN MAXIMS).................................... 116
Quantity ......................................................................................................... 117
Quality ........................................................................................................... 117
Relation .......................................................................................................... 117
Manner ........................................................................................................... 117
Implicature..................................................................................................... 118
DEIXIS............................................................................................................ 119
Deictic Reference .......................................................................................... 120
Person Deixis................................................................................................. 120
Place Deixis ................................................................................................... 120
Time Deixis.................................................................................................... 121
Presupposition............................................................................................... 122
POLITENESS PRINCIPLE AND FACE-SAVING ............................................ 123
Politeness as Face-Saving ............................................................................. 124
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS......................................................................... 126
vi ‹çindekiler
Summary ........................................................................................................ 128

Self Test ......................................................................................................... 129
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................. 130
References...................................................................................................... 131
Key to Self Test ............................................................................................. 131
UNIT 7 Discourse Analysis ................................................................... 134

INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 135
Defining Discourse Analysis (DA) ............................................................... 135
Examples Of Discourse / Text ..................................................................... 136
Pragmatics vs. Discourse Analysis................................................................ 141
Properties Of Discourse / Text ................................................................... 141
Cohesion .................................................................................................. 141
Coherence .............................................................................................. 145
Other Aspects Of Discourse ........................................................................ 146
Summary Of Discourse Properties ............................................................... 148
Types Of Discourse....................................................................................... 149
Written and Spoken Discourse..................................................................... 151
Spoken Discourse Analysis........................................................................... 152
Turn-Taking ............................................................................................. 152
Discourse Markers................................................................................... 153
Summary ....................................................................................................... 155
Self-test ......................................................................................................... 156
Turkish Alive ................................................................................................ 157
References .................................................................................................... 158
Key to It’s your turn .................................................................................... 159
Key to “self-test” ................................................................ 161

Glossary ............................................................................... 163
‹çindekiler vii
Önsöz
Sevgili ö¤renciler,
Güz Döneminde ‘Türkçe Ses ve Biçim Bilgisi’ dersinizi tamamlad›n›z. Türkçe’nin

ses ve biçim yap›s› hakk›nda bilgi edindiniz. Bu dersimiz de ise, Türkçe’nin sözcük
dizini hakk›nda bilgi edinecek ve dilin farkl› kullan›mlarda, ba¤lamlarda ve söylem-
de nas›l farkl›laflt›¤›n› göreceksiniz. Bu ders neden burada diye sorarsan›z, size yine
ayn› yan›t› verece¤iz. Bir yabanc› dili ö¤renmenin, hele iyi bir yabanc› dil ö¤renme-
nin ve ö¤retmenin yolu çok iyi bir anadil bilgisi ve becerisinden geçer. Nas›l m›? Si-
ze flöyle aç›klamaya çal›flal›m.
‹nsano¤lu’nun sahip oldu¤u en önemli özelli¤i “dil” becerisidir. ‹nsan dil kul-la-
narak do¤adaki pek çok canl›ya üstünlük kurabilmifltir. Dili iyi kullanmak onu daha
etkin k›lar. Dili iyi kullanmak ise dil konusunda iyi bilgi sahibi olmay› ve dil bilinci-
ni gelifltirmeyi gerektirir. ‹nsano¤lu'nun dil bilincini gelifltirebilece¤i ve canland›raca-
¤› ilk alan ise kendi dilidir. Bir baflka deyiflle, anadili. Neredeyse do¤du¤umuz gün-
den itibaren duydu¤umuz, fark›na bile varmadan edinip, kulland›¤›m›z anadilimizi
konuflabilmek için, ne oldu¤unu, nas›l ifllendi¤ini bilmeye gerek bile duymay›z. Bir
flairin dedi¤i gibi o bize “ana sütü gibi helal” verilmifl bir ödüldür. Ninnisiyle, masa-
l› ve küfürü ile her an elimizin alt›ndaki bu k›ymetli ödülün, arma¤an›n nedense hiç
k›ymetini de bilmeyiz. Kötü kullanmam›zdan öte, bir de hiç merak etmeyiz. Nas›l bir
dildir, ne özelli¤i vard›r diye. Üstelik bir de “fakir dil”, “Türkçe'de her fley anlat›la-
maz” gibi bilir bilmez konufluruz.
Yukar›da sözünü etti¤imiz türden yaklafl›mlar ve önyarg›lar bizi yaln›z kendi di-
limiz konusunda de¤il genel anlamda “dil” olgusu konusunda da bilgisiz ve bilinç-
siz k›l›yor. Bu durumda da bir yabanc› dil ö¤renirken ikinci dilin yap›s›na, sözcük
da¤arc›¤›na sanki hiç bir fley bilmezmifl gibi yaklafl›yoruz. Türkçe'de kurulmayacak
cümleleri ‹ngilizce'de kurmaya kalk›yoruz. Kendi dilimizi iyi gelifltiremedi¤imiz için
de ikinci dilde anlatma zorlu¤u çekiyoruz. Sözümüzün en bafl›nda dedi¤imiz gibi iyi
bir ikinci dil kullanman›n yolu iyi bir anadil bilgisi ve bilincinden geçer.
Kitab›m›zda Türkçe ‘Söz Dizinine’ ait dört ünite var. Bu ünitelerde dilimizin tüm-
ce yap›s›n› inceleyeceksiniz. ‘Anlambilim’, Edimbilim ve ‘Söylem Çözümlemesine’ ait
di¤er üç bölüm ise size dilimizin farkl› özelliklerini gösterecek. Dil kullan›m›m›z› an-
lam, kullan›m ve söylem boyutunda size tan›tmaya çal›flacak. Her üniteyi sizlerin ko-
layca anlayabilece¤i, s›k s›k kendinizi kontrol edebilece¤iniz flekilde düzenledik. Ya-
n›tlar› da kendinizi s›nad›ktan sonra kontrol edebilirsiniz.
Sizleri bu kitab› haz›rlarken, yazd›klar›m›z›n anlafl›labilirli¤i ve içeri¤in geçerlili¤i-

ni s›namak için ö¤rencilerimizden yard›m istedik. Onlar özellikle ‘Morphology ve
Syntax’ bölümlerini dikkatle okuyarak bize yol gösterdiler. Ayflenur Dizkara, Ebru
Eylem Geçgil ve Yusuf Y›lmaz'a sizler ad›na da burada teflekkür ediyoruz.
Bu kitab›n haz›rlanmas› s›ras›nda karikatürlerden birisini kullanmam›za izin veren

karikatür sanatç›s› say›n Erdil Yaflaro¤lu’na flükranlar›m›z› sunuyoruz.
Umar›z bu dersin sonunda kendi dilimizle ilgili biraz daha bilgi ve bilinç sahibi olur,
dil bilincinizi gelifltirir, her iki dil için de geçerli dil kullanma becerilerinizi art›r›rs›n›z.
Hepinize baflar›lar diliyorum.

Editör
Prof.Dr. Zülal BALPINAR
TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE
(TÜRKÇE TÜMCE B‹LG‹S‹, ANLAMB‹L‹M, ED‹MB‹L‹M VE SÖYLEM
1
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
In this unit we will try to seek answers to the following questions:
N
What is syntax?
N
What is grammar?
N
What types of grammar do we know?
N
What is the distinction between descriptive and prescriptive grammar?
N
What does mental grammar mean?
N
What is competence? What is performance?
What is grammaticality? What is acceptability?
Key Words
• syntax • Universal Grammar
• grammar • principles
• descriptive grammar • parameters
• prescriptive grammar • competence
• mental grammar • performance
• creativity • grammaticality
• Language Acquisition Device • acceptability
Contents
Turkish Syntax, Semantics,

• INTRODUCTION
Pragmatics and Discourse
Syntax • SYNTAX
(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim,
• GRAMMAR
Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
Syntax
INTRODUCTION
Turkish speakers know that a sentence like Ali için geldim is grammatical.
However, Ali geldim is not a good Turkish sentence. This is because there are
rules that govern sentence structure. These rules are part of our native speaker
knowledge. We acquire these rules during our very early ages when we hear our
language in our household. Only human beings are capable of acquiring languages.
People can make infinite number of sentences. All of these facts make syntactic
analysis very interesting.
Every language has a set of rules to form sentences. Syntax investigates sentence
formation rules. Surprisingly, languages show similarities in their sentence
formation rules, as well as differences. Linguists investigate similar and different
sentence formation rules in languages to write Universal Grammar.
Syntax is the study of the rules of sentence-level grammar and the structure
inside the sentence. We shall discuss what grammar means in linguistics and how
it differs from traditional grammar. We shall make a difference between descriptive
and prescriptive grammar. We shall also be concerned with how native speakers
can distinguish grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. We shall see that there
are cases where a sentence can be understood and accepted but it is ungrammatical.
The opposite is also true. For example, ak›ll› mavi elbisem flark› söylüyor is
completely grammatical. But do you think that a native speaker can accept it? If
you want to know the answer and be informed on syntax, start reading the chapter.
SYNTAX
Syntax is the study of sentence structure as well the structure of phrases that make
a sentence. The sentence is considered to be the longest structural unit of which
full grammatical analysis is possible even though there are sub-fields of linguistics
that investigate beyond the sentence level rules of language (pragmatics and
discourse analysis). Thus, the domain of syntax is confined to the analysis of
sentence and its smaller components, such as clauses and phrases. As we shall see
later, sentences can consist of one or more clauses, clauses can consist of two or
more phrases, phrases consist of one or more words, and finally words consist of
one or more morphemes. Syntax investigates both how sentences are formed and
interpreted by speakers and hearers.
4 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
GRAMMAR
Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar

For non-linguists, grammar pertains to a set of rules that prescribes what should
be said and how certain sounds, phrases or sentences should not be used. For
example, don’t use olan in a sentence as “yar›n gelecek olan arkadafl›m ‹zmir’de
oturuyor”. Yalç›n (1997:13) gives some prescriptive rules in his book as common
mistakes made in Turkish. He says: Don’t say banyo, dufl, kahvalt›, içki ald›m; but
say içki içtim, banyo yapt›m, dufl yapt›m, kahvalt› yapt›m, etc. These and other
such rules try to explicate some of the standard and non-standard varieties of the
language as well as some rules made up by a language authority who thinks that
the language should be used in a particular way. This type of normative grammar
that imposes correct language use is known as prescriptive grammar and its
function is to tell people what is good vs. bad language use. Most of the time these
rules do not reflect the way in which language is actually used by native speakers
and they fail to account for the real rules of the language.
In contrast to prescriptive grammars, descriptive grammars consist of accounts
for the real life language use. Descriptive grammar does not impose patterns of the
so-called correct language rules. Unlike prescriptive grammar, descriptive grammar
is not judgmental, it does not group the language produced by native speakers as
correct or incorrect. In other words, it does not dictate that language should be
used in a particular way. Descriptive grammar aims to explain the language exactly
as it is spoken or written by native speakers. A linguist is necessarily descriptive,
but language teachers are prescriptive since they must teach the varieties of the
language that are spoken by well-educated speakers.
It is your turn! Read the following sentence (from Oya Adal›’s book (2003: 79)):
It is your turn!
1 1
Sinirleri bir hayli bozulmufl, ziyadesiyle üzülmüfltü.
It is your turn! Adal› suggests thatturn!

It is your the sentence above is not a good sentence of Turkish. Instead, she
2 suggests that
2 the sentence should be used as in the following: Sinirleri bir hayli bozulmufl,
kendisi ziyadesiyle üzülmüfltü.
It is your turn! It is your turn!
Adal› says that the sentence above consists of two sentences. The subject of the first sentence
3 3
is the answer to the question ‘bozulan ne?’, sinirleri. The subject of the second sentence
is ‘Kim üzülmüfltü?’ She says that since the one who feels sad is not sinirleri, we should
It is your turn! use a subjectIt in
is your
theturn!
second sentence.
4 Answer the4 following questions about Adal›’s remark:
I. Why do you think that Adal› does not like the first sentence above?
It is your turn! II. Is her
It isapproach
your turn! descriptive or prescriptive?
5 III. Would
5 the syntactic analysis approach be different from Adal›’s suggestion?
IV. What would a teacher of Turkish say about this sentence?
Mental Grammar
6 6
As the American linguist Noam Chomsky, as well as the German linguist Wilhelm
von Humboldt noted, any language consists of infinite number of sentences that
It is your turn! can be created
It is yourby speakers of that language. The number of vocabulary in a
turn!
7 language7is limited. We can find all words in a language in a dictionary; whereas,
it is impossible to find a list of all possible sentences of a language. Language is
8 8

9 9
Unit 1 - Syntax 5
creative in this sense. This means that people can produce or understand sentences
that they have never heard before. They can bring words together to form phrases
or sentences that they have never heard before. They can bring words together to
form phrases or sentences that are completely new.
This creativity and the relative ease and rate of language acquisition have led
linguists like Chomsky to believe that there is an independent biological device in
the human mind that is specifically reserved for language faculty. Formerly, this
device was coined as Language Acquisition Device (LAD) by Chomsky, later
renamed as Universal Grammar (UG). Universal Grammar postulates that the
language faculty in the human mind is biologically pre-programmed with the
common properties and constraints of human languages. Human languages have
a great deal in common, which enables us to translate ideas from one language to
another. They also have differences. The Universal Grammar approach claims that
human beings are inherently endowed with a universal set of principles and
parameters which limit the possible structures in a particular language and which
allows all languages to be similar in some respects. Principles are those
abstractions that do not vary across languages. No principle can be violated in any
human language. For example, all human languages are structure-dependent.
This means that every human language is systematic at every level, including the
levels of phrase and sentence structure. We do not obtain phrases or sentences
merely by putting words in a random order. Rather, there are some underlying
rules that govern sentence structure. So, all sentences in any language are formed
and understood based on rules. No sentence can be formed without any systematic
underlying rules.
Furthermore, all human languages exhibit the property of recursion. This
means that it is possible for one sentence to contain other clause(s). A clause is a
grammatical unit that has a subject and a verb. For example, the simple sentence
in (1) forms part of the complex sentence in (2), and the resulting sentence can
form part of a still more complex sentence. Recursive embedding is shown in (5)
up to a level of five embeddings.
1. Ali gitti.
2. Ahmet Ali’nin gitti¤ini söyledi.
3. Can bana Ahmet’in Ali’nin gitti¤ini söyledi¤ini haber verdi.
4. Okulda karfl›laflt›¤›m Can bana Ahmet’in Ali’nin gitti¤ini söyledi¤ini haber verdi.
5. Dün gitti¤im okulda karfl›laflt›¤›m Can bana Ahmet’in Ali’nin gitti¤ini

söyledi¤ini haber verdi.
The property of recursion of clauses is also known as the Embedding Principle

of human languages.
There are also variations in human language, which are known as parameters.
For example, while Turkish is a verb-final language, English has Subject-Verb-
Object order. While all English tensed clauses must have an overt subject, we can
drop subjects in Turkish sentences. These types of possibilities constitute
parameters.
Since the human brain is not a blank slate, but it is biologically pre-programmed
including these principles and parameters of Universal Grammar, most theories of
syntax aim at investigating the mental grammar. More specifically, the aim of
linguistic research is to seek answers to questions such as:
a) What constitutes knowledge of language?
b) How is knowledge of language acquired?
c) How is this knowledge put into use?
Even though native speakers speak and write their language perfectly well, the
linguistic knowledge of native language is usually taken for granted. Everybody
has some assumptions about language and the structure of language is assumed to
be transparent for native speakers. However, this knowledge is implicit and
subconscious. Thus, native speakers have subconscious mental representations of
language which underlie language use. Linguistic theory aims to describe the
mental representations of language which are stored in the human mind. The
notion of Universal Grammar, therefore, is a term of grammar that investigates the
cognitive system of language in the human mind. Human beings are special in
terms of their capacity for language; no other species owns language faculty as
It is your turn! such. Thus,It there
is your turn!
must be some specific property of human mind which can be
1 1 through analysis of language.
illuminated
It is your turn! Answer the following questions.

It is your turn!
2 I. Turkish
2 sentences have an order of Subject-Object-Verb, while English sentences
are ordered as Subject-Verb-Object. What would Universal Grammar say about this
It is your turn! typeItofis your
variation
turn! across languages?
3 II. In3 Turkish we can use sentences with null subjects, as Gitti¤ini gördüm. What
would Universal Grammar say about this?
4 Competence
4 and Performance
As has been stated above, linguists investigate what native speakers actually do
rather than what a rule-maker says what native speakers should do. Linguists try
to understand how mental grammar works. In order to achieve their goal, they
5 5
investigate the actual data as it is spoken or written by native speakers, and they
ask judgments of native speakers on some made-up sentences. Native speakers
have unconscious knowledge of the rules of their native language in their minds.
6 6
This is known as grammatical competence. Competence is the knowledge of a
native speaker about the rules of his/her native language in an ideal community,
It is your turn! under idealIt circumstances.
is your turn! Competence includes the knowledge of both forming
7 7
phrases and sentences as well as native speaker intuitions about the grammaticality
or ungrammaticality of sentences. Native speaker intuitions are thus part of their
It is your turn! competence. It is your turn!
8 8
This notion is in contrast with performance, which includes the production of
a speaker’s native language. Very often performance is an imperfect reflection of
It is your turn! competence. Forturn!
It is your example, people can have slips of the tongue in every day
9 speech, they
9 may have false starts; they may not complete their sentences because
they may be tired or bored. All these are called performance errors. Thus, native
speaker mistakes cannot be attributed to lack of knowledge of linguistic rules but
to other performance factors we gave above, such fatigue, boredom, etc.
10 10

11 11

Unit 1 - Syntax 7

Syntax is primarily concerned with the native speaker’s competence, i.e. what
one needs to know in order to be a fluent speaker of that language in 1 terms of 1
sentence structure. As a result, syntax investigates what native speakers implicitly
know about sentence grammar of their language. So, in a wayIt isit your
canturn!
be considered It is your turn!
as a study on a part of cognition. 2 2
Answer the following questions. It is your turn! It is your turn!

I. What is the difference between competence and performance? 3 3
II. Is syntactic analysis mainly concerned with competence or performance? Why?
Grammaticality vs. Acceptability 4 4
We have stated above that descriptive grammar does not make judgments about
the correct use of language. This should not be confused with grammaticality
judgments of native speakers. Grammaticality is a descriptive term, while
correctness is a prescriptive term. Native speakers of Turkish can 5recognize 5
ungrammatical and grammatical sentences, such as:
6. *Geldi gördüm Ali ben.
6 6
7. Ben Ali’nin geldi¤ini gördüm.
The sentence in (6) is an ungrammatical, or a syntactically ill-formed, sentence;
7 7
while, (7) is grammatical. A grammatical, or well-formed, sentence means a
sentence which can possibly be produced spontaneously by a native speaker in
the appropriate context. It is a convention to mark an ungrammatical sentence
with an asterisk (*) in the linguistics literature. As far as the structure of8sentences 8
is concerned, we have to account for grammaticality as well as ungrammaticality
in order to explain how ungrammatical sentences areIt is your turn!
differentiated from It is your turn!
grammatical sentences. Native speakers can recognize ungrammatical 9 and 9
grammatical sentences of their language. Since, as we stated above, linguistic
research, including syntax, aims at investigating this mental knowledge
It is your turn!of grammar It is your turn!
of a native speaker, both grammaticality and ungrammaticality should be10 explained. 10
Grammatical analysis must provide a set of well-formedness conditions and should
distinguish them from ill-formed sentences. A very important notion of syntactic
endeavor is descriptive adequacy. Linguists achieve descriptive adequacy
11 11
when they can accurately describe a syntactic rule and when their rule does not
overgenerate, namely when the rule does not generate ungrammatical sentences.
Thus, explicit rules posited by syntax must be able to reflectIt isthe yournative
turn! speaker’s It is your turn!
mental model about producing those grammatical sentences. It should 12 be able to 12
tell that certain sentences are grammatical, while others are not, it should explain
some sentences are ambiguous (they have more than one meaning,), It is your turn!etc. It is your turn!
There are cases where sentences can be grammatical but strange, as 13 we shall 13
see below. Consider the following sentences:
8. Ben bal›¤›m›n yemini yemedi¤ini gördüm.

9. Ben kardeflimin geldi¤ini gördüm.
10. Ben bal›¤›m›n geldi¤ini gördüm.
The sentences in (8) and (9) are completely grammatical and acceptable.
However, most Turkish speakers would think that a sentence like (10) is somewhat
weird. There does not seem to be a problem with the structure of the sentence,
because (10) is exactly like (9), except for the fact that one word is different in
(10), i.e. bal›¤›m›n, which is a noun like the word in (9) kardeflimin. The problem
here is not a structural problem. Nevertheless, we tend to reject the sentence
based on our world knowledge. We know that under normal circumstances (e.g.
except for in novels, stories, etc.) fish cannot walk. We can say that (10) is
grammatical and yet it is not acceptable. Now consider (11):
11. *Ben bal›¤›m›n yemini yemedi gördüm.
Sentence (11) is ungrammatical. It may be produced by a tired native speaker.

Still, hearers can interpret this sentence in terms of meaning. So, it can be
acceptable, although it is ungrammatical.
Therefore, as we have separated the notion of grammaticality from that of
correctness, we have to make a distinction between the terms of grammaticality
and acceptability. Syntax is primarily concerned with whether words are properly
combined to form a sentence rather than whether the sentence is meaningful,
weird, or logical. Sentence (10) above thus shows a sentence in which words are
It is your turn! properly putIt is to
yourform
turn! a grammatical sentence, but the result is semantically odd.
1 This shows1 that syntax is autonomous, it has an independent status apart from
meaning.
Our aim in the following chapters on syntax is to make the reader aware of the
structure of Turkish. Such awareness is of crucial importance for language teachers
2 2
and any language professional, such as translators, textbook writers, etc. This
knowledge will provide a systematic frame of reference for the language teacher
It is your turn! It is yourtoturn!
to relate details one another within a systematic whole, which would otherwise
3 3
remain obscure and unrelated.
It is your turn! Answer the following questions.

It is your turn!
4 Discuss whether
4 the following sentences are grammatical, acceptable, and correct or not.
I. Ahmet yaflayan bir ölüdür.
It is your turn! II. Bu flekilde befl köfleli bir üçgen görünmektedir.
It is your turn!
III. Sana 1.85 cm. boyunda olman› emrediyorum.
5 5
IV. Dün akflam sinemaya gidece¤iz.
V. Duymad›m ben Murat’›n geldi dün.
6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

Unit 1 - Syntax 9
Summary
In this unit, we have seen that syntax investigates the

structure of sentences and their component units. The
aim of syntactic analysis is to write rules to specify, or
generate, all and only grammatical sentences in a
language, while excluding those that are
ungrammatical. We can define grammar as a set of rules
in a language that describes phonological,
morphological, and syntactic regularities.
We have seen that syntactic investigation is not

prescriptive. This means that it does not provide any
rules that should be obeyed by speakers. Therefore,
syntactic analysis, like all levels of linguistic analysis, is
descriptive. Syntax describes how language is
structured, rather than imposing correct language use.
We have also seen that since language is specifically a

human property, language analysis will shed light on
how the human mind works. Thus, syntactic analysis
can be considered as a study of human cognitive
abilities. The human mind consists of a faculty which is
specific for language. All native speakers have implicit
knowledge of the grammatical rules of their native
language. This knowledge is known as competence.
Competence is in contrast with performance, which is
defined as the manifestation of language in actual use.
In syntax, we analyze grammatical sentences and we

try to write rules that can only generate grammatical
sentences. Since we do not want our rules to generate
ungrammatical sentences, we also compare and contrast
ungrammatical sentences with grammatical sentences.
So, ungrammaticality is a notion that concerns us as
well as grammaticality. We have also seen that some
sentences can simply be weird even if they are
grammatical. This is a difference that we explained by
the notion of acceptability vs. unacceptability.
Self-test
1. Consider the following: 6. Which one of the following is NOT correct about
It is not correct to use neden and için together in a syntax?
sentence as Çok çal›flmam›m nedeni s›nav› geçmek için. a. It is the study of sentence structure
One would expect to find such a statement in: b. It is the study of rules of a language beyond
a. Descriptive grammar sentence.
b. Prescriptive grammar c. It investigates how sentences are made.
c. Mental grammar d. It investigates how sentences are understood.
d. Competence e. It investigates smaller units of sentences.
e. Grammaticality
7. Competence:
a. is what a native speaker knows about the
2. Descriptive grammar:
grammatical rules of his/her language.
a. is judgmental
b. is what a native speaker knows when s/he learns
b. does not make a distinction between correct and
a foreign language.
incorrect language use. c. is full of hesitations and other imperfections.
c. describes only the use of the language of highly d. is not abstract.
educated people. e. includes a speaker’s knowledge about the world
d. states that we should always make grammatical in general.
sentences.
e. sets some norms. 8. Consider the following:
Some native speakers of Turkish inform us that both
3. Language is creative because: k›z›n› y›lan sokan adam dün geldi and k›z›n› y›lan›n
a. The number of sentences in a language is soktu¤u adam dün geldi are sentences that can be used
limited. in the language. In the former case y›lan is indefinite;
b. Speakers can make sentences that they have while in the latter it is definite, a certain snake that is
never heard before. known by the speaker and hearer.
c. Speakers can create new words. This type of analysis is an example of:
d. There are many rules in a language. a. Descriptive grammar
e. Speakers can create new rules in their native b. Prescriptive grammar
c. Universal Grammar
language.
d. Acceptability
e. Grammaticality
4. Universal Grammar:
a. investigates some inborn and unconscious
9. Competence of a native speaker does NOT include:
knowledge about what can constitute a human
a. hesitations, false starts, etc. in spoken language.
language.
b. unconscious knowledge about the rules of
b. includes descriptive and prescriptive grammar. grammar.
c. informs us that not all languages are alike. c. intuitions about ungrammatical sentences
d. informs us that some languages do not have any d. interpretation of sentences
rules. e. knowledge about forming phrases.
e. informs us that there are no differences in human
languages. 10. What can we say about the following sentence?
5. Which one of the following is an example of ‹nsanlar k›rm›z› sevgi denizinde bo¤ulmufllar.
recursion?
a. Ben bunu yapmad›m. a. It is grammatical but unacceptable.
b. Nuri her gün salata yer. b. It is grammatical and acceptable.
c. Canan Ali’ye olay› anlatt›. c. It is illogical.
d. Ben senin ne yapt›¤›n› bilmiyorum. d. It is ungrammatical but acceptable.
e. Her akflam iki saat boyunca kitap okur. e. It is ungrammatical and unacceptable.
Unit 1 - Syntax 11
Turkish Alive
“ Read the following and try to answer whether it has a

descriptive or prescriptive approach.
r›nda, kesinleyici dil de içinde, elefltirilecek pek çok
Türkçe uygulama sorunu bulundu¤undan!
Kongar’›n söz konusu yaz›s›ndaki “bu yanl›fl› da hemen
Herkesin yapt›¤›, yanl›fl olur mu? hemen herkes yap›yor” belirtimi, aç›kça kuralc› dilbilgi-
Radikal 2 sinden yana görünüyor. fiu var ki Kongar’›n, bu belirti-
10 Temmuz 1999 minde kuralc› / betimlemeci ayr›m›n› dikkate ald›¤›n›
NECM‹YE ALPAY pek sanm›yorum: Alm›fl olsa bunu özel olarak belirtir-
Türkçe söz konusu oldu¤unda, bilimsel disiplin gere¤i di. Yukar›da da dedi¤im gibi, dile dikkat eden ço¤u
kesinleyici dil kullanmaktan kaç›nmas› beklenebilecek okuryazarda görülen bir e¤ilim olarak, belirli kullan›m-
kifliler bile kolayca “yanl›fl/do¤ru” hükmü verebiliyor. lar›, çok da tan›mlanmam›fl, en az›ndan gelifltirilmemifl
Tan›k oldu¤um ilk örnek kendi kalemimden ç›km›flt›. bir ‘do¤ru’ya göre ‘yanl›fl’ buluyor. Bu, “izlenimsel elefl-
Sonuncusu, Emre Kongar’›n 3.6.1999 tarihli Cumhuriyet tiri” diyebilece¤imiz, benim yazd›klar›m› da kapsayan
gazetesindeki “En Çok Yap›lan Yanl›fllar” bafll›kl› yaz›s›. bir elefltiri/de¤erlendirme türünün kolayca düflebilece-
‹lk örnek dedi¤im yaz›m on y›l önce, Metis Çeviri dergisi- ¤i bir tuzak, ama kaç›n›lmaz de¤il, gibi geliyor bana.
nin dokuzuncu say›s›nda yay›mlanm›flt›. Konu, kötü çevi- Kongar’›n hemen hemen herkes taraf›ndan yap›l›yor
rilerin ve ‹ngilizce’nin Türkçe üstündeki olumsuz etkilerin- derken kastetti¤i yanl›fl merak edilmifl olabilir. Arapça
den kaynakland›¤›n› düflündü¤üm sorunlar, pardon, “yan- ço¤ul ekine bir de Türkçe ço¤ul eki eklenmesinden söz
l›fl”lard›. Anlam›fl oldu¤unuz üzere, o yaz›da ben de ço¤u ediyor: mücevheratlar, icraatlar gibi. Böylece, yayg›nla-
kifli gibi “dil yanl›fl›” sözünü büyük bir rahatl›kla, bol bula- flan gereksiz anlamsal yinelemelerden birine iflaret et-
maç kullan›yor, kendime göre ‘do¤ru’ olan belirli bir kulla- mifl oluyor. Yine de bu yayg›nlaflman›n nedenleri ara-
n›ma ayk›r› gördü¤üm her örne¤i ‘yanl›fl’ buluyordum. “Ku- s›nda, Türkçe’nin bir huyu bulunuyor olamaz m›? Za-
ralc› dilbilgisi yandafl›” say›laca¤›m akl›ma bile gelmemiflti. man içinde ço¤uldan ço¤ula fark oluflturmak istiyordur
Bu yöndeki bilimsel elefltiri, Bo¤aziçi Üniversitesi’nden, belki... Ya da, söz konusu sözcüklere zaman içinde te-
Ifl›n Bengi’den geldi. Bengi, Dilbilim Araflt›rmalar› adl› üni- killik kazand›racakt›r. Sözgelimi, icraat sözcü¤ünün te-
versiteleraras› y›ll›¤›n 1993 say›s›nda (Hitit Yay., Ankara), kiline pek rastlanmaz oldu... Aç›kças›, ayk›r›l›klara ifla-
benimki de içinde olmak üzere Metis Çeviri dergisinde ret edilirken, “cahillik”ten ve “ukalal›k”tan baflka ne-
ç›km›fl yaz›lardan baz›lar›n› elefltirel bilinç aç›s›ndan elden denleri de olabilece¤i düflünülse demeye çal›fl›yorum.
geçiriyordu. Kongar söz konusu yaz›s›nda öyle yapm›yor. S›ralad›¤›
Bengi’nin yaz›s›n› ilk okudu¤umda tats›z bir duyguya ‘yanl›fl’lardan biri de “ne... ne...” ba¤lac›ndan sonra cüm-
kap›ld›¤›m› an›ms›yorum. Ne demifller, elefltiri çikolata lenin olumsuz fiille bitirilmesi. Ancak, bu fikri, yerleflik
de¤il ki a¤›za tat versin. [...] bir kuraldan söz edercesine, gerekçelendirmeden dile
Dolay›s›yla, Ifl›n Bengi’nin yaz›s›n› bir güzel unutmu- getiriyor. Oysa Memet Fuat’›n Cumhuriyet’teki köflesin-
flum. Buna karfl›l›k, yaz›dan yararlanmaktan geri dur- de de (21.1.1995 ve 8.2.1995) uzun uzun ele alm›fl ol-
may›p Türkçe konusunda kolay kolay “yanl›fl/do¤ru” du¤u üzere, tart›flmal› bir nokta bu. Uygulamada iki tür-
diyemez olmuflum. Sonradan fark ettim. lüsüne de rastlan›yor. (Yeri gelmiflken bu konuda Kon-
“Kuralc›” teriminin aç›klamas›n›, Berke Vardar yöneti- gar’›n seçimine kat›ld›¤›m› belirtmeliyim. “Ne... ne...”
minde haz›rlanm›fl Dilbilim Terimleri Sözlü¤ü’nden ala- ba¤lac›ndan sonra fiil de olumsuz yap›l›rsa anlamsal yi-
l›m: “Gerçekten kullan›lan olgular› ortaya koymaya ça- neleme do¤uyor; olumsuzluk, gereksiz yere yinelenmifl
l›flan betimsel dilbilime karfl›t olarak, bir dilde zorunlu oluyor.)
olarak ortaya ç›kan yeni biçimleri, ülküsel ve donmufl “Herkesin yapt›¤› yanl›fl”tan söz etmek belki daha çok,
bir örnek u¤runa yads›yan, ‘iyi kullan›m’›, ‘güzel kulla- bilimsel disiplini baflka alanlarda edinmifl olanlar›n ba-
n›m’›, ‘yanl›fl’ diye nitelendirilen biçimlere karfl› savu- fl›na geliyordur: Bilindi¤i gibi, pek çok alanda, herkesin
nan, sorunlar› yanl›fl-do¤ru karfl›tl›¤› içinde ele alan ge- yapt›¤› yanl›fl, yanl›fl olmaktan ç›km›yor. Dil alan›nda
leneksel dilbilgisini nitelemek için kullan›l›r. Dilbilgi- ise bir ad›m sonra, “galat›meflhur” nitelemesiyle de olsa
sinde kuralc› tutum, bilimsel anlay›flla çeliflir.” bünyeye yerleflip, göze batmaz oluyor.
Benzer bir tan›m için, Nurettin Koç’un Dilbilgisi Terim- Kongar’›n ele ald›¤›m yaz›s›nda bir kötüleflme buldu¤u-
leri Sözlü¤ü’ne de bak›labilir. mu söylemek zorunday›m. Tam bir y›l önce ayn› sütun-
Denebilir ki bizler iflin bilimini yapm›yor, uygulamas›na larda yazd›¤› birkaç yaz›, karfl›laflt›r›lmaz ölçüde iyiydi.
bak›yoruz. Ancak, böyle olmas› iflin bilimini gözönünde 11.6.1998 tarihli olan›na, ço¤ul eki konusundaki (tü-
tutmay› engellemedi¤i gibi, gerekli de k›l›yor. Bilim her müyle kat›ld›¤›m) görüflünü kimsede rastlamad›¤›m bir
zaman do¤ru söyledi¤inden de¤il. (Kuralc›l›k da bilim- netlik ve incelikle gerekçelendiriyordu. Üstelik, “dilde
dendi). bu budur demek zor” anlay›fl›n› savunarak.
Birincisi, insan›n ufkunu geniflletip düflünme, bilerek
konuflma olana¤› verdi¤inden. ‹kincisi, dilbilim yaz›la-
”
References Key to “It is your turn!”

Adal›, Oya/(2003) Anlamak ve Anlatmak. Pan It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1
Yay›nlar›, ‹stanbul.
Radford, Andrew (1997) Syntax: A Minimalist I.It is your turn! Adal› says that It is your a
turn!sentence such as Sinirleri bir
2 2
Introduction. Cambridge University Press, hayli bozulmufl, ziyadesiyle üzülmüfltü is not

3correct, because there are two clauses here, as
Cambridge. 3
Yalç›n, fiiar. (1997) Do¤ru Türkçe. Metis Yay›nlar›, It is your turn!

follows: It is your turn!
‹stanbul.
4
a. Sinirleri4 bozulmufltu.
It is your turn! b. ZiyadesiyleIt is yourüzülmüfltü.
turn!
http://www.lsadc.org/web2/fldfr.htm Linguistic Society 5 5
of America What is Correct Language? In (a) the subject is sinirleri and in (b) the subject
6is the person6 who is being talked about. Since
It is your turn! the subjects Itare different, Adal› suggests that we
is your turn!
7 7
should express both subjects.
II.It is your turn! 8Adal›’s approach
8
It is your turn!
is prescriptive because she
prescribes how the sentence should be used. A
9descriptive 9 approach would only describe the
It is your turn! sentence as Ititis your isturn!

used.
10 10
III. Syntactic analysis would suggest that native
speakers can
11 11
use null subjects and that Turkish
allows subject drop.
IV. A Turkish teacher
12 12 can be prescriptive and s/he
It is your turn! might state the It is yoursame rule as Adal›.
turn!
1 1
13 13
2 2
I.It is your turn! Turkish hasIt is yourSubject-Object-Verb

turn! order, but
3 3
English has Subject-Verb-Object order. This is a
4variation and
4 it is considered to be a parameter
It is your turn!
of Universal Grammar.
It is your turn!
II. 5
In Turkish,5 while a sentence such as Gitti¤ini
It is your turn! gördüm is grammatical,
It is your turn! in English saw is gone is
6 6
not. This is a difference across languages. Some
7languages allow
7 subject drop; others like English
It is your turn! do not. Snice It is your turn!is also a difference, it is known
this
8 8
as parameter. This is known as pro-drop or null-
It is your turn!
9
subject parameter.
9
It is your turn!

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13
1 1
Unit 1 - Syntax 13
2 2
It is your turn! It is your turn! V. *Duymad›m ben Murat geldi dün.

3 3
This sentence is ungrammatical because the
I.It is your turn! CompetenceIt is your is turn!
the subconscious knowledge of words are not in the correct order and the verb
4 4
a native speaker about the rules of his/her in the embedded clause does not have the
5
language. 5Performance is the language that is correct morphemes, such as geldi¤ini.
It is your turn!
used by theIt isnative
your turn!
speaker. Thus, competence
6 is abstract 6because it cannot be directly seen or
It is your turn! heard, but It isit can be tested by asking the

your turn!
7 7
speaker’s intuitions on sentence grammaticality.
8 Performance,8 on the other hand, is concrete
It is your turn!
because we can
It is your turn!
hear and tape record what a
9
speaker says9
or we can read what a writer has
It is your turn!
written. It is your turn!
10 10
II. Syntax is mainly concerned with the analysis of
11sentence formation
11 rules in the cognition of
It is your turn!
native speakers.
It is your turn!
Linguists who are involved in
12
syntactic analysis
12
ask native speaker judgments
It is your turn! in order to Itunderstand
is your turn! the rules they have as a
It is your turn!13 13 It is your turn!
1part of their
1 competence. Syntax is not
It is your turn! concerned with performance errors, such as slips
It is your turn!
2 2
of the tongue or incomplete sentences that are
It is your turn!
3
produced under
3
stress or fatigue, etc.
It is your turn!

4 4
I.It is your turn! Ahmet yaflayan bir ölüdür.

It is your turn!
5 5
This sentence is grammatical. However, it is not
6
acceptable 6because being alive and dead at the
It is your turn!
same time is a contradiction.
It is your turn!
We can interpret
7the sentence7 as a metaphor only. This is
It is your turn! grammatcal, but
It is your turn! unacceptable under normal
8 8
circumstances.
II. 9Bu flekilde befl
9 köfleli bir üçgen görünmektedir.
It is your turn!
This sentence
It is your turn!
is grammatical; yet it is
unacceptable since üçgen has only three sides,
10 10
It is your turn! not five. This

It is your turn!contradicts with our world
11 11
knowledge.
III. 12*Sana 1.8512boyunda olman› emrediyorum.
It is your turn!
This sentence It is your turn!
can be considered as
ungrammatical,
13 13
because one cannot order
someone to do something that is beyond his
control. To be tall is not our choice, so we cannot
be tall or short with our own will. As a result,
emretmek is incompatible with an involuntary
verb, such as being tall.
IV. *Dün akflam yeme¤e gidece¤iz.
This sentence is ungrammatical because the time
adverb shows past; while the morpheme. -EcEk
at the verb stem indicates future.
2
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
What is a constituent?
N
How do we represent constituents?
N
How are constituents organized?
N
What relationships do the members of a constituent have?
What tests do we use to check constituency?
Key Words
• constituents • immediate constituents
• nodes • ultimate constituents
• binary branching • modifiers
• heads • complements
Contents

The Internal Structure • INTRODUCTION
of Syntactic Categories: • CONSTITUENTS
Constituents
The Internal Structure of
Syntactic Categories:
Constituents
INTRODUCTION
All languages have systematic patterns. Sentences are formed based on rules.
Likewise, smaller units in sentences have rules. We cannot imagine a sentence or
any structural unit without patterns. This unit focuses on the rules govern these
internal structural units in Turkish. We shall also see how we represent these rules
in syntactic analysis.
As we know, syntax investigates the internal structure of syntactic categories,
such as phrases and sentences. Phrases consist of words; and sentences consist of
phrases. In other words, larger syntactic categories consist of constituents. A
constituent is “a structural unit – i.e. an expression which is one of the components
of a phrase or sentence is built up.” (Radford 1997:256). We shall see examples of
constituents below, as well as their representations in syntax, their hierarchical
organization, and their relationships with other constituents
CONSTITUENTS
In order to understand the notion of constituent, consider an example like en baflar›l›
ö¤renci: The category en baflar›l› is composed of the constituents en and baflar›l›.
Since there is no intermediate unit of which en and baflar›l› that is itself a constituent
of the category en baflar›l›; en and baflar›l› are not only constituents but also they
are immediate constituents of the category. Similarly, en baflar›l› ö¤renci is composed
of three words all of which constitute a category together. However, not all of them
are immediate constituents of this category. The words en and baflar›l› combine
to make the intermediate category en baflar›l›; and then this intermediate category
combines with ö¤renci to form the larger category en baflar›l› ö¤renci. Modern
linguists represent these categories using tree diagrams as in the following:
Figure 2.1
B C
en baflar›l› ö¤renci
D E
en baflar›l›
In Figure: 2.1 the lines in the tree diagram are its branches. The points of the
branches, which are labeled with capital letters, like A, B, C, etc. are nodes. The
labels represent the type of the constituent, which we shall discuss later. (A) is the
mother node; (B) and (C) are daughters of (A); and they are sisters of each
other. Likewise, (B) is the mother node of (D) and (E), which are sisters. Sister
constituents are at the same level of structure in organization. In general,
constituents have functions in respect to their sisters. Nodes (C), (D), and (E) are
terminal nodes because there are no other branches that derive from these
nodes. The words in the terminal nodes are the ultimate constituents because
they cannot be divided into any further constituents. Mother nodes immediately
dominate their daughters. For example, (A) immediately dominates (B) and (C); so
(B) and (C) are immediate constituents of (A). This is because there is no other
intervening constituent between the mother node and the immediate constituents.
We see that there are two branches at both levels in the tree diagram above.
Thus, this tree diagram shows that the constituent structure of the category has a
hierarchical organization, which starts from the smallest words which it includes
into layers of successively larger categories. It appears that syntactic categories are
not merely sequence of words. Rather, they are structural units that can be analyzed
into immediate constituents and then each of these categories can be divided into
their own immediate constituents, and so on. What happens if we have a tree with
three branches that derive from the same mother node, as in the following?
Figure 2.2
en baflar›l› ö¤renci
A
D
ö¤renci
B C
en baflar›l›
In the tree diagram in Figure 2.2, we have a flat structure as opposed to a

hierarchical structure. This is because it has three branches deriving from the same
mother node. Thus, (B), (C), and (D) are sisters. This shows that all constituents
Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntactic Categories: Constituents 17
are supposedly at the same level. In this case, we have no node where we could
separate en baflar›l› as a constituent to substitute it with a word such as hangi if
we want to ask a question such as hangi ö¤renci? This substitution test, as we
shall see in further detail later, shows that we need a separate node for the
constituent en baflar›l›. Furthermore, both en and baflar›l› do not both modify
ö¤renci; but rather firstly en modifies baflar›l›; and then en baflar›l› modifies
ö¤renci. We can see that *en ö¤renci is not a possible constituent. Therefore, en
baflar›l› should apparently form a separate syntactic unit than ö¤renci and this
separate constituent should be represented in a separate node in the tree diagram.
Since flat structure trees fail to represent facts about syntactic categories and
constituent structure, we use binary branching trees as shown in Figure: 2.1. A
binary-branching tree is a tree diagram in which there are two branches at
every level of representation. Each node represents a constituent. In most cases a
tree diagram with three or more sisters is not a legitimate way of representing the
constituent structure in Turkish. (But see section on Coordination) We conclude
that Turkish constituents have hierarchical structures. Therefore, we reject a flat
structure tree diagram as in Figure: 2.2 in order to represent Turkish constituents.
Now, let us investigate the structure of the following sentence.
1. En baflar›l› ö¤renci yar›flmay› kazan›r.
At this point, let us assume that en baflar›l› ö¤renci and yar›flmay› kazan›r are
two immediate constituents of the sentence. (We will see the reasons for this in
the next unit). These constituents can further be divided into smaller constituents,
as en baflar›l›, ö¤renci, yar›flmay›, and kazan›r. The constituent structure is
represented in Figure: 2.3.
Figure 2.3
A
en baflar›l› ö¤renci yar›flmay› kazan›r

B C
D E F G
en baflar›l› ö¤renci yar›flmay› kazan›r
H I
en baflar›l›
The constituent structure can also be shown using square brackets as in the
following:
2. [H en] [I baflar›l›] [E ö¤renci] [F yar›flmay›] [G kazan›r]

The representation in (2) provides ultimate constitutes, but higher constituents

can also be presented by using square brackets, as well:
3. [[A[B[en] baflar›l›] ö¤renci]] [C [yar›flmay›] kazan›r]]]

The representation in square brackets given above in (3) is equivalent to the
tree diagram in Figure: 2.3. Linguists use both tree diagrams and square bracketing
to represent constituent structures. Radford (1997: 254) states that “Bracketing is a
technique [used] for representing the categorical status of expressions, whereby
the expression is enclosed in square brackets, and the left -hand bracket is labeled
with the appropriate category symbol. The information given in a tree diagram
and square bracket techniques provide the same type of information. The difference
is that tree diagrams can be easier to read because the information provided is not
as condensed as in the brackets”.
It is your turn! Answer the following questions:

It is your turn!
1 Consider the
1 tree diagram given below:
Ali Ayfle’yi seviyor

A
2 2

3 3
B C
Ali Ayfle’yi seviyor
4 4

5 5 D E
Ayfle’yi seviyor
6 I Which6 one of the following square bracket representations is identical with the tree
diagram above?
a. [A [B Ali][C [D Ayfle’yi] [E seviyor]]]
b. [A [B Ali ] [D Ayfle’yi[E seviyor]]]
7 7
II Why? Explain.
III What are the immediate constituents in the tree diagram? A, B, C, D, or E?
It is your turn! IV It isthe
What are yourultimate
turn! constituents?
8 V 8
How many sisters are there in the tree diagram? What are they?
VI Which constituents can the following question words replace? Kim, kimi, and ne
It is your turn! yap›yor?
It is your turn!
9 VII Draw9the tree diagram of the following sentence: Sar› saçl› k›z okula gitti.
Relationships Between the Members of a Constituent

We have stated above that the relationships between constituents can be
10 10 in relation to their sisters. In this section, we will see two types of
determined
relationship between the sisters of a constituent:
11 11

12 12
• Modifier-Head: Head is the central word in a constituent. A constituent with

a head is called a phrase. Modifiers modify the head, they express some quality
or aspect of the head. Modifiers are adjectives, adverbs, relative clauses, and
adverbials. Modifiers are also known as adjuncts. Adjectives and relative clauses
modify nouns, adverbs and adverbials basically modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs. Modifiers are optional, i.e. they may or may not appear in phrases.
If they are omitted, the result will not be ungrammatical, as in the following
examples:
4. Yeflil elbise – elbise

5. Koyu yeflil – yeflil
6. H›zl› kofluyor – kofluyor
7. Çok güzel –güzel
In the examples above, yeflil in (4), koyu in (5), h›zl› in (6), and çok in (7) are
modifiers.
The sisters in the following tree diagrams all show modifier-head relationships:
Figure 2.4
A
B C
Modifier Head
yeflil elbise
A
B C
Modifier of C Head of B
Koyu yeflil elbise
C D
Modifier of D Head of C
koyu yeflil
A
B C
Modifier Head
H›zl› kofluyor
A
B C
Modifier Head
Çok Güzel
• Complement-Head The second relationship between the sister constituents

is that of complement-head relationship. While modifiers are optional,
complements are obligatory. In a way, the head governs a complement, and the
complement completes the head. For example, postpositions like göre and için
assign case to their complements. Furthermore, these postpositions cannot stand
on their own, they need to be completed by some complements and they assign
case to their objects.
Likewise, transitive verbs require objects to become complete constituents, and
they assign case to their objects. Objects are complements of transitive verbs. The
following examples show that heads cannot stand without their complements:
8. Çocuklar›m için - *için

9. Ahmet’e göre - *göre
10. Yeme¤ini yedi - *yedi
11. Yaflar Kemal hayran› - *hayran›
Complement-head relationships are also represented as sisters in the tree

diagrams, as shown in the following examples:
Figure 2.5
A
B C
Complement Head
Çocuklar›m için
B C
Complement Head
Ahmet’e göre
B C
Complement Head
Yeme¤ini yedi
B C
Complement Head
Yaflar Kemal hayran›
To sum up, the differences between modifiers and complements are the
following:
• Syntactically, a modifier (adjunct) is an optional element, while a
complement is an obligatory element. That means that a modifier can be
omitted, but a complement cannot.
• Semantically, a modifier modifies the meaning of its head, while a
complement completes the meaning of its head.
• There can be more than one modifier but there Itisis usually
your turn! only one It is your turn!
complement. 1 1
Which one of the following constituents are in the complement-head andturn!

It is your modifier-head It is your turn!
relationship? Why? 2 2
a. kitab› yazmak
b. mavi duvar It is your turn! It is your turn!
c. güzel çiçek
3 3
d. bilimsellik u¤runa
e. yeni proje
Tests for Constituency 4 4

Not all groups of word form constituents. Remember we have already discussed
the following sentence: It is your turn! It is your turn!
5 5
12. En baflar›l› ö¤renci yar›flmay› kazan›r.
Remember that Figure: 2.3 is a tree diagram representation of this sentence. 6 We 6
observe that en is a constituent; en baflar›l› is a constituent, en baflar›l› ö¤renci is
also a constituent, etc. However, en ö¤renci does not form a constituent. This is
because en modifies baflar›l›, but not ö¤renci. Furthermore, as reflected in Figure:
7 7
2.3, en baflar›l› ö¤renci yar›flmay› are words that do not belong together. Thus,
they do not form a constituent, either.
How can we make a distinction between constituents andIt isnon-constituents?
your turn! It is your turn!
There are certain tests that we can use in order to understand whether 8 a set of 8
words form a constituent or not.
Substitution Test 9 9
Only constituents can be substituted by other words or constituents. Each of the
phrases represented in the nodes in Figure: 2.3 can be replaced with
It is your turn!some other It is your turn!
words or word combinations. For example, in the case of each constituent, 10 there 10
is a question word which can replace it, as shown in (13) – (16) below:
13. Kim yar›flmay› kazan›r?
11 11
14. Hangi ö¤renci yar›flmay› kazan›r?
15. En baflar›l› ö¤renci ne yapar?
16. En baflar›l› ö¤renci neyi kazan›r? It is your turn! It is your turn!
12 12
As you see in (13) – (16), the constituents en baflar›l› ö¤renci, en baflar›l›,
yar›flmay› kazan›r, and yar›flmay›, are questioned, respectively. Constituents
It is your turn! can It is your turn!
be replaced by other words such as question words. Note that each13of these 13
question words can find a node for substitution. On the other hand, there is no
way in which you can use a question word for en iyi ö¤renci yar›flmay›, and
ö¤renci yar›flmay›, because these words do not form constituents. As you can also
observe in Figure: 2.3, there is no node for any word which can substitute word
groups, such as ö¤renci yar›flmay›.
Another example is illustrated in the tree diagram below:
17. Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi.

Figure 2.6
Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi
NE OLDU
Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi

K‹M NE YAPTI
yeflil elbisesini giydi

NEY‹ NE YAPTI
yeflil elbisesini
HANG‹ NES‹N‹
The tree diagram above illustrates our claim schematically. All of the constituents
represented by each node can be substituted by the question words given in bold
characters. Thus, the following are constituents: Nuriye, yeflil elbisesini giydi, yeflil
elbisesini, yeflil, elbisesini, and giydi. However, Nuriye and yeflil do not form a
constituent. This is verified by the fact that there is no word or word group that
can substitute Nuriye yeflil.
Furthermore, we can replace some constituents by pronouns. Both Nuriye and
yeflil elbisesini in the sentence can be replaced by pronouns, such as o and bunu,
1 1
respectively:
It is your turn! It is your

18. O yeflil turn!
elbisesini giydi.
2 2
19. Nuriye bunu giydi.
It is your turn! I Is NuriyeIt elbisesini

is your turn! a constituent?
3 II Why ? Why
3 not ? Explain.
Deletion Test
Only full constituents can be deleted in a sentence. For example:
4 4
20. Yeflil elbisesini giydi.
It is your turn! 21. NuriyeIt is giydi.
your turn!(As an answer to the question Kim yeflil elbisesini giydi?)
5 5

6 6

7 7
Note that Nuriye and yeflil elbisesini giydi are deleted in (20) and (21),
respectively, and they are both grammatical.
Moveability
We can move only the whole constituent; we cannot separate its parts:
22. Yeflil elbisesini giydi Nuriye. 1 1
23. *Yeflil giydi Nuriye elbisesini.
24. *Elbisesini yeflil Nuriye giydi.
2
We can move Nuriye at the end of the sentence because it is a constituent. 2
However, as you see, sentences in (23) and (24) are ungrammatical because their
It is your turn! from their
internal structures are destroyed by separating phrasal constituents It is your turn!
smaller parts. 3 3
I Try to account for the grammaticality or ungrammaticality of the

It is following
your turn! sentences It is your turn!
based on the constituency tests: 4 4
a. Yeni bilgisayar›n› ofisindeki masan›n üzerine kurdu. It is your turn! It is your turn!
b. Mehmet yeni bilgisayar›n› kurdu.
5 5
c. Mehmet ofisindeki masan›n üzerine kurdu. (as an answer to Yeni bilgisayar› nerede?)
d. *Mehmet yeni kurdu.
e. *Mehmet yeni bilgisayar›n› üzerine kurdu.
6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13
Summary
A constituent is a word or a group of words that belong
together. Constituent structure of syntactic categories
can be represented by tree diagrams or square bracket
notation. Constituents are organized hierarchically
rather than in a flat structure. Linguists, therefore,
represent constituent structure with binary branching
tree diagrams.
Members of a constituent can be in modifier-head and

complement-head relationship. Modifiers are optional,
and hence they can be omitted; but complements are
obligatory members, so they cannot be omitted.
Therefore, complements cannot be taken out of a
constituent, while modifiers can.
We use constituency tests to check whether a group of

words forms a constituent or not. These tests include
substitution, deletion, and moveability tests.
Self-test
Answer questions (1)-(6) based on the following tree 5. Which node can the question word nerede
diagram: substitute?
a. B
A b. C
c. D
B C d. E
Fakültenin dekan› e. F
toplant›da fikirlerini anlatt›
6. How would you define the word toplant›da?

D E F G a. It is a modifier
fakültenin dekan› toplant›da fikirlerini anlatt›
b. It is a complement.
c. It is not an adjunct.
I d. It is not a constituent.
H
anlatt› e. None of the above.
fikirlerini
1. Which is the mother node of B and C? 7. Which one of the following word groups can NOT
a. A form a constituent in the following sentence?
b. D and E
c. B Genç adam deniz kenar›nda o¤luyla oynuyordu.
d. G a. genç adam
e. I b. deniz kenar›nda o¤luyla
c. deniz kenar›nda
2. Which of the following are not sisters? d. o¤luyla oynuyordu.
a. B and C e. deniz kenar›nda o¤luyla oynuyordu
b. D and E
8. Which nodes are in modifier-head relationship in
c. E and F
the following tree diagram?
d. F and G
e. H and I
Kad›nlar erkeklere göre daha çok a¤l›yorlar.
3. What is the relationship between fikirlerini and A
anlatt›.
a. modifier- head
B C
b. complement-head
c. modifier-complement kad›nlar
d. head-head D E
e. immediate constituent
F G H I
4. What are the immediate constituents of C? erkeklere göre
a¤l›yorlar
a. A and B
J K
b. B and C
c. D and E daha çok
d. F and G
a. D-H
e. H and I
b. F-G
c. B-C
d. G-H
e. H-I
9. Which one of the following represents the correct 10. What do the following word groups illustrate?
constituent structure? Sinema tutkunu, *tutkunu; bar›fl u¤runa,
a. [[Kad›nlar] [[[erkeklere] [göre] [[daha çok] *u¤runa; yavafl yürümek, yürümek; karfl›daki
a¤l›yorlar]]] çocuk, çocuk
b. [Kad›nlar erkeklere] [göre daha çok] a¤l›yorlar] a. Complements can be omitted, but modifiers
c. [Kad›nlar] [[erkeklere göre daha çok] a¤l›yorlar]] cannot.
d. [Kad›nlar] [[[erkeklere] [göre] [[daha çok] b. Modifiers can be omitted, but complements
a¤l›yorlar]]] cannot.
e. All of the above. c. Both modifiers and complements can be
omitted.
d. Heads can be omitted.
e. Neither complements nor modifiers can be
omitted.
Turkish Alive References

Read the following texts and then try to answer the Berk; Lynn (1999) English Syntax: From Word to
questions: Discourse. Oxford University Press,Oxford.
• What have you learned about human languages? Brinton, Laurel J. (2000) The Structure of Modern
• Where does the big language family come from? English. John Benjamins, Amsterdam and
• Hew did languages change? Philadelphia.
Dowty, David. (2000) “The Dual Analysis of
Langaney, Andre, ve di¤erleri (2000) ‹nsan›n en güzel Adjuncts/Complements in Categorial
Tarihi, ‹fl Bankas› Yay›nlar›, ‹stanbul. (çeviren Emine Grammar.” ZAS Papers in Linguistics Volume 17,
Çaykara) (sayfa: 45-46) Pp. 53-78.
“ 1. Bugün, art›k daha çok tüm dillerin tek bir kökenden

do¤du¤u düflünülüyor. Bunu do¤rulayan dillerin
birbiriyle uyuflma katsay›s›. Amerikal› Noam
Johanson, Lars and Eva A. Csato (1998) The Turkic
Languages. Routledge. London and New York.
Kornfilt, Jaklin (1997) Turkish. Routledge. London and
New York.
Chomsky’nin çal›flmalar› sonucunda dilbilimciler, tüm O’Grady, William, Michael Dovrovolsky, and Francis
diller için ortak bir gramer yap›s› oldu¤unu keflfettiler. Katamba. ((1996, 3rd edition) Contemporary
Ayn› zamanda, kökeni ne olursa olsun bir bebe¤in Linguistics. Pearson Education Limited, London.
evrensel bir lisan yetene¤i tafl›d›¤› biliniyor: ‹nsanlar›n Radford, Andrew (1988) Transformational Grammar.
do¤duklar›nda, bütün lisanlar› ö¤renme ve konuflma Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
imkan› var; ama insan çevresinde duydu¤u lisan veya Wardaugh, Ronald (1995) Understanding English
lisanlara iliflkin seslere öncelik vererek bu yetene¤ini Grammar. Blackwell, London.
kaybediyor. Buradan hareketle, bütün insanlarda bütün
sesleri üretme ve cümle kurma gibi ortak bir yetene¤in
varl›¤› sonucu ç›k›yor. Ayr›ca, dilbilimciler, mevcut diller
aras›ndaki ba¤lar› yeniden oluflturarak bunlar›n içindeki
çok uzak akrabal›klar› araflt›rd› ve büyük dil ailesini
saptad›lar.
(sayfa 47)
2. Konufltu¤umuz lisan› belirleyenin genler olmad›¤›n›
biliyoruz. Bir bebek, kökeni ne olursa olsun, yetiflti¤i
yerdeki lisan› ö¤reniyor. Lisanlar ve genler aras›nda
böylesine bir paralellik bulunmas›n›n nedeni,
günümüzden önce 30 000 ile 3 000 y›llar› aras›nda
insanlar›n Afrika k›tas›na dört dalga halinde yay›lmas›
ve bunun dört büyük dil ailesine denk gelmesi. Bu
gruplar›n birbirleriyle çok iliflkileri yoktu, lisanlar› çok
h›zl› birbirinden ayr›l›rken genlerinin tekrar› da paralel
olarak de¤ifliyordu.
Lisanlar çok çabuk de¤iflti. Düflünün ki bin y›l önce
konuflulan ortaça¤ Frans›zcas›n› bugün biz anlam›yoruz.
Frans›zca ve ‹talyanca en az›ndan iki bin y›ld›r
birbirinden ayr›ld›. Diller gen frekans›ndan çok daha
çabuk de¤ifliyor. Yeni diyalektlerin ve ard›ndan yeni
lisanlar›n do¤mas› için iki ya da üç as›r yeterli.
”
1 1
Key to “It is your turn!” It is your turn!

2 2
It is your turn!
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn!

1 1 3 3
It is your turn!
I. The
It is your turn!
following2 square bracket representation is the I.It is your
The turn! words Nuriye It is your turn!and elbisesini do not form a
2 4 4
identical equivalent of the tree diagram: constituent.

It is your turn! It is your turn! It is
is your
your turn!
turn! It is
is your
your turn!
turn!
[A3[B Ali] [C[D3 Ayfle’yi] [E seviyor]]]] II.

It
This15 is because 15
It
these two words can not be
II. The square bracket
It is your turn! It is your turn! representation above directly It
It is
substituted
is your
your turn!
turn!
with ItItaisis your
question
your turn!
turn!
word. Besides, they are
4 4
reflects the immediate and ultimate constituents. not 26in any kind26 of relationship, such as Modifier-
It is your turn!
The 5
It is your turn!
other representation
5 has problems because
It is
It Head,
is your
your turn!
turn! or Complement-Head.
It is
It is your
your turn!
turn!
73 73
the
It is your turn! string Ali Ayfle’yi
It is your turn! does not form a constituent. It is
It is your
your turn!
turn! It is
It is your
your turn!
turn!
6 6 48 48
III. The immediate constituents are [[B Ali] [CAyfle’yi
seviyor]].
It is your turn!
7 7
It is your turn!
I.ItIt isis your
a.turn!
your turn!Yeni bilgisayar›n›
It
It is
is your ofisindeki masas›n›n üzerine
your turn!
turn!
59 59
IV. The ultimate constituents are [D Ayfle’yi] [E seviyor]. kurdu.
It is your turn! It is your turn! It isis your
your turn!
turn! It is
is your
your turn!
turn!
It It
V. The 8 following8 words can be substituted under the This
10
6 sentence106 is grammatical, because, the subject,
following nodes:
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is
It is your turn!which forms a
your turn! is constituent
It is
It your turn!
your turn! on its own in deleted.
9 9 11 11
• Kim: Node B (Ali) 7 7

•10 Kimi: Node 10
D (Ayfle’yi) b. Mehmet
It is your turn!
yeni128 bilgisayar›n›
It is your turn!
kurdu.
12
8
•
It is your turn!
Ne yap›yor: Node C (Ayfle’yi seviyor)
It is your turn!
This sentence is also grammatical since the
VII. The tree diagram of the sentence Sar› saçl› k›z
11 11
constituents
9
13 9are all in the sentence.
13
okula gitti is given

It is your turn! It is your turn!below: It is your turn! It is your turn!
12 12 10 10
c. Mehmet ofisindeki masan›n üzerine kurdu.
It is your turn! It is your turn! A
13 13 This
It is your turn!
11
sentence
11
is grammatical so long as it is the
It is your turn!
answer of Mehmet yeni bilgisayar›n› nereye

kurdu?
12 12
B C Note that the Itconstituent

It is your turn! is your turn! yeni bilgisayar›n› is
sar› saçl› k›z okula gitti 13
deleted.
13
d. * Mehmet yeni kurdu.

D E F G
This sentence is ungrammatical due to the fact
that
the modifier of yeni bilgisayar›n› is not deleted;
H I
k›z okula gitti but
sar› saçl› the head bilgisayar›n› is omitted. Remember that
Heads cannot be deleted if their modifiers are in
1 1
the
It is your turn! It is your turn! sentence. We could have deleted the whole
2 2
constituent yeni bilgisayar›n›.
I. a. kitab› 3 yazmak:
3 Complement: kitab›; Head:
yazmak
It is your turn! It is your turn! e. * Mehmet yeni bilgisayar›n› üzerine kurdu.
b. mavi 4
duvar:4 Modifier: mavi; Head: duvar The sentence above is ungrammatical because
c. güzel çiçek: Modifier:
güzel; Head: çiçek the
5 5
d. bilimsellik u¤runa: Complement bilimsellik; complement of üzerine, i.e. masan›n is deleted.
Head: 6 6 Thus, üzerine is left alone without its
It is your turn!u¤runa It is your turn! complements.
7 7
e. yeni proje: Modifier: yeni; Head: proje Thus, it cannot form a constituent. One part of a
8 8
constituent cannot be deleted as such.
9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13
3
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
How do we define sentences and clauses?
N
What are subjects and predicates?
N
What is a phrase?
N
What types of phrases are there in Turkish?
N
What are Phrase Structure Rules?
N
How are the following types of phrases organized?
N
Noun Phrases
N
Postpositional Phrases
N
Adjective Phrases
N
Adverb Phrases and Adverbials
Verb Phrases
Key Words
• sentence • Noun phrases (NPs)
• clause • Postpositional phrases (PPs)
• subject • Adjective phrases (Adj. Ps)
• predicate • Adverb phrases (Adv.Ps)
• predication • adverbials
• null subject • Verb phrases (VPs)
• pro-drop parameter • head - directionality
• phrase • head final language
• phrase structure rules • determiner
Contents
• INTRODUCTION
• SENTENCES AND CLAUSES
• PHRASES AND PHRASE
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, STRUCTURE RULES
Pragmatics and Discourse • NOUN PHRASES (NPs)
Sentence Structure
and Phrase • POSTPOSITIONAL PHRASES
(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, (PPs)
Structure
Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi) • ADJECTIVE PHRASES (Adj. Ps)
• ADVERB PHRASES (Adv. Ps)
AND ADVERBIALS
• VERB PHRSES (VPs)
Sentence Structure and
Phrase Structure
INTRODUCTION
This unit presents the building blocks of sentences. You will learn about the
internal structure of Turkish clauses. We will learn the immediate constituents that
make a clause and then we shall see the internal structures of their immediate
constituents. What is a subject and what is a predicate? What are some characteristics
of Turkish subjects? What else makes up a clause? These are some of the questions
we shall deal with in this unit.
We have seen that phrases and sentences have hierarchical organization.
Therefore, sentences have immediate constituents, which in turn, have other
internally organized constituents. In this unit, first of all, we will be concerned
with the highest, i.e. immediate, constituents of sentences and their functions.
Then, we shall investigate some other phrases.
SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

Traditional grammars describe a sentence as the complete expression of one
thought. Modern linguists avoid this description because of the difficulties involved
in determining what a thought is. Kaya parças› can express one thought, but it is
not a sentence. Dün seninle sinemaya gitmek için geldim is one sentence, but it
expresses two thoughts. Instead, let us consider sentences in terms of clauses.
Clauses are defined as syntactic units that have a subject and a predicate. (We
shall see below what subject and predicate mean.) Sentences are combined of
clauses. A sentence can consist of one clause, two or more clauses due their
recursive properties. Seni gördüm is a sentence with one clause, seni görmeye
geldim is a sentence with two clauses. We shall discuss sentences with more than
one clause in the next chapter. Below, we will look at the internal structure of
sentences with one clause.
Immediate Constituents of Clauses: Subjects and

Predicates
If we look at immediate constituents of sentences with one clause, as illustrated
below, we see that they are divided into two parts:
1. Ali uyudu.
The constituent structure of this type of a simple sentence above can be

represented by the following tree diagram:
Figure 3.1
A
Ali uyudu
B C
Ali uyudu
The same structure is also applicable to sentences, such as Ahmet geldi, Semra
yürüdü, Serap güldü, etc. These are very simple sentences. Now, consider
sentences as in the following:
2. [Ahmet] [sessizce uyudu].

3. [Ali] [eve geldi].
4. [Semra] [aç›k havada dolaflt›].
5. [Nuriye] [kitap okudu].
6. [Sacide] [›spana¤› yedi.]
7. [Sar› saçl› k›z] [okulu bitirdi.]
All these sentences can again be divided into two immediate constituents. We
can test this claim by using the substitution test for constituency. (Remember that
substitution test is used in order to test the constituent structure.)
8. Kim ne yapt›?
The sentence in (8) shows that kim replaces the first immediate constituents
and ne yapt› substitutes the second immediate constituents of all the sentences
above. Also note that all sentences in (1)-(7) can be an answer to the question in
(8). According to this test, all sentences can be divided into two immediate
constituents.
Figure 3.2
A
SENTENCE
B C
Kim ne yapt›
The first constituent of the sentence (B) is said to be its subject; while the
second constituent (C) is the predicate of the sentence. The relationship between
the subject and the predicate is called predication. It has been known since the
Greek philosopher, Aristotle, that all sentences consist of a subject and a predicate.
A predicate is what remains in a sentence after the subject is excluded.
Remember that in Chapter 10, we saw two relationships between sister nodes:
complement-head and modifier-head. Another relationship between sisters is that
Unit 3 - Sentence Structure and Phrase Structure 33
of predication. In other words, subjects and predicates are also sisters like
complements and heads, as well as modifiers and heads.
Subjects
A simple subject is usually a Noun Phrase (NP), which has a noun as its central
element (head). Subjects in Turkish are usually the initial noun phrase in a
sentence with a tensed verb. The verb in the sentence agrees with the subject in
terms of number and person. Subjects are almost universally assigned nominative
case. Subjects in the following sentences are given in bold characters:
9. Ünlü flark›c› deniz kenar›ndaki lokantada bal›k yedi.

10. ‹ki ak›ll› k›z marul salatas› yediler.
11. Dün sat›n ald›¤›m kitap çok pahal›yd›.
We know that pronouns can replace NPs in subject position. Therefore, the
pronouns as in (12) are also NPs:
12. ben, sen, o, biz, siz, onlar, bu, flu, o etc.
Furthermore, unlike languages like English, Turkish can have null subjects.
This means that the subject pronoun can be dropped. Remember that languages
have common properties, which are called principles; and variations which are
said to be parameters. Some languages like English and French do not allow null
subjects. On the other hand, languages like Turkish, allow null subjects. This
variation with two options is called the pro-drop parameter. Languages like
Turkish, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Japanese are some of the pro-drop
languages of the world. Languages like English and French are non-pro-drop
languages, because no subject in a sentence in these languages can be null.
A Turkish speaker then can choose among the following options, a full NP, a
pronoun, or a null subject, as in the following:
13.
a. Küçük bebek sincab› gördü.
b. O sincab› gördü.
c. Sincab› gördü.
All these three types of subjects have different discourse functions. The full NP
in (13a) is used to introduce a new person into the conversation. In other words,
the hearer is not paying attention to that person, or this person has not been
mentioned previously. In (13b) the use of the pronoun shows that the baby has
been mentioned previously and the speaker wants to emphasize the subject. In
(13c) the subject under discussion has been introduced into the conversation and
has been recently talked about. So, the speaker provides topic continuity by using
a null subject. It is strange to use overt subjects when the speaker continues to talk
about the same entity, as seen in the following:
14. Murat eve geldi. #Murat yemek piflirdi. #O yemek yedi. #O kitap okudu. #O
uyudu.
(The sign “#” marks that a sentence is pragmatically weird, even though it is
syntactically grammatical). Using null subjects would be appropriate in the
subsequent sentences after the subject is initially introduced into the discourse.
Null subjects are also considered to be NPs. Thus, even if the subject is empty,
the sentence still has a subject-predicate constituent structure. The null subject is
represented with pro (an empty pronoun).
Subject-verb Agreement in Sentences

Turkish verbs have agreement suffixes, which show agreement with their subjects
in terms of number and person. Number can be singular or plural; and person
features are first, second, and third person. The bold characters in the examples
below show agreement suffixes:
15. Ben çok çal›fl›r›m. (First person singular)

16. Sen çok çal›fl›rs›n. (Second person singular)
17. Ahmet çok çal›fl›r. (Third person singular)
18. Biz çok çal›fl›r›z. (First person plural)
19. Siz çok çal›fl›rs›n›z. (Second person plural)
20. Onlar çok çal›fl›rlar. (Third person plural)
As you see in the examples above, verbs have different agreement suffixes for
the first, second, and third person singular and plural subjects. The third person
singular suffix is null.
Predicates
Predicates are typically constituents that follow subjects in sentences.
Predicates:
• express the action carried by the subject, (e.g. Arkadafl›m yüzdü)
• provide description of the subject, (e.g. Ahmet yak›fl›kl› bir subayd›r)
• show what happened to the subject. (e.g. Adam yere düfltü).
• express a psychological state experienced
by the subject (e.g. Ahmet sevindi)
Almost universally predicates contain verbs, they may contain other
constituents, such as direct or indirect objects, and adverbs.
It is your turn! Identify theItimmediate

is your turn! constituents of the following sentences, and comment on these
1 constituents:
1
• Ali kitab›n› bitirdi.
• Seval okula gidiyor.
2 2
PHRASES AND PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
The constituents which function as subjects, objects, etc. in a sentence are called
phrases. The turn!
existence of phrases has been accepted since 1930s in linguistics. A
3 3
phrase may consist of one or more constituents with a syntactic significance. There
are different types of phrases in languages, such as Noun Phrases (NP), Verb
It is your turn! Phrases (VP), Adjective
It is your turn! Phrases (Adj.P), Adverb Phrases (Adv.P), Prepositional or
4 Postpositional
4 Phrases (PP). These phrases have a central word as their heads.
The category of the head determines the category of the phrase. For example, the
It is your turn! head of a Noun
It is yourPhrase
turn! is a noun, the head of a Verb Phrase is a verb, the head of
5 5

6 6

an Adjective Phrase is an adjective, etc. We thus label phrasal constituents in tree

diagrams or their corresponding representations in square brackets.
Remember that we divided sentences as subjects and predicates. Simple subjects
are usually NPs, and predicates are VPs, since predicates have verbs as their central
element. The phrasal structure of the simple sentence is illustrated in the labeled
tree diagram below:
Figure 3.3
S
NP (Noun Phrase) VP (Verb Phrase)

‹ki ak›ll› k›z
NP V (Verb)
marul salatas› yediler
The tree diagram shows that the sentence S consists of a NP (subject) and a VP
(predicate), which in turn, may consist of object NP and its head V.
Phrases are not a random collection of words; but rather they are rule-governed
constituents. Syntax investigates the internal structure of phrases and these
structures are represented with Phrase Structure Rules. Phrase structure rules
are intended to model mental representations of possible phrases in a language.
The phrase structure of a sentence is always represented as in the following:
22. S →NP VP
What this rule states is that every sentence in Turkish consists of a NP subject
and a VP predicate. In other words, we rewrite S as NP and VP, which are its
immediate constituents. Human beings can interpret and use many different
phrases or sentences. It is impossible for speakers to have a list of all these
sentences and phrases in their mental grammar. Human cognition is limited and
our memory can store only limited information. Thus, it is more plausible to
assume that human beings store a limited number of rules to produce infinite
number of phrases and sentences. Phrase structure grammar provides linguists
with a way of representing the limited number of rules which are used to make
grammatical phrases and sentences and which are part of the native speaker
competence.
One of the general rules that phrases manifest is head-directionality. The
direction of the head differs from one language to another. In Turkish, the head of
a phrase is always at final position. In other words, Turkish is a head final
language, while English is head-initial. Compare the following examples:
23. dün sat›n ald›¤›m kitap NP – Head kitap

the book that I bought yesterdray NP- Head book
24. kitap okumak VP- Head okumak

read the book VP- Head - read
25. makas ile PP-Head ile
with scissors PP - Head with
Note that the underlined heads of the NP, VP, and PP above are at the end of
the phrases in Turkish, whereas the heads are at initial position in their English
counterparts. This difference is called the head-parameter in syntactic theory.
(Remember that parameters are cross-linguistic variations of Universal Grammar.)
NOUN PHRASES (NPs)

Noun Phrases (NPs) mostly function as subjects and objects in sentences. The last
word of a NP is a noun in Turkish. A NP can consist of a single word, a noun or
a pronoun, or more than one word. The head of a NP is almost always inflected
for case, i.e. nominative, accusative, dative, ablative, genitive, and possessive. The
following are some examples of NPs:
26. Ünlü flark›c› deniz kenar›ndaki lokantada bal›k yedi.

28. Dün sat›n ald›¤›m kitap çok pahal›yd›.
Notice that all of these subjects have a head (central element) flark›c›, k›z,
kitap, respectively.
Some further examples of NPs are given below:
29. filler, okullar, ev, apartman, tahta, boya, elma, etc.

30. ‹stanbul, Mersin, Asl›, Necmi, etc.
31. k›rm›z› kitap, yeflil dolap, iki k›z, güzel oda, iyi insan, en baflar›l› sanatç›, etc.
32. gelen adam, yeni ald›¤›m kitap, çürümüfl elma, piflen ›spanak, yiyecek
yemek, etc.
33. demir kap›, tafl f›r›n, deri koltuk, etc.
34. ben, sen, o, biz, siz, onlar, bu, flu, o, etc.
When we observe the NPs above, we see that a NP may only consist of a
singular or plural common noun or proper noun, i.e. a head noun, as in (29) and
(30). NPs can be modified by adjective phrases, as in (31). NPs can consist of
Relative Clauses, as in (32). They can include attributive nouns, which modify the
head, as in (33). If there are two nouns in a NP, only one noun can function as the
head of a NP. For example, in deri koltuk, what is being talked about is koltuk
rather than deri, thus the head is koltuk.
What is common to all NPs in the examples is that they must consist of a noun
as their head. Pronouns can also stand for NPs and they are also considered to be
NPs, as in (34) above.
The following are also examples of NPs:
35. benim kitab›m, Ali’nin kalemi, onlar›n evleri, bir ev, iki kardefl, bütün yollar,
baz› kifliler, etc
The NPs in (35) consist of determiners. Determiners are function words

because they essentially have a grammatical function. Their function is to determine
the referential and quantificational properties of nouns. Quantificational

determiners are baz›, bir kaç, her, bütün, etc. Referential determiners are bu, flu,
o, bunlar, flunlar, benim, senin, onlar›n, etc. Turkish does not have a definite
article like English the, but it has an indefinite article bir, which is also a determiner.
The word bir has two different meanings: it may be an indefinite article or it
may show the number of the noun, i.e. a numeral. Consider these different
meanings of bir in the phrases below:
36. a. bir güzel genç k›z, iki güzel genç k›z, üç güzel genç k›z
b. güzel bir genç k›z, ?güzel iki genç k›z (The question mark ‘?’ shows that
the syntactic category is somewhat odd, even if it is not totally
ungrammatical.)
In (36a), bir is used to show the number, however, in (36b) it functions as a

determiner. The numeral precedes adjectives that modify the head noun, e.g. bir
güzel genç k›z. On the other hand, the article follows the adjective in NP: güzel bir
genç k›z. That is why the second phrase güzel iki genç k›z in (36b) seems odd.
Furthermore, a quantificational determiner and the indefinite article cannot
occur in the same NP, as illustrated below:
37. *benim her ak›ll› bir ö¤rencim
However, a quantificational determiner and the indefinite article or a referential

determiner can take place in the same NP, as shown in the following:
38. benim güzel bir çok kasetim

39. benim bütün arkadafllar›m
To sum up: A Noun Phrase in Turkish may consist of following types of

constituents:
• The head (obligatory by definition)
• One or more adjective phrases
• An attributive noun
• One or more relative clause(s)
• One or more determiner(s) (A referential determiner, A quantificational
determiner, otherwise A referential determiner + the indefinite article)
(See also Schroeder 1999: 32)
The Phrase structure rule that generates NPs in Turkish can be illustrated as:
40. NP → (referential Det.) (Relative Clause) (Quantificational Det.) (Adj)

(indefinite article) (Noun) Noun (An NP optionally consists of the words in
parentheses).
41. [Det Ali’nin] [RCdün y›katt›¤›m] [Adj P. güzel] [Headhal›s›]
What the phrase structure rule says is that: A NP in Turkish can have a referential
determiner, a relative clause, a Quantificational determiner, etc. All the units in
parentheses are optional. It is a convention in linguistics to represent all optional
units in parentheses in phrase structure rules.
Phrases can contain further phrases or clauses as can be seen in the rule in
(40). This is an example of recursion. Thus, phrases are recursive.
The order of these constituents is not rigidly fixed in Turkish NPs. Relative
clauses mostly precede adjectives, for example *güzel dün y›katt›¤›m hal›s› is not
a grammatical phrase in Turkish. However, if the relative clause is shorter, it may
follow the adjective. In this case, there is a pause after the adjective, as in the
examples: [NP [Adj.P güzel] [RC anlafl›l›r] [Det. bir] [N durum] ]; [NP [Adj.P sar› saçl›],
[RC köflede duran] [N çocuk] ] , etc.
The tree representation of the NP çok iyi bir konser salonu is illustrated below:
NP
Adj.P Ngr1
Adv Adj Det Ngr2
çok iyi bir

N N
konser salonu
Note that the head is salonu, because it is the central element as the whole
phrase refers to a concert hall. The head is a noun, thus the phrase is a NP. The
intermediate categories konser salonu and bir konser salonu do not represent the
highest projection of this particular NP. The reason is that the phrase also includes
the Adj.P çok iyi, which modifies its sister Ngr1. Since the intermediate categories
as such do not complete the phrasal projection, they are referred to as Ngr or
Noun group in the tree diagram. This means that the syntactic unit is not a lexical
category such as salon, and it is not yet the complete phrasal category. Henceforth,
we shall refer to these intermediate categories as Xgroup, X being a variable that
stands for heads such as N, P, V, Adj., and Adv.
In the tree diagram above, the Adv. çok modifies its sister iyi; and as has been
mentioned above, the Adj.P modifies its sister Ngr1 bir konser salonu. The
Determiner (Det) bir determines the property of its sister konser salonu. Finally,
konser completes the meaning of its sister salon; namely it is a complement of the
head noun.
This NP can be a constituent of a clause such as ‹yi bir konser salonu bulduk.
It cannot be separated from its smaller constituents through movement. Thus, * iyi
bir konser bulduk salonu is ungrammatical. As we see, iyi bir konser cannot be
separated from its head since it is not a complete phrasal category. However, in
another case, it can be a constituent on its own in a sentence, such as Dün gece
iyi bir konser izledik. This shows that a group of words might form a constituent
in a sentence, while it cannot be a constituent in another sentence. Therefore,
phrases are determined according to their function and position in a sentence.
It is your
Unit 3 - Sentence Structure andturn!
Phrase Structure It is your turn!
39
1 1
• Determine the heads of the following NPs: It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Gülü koklayan k›z 2 2
• Fizik kitab›
• Geçen hafta seyretti¤imiz film It is your turn! It is your turn!
Hint: Note that in these cases the heads determine what the whole NPs refer to, 3girl, book, 3
film, respectively.
POSTPOSITIONAL PHRASES 4 4
Word classes that express a relation between two entities, such as place, time,
location, etc. are known as adpositions. If the adposition appears before the
noun, it is a preposition, if it appears after the noun, it is a postposition. While
5 5
English has prepositions, Turkish has postpositions. The functions of some English
prepositions are fulfilled in Turkish by some case suffixes. However, there are also
independent words which are postpositions. Some Turkish postpositions such as
6
ile can become clitics (Namely, they can be attached to the noun, such as Nermin’le). 6
Postpositions have complements that complete them. For example, gibi must
be used with a NP such as bütün arkadafllar› gibi. It would be It isungrammatical
your turn! if it It is your turn!
is used alone as in: *[gibi] çal›fl›yor. Postpositions, like verbs, assign case 7 to their 7
complements. Some postpositions in Turkish and their meanings are given below:
8 8
Table 3.1
Postpositions that assign case to their complements:
Case the P Postposition Meaning Examples of Postpositional
9 9
assingns Phrases (PPs)
kadar Location (Destination)It is your turn!
[Okula kadar] kofltum. It is your turn!
Time (until) [Y›lbafl›na
10 kadar] izin alamam.
10
Comparison Ali de [Ahmet kadar] çal›flkand›r.
dek Time (until) Dün [sabaha dek] ders çal›flt›.
dair / iliflkin Concerning / about [Bu 11
kitaba dair] fazla bilgi 11
bulmad›m.
ra¤men karfl›n Concession [Yafl›na ra¤men] sa¤l›¤› çok iyi.
DATIVE karfl› Contrariness,opposition. [Ali’nin fikrine karfl›] görüfl belirtti.
Responsibility [Ö¤rencilerimize
12 karfl›] önemli
12
sorumluluklar›n›z var.
Fenerbahçe [yeni tak›ma karfl›]
13
oynayacak. 13
göre According to [Dekana göre] ö¤renciler baflar›l›.
Comparison [Ali’ye göre] Ayfle daha baflar›l›.
do¤ru Place: Direction Dün [parka do¤ru] yürüdüm.
Time [‹lkbahara do¤ru] do¤a canlan›r.
önce / evvel Before (time) [Saat 5’ten önce] ç›kmal›y›m.

Before (place) [Eskiflehir’den önce] çay molas›
verelim.
After (time) [Kahvalt›dan sonra] ifle gitti.
sonra After (place) [Eskiflehir’den sonra] Afyon’a
ulaflaca¤›z.
beri Since (time) [1980’den beri] Eskiflehir’de
oturuyoruz.
bu yana Since (time) [Yazdan bu yana] görüflemedik.
dolay› / ötürü Since (Reason) [Bundan dolay›] baflar›l›y›m.
ABLATIVE baflka excluding, other than [Senden baflka] arkadafl› yok.
gibi resemblance / manner Ahmet [ayn› babas› gibi] davran›yor
pretension Ayfle [her fleyi çok biliyormufl gibi] davran›r
Comitative / accompaniment Partiye sen de [benim ile] gelir misin?
ile Instrument Ayfle kap›y› [anahtar ile] açt›.
OTHER Means ‹stanbul’a [tren ile] gidece¤iz.
Purpose Adana’ya [Ahmet için] gitti.
için Benefactive (for the benefit) Annesi yeflil kaza¤› [Ayfle için] ördü
Reason Ö¤retmeni Ali’ye [derse geç kald›¤› için]
k›zd›.
hakk›nda On the subject of / concerning [Klasik müzik hakk›nda] bir konuflma yapt›.
taraf›ndan Agentive (the doer of an action) Milletvekilleri [halk taraf›ndan] seçilir.
In Table 3.1, in the last column, many examples of PPs in Turkish are given in
square brackets. As you see in these examples, PPs have mostly a NP and a P, and
postpositions always follow NPs in Turkish. (Remember that Turkish is head final.)
Thus, we can write the phrase structure rule for a Postpositional Phrase such as
yeni tak›ma karfl› as follows:
42. PP → NP P
This rule states that a PP consists of a NP and the head P. However, this phrase
structure rule cannot produce PPs as exemplified below:
The following is the tree diagram of the PP yeni tak›ma karfl›.
PP
NP P
karfl›
Adj. N
yeni tak›ma
As also seen in the phrase structure rule in (42), the immediate constituents are
the NP, which is a complement of the head and the head itself, i.e P. Within the
NP, the Adj. modifies the head noun, tak›m.
In a tree diagram, we represent ultimate constituents; however, in phrase
structure rules, such as in (42); we usually represent the immediate constituents.
The examples in (43) show that the rule in (42) will not be sufficient to generate
all possible PPs in Turkish.
43. [PP [ Adv. tam [ NP benim evime [P göre ]], [PP [ Adv. aynen [NP bu kitap [P gibi]],
etc.
In these examles, there are complement NPs benim evim, and bu kitap.
Furthermore, there are adverbs, like tam and aynen. These examples illustrate that
a PP can also have an adverb. Since (42) fails to generate a PP with an Adv, we
have to modify our phrase structure rule (42) to account for examples in (43), (44):
as in
44. PP→ (Αdv) NP P
The following tree diagrams show the structure of PPs in (43), and as has
already been stated, these phrases can be generaded by the phrase structure rule
in (44):
PP PP
Adv Pgr Adv Pgr
tam NP P aynen NP P
göre gibi
Det N Det N
benim evime bu kitap 1 1
It is your turn!
The PP phrase structure rule in (44) is more adequate compared to the one in It is your turn!
(42), because it can generate all of the PPs we have seen in this section. 2 2
• Identify the meanings of the following PPs: It is your turn! It is your turn!
• [‹nsanlara karfl›] [dilimize iliflkin] sorumluluk ve görevlerimiz vard›r. 3 3
ADJECTIVE PHRASES It is your turn! It is your turn!

Adjectives are used to modify nouns. In Turkish, it is difficult to draw a line
4 4
between adjectives and nouns. This is because adjectives take case and plural
endings as nouns do, such as k›z (noun) - k›zlar, genç (adj.) – gençler; k›za and
gence, etc. However, nouns cannot take superlative and comparative degrees as
gradable adjectives: *daha k›z and *en k›z; daha genç (comparative), 5 en genç 5
(superlative).
Various meanings of adjectives are illustrated below: It is your turn! It is your turn!
6 6

7 7

8 8
Table 3.2 MEANINGS OF ADJECTIVES

INTENSIFYING ADJECTIVES gerçek bir kahraman, hakiki bir hal›,
DIMENSION (SIZE ) uzun, k›sa, genifl, dar, büyük, küçük, etc.
SHAPE yuvarlak, kare, yamuk, yass›, , etc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTY güçlü, güzel, sa¤l›kl›, etc.
SPEED yavafl, h›zl›, etc.
AGE eski, yeni, yafll›, genç, etc.
COLOR Yeflil, sar›, k›rm›z›, mor, etc.
VALUE Iyi, kötü, de¤erli, etc.
DIFFICULTY kolay, zor, etc.
QUALIFICATION: kesin, do¤ru, mutlak, etc.
HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS merakl›, k›zg›n, üzgün, mutlu, huzursuz, karars›z,
emin, haz›r, ak›ll›, aptal, cimri, cömert, duygusal,
sakin, etc.
SIMILARITY Benzer, farkl›, etc.
NOUNS THAT FUNCTION ‹pek mendik, tahta kap›, tafta elbise, yün atk›, etc.
LIKE ADJECTIVES THAT
DENOTE MATERIAL
NATIONALITY or ORIGIN Amerikan arabas›, Frans›z yemekleri, ‹talyan
mobilyalar, etc.
Adjectives can appear at different positions in a sentence, as a modifier of a

noun (in that case they are inside NPs, as k›rm›z› kitap), or adjectives can be used
in predicates: Kitap k›rm›z›d›r. The former is said to be an attributive adjective,
the latter is a predicative adjective.
Adjective Phrases are constituents that have an adjective as a head at final
position, as in the following examples:
45. çok güzel

46. en kolay
47. yak›n
48. çok yüksek
As you see in the examples above, an Adjective Phrase can consist of an

adjective; it may also consist of a degree adverb that modifies the adjective, such
as çok, en, daha, etc.
Now, compare the following adjective phrases:
49. a. [gitmeye gönüllü]

b.*[gönüllü]
50. a. Ahmet [annesine çok düflkün].
b.*Ahmet [düflkün]
Why are the phrases in (49a) and (50a) are grammatical, while those in (49b)
and (50b) are not? The reason is that some adjectives require complement NPs. If
they lack their obligatory complements, they become ungrammatical. Otherwise,
the adjective has a different meaning than the intended meaning, i.e. annesine
düflkün means fond of his mother; while düflkün means poor, helpless. Other
examples of Adj.Ps with NP complements are as follows:
51. Ayfle [Adj.P [NP kocas›na] sad›k]

52. Zafer [Adj.P [NP fen derslerine] [Adv. çok] [Adj.yatk›n]]]
Some Adj.Ps require PP complements rather than NP complements:
53. [Adj.P [PP Ali’ye karfl›] anlay›fll›]]

54. [Adj.P [PP seninle] mutlu]]
When we consider our Adj.P examples given so far, we can conclude that Adj.
Ps in Turkish consist of an Adjective Head, they may consist of a complement NP
as in (50), (51), (52) or PP as in (53) and (54), and a modifying Adv. We have to
write a phrase structure rule for Adj.Ps in Turkish which is general enough to
produce all possible AdjPs in the language. Thus, we can write a phrase structure
rule of Adj.P, as follows:
55. Adj. P → (NP/PP) (Degree Adv.) Adj.
This phrase structure rule generates almost all Adj.Ps in Turkish. Remember
that the constituents in parentheses are optional, and the slash “/ “ shows that we
can use either a NP or a PP as a complement with some adjectives.
The following tree diagram represents the structure of the AdjP tenise çok
merakl›:
Figure 3.4
AdjP It is your turn! It is your turn!

1 1
NP Adj.gr
tenise 2 2
Adv. Adj
çok merakl› It is your turn! It is your turn!

3 3
Find the Adj.Ps in the following: Are they attributive or predicativeItAdj. Ps?
is your Why?
turn! It is your turn!
• Ali çok mutlu. 4 4
• Çok ak›ll› bir ö¤renci
• Aç›k sar› kitap It is your turn! It is your turn!
5 5
ADVERB PHRASES AND ADVERBIALS
Adverbs represent a particularly heterogeneous group in languages
It is your turn!
in terms of It is your turn!
both meaning and use, when compared to nouns, adjectives, or verbs. They have
6 6
different meanings and modify different syntactic categories. In addition to this,
adverbs, as well as other syntactic categories, can function as adverbials.
7 7

8 8
In Turkish, adjectives and adverbs can be homophonous: Compare: iyi ö¤renci

(iyi adjective); and Hasan iyi çal›fl›r (iyi adverb). There is also a morphologically
distinct class of adverbs, derived from adjectives or nouns by suffixes such as –CA,
as in iyice, çocukça, anlams›zca, h›zl›ca, etc. Adverbs can be derived through
reduplication of adjectives or nouns: h›zl› araba, (h›zl› Adjective); H›zl› h›zl› yürüdü
(h›zl› h›zl› adverb). Kap›y› kapatt›m. (kap› noun); kap› kap› dolaflt› (kap› kap›,
adverb), adjectives are also formed by reduplication of onomapoetic words, such as
fl›r›l fl›r›l and horul horul, in Dere fl›r›l fl›r›l ak›yordu, Ahmet horul horul uyuyor.
Syntactically, adverbs can be characterized with respect to their function and
scope. In the following Table, the syntactic functions of Adverb Phrases are given
in square brackets:
Table 3.3 SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERB PHRASES

Modifier of verbs [H›zl› h›zl›] kofltu
Modifier of adjectives [Çok] yorucu
Modifier of adverbs [ [Biraz daha] h›zl›] yürü!
Modifier of clauses [fiühesiz] sen hakl›s›n.
Modifier of nouns [Sadece] k›zlar, [yaln›zca] Ali
Modifier of postpositions [Tam] karfl›da, [en] üstte
Complement of verbs [Çok kötü] davrand›, [Çok iyi] giyinir.
As illustrated above, Adv.Ps may modify any part of a sentence. Some adverbs
modify a core clause (verb with its object(s) and subject). Some other adverbs
modify a part of the sentence, as the subject or an Adj.P, etc. When we observe
the examples of Adv.Ps in the square brackets in the Table above, we see that
Adv.Ps consist of adverbs as their head at final position and another adverb can
modify the head. Thus the phrase structure rule is as follows:
56. Adv.P. → (Adv.) Adv.

as in [ [Adv.p [Adv. daha] [Adv.h›zl›] ]
This rule states that a head adverb can optionally be modified by another
adverb in the Adv.P.
The Realization of Adverbials

We have stated that other syntactic categories along with adverbs can function as
adverbials. We should not confuse Adv.Ps with other phrases that can function as
adverbials. The phrases are syntactic categories, such as NPs, PPs, Adj.Ps, VPs.
They may have various syntactic functions such as subject, object, predicate,
complement, modifier, etc. Adverbials function as modifiers; but they do not form
a uniform syntactic category.
Adverbs constitute a set of word class; an Adverb Phrase is a phrase which has
an adverb as its head. On the other hand, adverbials include Adv.Ps as well as
other syntactic categories that are not adverbs or adverb phrases, but function like
adverbs. Adverbials are manifested as in the following syntactic categories: Adv.Ps,
NPs, PPs, and Adverbial Clauses. These are illustrated with the examples given in
Table 3.4:
THE REALIZATION OF ADVERBIALS Table 3.4

Type Example
Adverb Ali [h›zl›] çal›fl›r.
Phrases
Asl› bizi [çok s›k] ziyaret eder.
Noun Phrases Neriman [dün akflam] çal›flt›.
Huriye [gelecek ay] gelecek.
Postpositional Phrases Ayflecan [arkadafllar› için] fedakarl›k yapar.
Veli [ayn› babas› gibi] davran›yor.
Adverbial Clauses Bebek [annesi gelince] uyand›.
Songül [s›nav› kazanarak] üniversiteye girdi.
To sum up what we have said so far, adverbials are modifiers that include
syntactic categories such as Adv.Ps, NPs, e.g. (geçen hafta), PPs, (Ahmet’e göre),
and Adverbial clauses, (ben gelince). Thus, we should not confuse the phrasal
categories of NP, PP, Adv.P, and their functions. The syntactic projections of
phrases are different from their functions in sentences. Thus, NPs can function as
subjects, objects, and adverbials. PPs can function as complements (For example,
complements of Adj.Ps) or modifiers as adverbials.
Adverbials can be classified into the following broad groups according their
meanings:
• Adjuncts: Adjuncts are simply modifiers that are optional constituents of
phrases and sentences. They show time, place, manner, instrument, etc.
• Disjuncts: Disjuncts are adverbials that show point of view, wish, other
feelings, opinion, etc. of a speaker. Some examples are: Ne yaz›k ki, iyi ki,
maalesef, inflallah, etc. Alternatively, disjuncts can show modality, such as
possibility, certainty, probability, ability, etc. Some examples are: Mutlaka,
kesinlikle, belki, galiba, etc.
• Conjunctions: Conjunctions are adverbials which are used to link
sentences. Some examples are, ama, sonuçta, etc.
Adjunct, disjunct, and conjunction adverbials, their meanings, and examples

are given in Table 3.5:
Table 3.5
THE MEANING OF ADVERBIALS

Type Explanation Examples
Place adjunct Shows location, direction, Ali Eskiflehir’de oturuyor. (location)
distance, source, etc. Antalya’ya gidiyoruz. (direction)
Ahmet 5 kilometre yürüdü. (distance)
Ali dün oturdu¤umuz yerden kofltu. (source)
Time adjunct Shows definite or indefinite time, Ali hala çal›fl›yor. (duration)
duration or frequency, or whether an Ahmet ço¤unlukla yo¤urt yer. (frequency)
event is fulfilled before, after or during Canan dün filmi izledi. (definite time)
another event
Manner adjunct The way in which an action is performed, Ahmet Ali’yi kasten k›zd›rd›.
i.e. Deliberately, unknowingly, patiently, etc. Hulki ödevini sab›rla tamamlad›.
ADJUNCTS
Instrument Shows that there is an instrument Ahmet kap›y› anahtarla açt›.

adjunct
Means adjunct Shows a means or a vehicle through ‹zmir’e trenle gittik.
which a motion is performed.
Comparison Adjunct Shows comparison Ahmet, Ayfle’ye göre çal›flkan say›l›r
Agent adjunct Used only in passive sentences with Anayasa milletçe kabul edildi.
–CE morpheme or a PP headed with Selimiye Mimar Sinan taraf›ndan yap›ld›.
taraf›ndan.
Degree adjunct Oldukça ak›ll›.
Adds degree to a verb, adverb, or
adjective. Ali Füsun’u çok seviyor.
‹flini çok çabuk bitirdi.
Reason adjunct Shows reason Çok çal›flt›¤› için s›n›f›n› geçti.
Purpose adjunct Shows purpose Filmi izlemek için sinemaya gittik.
Condition adjunct Shows condition E¤er ya¤mur ya¤arsa pikni¤e gidemeyiz.
Focusing
It is your turn! adjunct Focuses It isattention
your turn! on some Özellikle Ali’yi ça¤›rmal›y›z.
1 constituent
1 Ahmet bile onu anlamad›.
Fact-evaluating disjunct Conveys the speaker’s point of view, Maalesef, Müdür Han›m toplant›ya gitti.
CONSUNCTIONS D‹SJUNCTS
feeling or opinion about a fact ‹yi ki do¤dun.

Modal disjunct Modifies or specifies the truth of what Belki Ali geri dönmüfltür.
2 2
is said. The sentence can be true or false. Aç›kças› bunu sana yak›flt›ramad›m.
Typical meanings of Connects the sentence to the Ama, fakat, ilaveten, ilk olarak, sonuçta,
conjuncts: contrast, preceding text, or functions as a yine de, etc.
3 enumeration, text3organizer
similarity,
addition, exemplification,
It is your turn!
cause-effect It is your turn!
4 4
It is your turn! A. Explain the

It issyntactic
your turn! category, type, and the function of the bracketed adverbials:
5 • Düflmanlar›n›z›
5 sevin çünkü kusurlar›n›z› [yaln›z] onlar [aç›kça] söyleyebilir.
(Benjamin Franklin)
• Frans›z psikiyatrist Lemoine, kad›nlar›n [erkeklere oranla] [[daha çok] a¤lad›klar›
için]] duygular›n› da [daha iyi] kontrol alt›nda tutmay› baflard›klar›na inan›yor. (23.
6 6
07.2003. Milliyet)
• Can [asl›nda] [üç y›ld›r] annesini görmemiflti.
7 7

8 8
VERB PHRASES
Verbs denote events, states, and actions. They can be distinguished from other
categories by some of their features: They agree with the subject of the sentence
in terms of number and person, and they are inflected for tense and aspect. Unlike
other word classes, they take the negation suffix –mE, as in the following:
57. Git- medi- ler

Verb- Negation past person / number agr. (3rd person plural)
Types of Verbs in Turkish

Verbs are divided into categories depending on whether they require an object or
not. Different types of verbs are illustrated in Table 3.6:
Verb Type Explanation Examples Table 3.6

Intransitive verbs Require no object (complement) uyumak, üflümek, yürümek, etc.
Transitive verbs Require direct objects yemek, içmek, ütülemek,
anlamak, bilmek, etc.
Ditransitive verbs Require both direct and dayamak, sormak, gizlemek,
indirect objects göndermek, yollamak, vermek,
yerlefltirmek, etc.
Verbs that require Require one indirect object Bakmak, hofllanmak, nefret
oblique objects or another complement etmek, etc.
Copular verbs Link the subject and the -ImEk, olmak, zero copula, etc.
(Linking verbs) predicate of a sentence Example: Ali geçen y›l ö¤renci idi.
Information about the type of a verb and its complement requirement are
included in its entry in a speaker’s lexicon, or mental dictionary. For example, the
lexicon for Turkish includes an entry for yemek, which shows that it is a verb, its
phonological representation, its meaning, and the fact that it requires an object.
Transitive and ditransitive verbs must have their objects at discourse initial
position. That is to say that objects are obligatory elements in VPs if the verb is
transitive or ditransitive.
Consider the following:
58. a. Ali elmalar› yedi. (discourse initial position)

b. # Ali yedi. (discourse initial position)
A speaker cannot start the conversation with a sentence like Ali yedi unless
there is previous mention about the entity that has been eaten, namely the object.
The sentence in (59c) below is not a good sentence, because the object is omitted
without previous mention.
59. a. Ali ne yapt›?

b. Ali elma yedi.
c. # Ali yedi.
On the other hand, in (60b), the object elmalar› can be omitted because it has
been previously mentioned.
60. a. Elmalar nerde?

b. Ali yedi.
Thus, we know that transitive verbs require their objects in Turkish when the
object has not been introduced previously.
Similarly, ditransitive verbs require both direct and indirect objects:
61. Ali bafl›n› duvara dayad›.

62. Ahmet mektubu kardefline verdi.
The following are all VPs, with their complements (objects):
63. Kitab› okudu.

64. Mektubu yazd›.
65. Odaya konuklar› ald›.
66. Candan’dan çok hofllan›r.
67. Saç›n› sar› boyad›.
These VPs have the following structures in clauses:
S S S
NP VP NP VP NP VP
pro pro pro

NP V NP Vgr NP Vgr
kitab› okudu odaya NP Candan’dan

V AdvP V
konuklar› ald› çok hofllan›r
The VPs in (63)-(67) can also be considered to be clauses with null subjects,
when their subjects are taken into consideration. The clauses all have null subjects,
which are represented by pro. Remember that when we take out the subject, the
rest of the clause, i.e. the predicate, is a VP. The diagrams above illustrate that VPs
include their complements or modifiers, such as çok .
Remember that the constituent that is required by the head is its complement.
Objects are complements of verbs. Complements are obligatory categories unlike
modifiers, which are optional. The sentence would be incomplete without the
complement of the verb. Thus, (68) is ungrammatical without the complement,
while (69) is grammatical with the complement:
68. *Ak›n ar›yor.

69. Ak›n anahtar›n› ar›yor.
Intransitive verbs, on the other hand, must not have any complements. They
should be used without objects. They will be ungrammatical if they are used with
objects, as shown in the examples below:
70. a. Nermin yüzüyor.

b. *Nermin havuzu yüzüyor.
71. a. Kardeflim kofltu.
b. *Kardeflim bahçeyi kofltu.
Why Are Object Complements Inside The VP?

We have seen that object NPs are required by the lexical entry of verbs. Since this
requirement comes from the lexicon, complements are within the VP. They are in
complement-head relationship.
A second piece of evidence comes from the constituency tests we discussed in
the previous unit. Remember that only constituents can be substituted, moved,
questioned, and deleted. If objects are parts of VPs, they may be moved, substituted
and questioned together with the head verb. The following examples illustrate that
this is indeed the case.
72. Ali mant› yiyecek. Ahmet de öyle. / Ahmet de.
The tree diagram representation of the sentence in (72) shows that the VP node
can be substituted with öyle or it can be deleted.
NP VP
Ali
NP V
mant› yiyecek
The VP can also be questioned, substituted with ne yapacak:
73. Ahmet ne yapacak? Mant› yiyecek.
We have seen that verbs that require objects form VPs with their complements.
Intransitive verbs can also constitute the VP on their own, such as y›kand› and
uyudu.
Thus, VPs obligatorily consist of a verb, the head, and they may include their
complements.
What Else is in VPs?

When verbs are modified by adverbials, they are also inside the VP, as seen in the
following examples:
74. h›zl› gidiyor.

75. usluca yeme¤ini yiyor.
76. güzelce dans etti.
So, we can write the following phrase structure rule for VPs in Turkish.
77. VP → (Adv.P) (NP) (NP) V

This rule shows that a VP can have one or two NPs, depending on whether it
is transitive or ditransitive. Otherwise, in the case of intransitive verbs, it will have
no NP. It might optionally consist of a modifying Adv.P.
Copular Verbs
The term copula is defined as a small class of verbs mostly with little semantic
content that link the subject to its predicative NP, Adj.P, or PP. Sometimes, these
verbs are also referred to as linking verbs. A copula can denote the current or
resulting state. A copula is neither transitive nor intransitive. It constitutes a different
category. Some copular verbs in English are be, become, seem, etc. In Turkish,
copular verbs are ‹mek, olmak, zero copula, etc. A copula cannot stand on its own,
as seen in the example below:
78. *Bütün çiçekler ___________dir.
It must be preceded by a phrasal category as in the following:
79. Bütün çiçekler [güzeldir]. Adj.P within the VP
In Turkish, -ImEk is inflected for person and number, as in ak›ll›-y›m, ak›ll›-s›n,

ak›ll›-y›z-, ak›ll›-s›n›z, ak›ll›-lar. Other forms of -Imek are manifested in forms,
such as idi, imifl. In addition, Turkish has zero copula. In this case, the verb is not
pronounced, but it is realized in the predicate, as in Ali çal›flkan.
The following Turkish examples are sentences with copular verbs:
80. Nesrin [bir Yaflar Kemal hayran›d›r]. NP within the VP

81. Aflk›n gözü [kördür]. Adj.P within the VP
82. Kilolar›mla [bar›fl›¤›m] ben böyle [mutluyum]! Adj. P within the VP
83. Her fley [senin içinmifl] PP within the VP
84. Bu sefer s›nav sorular› [çok basitmifl]. Adj. P within the VP
85. Suudi Arabistan'da bir kad›n kocas›na kahve yapmazsa bu [boflanma
nedenidir]. NP within the VP
86. Her insan›n dilinin izi de parmak izi gibi [farkl›d›r]. Adj. P within the VP
87. Evlili¤in süresi, [evlilik törenine harcanan parayla ters orant›l›d›r]. Adj.P
within the VP.
88. Ali [çok mutlu görünüyor]. Adj.P within the VP
Further examples are given below:
89. Kopenhag zirvesi, Türkiye'nin AB üyeli¤i için dönüm noktas› idi. -(Imek)
90. Köyce¤iz'de hava çok güzel... -(Zero copula)
91. Çarfl›da köftecinin piyaz›yla c›zb›z köfteleri de harika.. -(Zero copula)
92. Lüfer ve palamut bal›klar bu mevsimde lezzetsiz olurmufl. (Olmak)
The following illustrate the tree diagram analyses of some of the examples with
copular verbs. A copular verb is represented by Vcop in the diagrams.
S S S
NP VP NP VP NP VP
Nesrin
NP Vcop N N AdjP Vcop N N PP Vcop
aflk›n gözlü kör dür her fley NP P mifl

d›r
Det Ngr
senin için
bir
NP N
Yaflar Kemal hayran›
S S
NP VP NP VP
Ali
AdjP Vcop N N AdjP Vcop
görünüyor Köyceyiz’de hava 0

Adv Adj Adv Adj
çok mutlu çok güzel
There are also clauses that are at predicate position with a copular VP, as in the
following examples:
93. Evlilik [tek bafl›nayken, asla yaflamad›¤›n sorunlara iki kiflinin beraberce
çözüm bulmas›d›r].
94. Aflk [hayal gücünün akl› yenmesidir].
95. Hayattaki en yüce mutluluk, [sevildi¤imize inanmakt›r].
Notice that the NPs, Adj.Ps, PPs, and clauses in the examples above are all
subject complements. Here the copula verbs do not transfer an action to a direct
object like transitive verbs do. Unlike a direct object, the predicative phrase or
clause refers to the same entity as the subject NP. In bütün çiçekler güzeldir, güzel
modifies the subject çiçekler. Likewise, in Nesrin bir Yaflar Kemal hayran›d›r, the
predicative NP and Nesrin are used to refer to the same person.
The negative morpheme -mE can be added to any verb stem when the verb or
the VP is negated, as in: Ali gel-me-di, Serap dün hiç çal›fl-ma-d›, Veli ö¤retmen ol-
ma-d›. On the other hand, if the verb in the clause is a zero copula or a copular
verb such as -ImEk or -DIr, the negative free morpheme de¤il is used, as seen in
(96)-(98). Note that the copula is used after de¤il, as in example (98):
96. Ayfle Konya’l› de¤il.

97. Bir uçak fabrikas› kurmak hiç kolay de¤il.
98. Ben Tarkan’a hayran de¤ilim.
Copular verbs in (79)-(98) above denote states. They show that the entity that
is referred to by the subject has a stative property that does not change through
time. There are also change-of state copula verbs as in the following examples:
99. Ahmet doktor oldu.

100. Hamdiye hasta oldu.
101. Nevra yorgun düfltü.
In these cases, the states of the subjects are not the same at the beginning and
at the end. There is a change involved in each case. For example, Ahmet was not
a doctor, Hamdiye was not sick, and Nevra was not tired at the beginning; but
each of their situation has changed.
Zeno copula and -ImEk or -DIr can also be used with existential var and yok,
as in the examples below:
102.Dolapta iki kilo süt var./varm›fl/vard›/vard›r.
1 1
103.Hay›r, bu yeni moda eteklerden yok./yokmufl/yoktu/yoktur.
104.Bugün ‹stanbul'da Rumeli yakas›nda yaflay›p da karfl›ya, Anadolu yakas›na
geçmemifl nice insan var./varm›fl/vard›/vard›r.
2 2
To sum up, we have seen that VPs are headed by various kinds of verbs:
It is your turn! • Transitive
It is your turn!
3 • Intransitive
3
• Ditransitive
• Copula
4 In the4case of transitive and ditransitive verbs, the VP must consist of its object
complement(s). Copular verbs must have their predicative complements, which
are manifested as turn!
NPs, Adj. Ps. PPs, or clauses. VPs optionally consist of adverbials
5 5 NPs, PPs, and Adv.Ps can function as modifiers in VPs.
as modifiers:
It is your turn! Read the following text. Identify the clauses with copular and non-copular verbs:
It is your turn!
6 By Emre Aköz
6
Sabah
It is your turn!
21 April 2003 It is your turn!
• ‹slam bilginleri uzun süre kahvenin (flarap gibi) haram bir madde olup olmad›¤›n›
7 7
tart›flm›flt›r.
• Tabii mesele sadece kahvenin sarhofl yap›p yapmad›¤› de¤ildi.
• ‹nsanlar›n kahvehanelerde bir araya gelmesi devleti (örne¤in Osmanl›'y›) tedirgin
8 8
ediyordu.
• O günler çoktan geride kald›.
It is your turn! • Bugün bence It is your turn! bir konuda tedirgin olmal›y›z
baflka
9 9
• Baz› kafelerde Türk kahvesi yok!
• Bat›l› 'kahve' zincirlerinin Türkiye'ye gelmesine elbette karfl› de¤iliz.
It is your turn! • Ama kendi It is kültürümüzü
your turn! nas›l bu kadar kolayca gözden ç›kar›yoruz;
10 • iflte bunu
10 kabullenmek mümkün de¤il.

11 11

5 5
It is your
Unit 3 - Sentence Structure andturn!
Phrase Structure It is your turn!
53
6 6
1 1
I. Identify the copula verbs in at least FIVE of the following sentences.

It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
II. Identify the subject complement predicates and their types in at least FIVE 7 of the 7
2 2
following sentences. Why are they subject complements?
III. Find a predicative PP. It is your turn! It is your turn!
IV. Find a change of state copula verb. 8 8
1. Penguen yüzebilen fakat uçamayan tek kufltur. 3 3
2. Mavi balinanin a¤›rl›¤› 22 ayda 26 tona kadar ulafl›r. It is your turn! It is your turn!
3. En h›zl› büyüyen hayvan mavi balinad›r. It is your turn! 1 1 It is your turn!
9 9
4. En h›zl› kara hayvan› çitad›r. H›z› saatte 95 km'ye ulaflabilir. 4 4
5. “Okuyan toplum” haline gelemeden, televizyonla birdenbire “seyirci
It is your turn! toplum” It is your turn!
oluverdik! (Taha Akyol, Milliyet. 01. April 2003) It is your turn! It is your turn!
It is your turn! 2 2 It is your turn!
6. En h›zl› bal›k yelken bal›¤›d›r. H›z› saatte 109 km'ye ulaflabilir. 10 10
5 5
7. Kar›ncalar›n koku alma kabiliyeti en az köpekler kadar geliflmifltir.
8. Yunuslar›n beyni insanlarinkinden büyüktür. It is your turn! It is your turn!
9. 600 tane bitki cinsi etyiyendir. 11 11
6 6
10. Beynin %85'i sudur.
11. Burada her fley eskisi gibi. It is your turn! It is your turn!
12. Caz kulüplerinin yaflamas› zordur. ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
4 4 ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
12
7 12
7
13. Buras› art›k Manhattan’ dakiler gibi entelektüel kafe oldu.
Read the following text: ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn! 5 5 ItIt isis your
your turn!
turn!
I. Identify the bracketed syntactic categories as NP, VP, Adj.P, Adv.P, PP. 13
8 13
8
II. Identify the syntactic function of each category. It is your turn! It is your turn!
Fil avc›s› Can Dündar (10.7. 2003. Milliyet) It is your turn! 6 6 It is your turn!
• [Filler] [nas›l] avlan›rm›fl biliyor musunuz: 9 9
• Yola [bir çukur] kaz›l›rm›fl. Fil [bu tuza¤a] düflünce, avc›lar [siyah elbiseler içinde],
yüzleri kapal› olarak gelir, ç›rp›nan hayvan› k›rbaçlar, [uzun süre] aç b›rak›rlarm›fl.
• [Günler sonra] [ayn› avc›lar], [bu kez] beyaz elbiseler içinde, [filin 7en sevdi¤i 7 It is your turn!
It is your turn!
yiyeceklerle] gelir, hayvan› çukurdan ç›kar›p [karn›n› doyurur], hortumunu 10okflarm›fl. 10

It is your turn!
• Fil, bu “iyi insanlar”›n pefline tak›l›r ve [ölünceye kadar] onlar›n verdi¤i ifllerde It is your turn!
çal›fl›rm›fl. It is your turn! 8 8 It is your turn!
11 11
Try to draw the tree diagrams of the following sentences: It is your turn! It is your turn!
I. Her yer eskisi gibi. It is your turn! 9 9 It is your turn!
II. Kültürümüzü kolayca gelifltirebiliriz.
12 12
III. En h›zl› kara hayvan› çitad›r. It is your turn! It is your turn!
13 13
11 11

12 12

13 13
Summary
In this unit we have seen that a clause is defined as a

syntactic unit that has a subject and a predicate.
Subjects are usually NPs, which have a head noun. We

shall see in the next unit that subjects can also be Noun
Clauses. A subject can be the doer of the action, as in
Ali sinemaya gitti. Here, Ali did the action of going to
the movies. A subject can experience a psychological
state, as in Zeynep sevindi, Zeynep is experiencing a
feeling of happiness. Otherwise, a subject undergoes
the effect of an event, as in fierife hastaland›. fierife
undergoes the state of being sick. In short, subjects are
animate or inanimate entities that we talk about in the
predicate.
A predicate is the part of the clause that remains after

the subject is taken out. Predicates are VPs that express
the action performed by the subject, provide the
description of the subject, show what happened to the
subject, or express the psychological state of the subject.
The phrase structure for a simple clause as follows:

S → NP VP This means that each clause, or sentence
(S), consists of a NP subject and a VP predicate.
We have also discussed phrases. A phrase is a syntactic

unit which has a head as its central element. The head
determines the category of the phrase. For example, if
the head is a noun, we have a NP, if the head is a P, we
have a PP, if the head is an adjective, we have an Adj.P,
etc.
Along with the head, phrases may have complements
and modifiers. Complements are obligatory elements.
That means that if the head requires a complement, the
phrase will be ungrammatical without the complement.
Complements complete the meaning of the head. We
have seen complements of postpositions and verbs. For
example, göre is a postposition that must have a NP
complement. Thus, we should use the NP within the
PP as in [pp [NP bu s›n›ftaki ö¤rencilere] [P göre]].
Complements of verbs are direct and indirect objects.
Likewise, some verbs require Adv.Ps as their
complements. Modifiers, also known as adjuncts, are
elements that are used to modify heads. For example,
adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify adjectives,
other adverbs, verbs, or sentences. Heads are always at
phrase final position in Turkish phrases.
Self-test
1. Which one of the following is the correct 7. Which one of the following clauses includes a manner
representation of the following sentence? adjunct?
Aysun kitab› dün bitirdi. a. ‹yi ki do¤ruyu söyledi.
a. [NP Aysun] [VP kitab› dün bitirdi] b. Bodrum’da her yaz gece boyunca dans ederiz.
b. [NP Aysun kitab›] [VP dün bitirdi] c. H›rs›z polis taraf›ndan tutukland›.
c. [NP Aysun] [NP kitab›] [VP dün bitirdi] d. Nesrin en çok kaday›f sever.
d. [NP Aysun kitab› dün bitirdi] e. Gönül arkadafl›yla samimi bir flekilde sohbet etti.
e. [NP Aysun] [NP kitab›] [dün] [VP bitirdi]
8. Why is the following sentence ungrammatical?
2. Which one the following is a NP? *Can havay› üflüyor.
a. Uçak ile a. An intransitive verb is used with an object
b. Ahmet taraf›ndan complement.
c. Sinemaya gittiler b. A ditransitive verb is used without the required
d. mert object.
e. okulun karfl›s›ndaki postane c. A copular verb is used in the wrong place.
d. No modifier is used in the sentence.
3. Which one the following Phrase structure rules can e. None of the above
produce the following phrase?
bu ekonomik yap›ya göre 9. What is the function of yaln›zca in the following
a. NP →(Dem.) (Adj.)N sentence?
b. PP → NP P Bu problemi yaln›zca çal›flkan ö¤renciler çözebilir.
c. VP → (NP) (Adj.) V a. It is the complement of the verb.
d. Adj. P → (Adv.) Adj. b. It modifies the VP.
e. None of the above c. It modifies the subject NP.
d. It modifies the object NP.
4. How would you define the following phrase?
e. It modifies the whole sentence.
saat alt›ya kadar
a. a NP adverbial
10. What does the deleted constituent in the following
b. an Adv. P
exchange show?
c. an Adj.P
Meral: Bu kitab› tam iki kez okudum.
d. a PP adverbial
Ayhan: Ben de ______________.
e. a complement NP
a. The VP consists of the object NP and the
adverbial that modifies the verb.
5. Which one the following clauses does NOT include
b. The VP consists of the object NP but not the
a copular verb?
adverb that modifies the verb.
a. Bu günlerde havalar çok güzel
c. The VP consists of both the subject NP and the
b. Dolapta su kalmam›fl.
object NP.
c. Bahçede gül var.
d. The VP only consists of the subject NP.
d. Ali dün nezle oldu.
e. The VP only consists of an Adv.P.
e. Ahmet çok sakin idi.
6. Which one the following clauses is an example of

pro-drop?
a. Delikanl› genç k›za evlilik teklif etti.
b. Ahmet Nursun’un sözlerini hayretle tekrarlad›.
c. Sen bu s›nav› baflaracaks›n.
d. Bir daha asla ya¤murda pikni¤e gitmeyecekler.
e. O dolap bu odaya tafl›nmal›.
Turkish Alive
Read the following text O s›rada erkek timsah da diflisinin karfl›s›ndaki sularda
07.01.2002 Sabah Gazetesi nöbet tutmakta, sa¤› solu kolaçan etmektedir.
“ Bilinmeyen aflk dünyalar›

Çetin Altan
Üç ay›n bitiminde difli, kumlar› eflip yumurtalar› ç›kar›r
ve yavrular›n kabuklar›n› k›rmas›n› kolaylaflt›rmak için;
o korkunç ve güçlü diflleriyle, sanki bir kurabiye
1) Timsahlar, çeneleriyle kuyruklar› ola¤anüstü güçlü; tutuyormufl gibi, yumurtalar› tek tek çatlat›verir.
çok kal›n, pütürlü bir kabukla z›rhlanm›fl; bir ton Minik timsahlar k›v›l k›v›l ç›karlar yumurtalardan. Anne
a¤›rl›¤›nda korkunç canavarlard›r. timsah, kocaman a¤z›n› alabildi¤ine açarak afla¤› yukar›
2) Ve bu testere diflli, ac›mas›z ve çirkin canavarlar›n say›lar› yirmiyi bulan yavru timsahlar›n hepsini a¤z›n›n
aflk yaflamlar›, akl›n almayaca¤› kadar güzel bir içine al›r ve aç›k çenesiyle sulara girerek yavrular›n›
fliirdir. sulara b›rak›r.
3) Bir kez timsahlar monogamd›rlar. Tüm timsahlar da sulara dalm›fllar, yeni do¤an yavrulara
4) Erkek diflisini seçtikten sonra ikisi de birbirinden “hoflgeldiniz” demek için yar› bellerine kadar
ölünceye dek, yani yüz y›l› aflk›n bir süre asla do¤rularak, omuz omuza yavrular›n karfl›s›na
ayr›lmazlar. dizilmifllerdir.
5) Genç bir timsah, baflka timsahlarla birlikte ‹nsan›n uzaktan seyrederken dahi içinde tiksinti ve
uyuklamakta olan genç bir bayan timsah› gözüne ürperme duydu¤u, sönük ve k›p›rt›s›z bak›fll› canavar
kestirdi¤i zaman; karfl›s›na kadar yüzerek, sular› timsahlar›n, kendi öz yaflamlar›ndaki dünyalar›; bu
köpürtmeye, delikanl›l›¤›n› kan›tlayacak yi¤itlik kadar renkli, duygulu ve sevecendir. Hatta
gösterileri yapmaya bafllar. insanlar›nkinden bile daha sevecendir.
6) Bayan timsah›n çevresindeki timsahlara posta Timsahlar›n yaflam›n› merak etmek o kadar önemli
koymaya kalkarak, hepsini tek tek oradan midir?
uzaklaflt›r›r. Önemlidir.
7) Sonra yine sulara dal›p kuyru¤uyla köpürtür de
köpürtür sular›.
8) Derken bu kadar afiye ve yi¤itli¤e dayanamayan
Answer the following questions:
I. Find the subject and object NPs in the numbered
”
bayan timsah da, uyuklad›¤› k›y›dan süzülüverir clauses.
sular›n içine... II. Check out if the NP phrase structure we wrote in
9) Ve iki genç timsah çevrelerinde halkalanm›fl olan this unit generates the NPs you found.
öteki timsahlar›n ortas›nda, harika bir dü¤ün dans› III. Find out VPs, PPs, Adv.Ps, and Adj. Ps in the
yapmaya koyulurlar. numbered clauses.
10) Sonunda difli timsah gelir,
11) erkek timsah›n gö¤süne dayar bafl›n›
11) ve bir süre öyle durur.
12) Efl eflini seçmifl, dü¤ün töreni tamamlanm›flt›r.
Difli timsah hamile kald›ktan sonra, yumurtalar›n› günefl
gören kuytu bir k›y›daki kumsala yumurtlar. Ve
yumurtalar›n belirli bir s›cakl›kta kal›p canlanmas› için
de, hepsini usulca kuma gömer. Üç ay süreyle, hiçbir
fley yiyip içmeden, gece gündüz bekler yumurtalar›n
bafl›n›...
References Key to “It is your turn!”

Deny, Jean (1941) Türk Dili Grameri. Maarif Matbaas›, It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1
‹stanbul.
Kornfilt, Jaklin (1987) Turkish. Routledge, London and The immediate 2 constituents
2 of the sentences in (I) and
New York. (II) can
It is your turn!
be represented
It is your turn!
with tree diagrams (When we
Lewis, Geoffrey. (1967) Turkish Grammar. The want to3 use a short-cut 3 for the branches in a tree diagram
we
It is youruse
turn! triangles asIt isseen
your turn! in the tree representation) or
Clarendon Press, Oxford. 4 4
square bracktes:
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Ali5 kitab›n› bitirdi 5
and Jan Svartvik. (1972) A Grammar of
S
Contemporary English. Longman, London. 6 6
It is your turn!
NP
It is your turn!
VP
7 7

8 8
It is your turn! Ali

It is your turn! kitab›n› bitirdi
9 9
The following representation is the equivalent of the
tree diagram:
It is your turn!
10 10
It is your turn!
[NP Ali] [VP kitab›n› bitirdi]

Seval okula 11 gidiyor.
11
[NP
It is yourSeval]
turn! [VP okula gidiyor]
It is your turn!
12 12
Remember
It is your turn!
13
that a sentence
13
It is your turn!
(clause) always consists of a
subject NP and a predicate VP, as illustrated by the
following phrase structure rule:
SIt is→ NP1 VP
your turn!
1
It is your turn!

2 2
Remember
It is your turn! that theIt ishead
your turn! of a NP is always a noun that
3 3
determines the central meaning of the phrase. In
Turkish, 4 the head4 is always at final position. Thus, in
the following NPs: It is your turn!

It is your turn!
• Gülü 5
koklayan5
k›z
•It is your turn!
Fizik kitab› It is your turn!
6 6
• Geçen hafta seyretti¤imiz film
1 1
K›z, kitab›, and film
It is your turn! are the heads of the phrases,
It is your turn!
respectively. 2 2
3 3
The meanings of 10the
It is your turn!10
following PPs are asked in this
It is your turn!
4 4
question:
[PP ‹nsanlara 5 karfl›]
5 [PP dilimize iliflkin] sorumluluk ve
görevlerimiz
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12
vard›r.
12
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6

The meanings
It is your turn!
13
7
of 13postpositions
7
It is your turn!
in Turkish are given in
Table 11:1. We see that karfl› has a meaning of
responsibility; 8 and 8 iliflkin means related to or
concerning.
9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

1 1

2 2

1 1 3 3

2 2 4 4
58
It is your turn!
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn!
3 3 5 5

4 4 6 6
The Adj.Ps. in the following

It is your turn! It is your turn! are given in brackets: Copular
It is your turn! verbs are given
It is your turn!below:
5 5 7 7
• Ali [Adj.P çok mutlu] • Kahvenin haram [olup olmad›¤›]
PREDICATIVE
6 6 • Kahvenin 8 sarhofl
8 yap›p yapmad›¤› [de¤ildi]. -DI
•It is your [turn!
Adj.P çok ak›ll›] bir ö¤renci
It is your turn!
•It is yourBaflka
turn! 1
bir konuda
1 It is your tedirgin
turn!
[olmal›y›z]
ATTRIBUTIVE
7 7
•It is yourBaz›
turn!
9
kafelerde9 türk kahvesi [yok]. ZERO COP
It is your turn!
turn! 2 2 It is your turn!

•It is your [turn!
Adj.P aç›k sar›]It iskitap
your turn! •It is yourElbette karfl› [de¤iliz]. -ImEk
18 18 10 10
ATTRIBUTIVE •It is yourBunu
turn!
kabullenmek kolay
It is your turn!
[de¤il]. ZERO COP
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! 3 3 It is your turn!
Remember 29 that predicative
29 Adj.Ps are in the predicate Non-coupular 11 verbs
11 are in the following:
and they are linkedIt isto
It is your turn! the subject through predication.
your turn! •It is your‹slam
turn!
4 bilginleri....
4 [tart›flm›flt›r].
It is your turn!
On the103other hand,103 an attibutive adjective phrase comes •It is yourSarhofl

turn!
12
[yap›p 12yapmad›¤›]
It is your turn!
5 5
before
It is your turn!
114
the noun it114 modifies.
It is your turn!
•It is yourKendi
turn! kültürümüzü It is your turn!nas›l bu kadar kolay [gözden
13 13
ç›kar›yoruz].
It is your turn!
6 6
It is your turn!
ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
5
12 5
12
The
ItIt is
is your syntactic category,
your turn!
turn! ItIt is
is your turn!type, and the function of the
your turn!
7 7
6
13 6
13
bracketed adverbials in the following sentences are The answers of theIt questions
It is your turn! is your turn! are given below:
It is your turn! It is your turn! 8 8
given in
7
the Table7 below: I. Copular verbs in examples from (1) -(13):
•It is your Düflmanlar›n›z›
turn!
sevin çünkü kusurlar›n›z› [yaln›z]
It is your turn!
• Kufltur. 9 -Dir (in
9 1)
onlar 8 [aç›kça]8söyleyebilir. •It is yourbalina-d›r

turn!
-Dir It(in 3)
is your turn!
•It is your Frans›z

turn! psikiyatrist
It is your turn! • oluverdik.
Lemoine, kad›nlar›n [erkeklere 10
Olmak
10
(in 5)
9 9
oranla] [[daha çok] a¤lad›klar› için]] duygular›n› •It is yourbüyüktür.
turn! -Dir Itin is your(8)
turn!

[daha 10 iyi] kontrol
10 alt›nda tuttuklar›na inan›yor. • etyiyendir. -Dir in (9)
•It is your Can
turn!
[asl›nda] [üç y›ld›r]
It is your turn!
annesini görmemiflti. • sudur 12 -Dir in 12(10)
11 11
•It is yourgibi-
turn!
zero copula in (11)
It is your turn!
The
It is your turn! SyntacticIt is your turn! Type Function • zordur -Dir in (12)
13 13
12 12
adverbial category • oldu Olmak (in 13)
Yaln›z13 Adv. P13 Focusing adjunct Modifies the NP onlar II. Subject complements in examples (1) - (13) are
aç›kca Adv. P Manner adjunct Modifies the verb illustrated below. The NPs are subjects of the
söyleyebilir sentences and the VPs complete the subjects.
erkeklere PP Comparison Modifies the VP daha • [NP Penguen] [VP yüzebilen ama uçamayan tek
oranla adjunct çok a¤lad›klar›.... kufltur] kufl and penguen are identical in example
daha çok Adv. P Comparison Modifies the verb (1)
a¤lad›klar›.... • [NP En h›zl› büyüyen hayvan] [VP mavi balinad›r].
a¤lad›klar› PP Reason adjunct Shows reason Again mavi balina is the subject complement in
için (3).
daha iyi Adv. P Manner adjunct Modifies the verb • [NP pro] [VP ...seyirci toplum oluverdik] In example
kontrol alt›nda (5), the complement of pro subject NP is the VP
tuttuklar› which consists of the copula olmak.
asl›nda Adv. P Modal disjunct Shows a judgment • [NP Yunuslar›n beyni] [VP insanlar›nkinden
about the reality of büyüktür] Example (8).
the VP • [NP 600 tane bitki cinsi] [VP etyiyendir] Example (9).
üç y›ld›r NP Time adjunct Shows time and Likewise, all other examples in (10), (11), (12), and
(indefinite time) modifies the VP (13) can be analyzed like the sentences given above,
annesini görmemiflti All the VPs in the examples are subject complements.
These VPs consist of predicative NPs, Adj.Ps, or PPs
that have the same referent as the subject or modify the
subject. For example, in (1) we see that kufl and penguen
refer to the same group of birds.
4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7
Unit 3 - Sentence Structure and Phrase Structure
59
8 8
II.
It is your A
turn!predicative PP isturn!given in example (11):
It is your It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1 9 9
• [NP herfley] [VP [PP eskisi gibi] zero copula]]
The predicative 2 [PP
2 eskisi gibi] is inside the VP, which I.It is your turn! 10 10
It is your turn!
consists
It is your turn!
of a zero copula
S
It is your turn!
3 3
IV. A change of state copula verb olmak is given in 11 11
example (13):
4 4
• [NP buras›] [VP [Adv.P art›k] [PP Manhattan’dakiler
12
NP 12 VP
gibi] 5 [
NP kafe] 5oldu]
It is your turn!
13 13
It is your turn!
In this
It is your turn! case we observeIt is your turn! that the situation has changed
Det PP Vcop
6 6
N
and the mentioned place modified its shape. It turned
into a cafe
It is your turn!
like the7 Itones
is your turn!
in Manhattan. her yer NP P 0
7

8 8 eskisi gibi
The syntactic categories
It is your turn! It is your turn! and their functions in the text
9 9
are given below: II.
10 10 S
Example Syntactic Function
11 category
11
[filler]
It is your turn! NP It is your Subject
turn! of the sentence NP VP
12 12
[nas›l] Adv.P Manner adjunct that modifies the verb
It is your turn! It is your turn! pro
13 13 avlanmak
NP Vgr
[bir çukur] NP Subject of the sentence
[bu tuza¤a] NP Oblique complement of the verb kültürümüzü
düflmek
[siyah beyaz PP Manner adjunct that modifies the verb AdvP V
elbiseler gelmek
kolayca gelifltirebiliriz
içinde]
[uzun süre] NP Time adjunct that modifies the verb aç
b›rakmak III.
[günler PP Time adjunct that modifies the verb
S
sonra] gelmek
[ayn› avc›lar] NP Subject of the sentence
[bu kez] NP Time adjunct that modifies the zero VP
NP
copula
beyaz elbiseler içinde (olmak)
[filin en PP Manner adjunct that modifies the verb NP Vcop
AdjP Ngr
sevdi¤i gelmek
çita d›r
yiyeceklerle]
[karn›n› VP Predicate Adv Adj N N
doyurur]
[ölünceye PP Time adjunct that modifies the verb en h›zl› kara hayvan›
kadar] çal›flmak
4
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
What types of clauses are there?
N
What is a dependent clause?
N
What is an independent clause?
N
What is a simple clause?
N
How are clauses combined?
N
What is coordination?
N
What is subordination?
N
How is subordination produced in Turkish?
N
What types of subordinate clauses are there in Turkish?
N
What are Noun Clauses?
N
What are Relative Clauses?
N
What types of Relative Clauses are there in Turkish?
What are Adverbial Clauses?
Key Words
• Dependent clauses • Noun Clauses
• Independent clauses • Control PRO
• Simple sentences • Arbitrary PRO
• Complex sentences • Relative Clauses
• Coordination • Adverbial Clauses
• Subordination (Embedding)
• Main (matrix) clauses
Contents
• TYPES OF CLAUSES
• COORDINATION
• SUBORDINATION
• SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
IN COMPLEX
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Complex Sentences: SENTENCES
Pragmatics and Discourse Noun Clauses, • NOUN CLAUSES (NCs)
(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, Relative Clauses, • RELATIVE CLAUSES
Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi) Adverbial Clauses (RCs)
• TYPES OF RELATIVE
CLAUSES
• ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
(Adv.C)
Complex Sentences:
Noun Clauses,
Relative Clauses,
Adverbial Clauses
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will investigate what allows speakers to produce sentences that
consist of two or more clauses. In other words, how do we produce a sentence
like “Ahmet’in geldi¤ini anlad›m”, or “Her gördü¤ün insana güveniyorsun.” We
shall discuss what types of rules govern such structures and what types of clauses
we have in Turkish.
We have seen that phrases and clauses form different components of sentences.
In this chapter we discuss different types of clauses in terms of their structure and
function. Structurally speaking, there are dependent and independent clauses.
We will be more concerned about dependent clauses because they have more
complex structure and they can function as various constituents in sentences. We
shall see that they can function as subjects, objects, objects of P, modifiers of
nouns, etc. We shall discuss each type of these complex clauses and some aspects
of their meaning.
TYPES OF CLAUSES
Remember that clauses are syntactic categories with a subject and a predicate (NP
and VP, respectively). Clauses can be divided into two broad categories. If a clause
stands on its own, it is said to be an independent clause (e.g. Ahmet geldi). If a
clause cannot stand on its own, it is said to be a dependent clause (e.g. Ahmet’in
geldi¤i).
A sentence may consist of one single clause or two, three clauses, as illustrated
in the following examples:
1. [Ben Ali’yi okulda gördüm.] SINGLE CLAUSE

2. [Ben Ali’yi okulda gördüm] ve [pro onunla konufltum]. TWO INDEPENDENT
CLAUSES
3. [[Ben [Ali’nin okula gitti¤ini] gördüm]]. ONE DEPENDENT & ONE
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
4. [[Ben [[Ali’nin [pro yeni ald›¤› kitab›] okudu¤unu]] gördüm]]]. ONE
INDEPENDENT & TWO DEPENDENT CLAUSES
In (1) we have a single independent clause. This type of a single clause is known
as a simple sentence. In (2) we have two independent clauses, in (3) there are one
dependent and one independent clause. Finally, in (4) we have one independent
and two dependent clauses. Sentences as in (3) and (4), where one or more
independent clause(s) is / are part of the main clause are complex sentences.
Coordination and subordination are two ways of generating sentences with
more than one clause. In coordination the clauses that are linked are of equal
grammatical status (i.e. both are independent clauses). On the other hand, in
subordination one clause functions as part of another (i.e. dependent clause). This
dependent clause is known as the subordinated or embedded clause. The other is
the independent clause that subordinates the dependent clause; and it is known as
the main or matrix clause. Subordination is also called embedding, because one
clause is embedded under the other. In (3) the clause in square brackets is dependent
on the main clause, which is Ben gördüm. Example (4) includes three clauses, one
Relative Clause, [Ali’nin yeni ald›¤›], one Noun Clause [Ali’nin kitab› okudu¤u] and
[ben gördüm], which is the main clause.
The following tree diagrams will help you to better understand the structures of
sentences (1)-(4) we discussed above.
Note that sentence (1) consists of only one NP and VP in the tree diagram. The
fact that it has NP VP structure and no other recursion of NP and VP makes it a
simple sentence. As we noted above, it is an independent clause.
S
NP VP
ben
NP Vgr
Ali’yi
NP V
okulda gördüm
Sentence (2) consists of two clauses which are at equal level syntactically. They
are combined with the conjunction ve. Note that the conjunction and the two
independent clauses are sisters of each other. This shows that these two clauses are
separate and they are both independent clauses with equal importance and rank.
Conj
S S
ve
NP VP NP VP
pro pro
PP V
NP Vgr
konufltum
Ali’yi NP P
NP V
onun ile
okulda gördüm
Unit 4 - Complex Sentences: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses, Adverbial Clauses 63
In the tree diagram of sentence (3) below, (S1) is the main clause and (S2) is
emberdded. Note that the embedded clause (S2) functions as the object of the
main verb, therefore it is within the VP:
S1
NP VP
ben
S2 V
gördüm
NP VP
Ali’nin
NP V
okula gitti¤ini
The structure of sentence (4) is given in the following diagram.

S1
NP VP
ben
S2 V
gördüm
NP VP
Ali’nin
NP V
okudu¤unu
S3 N
kitab›
yeni ald›¤›
As has been pointed out before, this sentence includes three clauses. The
triangle in the diagram represents a short-cut illustration of the relative clause,
which modifies the head noun kitap in the object NP of the verb okumak. In this
sentence, the three clauses are apparently at different levels: S1 is the highest, i.e.
the matrix clause; while (S2 ) is embedded in (S1) and (S3) is embedded in (S2).
(S2). is the object of the main verb gördüm, it functions like a NP. We shall call
these types of clauses Noun Clauses. On the other hand, S3 is a clause that is used
to modify the noun kitap, namely it functions like an Adj. As we will see later,
these type of clauses are known as Relative Clauses.
To sum up, as we have seen in the tree diagrams above, a clause with a single
NP VP (subject predicate) structure is a simple sentence. A sentence which has
two clauses at the equal structural level is a coordinate sentence, in which the
clauses can be linked by a conjunction. Finally, a sentence which has two or more
clauses, whereby one clause is embedded in another is said to be a complex
sentence.
In the following sections we will talk about coordination and subordination.
COORDINATION
We will briefly talk about coordination in order to present the complete picture of
the ways in which we combine clauses and in order to understand how
subordination works in comparison to coordination. That is why coordination is
included in the unit.
Coordination is a way of combining clauses, by a conjunction such as ve, ya..ya
da; hem…hem de; veya, fakat, ama, etc. Remember that sentence (2) is a coordinate
clause. Other coordinate clauses are given in (5) through (9) below:
5. Selim ders çal›flt› ve Nurdan makale yazd›.

6. Hem Ali pasta getirdi hem de Nuray kek piflirdi.
7. Ali ifle gitti ve bütün gün çal›flt›.
8. Ya çok çal›fl ya da iflini b›rak.
9. Ne Ali çal›flt› ne de Ayhan ifle gitti.
Each example in (5)-(9) consists of one sentence but two coordinate clauses.
Coordinate clauses are both independent clauses and they are of equal rank
syntactically. That means that one clause is not part of the other; both of them are
matrix clauses. Besides, they are equally important in terms of meaning. Namely,
the idea expressed in one clause is not in the background.
Coordination is not only a way combining clauses but it is also a way of
combining phrasal categories again by using coordinating conjunctions such as ve,
fakat, ile, ya da, veya, etc. This is shown in the following examples:
10. Ali’nin [bir kedisi] ve [iki köpe¤i] var. NP and NP

11. [Ali ile Ayfle] birbirlerine afl›k oldular. N and N in a NP
12. [Senin annen] ve [baban] dün bize geldiler. NP and NP
13. Ayhan [çok güzel] ve [ak›c›] konuflur. Adv.P and Adv. P.
14. Meral [nehrin kenar›nda] ve [köprünün üzerinde] yürüdü. PP and PP
15. Ayfle [çok ak›ll›] ve [güzel]. Adj.P and Adj.P.
16. Seda [ayn› bir balerin gibi yürür] ve [dans eder]. VP and VP
In (10) and (12) two NPs; in (11) two nouns; in (13) two Adv.Ps; in (14) two
PPs; in (15) two Adj.Ps; and in (16) two VPs are conjoined. Notice that in these
examples, the categories that are combined are of the same type. We cannot
combine two different categories:
17. *[Ali’nin yan›nda] ve [güzel b›r k›z] gidiyor. *PP and NP

18. *Neriman [Adana’ya] ve [uyur.] *NP and VP
Examples (17) and (18) are ungrammatical, because a PP cannot be conjoined

with a NP, or a NP and VP cannot be linked through coordination.
We shall not deal with coordination any further. Instead, we turn our attention
to subordination in the following sections.
SUBORDINATION
In subordination one clause functions as part of the main clause. It can be the
subject or object of the main clause (Noun clauses). Clauses can function as
adjectives that modify nouns (Relative clauses); and clauses can be used as
adverbials that modify verbs, clauses, etc. (Adverbial clauses).
In English, subordinate clauses are linked to matrix clauses by the words that
are known as complementizers. Some complementizers are that, which, who,
where, etc. Some examples of English complex sentences are: She said [that she
finished her work on time], this is the market [where I visit every weekend]. On the
other hand, in Turkish subordinate clauses are linked to the main clause by
attaching some bound morphemes at the stem of the embedded verb. Some
subordinating morphemes that are used to subordinate or embed one clause under
another are as in the following:
-DIK, - yEcEk, -mE, -yIfl, –mEk. –mIfl, etc.
These subordinating morphemes are attached at the end of the verb stem in the
embedded clause, such as gör-DÜ⁄- ümüz.
Note that subordinating morphemes may also have other functions. For
example, -yEcEk is a subordinating morpheme and it also marks future in matrix
clauses. Likewise, -yIfl is used in word formation (changing verbs to nouns) as well
as in subordination: çekilifl-çekilmek, anlay›fl-anlamak, görüfl-görmek, girifl-girmek,
ç›k›fl-ç›kmak, etc.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES

In the following sections, subordinate clauses that form complex sentences will be
discussed. These clauses are noun clauses, relative clauses, and adverbial clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES
Noun clauses are subordinate clauses which have the same distribution with
Noun Phrases. They can function as subjects, objects, objects of postpositions, and
they can be adverbials, just like NPs. In Noun Clauses subordinate suffixes are
added at the end of the subordinating verb stem. These suffixes are: –DIk, –EcEk,
–(y)Ifl, –mE, and –mEK.
Examples of Subject Noun Clauses are given below:
19. [NC Onun Frans›zca konufltu¤u] do¤ru.

20. [NC Ayfle’nin parti verece¤i] belli.
21. [NC Can’›n bunlar› yanl›fl anlamas›] herkesi üzdü.
22. [NC Meral’in her gün yürüyüflü] Ayhan’› sevindiriyor.
(NC) stands for Noun Clauses. Clauses in brackets in examples (19)-(22) are
subject noun clauses. This can be tested by asking a question with the question
words such as Ne or kim: Ne do¤ru? Ne / kim herkesi üzdü? Ne / kim Ayhan’›
sevindiriyor? Question words ne and kim are used to ask questions about the
subject of the sentence.
In the following diagrams, subject noun Clauses are represented as (S2):
S1 S1
S2 VP S2 VP
AdjP Vcop VP NP V
NP VP NP
do¤ru 0 herkesi üzdü

onun Can’›n
NP V NP Vgr
Frans›zca konufltu¤u bunlar›

AdvP V
yaln›fl anlamas›
Noun clauses occur in the same environments as NPs. Firstly, they can be
replaced by NPs or by a pronoun. Likewise, the subject can be null. Remember
that a pronoun or a null subject is also a NP. The NCs represented as (S2) in the
diagrams above can be replaced with NPs. Examples (23)-(26) illustrate the fact
that NCs in (19)- (22) can be replaced by full NPs, overt or null pronouns.
23. [NP Bu yan›t] do¤ru mu?

24. [NP O] belli.
25. [NP Bu] herkesi üzdü.
26. [NP pro] Ayhan’› sevindiriyor.
We see that the NC in (19) can be replaced by a full NP, as in (23). Just like
NPs; NCs can also be replaced by pronouns. The NCs in (20) and (21) are replaced
by pronouns o and bu, respectively. The NC in (22), is likewise is dropped, as
seen in (26). Remember that Turkish is a pro-drop language and subjects can be
null, as in example (26).
Another similarity between NCs and NPs is that they both have nominative case
if they take place at subject position. All the subjects in examples (19) through
(25) have nominative case.
NCs can also occur at direct and oblique object positions like NPs In this case,
they are assigned accusative or dative case in the object position by the main verb
just like NP objects. So, an object NC can be case marked depending on the type
of case that the main verb assigns. The following are examples of object NCs:
27. Ben [NC senin Frans›zca konufltu¤u]nu bilmiyordum.

28. Sen [NC Ayfle’nin parti verece¤i]ni duymufl muydun?
29. Ayhan [NC Meral’in her gün yürüyüfl]ünü sevinçle izliyor.
30. Ahmet [NC söylediklerini Can’›n yanl›fl anlamas›]na flafl›rd›.
Object NCs in (27), (28), and (29) are marked accusative. The NC in (30) is
assigned dative case by the main verb.
It is your turn! Give some other evidence

It is your turn! for the reasons why object NCs in examples (27) - (30) are like
1 NPs. 1

2 2

NCs, like NPs can function as complements of Postpositions, as illustrated in

the examples below:
31. [PP [NC Bu ifli yapt›¤›na] göre],

32. [PP [NP Türkçe ö¤retmenine] göre]
33. [PP [NC seni yeniden görmek] için]
34. [PP [NP bütün arkadafllar› ] için]
The phrases in (31) - (34) are all PPs. Note that the heads of phrases are
postpositions, such as göre and için. The complements of the postpositions in (31)
and (33) are NCs; while the complements in (32) and (34) are NPs. This further
shows that NCs are like NPs.
NCs can also function as predicates, just like predicative NPs, as in the
following:
35. Birinci göreviniz [VP [NC çok çal›flmak] idi]].
The NC in (35) is within the VP with a copula verb idi, and it is in the predicate.
This is on a par with predicative NPs. For example:
36. Karfl›daki bina [VP [NP bizim evimiz] idi.]]
In (36) we see a predicative NP inside a VP headed with a copula, just like the
NC in (35).
The Internal Structure of Noun Clauses

We have seen that NCs and NPs appear in the same environments. The difference
between NPs and NCs, however, is that NPs have head nouns; while NCs have a
subject-predicate (NP-VP) structure.
Remember that the subordinating NC suffixes are -DIk, -ECEK, -yIfl, -mEk, and
-mE. These suffixes have different meanings and functions as we shall see later.
Below, we will concentrate on subjects of these different types of NCs.
Noun clauses that are obtained by the morphemes -DIk and -EcEk usually
correspond to English that-clauses; while those that are obtained by -mE and -mEk
are similar to English infinitival clauses or gerunds.
Subordinate clauses are similar to simple clauses:

37. [NP Ben-im] [VP gel-di¤-im] [NP Ben] [VP geldim].
38. [NP Sen-in] [VP gel-di¤-in] [NP Sen] [VP geldin].
39. [NP Onun] [VP gel-di¤-i] [NP O] [VP geldi].
40. [NP Bizim] [VP gel-di¤i-miz] [NP Biz] [VP geldik].
41. [NP Sizin] [VP gel-di¤-iniz], etc. [NP Siz] [VP geldiniz].
As you see in examples (37)-(41), the subordinate NCs have a subject (NP) and
a predicate (VP) structure like the corresponding simple sentences. The NCs have
genitive marked subjects, such as bizim, sizin, onun, etc. and the verbs agree with
these subjects in terms of person and number by the use of possessive suffixes.
Likewise, noun clauses with –ME also have a NP VP structure and their verbs
have possessive person and number morphemes that agree with their genitive
marked subjects. This is illustrated in the examples below:
42. [NP Benim] [VP gel-me-m]

43. [NP Senin] [VP gelme-n]
44. [NP Onun] [VP gel-me-si]
45. [NP Bizim] [VP gel-me-miz]
46. [NP Sizin] [VP gel-me-niz]
47. [NP Onlar›n] [VP gel-me-leri]
Thus, a clause has a subject-predicate (NP-VP) structure; while a phrase has a

head, (see the previous unit for phrases and their heads).
We now turn our attention to subjects of noun clauses that are obtained by the
suffix -mEk. Consider the examples below:
48. Ben [NC dans etmek] istiyorum.

49. Komutan askeri [NC erken kalkmaya] zorlad›.
In examples (48) and (49), the NCs do not seem to have subjects and the verbs
do not have subject-verb agreement markers. However, we can have a subject
interpretation if we ask a question like “Kim dans edecek?” in order to detect the
subject of the NC in (48). We can have an understanding about the person who
will perform dancing: Notice that this performer is also the subject of the matrix
clause. Likewise, in (49), we can interpret the subject of the NC by asking a
question, such as “Kim erken kalkacak?” The answer is asker. Therefore, there is
an understood subject in –mEk clauses. This subject is known as PRO. PRO
should not be confused with pro. While PRO is the subject of infinitival –mEk
clauses, pro is the empty subject of clauses where we find agreement suffixes on
verbs. For example, the subjects of geldin, kitab› okudular, kitab› sat›n alaca¤›,
konuyu bilmemiz are some dependent and independent clauses with pro subjects.
The verbs of the clauses have agreement morphemes. Besides, pro can be replaced
by full NPs and overt pronouns, as in: sen geldin, ö¤renciler kitab› okudular,
Ahmet’in kitab› sat›n alaca¤›, bizim konuyu bilmemiz, etc. Unlike pro, PRO can
never be replaced by any overt pronoun or full NP. Thus, the ungrammaticality of
a sentence such as *Ben [Ahmet dans etmek] istiyorum can be accounted for. PRO
can never be replaced by a full NP such as Ahmet. Therefore, we have at least two
tests to check whether an empty subject is a pro or PRO.
• If there are person and number agreement suffixes at the end of the verb, it
is pro.
• If we can replace the empty pronoun with a full NP or a pronoun, it is a pro
Otheriwise, the empty subject is a PRO.
PRO is of two types. One type is called Control PRO. Control PRO refers to
the type of PRO when it refers to the same entity as the subject or the object of the
matrix clause. In example (48), we see a subject control PRO because the subject
of the infinitival clause is understood to be the same person as the subject of the
main clause. On the other hand, in example (49) there is an object control PRO
since the subject of the infinitival NC is interpreted as the same person as the
object of the matrix clause. The verb in the matrix clause determines the type of
its object NC. There are verbs that select subject control infinitival clauses as well
as those that select object control clauses. These verbs are said to be subject
control verbs and object control verbs, respectively. Some subject control
verbs are istemek, denemek, söz vermek, s›k›lmak, b›kmak, nefret etmek, hofllanmak,
bafllamak, bay›lmak, sevmek, tercih etmek, söz vermek, karar vermek, etc. Some
object control verbs are zorlamak, ikna etmek, suçlamak, yasaklamak, etc.
In the following examples, we see subject control clauses:
50. Cani [NC PROi Amerika’ya gitmeye] karar verdi.

51. Alii bana [NC PROi içkiyi b›rakmaya] söz verdi.
52. Ayhani davetimi [pp [ NCPROi beni davet kabul etmek] le] ] beni çok mutlu
etti.
53. Ayflei [NC PROi evleri temizlemekten] b›kt›.
The struchere of the sentence in (50) is shown below:
NP VP
Cani
S V
karar verdi
NP VP
PROi
NP V
Amerika’ya gitmeye
The subscript (i) in the examples and in the tree diagram means that the two
NPs are co-referential; namely, they refer to the same person. As you see in the
examples above, all of the subjects of NCs, namely PROs refer to the subjects in
the matrix clauses. In (50) the person who will go to America is Can, the subject
of the matrix clause; in (51) the person who will quit drinking is Ali; in (52) the
one who accepted my invitation is Ayhan. Finally, in (53) the person who cleans
the houses is Ayfle. As you see all PRO subjects refer to the matrix subjects. That
is why they are examples of subject control PRO.
The following are examples of object control PRO:
54. Annesi Mahmut’ai [NC PROi televizyon seyretmeyi] yasaklad›.

55. Ahmet Meral’ii [NC PROi pastas›n› yemeye] ikna etti.
In examples (54) and (55) the PRO subjects of the NCs are interpreted as
objects of the matrix clauses. In (54) the person who will not watch television is
Mahmut; in (55) the one who will eat her cake is Meral. Mahmut and Meral are the
objects of the matrix clauses in (54) and (55), respectively. Thus, these are examples
of object control PRO.
Sentence in (54) is illustrated below.

S
NP VP
annesi
NP Vgr
Mahmut’ai
S V
yasaklad›
NP VP
PROi
NP V
televizyon seyretmeyi
Note that object NP Mahmut’a controls the subordinate PRO subject.
There are also cases of PRO subjects which do not have control structures, as
illustrated in the examples below:
56. [NC PRO Tenis oynamak] sa¤l›kl›d›r.

57. [NC PRO Sigara içmek} sa¤l›¤a zararl›d›r
58. Cumhurbaflkan› [NC PRO depremzedelere yard›m› artt›rmay›] destekliyor.
In examples (56)-(58) PRO is not interpreted as another NP in the matrix clause.

Rather, PRO refers to anybody who will play tennis, who smokes, or who makes
a donation for those who suffered from the earthquake. These types of PRO
subjects are examples of arbitrary PRO, which is represented as PROarb.
Now, consider the following examples:
59. *[PROarb Bu f›sk›yeden f›flk›rmak] çok güzel olurdu.

60. *[PROarb Burada havlamak] zordur.
61. *[PROarb Kümeste yumurtlamak] iyi de¤il.
Sentences in (59)-(61) are ungrammatical. The reason for the ungrammaticality

of these sentences relies on the fact that PROarb is always understood as a human
being. It should be interpreted only as referring to people, not to other creatures.
In (59) f›sk›ye is inanimate; in (60) havlamak is an animal property; likewise, in
(61) yumurtlamak is a non-human quality. An attempt to use these inanimate or
non-human animate characteristics with PROarb results in ungrammaticality.
To sum up:
• PRO is the subject of -mEk noun clauses.

• PRO can be control PRO. In this case, it is co-referential with the subject or
the object of the matrix clause. If it is co-referential with the matrix subject,
it is said to be subject control. Otherwise, it is object control PRO.
• PRO can also be arbitrary PRO. In this case, it is interpreted as referring to
any human being. It cannot refer to other animate or inanimate entities.
We have seen that PRO is the subject of -mEk clauses. -mEk clauses are
structurally different from -mE clauses albeit their orthographic and phonological
similarity and even though both -mEk and -mE clauses correspond to English
infinitive clauses. In order to support our claim, we can consider the following
examples:
62. Annesi [NC Ayfle’nin hasta hasta soka¤a ç›k-ma-s›-na] izin vermedi.
63. Ö¤retmeni [NC Seval’in daha çok çal›fl-ma-s›-n›] tavsiye etti.
64. Arkadafl›n [NC benim masay› tafl›-ma-ma] yard›m etti.
Note that noun clauses with -mE suffix in (62) - (64) have overt subjects and
the verbs of these clauses are marked with agreement suffixes.
This is also shown in the diagram below:
NP VP
arkadafl›n
S V
yard›m
NP VP etti
benim
NP V
masay› tafl›mama
The differences between -mE and -mEk clauses is that only in the former, but
not in the latter, the latter, their verbs can be marked by subject agreement suffixes.
-mE clauses may have full NPs, overt pronouns, or pro as their subjects. On the
other hand, -mEk clauses must have PRO subjects. Some verbs that require -mE
noun clauses as their objects are izin vermek, emretmek, önermek,It is your turn!
tavsiye etmek, It is your turn!
yard›m etmek, rica etmek, [birisinin bir fley yapmas›n›] istemek, etc. 1 1
Explain why the following sentences are ungrammatical: It is your turn! It is your turn!
• *Ali [NC PRO Ankara’ya gitmeye] zorlad›. 2 2
• *[PROarb Bu havada ya¤mak] hofl olmaz.
• * Nurdan Sefer’i [PRO çal›flmay›] denedi. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• *Müdür sekretere [PRO mektup yazmak] rica etti. 3 3

4 4

Fact and Act Noun Clauses

According to Lees (1966:195-201), Sezer (1991: 25-28), Kornfilt (1997: 50-53),
among other linguists, -DIk and -EcEk describe facts, –mE and -mEk describe acts.
Facts can be mentioned, questioned, contradicted, admitted, or denied. Facts can
be true or false. Acts, on the other hand, do not describe events but they are only
mental projections. In other words, the factive event may or may not have occurred;
nevertheless, a fact can be proven to be true or false. However, we cannot talk
about the truth of an act. Acts describe the act itself rather than the actual happening.
Acts cannot be confirmed, because they cannot be true or false. One can support
a possible act, but not a fact. An act can be fun or healthy (e.g.Tenis oynamak
sa¤l›kl›d›r). A fact cannot be fun or healthy (e.g. *Tenis oynad›¤›n sa¤l›kl›d›r).
We can illustrate the distinction between a fact and act with the examples
below:
65. Hasani [NC PROi filmi görmek] istedi.

66. Hasan [NC pro filmi gördü¤üne] piflman oldu.
In (65) above, there is no indication whether Hasan ever saw the film. In (66),
however, the event of seeing the film has been accomplished. Another distinction
is that in (66) regretting occurs after the event of seeing the film. On the other
hand, in (65) Hasan first wants to see the film and seeing the film might occur
afterwards. Now consider the following examples:
67. Ifl›ki [NC PROi kap›y› kapatmay›] unuttu.

68. Ifl›ki[NC proi kap›y› kapatt›¤›n›] unuttu.
In (67) Ifl›k forgot the act of closing the door. In (68), on the other hand, she
locked the door, but forgot that she did so. In (67) the action of closing the door
has not been accomplished. In (68) the action of closing the door has been
fulfilled and the event can be verified or falsified. Likewise, the examples below
show the distinction between facts and acts:
69. Ali bana [proi içkiyi b›rakt›¤›n›] söyledi.

70. Alii bana [PROi içkiyi b›rakmaya] söz verdi.
71. Ali [Can’›n içkiyi b›rakmas›n›] önerdi.
Example (69) describes a fact NC, because it is an event that has been
accomplished, or at least, one can prove it to be true or false. In other words, one
can observe whether Ali has quit drinking or not. He may not have done so, but
then we can falsify the fact. In (70) and (71), on the other hand, the event of
stopping drinking has not occurred. Thus, the event cannot be proved to be true
or false at this stage.
The subordinating morpheme -(y)Ifl can also be attached to the verb of a noun
clause. According to Erdal (1998:57), -(y)Ifl refers to the manner of performing the
action involved, the way events take place.
Erdal gives the following examples:
72. Ay do¤uflundan insan yürüyüflünden belli olur.

73. Onlarda taklit edilen fley giydikleri de¤il, giyiniflleri idi. (cited in Erdal
attributed to Halit Ziya Uflakl›gil).
(y)Ifl, unlike –mE and -mEk, appears to be factive. Compare the following:
74. [NC Teyzem’in hal›y› be¤enmemesi] mümkün.

75. *[NC Teyzemin hal›y› be¤enmeyifli] mümkün.
In (74) the subordinate clause with –mE shows a possibility. It is not the case
that my aunt has not liked the carpet. Therefore, one cannot tell whether it is true
or false that she liked or did not like it. In other words, the idea expressed in the
NC cannot be true or false. However, in (75) it is for sure that my aunt has not
liked the carpet. Thus, we cannot talk about the possibility of her liking or disliking
the carpet. The result is an ungrammatical sentence.
Likewise, in the following example Vecdi has disappeared and it is a fact:
76. fiaduman [NC Vecdi’nin birden kaybolufluna] bir anlam verememiflti.
We can conclude that both -DIk and -(y)Ifl morphemes are used to mark facts.
Yet, they have different meanings. In order to understand the difference, consider
the following examples:
77. Ben [NC Ayfle’nin merdivenlerden ç›kt›¤›n›] gördüm. It is your turn! It is your turn!
78. Ben [NC Ayfle’nin merdivenlerden ç›k›fl›n›] gördüm.
1 1
The difference between (77) and (78) is that in the former the event of Ayfle’s
It is your
climbing the stairs is important; while, in the latter the process turn!the way she
(i.e. It is your turn!
goes upstairs) is emphasized. 2 2
I. Explain why the following sentences are ungrammatical: It is your turn! It is your turn!
• *Ahmet sinemaya gitti¤ine karar verdi. 3 3
II. Identify and explain the following Noun Clauses in terms of their structure and meaning:
• Uzman bize sa¤l›kl› beslenmekten söz etti. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Nermin bir s›n›f arkadafl›yla evledi¤ini söyledi.
4 4
• Nermin yak›nda bir s›n›f arkadafl›yla evlenmek istiyor.
• Selcan’›n flark› söyleyifli beni yordu.
5
Independent Clauses That Function as Noun Clauses 5
So far we have seen NCs with subordinating morphemes. These NCs are not
It is your
independent clauses. There are also some independent clauses turn!
that can function It is your turn!
as object NCs, as in the following: 6 6
79. Can [NC sen hiç gelmeyeceksin] sand›. It is your turn! It is your turn!
80. Biz de [NC Paris’e gidelim] istedik.
7 7
Furthermore, there are two subordinating words in Turkish: ki and diye, which
It is your turn!
are like English complementizers that, which, if, etc. These NCs are also It is your turn!
independent clauses: 8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

ki
This word was borrowed from Persian, and it is used with bilmek, anlamak,
farketmek, ö¤renmek, demek, ummak, etc. in the matrix clause, as can be seen in
the following examples:
81. Sen de biliyorsun ki Ayhan bu s›nav için pek çal›flmad›.

82. Sen de biliyorsun Ayhan bu s›nav için pek çal›flmad›.
83. Ben sana diyorum ki bunu böyle yapmamal›s›n.
84. Umuyorum ki dediklerimi anlam›fls›nd›r.
Diye
This subordinataing word is used as in the following examples:
85. Bu hafta sonu pikni¤e gidece¤iz diye düflündük.

86. Bu hafta sonu pikni¤e gidece¤imizi düflündük.
87. Bu hafta sonu pikni¤e gidece¤iz diye ummufltuk.
88. Bu hafta sonu pikni¤e gidece¤imizi ummufltuk.
The use of subordinating words ki and diye are limited and they can be used
only with some limited set of verbs given above.
RELATIVE CLAUSES (RCs)

So far we have seen that clauses can be used as subjects and objects in sentences.
Subordinate clauses can also be used as NP modifiers. These clauses are known
as relative or adjectival clauses.
Relative clauses (RCs) serve to provide additional information about the noun
they modify, but are not required for the completion of the noun’s meaning.
Relative clauses are on a par with adjectives in their relationship with the head
noun, and are sometimes called adjectival clauses, in parallel to adverbial clauses
which are adjuncts to VPs or sentences.
89. [[NP [Adj sar›] [N kitap]] NP → Adj N

90. [[NP [RC dün okudu¤um] [N kitap]] NP → Relative Clause N
91. [[Adj sar›fl›n] [N k›z ]]
92. [[NP [RC dün buraya gelen] [N k›z]]
Examples in (89) through (92) are all NPs, note that each has a noun as its head
at final position. In (89) and (91) the nouns are modified by adjectives sar› and
sar›fl›n, respectively. In (90) and (92) the nouns are modified by relative clauses.
Forming Relative Clauses in Turkish

Turkish RCs are formed by morphemes –En and. –DIk (among others that we will
see below). These morphemes are attached to the verb stem of the underlying
sentence. An underlying sentence is the simple clause from which the RC is
derived. For example, (93) and (95) are the underlying sentences of the RCs in
(94) and (96), respectively:
93. KED‹ peyniri yedi. Subject is kedi in the underlying sentence

94. Peyniri yiyEN kedi Head of the NP kedi – Relative morpheme –EN
95. Kedi PEYN‹R‹ yedi. Object is peynir in the underlying sentence

96. Kedinin yeD‹⁄‹ peynir Head of NP peynir – Relative morpheme - DIk
We see that the RC morphemes -En and -DIk have different distribution. As
Underhill (1972) has noted and as shown in the examples above, when the subject
of the underlying sentence becomes the head of the RC, –En is used, and elsewhere
-DIK is used.
The use of olmak and bulunmak in copular underlying sentences:

As has been noted above, the RC morphemes must attach to the verb stem in
the underlying sentence. The underlying sentence of a RC may have a copular
verb, such as a zero copula, as in the following:
97. K›z çok güzel.

98. Bu dolapta süt var.
99. Adam›n paras› yok.
If the verb of the underlying sentence is a zero copula, or if it has existential

var / yok, as in (97)-(99), then the RC morpheme will not have a host verb to attach
to. When such copular sentences are relativized, overt copular verbs, such as
olmak and bulunmak must be used. This is because the RC morphemes can only
attach to verb stems:
100. Çok güzel olan bu k›z

101. ‹çinde süt olmayan / bulunmayan dolap
102. Paras› olmayan adam
Examples (100)-(102) are RCs formed from the underlying sentences in (97)-
(99). These RCs show that overt copulas appear when the underlying clause has
zero copula, or existential var/yok.
NP Accessibility Hierarchy in RCs

Keenan and Comrie (1977) suggested a universal NP Accessibility hierarchy in
Relative Clause formation. Their hierarchy is as follows:
SUBJECT > DIRECT OBJECT > INDIRECT OBJECT > OBJECT OF

POSTPOSITION > GENITIVE (of the underlying sentence)
This means that if a language has relative clauses, it must allow the subject of
the underlying sentence to be the head. If a language allows Genitive to be the
head, then it allows all other constitutents down in the hierarchy (direct object,
indirect object, object of P, in that order). The NP Accessibility Hierarchy also
shows the level of difficulty in producing and processing relative clauses. In
addition, it indicates the order in which first and second language learners acquire
or learn relative clauses. This means that for a child or for a foreign language
learner, it is easier to learn and use RCs whose heads are subjects and direct
objects of underlying sentences. Genitives are the most difficult structure in RC
acquisition.
Keenan and Comrie also show that not all languages have all types of RCs in
the NP Accessibility Hierarchy. Below we examine whether each RC type in the
Hierarchy exists in Turkish.
Let us assume that the following sentence is the underlying sentence from
which we shall generate RCs:
103. K›z adama çiçe¤i verdi.
In (103) k›z is the Subject, çiçe¤i is the Direct Object and adama is the Indirect
Object. If the subject, and the direct and indirect objects of (103) are relativized,
we obtain the following RCs:
104. çiçe¤i adama veren k›z

105. k›z›n adama verdi¤i çiçek
106. k›z›n çiçek verdi¤i adam
We see that the subject (104), the direct object (105) and the indirect object
(106) can be heads of RCs in Turkish.
Now let us consider the other constituents in the Hierarchy:
The phrase in bold letters is a Postpositional Phrase in (107) and okul is the
object of the Postposition karfl›s›:
107. Restoran [PP okulun karfl›s›na] kuruldu.

108. Karfl›s›na yeni restoran›n kuruldu¤u okul
Example (108) illustrates that the object of a postposition can be the head noun
of RC in Turkish. The NP Accessibility Hierarchy predicts that this type of RC is
very high in the Hierarchy, namely it is less frequent cross-linguistically and harder
to generate and acquire than the ones lower in the hierarchy.
The highest on the hierarchy is the one with a Genitive head. Example (109)
illustrates a NP with a genitive noun:
109. [NP Bu adam›n k›z›] üniversiteyi bu y›l bitirdi.
In (109) adam›n is the genitive noun in the NP. (110) below shows that the
genitive noun can also be relativized:
110. K›z› üniversiteyi bu y›l bitiren adam
As a result, Turkish allows all types of RCs given in the Accessibility Hierarchy.
RC Morphemes and Their Meanings

There are productive and not so productive morphemes that derive relative clauses
in Turkish. So far, we have seen –En and -DIk. These are very productive along
with -mIfl and -(y)EcEk. Namely, they are more frequent and they can attach to
the stem of almost any verb to form relative clauses. Unproductive ones are less
frequent and some are lexicalized, i.e. they have become sort of cliches, otherwise
their use is very limited. These less frequent morphemes are -Ir / -mEz, and -EsI.
Since -En and -DIk are the default RC markers, we shall start by analyzing their
meaning.
When analyzing the meaning of -En and -DIk, we shall be concerned with the
time they denote.
-En
Yavafl (1980:143) states that “[a]s a general principle, (...) the time of a relative
clause can be interpreted by taking either the speech time or the matrix time as
reference point. Therefore, in cases where the two do not coincide, i.e. when the
matrix time is not ‘present’, ambiguity results.”
For example:
111. [NP [RC Bal›k yiyen] adam] meflhur bir profesör
As Yavafl points out the interpretation of the time denoted by the relative clause
above will depend on either the context in discourse or on the mutual information
shared by the speaker and hearer. It can mean The man who is eating fish now is
a famous professor, or The man who eats fish is a famous professor, or The man
who ate fish is a famous professor.
This suggestion is supported by the grammaticality of time adverbials showing
now, present, and past as in the examples below:
112. [NP [RC fiu anda bal›k yiyen] adam]] meflhur bir profesör
113. [NP [RC Her gün bal›k yiyen] adam]] meflhur bir profesör
114. [NP [RC Dün bal›k yiyen] adam]] meflhur bir profesör
In such cases, where a time adverbial is present, no ambiguity arises on the

interpretation of time.
When the time in the matrix clause is past, the time of the relative clause may
also be interpreted as past:
115. [NP [RC Çal›flan] ö¤renciler]] s›nav› geçtiler.
The sentence above has the following interpretations: The students who study
passed the exam, The students who studied passed the exam, or The students who
had studied passed the exam.
Likewise, the following example:
116. [NP [RC [Köprüyü yapan] mühendis]] ödüllendirilecek.
might mean The engineer who has built the bridge will be rewarded, The engineer
who built the bridge will be rewarded, or The engineer who builds the bridge will be
rewarded.
Turkish RCs with -En are underspecified in terms of time; while their
corresponding English counterparts are overtly marked for time. Namely, the RCs
with -En can be interpreted differently in terms of their time reference depending
on the tense on matrix verbs, discourse, and information shared between the
speaker and hearer.
-DIk
RCs with -DIk have similar time interpretations, as illustrated in the example below:
117. [NP [RC [Can’›n piflirdi¤i] yemekleri]]] ben çok seviyorum.
Example (117) might mean I like the dishes Can is cooking now, I like the dishes
that Can cooks, or I like the dishes that Can cooked.
The first interpretation is the habitual reading in the matrix sentence, because
of the matrix verb. The second depends on the time when the sentence is uttered.
If the speaker and hearer both know that the Can is cooking now, then this
interpretation is obtained. The third interpretation may be obtained if the speaker
and hearer share the information that Can cooked for them yesterday.
As a result, we can say that -DIk, like -En, is not marked in terms of time; and
its time reading is obtained based on the context.
-(y)EcEk
The RC morpheme -(y)EcEK can be used with clauses that modify the subject or
object in the underlying sentences:
118. [NP[RC [Çocuklar›na bakacak] kad›n]] arad›. (Bir kad›n çocuklar›na

bakacak).
119. [NP[RC [Program› sunacak] sanatç›]] (Program› bir sanatç›
sunacak).
120. [NP[RC [Yar›n yollayaca¤›m] mektup]] (Yar›n mektubu
yollayaca¤›m).
121. [NP[RC Suzan’›n haftaya düzenleyece¤i] parti]] (Suzan haftaya parti
düzenleyecek)
Examples (118)-(121) iullustrate RCs obtained by the -(y)EcEk morpheme. The

sentences next to them in parantheses show their underlying sentences. (118) and
(119) are examples of RCs, where subjects are relativized. Note that kad›n and
sanatç› are subjects of the underlying sentences. In (120) and (121) the objects of
the underlying sentences, i.e. mektup and parti are relativized.
According to Erkman-Akerson and Ozil (1998: 292), -(y)EcEk in RCs have a
future redaing. In other words, RCs, as in (118)-(121) indicate that the events will
occur in the future. In (120), for instance, the letter will be sent tomorrow, and in
(121) the party will be held next week.
One other meaning of -(y)EcEk in Turkish RCs roughly corresponds to infinitive
clauses in English, (see the translated sentences in parantheses in (122-124). The
head nouns in these cases are always non-specific and indefinite, as shown below:
122. [NP [RC Yakacak] odun]] kalmad›. (There is no wood to burn)

123. [NP [RC Yiyecek] bir fleyler]] alal›m. (Let’s buy something to eat.)
124. [NP [RC Yatacak yer]] bulmam›z gerekli (We have to find a place to
sleep.)
In all these examples, the head nouns denote entities that are not specific and
definite. In other words, neither the speaker nor the hearer has a particular wood
group, something to eat, or a specific place to sleep in their minds.
Turkish also allows RCs with -(y)EcEk olan, as in the following:
125. [NP [RC Çocuklar›na bakacak olan] kad›n]]

126. Baz› Bakanlar [NP [RC yar›n yurda dönecek olan]] Cumhurbaflkan›’n›]]
karfl›lamaya gidecekler.
In cases like those above, the RCs with -(y)EcEk olan have definite heads as
opposed to -(y)EcEk. The head noun kad›n in (125) is a specific and definite
woman that is known at least to the speaker. Likewise, the head noun
Cumhurbaflkan› in (126) is definite and unique and thus the relative clause is not
used in order to identify or restrict one member of a set of many presidents.
-mIfl
The meaning of -mIfl is different in relative clauses than the meaning of the
homophonous morpheme -mIfl in matrix clauses. In matrix clauses, -mIfl is used
in sentences, such as: bay›lm›fl›m, bir varm›fl bir yokmufl, Ben görmedim ama
Metin buraya gelmifl, etc. It has the meanings of inference, hearsay, unawareness,
etc.
The use of -mIfl in Relative Clauses, however, is perfective. This means that it
shows the event, which it is attached to, has been completed. The following
Relative Clauses indicate a process that has taken place and completed, and as a
result changed the state of the head noun. The relative clause describes a process
that has changed the nature of the head noun:
127. [NP [RC kaynam›fl] yumurta]]

128. [NP [RC hafllanm›fl] patates]]
129. [NP [RC çürümüfl] domates]]
130. [NP [RC eskimifl] elbiseler]]
131. [NP [RC okumufl] insanlar]]
132. [NP [RC boyanm›fl] ayakkab›lar]]
133. [NP [RC yeni y›kanm›fl] kazak]]
134. [NP [RC güzelce ütülenmifl] elbise]]
135. [NP [RC k›zarm›fl] et]]
136. [NP [RC kurumufl] dallar]]
In all these examples, the head noun has undergone a change of state as a
result of a completed process. Eggs and potatoes have become boiled after the
process of cooking though they were raw before the process; tomatoes have
become rotten, they were not before the process; dresses have become old, they
were not before, etc. In this context, process refers to some event that takes an
extended amount of time. This will become clear if we consider the following
examples:
137. *[[NP [RC z›plam›fl] çocuk]]

138. *[[NP [RC öksürmüfl] adam]]
139. *[[NP [RC göz k›rpm›fl] ö¤renci]]
The examples above are ungrammatical, because verbs such as z›plamak (to
jump), öksürmek (to cough), and göz k›rmak (to wink) all denote events that
happen at once. There is no extended time for the event to occur. These are called
instantaneous verbs. It does not make sense to ask how long it took to wink, etc.
Instantaneous verbs that take place in a very short period of time cannot be
relativized with -mIfl. Besides, the verbs in the RCs in (137)-139) do not cause any
change of state on the head noun. In other words, z›plamak (to jump) does not
leave an effect or it modifies the state of the child.
Thus the use of -mIfl is limited to the verbs which denote a process and affect
the head noun, causing a change of state on the head.
The copular verb olmak is also used with RC morpheme -mIfl. Compare the
NPs above with those in the following with -mIfl olan:
140. [NP [RC kaynam›fl olan] yumurta]] vs. other eggs that have not been
boiled
141. [NP [RC hafllanm›fl olan] patates]] vs. other potatoes that have not been
boiled
142. [NP [RC çürümüfl olan] domates]] vs. other domatoes that have not
gone corrupt
143. [NP [RC eskimifl olan] elbiseler]] vs. other dresses that have not
become old
The meaning difference between -mIfl olan and -mIfl is that the former restricts
the denotation of the head noun. For instance, the head noun in (140) is in
contrast with other eggs that have not been boiled, etc.
Unproductive RC Morphemes
Some RC morphemes are unproductive and they have become lexicalized. In
other words, they cannot be attached to every verb.
-Ir and -mEz

These morphemes are used with certain verbs and they have almost become
clichés, as in çalar saat. Some other examples are okur yazar insanlar, kolay
okunabilir bir kitap, oturulabilir bir ev, tahammül edilmez bir insan, dayan›lmaz
ac›, güler yüz, etc.
-mE
This is also a morpheme that has lost its productivity. Some examples are çelikten
yap›lma kap kacak, süzme yo¤urt, ezme salata, yapma çiçek, etc.
-EsI
The relative clauses marked with -EsI have subjunctive meaning. This means that
they indicate the wish of the speaker, as in the examples below: kahrolas› adam,
körolas› talih, y›k›las› ev, öpülesi eller, etc.
RCs as Independent Clauses

The borrowed word ki is also used as a subordinating word that allows independent
clauses to function as RCs in Turkish, as in the following:
144. [NP Her kim [RC ki bu ifli yapar]] sonuçlar›na da katlan›r.
The independent clause with ki above is an RC because it modifies and restricts

the denotation of the head noun her kim. Note that the independent RC above
comes after the head noun unlike other RCs in Turkish. Remember that Turkish is
a head final language and the head noun must be at NP final position. The
subordinating word ki is borrowed from Persian, which is an Indo-European
language like English. Turkish also borrowed the word order of RCs of this language
when it borrowed ki. Sentences like (144), thus, mirror the syntax of Indo-European
languages. In these languages, the head noun comes before the head noun, as in
(144).
TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

Turkish has restrictive and nonrestrictive RCs, as well as headless RCs. This section
is devoted to a discussion of these different types of RCs.
Restrictive Relative Clauses (RRC)

Restrictive relative clauses (RRCs) are those which restrict the denotation of the
head noun. Consider the example below:
145. [NP [RC Patates yiyen] k›z]] benim kardeflim.
The RRC above patates yiyen adds information which allows the hearer to
identify the head noun k›z. That is to say that the RC helps us to choose one
particular girl among a set of girls.
Non-restrictive Relative Clauses (NRC)

Non-restrictive Relative Claues (NRC) do not limit the denotation of the head
noun, but they add extra, optional information about the head noun.
146. [NP [RC 1923 y›l›nda Türkiye Cumhuriyet’ini kuran] Atatürk]] tüm dünyada
her zaman sayg› ile an›l›r.
In the example above, Atatürk is already a unique identity. The information

that 1923 y›l›nda Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’ni kuran is not necessary to identify the
referent, but merely serves to add more information about Atatürk.
Differences Between Restrictive and Non-restrictive

Relative Clauses
Only non-restrictive relative clauses may modify proper nouns.
147. [NP [RC Bir ayd›n olarak yetifltirdi¤i] Nurdan]] evlenecekti.
The relative clause in (147) is a NRC, because the proper noun Nurdan is
identifiable without a RC.
In order to understand how RRCs and NRCs work, consider the following
sentences in English:
148. [NP My brother, [RC who lives in Japan]], is coming to see us next month.
149. [NP My brother [RC who lives in Japan]] is coming to see us next month.
The sentence in (148) means that the speaker has only one brother and that he
lives in Japan. The one in (149), on the other hand, means that the speaker has at
least two brothers: one lives, for example, in Ankara, and the other in Japan. In
that case the RRC in (149) helps the hearer to distinguish the brother who lives in
Japan in the set of brothers living in different places. In English, as seen in (148),
NRCs are separated by commas. Furthermore, English NRCs are phonologically
located in a separate intonation contour, while RRCs are located in the same
intonation contour as their head nouns. This is why the former type is separated
orthographically by commas.
In Turkish we do not have such formal distinctions between RRCs or NRCs,
such as punctuation (e.g. as commas in English) or by the choice of the relativizer,
as shown below:
150. [NP [RC Japonya’da yaflayan] kardeflim] yar›n geliyor.
The RC above can be interpreted as a RRC or a NRC depending on the context

of the utterance or based on the knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer.
RRCs and NRCs differ in their meaning, since the information encoded in the
latter type is both separate from and secondary in importance to the information
in the main clause, while that encoded in the former is an integral part of the
information in the main clause. In a NRC the information given in the RC is almost
paranthetical. Consider the following examples:
151. Nurdan [NP [RC kap›da duran] k›za]] bakt›.

152. Nurdan [NP [RC p›r›l p›r›l parlayan] günefle]] bakt›.
1 The RC1 in (151) is a RRC because it helps us to identify the girl. There may be
other girls in the environment. The RC in (152), however, is a NRC because there
is only one Sun, at least in our planet. Thus, we do not need to distinguish one
sun among others. NRCs are not used to select a subset of some group.
2 2
Denotation of a NP does not change if a NRC is taken out, but the omission of
a RRC either changes the meaning of the head noun totally, or leaves it unidentified.
It is your turn!
Thus, if weItomit
is your turn!
the RC in (152), the head noun will still refer to the Sun; but if we
3 delete the3 RC in (151), the reference of the head noun may not be identified.
It is your turn! I. IdentifyItthe RCsturn!

is your in the examples below. Show the RCs and their head nouns in square
4 4 notation.
bracket
• Afrika’da yaflayan filler avc›lar taraf›ndan ac›mas›zca avlan›yor.
It is your turn! • Hayvanlar›n en a¤›r› olan filler tropik ormanlarda yaflar.
It is your turn!
5 II. Find out
5 whether these RCs are RRCs or NRCs. Explain by giving reasons.
It is your turn!
Headless Relative Clauses
It is your turn!
There are relative clauses which do not have overt head nouns in Turkish. We
6 6
will not discuss them in detail. Suffice it to say that they can be seen in two
contexts:
It is your turn! When theIt is head
your turn!
noun is indefinite or non-referential, as in the examples below,
7 7
even if the head noun is used, it must be either insan, kifli, kimse, biri, fley, etc.
depending on whether the intended head is a human or a thing.
8 153. [8RC Arayan soran] oldu mu?
154. [RC Çankaya’da inecek] var m›?
155. [RC Son gülen] iyi güler.
9 9
Examples in (153)-(155) show that the head noun is deleted. Thus, these are
headless RCs. In these cases, a head would be indefinite, such as Arayan soran
It is your turn! birileri olduIt ismu?, Çankaya’da inecek kimse var m›? and Son gülen kifli iyi güler.
your turn!
10 Headless
10 RCs are also used when the head noun is salient within the previous
discourse or else it can be recovered from the situational context. Look at the
It is your turn! following examples,
It is your turn! where (A) and (B) are speaking:
11 11
156. A: Hangi kitab› okumak istiyorsun?
B: [RC Dün ald›¤›m›] okuyaca¤›m.
It is your turn! 157. A: ItBu akflam
is your turn! partide hangi elbiseni giyeceksin?
12 B: [
12 RC Temizleyiciden yeni getirdi¤imi] giyece¤im.

13 13
As a result, headless RCs are used when the head noun is not specific, or when
the head is provided within the previous discourse or context of situation.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (Adv.C)

In this section we will briefly introduce Adverbial Clauses (Adv.Cs), which are
used to modify VPs or sentences. These clauses are called Adverbial Clauses
because they function as adverbials. Adv.Cs are extremely heterogenous both
morphologically and syntactically. This is because they take various kinds of
morphemes such as -ErEk, -IncE, -d›¤›nda, among others. Besides, they have
different kinds of structure.
For example, Adv.Cs may include control structures, as in the following example:
158. Alii [Adv.C PROi koflarak] geldi.
Adv.Cs may also have a different subject than that of the matrix clause:
159. [Adv.C Aysu gelince] Ali onunla uzun uzun konufltu.
Adverbials may be realized as Noun Clauses in PPs:
160. [PP [NC Can eve gelinceye] kadar]] ben dönerim.

Due to the heterogenuity in their structures, it is easier to group clauses that
function as Adverbials by their semantic type. Since the meaning rather than the
structure is the focus of this section, we will refer to types of Noun Clauses as in
(160) as Adv.Cs.
The table below presents the classification of some Adv.Cs:
Table 4.1
Classification of some Adverbial Clauses in Turkish
Meaning of Adv.C Examples of Adverbial Clauses

Time Kaplumba¤a [Adv.C ancak kafas›n› ç›kar›p risk ald›¤›nda]
(The events in the subordinate and matrix clauses ilerliyebiliyor.
occur at the same time)
Time
(The event in the matrix clause occurs after the event [Adv.C Sinemaya gidince] bilet alabilirsin.
in the Adv.C. takes place)
Time
[Adv.C PROarb Bilirken] susmak, [Adv.C PROarb
(Simultanous events- The events in Adv.C and in the
bilmezken] söylemek kadar kötüdür.
matrix clause occur at the same time.)
Time
(The event in the matrix clause occurs after the event [PP[NC Ev bir kez bittikten] sonra]] duvarc› unutulur
in the Adv.C.)
Time
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [Adv.C dünya döndükçe] var
(Duration- as long as the event in the Adv.C occurs
olacakt›r.
the one in the matrix clause will also take place)
Time
(shows that the action denoted by the matrix verbs Ali [Adv.C bu tabloyu görür görmez] sat›n ald›.
is immediately before the action in the matrix clause)
Time
Zeren [Adv.C kofltukça] kofluyor.
(shows frequency)
Manner
(The Adv.C shows how an action is carried out) Bebek [Adv.C a¤layarak] uyand›.
Manner
(The Adv.C expresses the way in which the action in Ceyda [Adv.C sa¤a sola bakmadan] yürüdü.
the matrix clause is performed)
Manner Ayhan [Adv.C kofla kofla] içeri girdi.
Purpose
Nazl› [PP[NC pro s›n›f›n› geçmek] için]çal›flt›.
(The Adv.C. expresses the goal to be reached).
Reason
Nazl› [s›n›f›n› geçti için] çok mutlu oldu.
(Shows the reason for the event in the matrix clause)
Concession
(shows that the Adv.C expresses some idea that is Nermin [pp[NC çok çal›flmas›na] ra¤men] baflar›l› olamad›.
surprising or unexpected)
Contrast
(shows that the Adv.C expresses contrast with the [Adv.C Karanl›¤a sövece¤ine] kalk bir mum yak.
event of the matrix clause)
Conditional
[Adv.C E¤er ya¤mur ya¤arsa] pikni¤e gidemeyiz.
(The Adv.C expresses a condition)
Intensifier
Ali [Adv.C cofltukça ] cofltu.
(The Adv. C shows the intensity denoted by the verb)
As a result, we see that Adv.Cs form a very diverse category that modify matrix
Verb Phrases. They can have a diverse range of morphemes; and they have various
meanings, as shown in Table 4:1 above.
2 2
2 2
3 3
It is your turn!
Unit 4 - Complex Sentences: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses, Adverbial It is your turn!
85
3 Clauses 3
4 4
It ismean:
Identify the Adverbial Clauses in the following and explain what they your turn! It is your turn!
4 4
• Gözlerini kapatt›¤›nda hep ayn› rüyay› görüyordu. 5 5
• Uzun zamandan beri gördü¤ü rüyalar art›yor; artt›kça korkuyordu. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Masa kurmak için tabak çanak gerekliydi. It is your turn! It is your turn!
5 5
6 6
Match the following tree diagrams with the sentences: It is your turn! It is your turn!
I. II. It is your turn! It is your turn!
6 6
S S 7 7
7 7
NP VP NP VP 8 8
PP Vgr
8 8
S 9V 9
S P Adv V NP It isVP
your turn! It is your turn!
9 9
10 10
NP VP It is your turn! It is your turn!
10 10
11 11
NP V
III. IV.
12 12
S S
It is your turn!
12 12 It is your turn!
NP VP VP 13 13
S
NP VP AdjP 13
Vcop 13
S V
NP V
NP VP
pro
PP V
NP P
Tenis oynamak sa¤l›kl›d›r.

Ahmet s›n›f›n› geçmek için çok çal›flt›.
Hasan okula kadar gitti¤ine sevindi.
Ali koflarak geldi.
Summary
In this unit subordinate clauses in Turkish are examined.

For a complete picture of sentence linking, coordination
is discussed briefly. Then, three types of subordinate
clauses are discussed: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses,
and Adverbial Clauses. These clauses are on a par with
Noun Phrases, Adjective Phrases, and Adverb Phrases,
respectively. In other words, these clauses fulfill the
functions of the respective phrases. We have seen that
while subordinate clauses have the structure of NP VP,
phrases have heads as their central element.
Noun clauses are used as subjects, objects, or

predicates of matrix clauses. Noun Clauses are formed
by some subordinbating morphemes, such as -DIk, -
EcEk, -mEk, -mE, and -(y)Ifl. We have seen that -D›k
and -EcEk clauses are similar to that- noun clauses in
English. -mEk and -mE clauses are like English
infinitives or gerunds that function as noun clauses.
The distribution of -mEk and -mE differ according to
whether the clause has an overt subject and agreement
suffixes at the end of the subordinate verb. The subject
of -mEk clauses is PRO; while the subject of a -mE
clause is a full NP, an overt pronoun, or pro. While -
DIk clauses express facts, -mE and -mEk clauses
express acts. -(y) Ifl clauses express the way in which
an action is carried out.
Relative clauses are found in Noun Phrases. The most

frequent subordinating relative clause morphemes are -
En, -DIk, -EcEk, and -mIfl. -En is used for the subject of
the underlying sentence; -DIk is used elsewhere. We
have also discussed various meanings of relativizing
morphemes. We have made a distinction between
restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses. A
restrictive relative clause restricts the denotation of its
head noun; while a non-restrictive relative clause adds
extra background information. There are also headless
relative clauses in Turkish in two cases: when the head
is not a specific noun and when the head is given in the
discourse or situational context.
Adverbial clauses form a very heterogenous group,

which have different subordinating morphemes and
differing clause structures. That is why we classified
them based on their meaning, as illustrated in Table
12.1.
Self-test
1. How many clauses are there in the following 6. Which one of the following has a headless relative
sentence? clause?
Neden sonra kendine geldi¤inde bakt› ki günefl tepeye a. Önünden dörtnala geçen atl›n›n ard›ndan bakt›.
gelmifl de devrilmifl gidiyor. b. At› süreni bildi.
a. 2 c. Oldu¤u yere çömeldi.
b. 3 d. Yele¤inden sallanan gümüfl köstek üstünde
c. 4 parmaklar›n› gezdirmeye bafllad›.
d. 5 e. Nurdan babas›n›n bir ad›m gerisinde
e. 6 konuflulanlar› dinleyen annesine bakt›.
2. Which one of the following subordinate clauses has 7. Why is the following sentence ungrammatical?
a PRO subject? *Ali Murat’› ›spanak piflirmek istiyor.
a. Ne düflündü¤ünüzü anlad›m. a. A subject control verb is used with a matrix
b. Annesinden kalan evleri aç›k artt›rmayla satt›lar. object.
c. Bebek oyunca¤›n›n nerede oldu¤unu bulamad›. b. An object control verb is used.
d. Kay›¤›n durmas›yla adam›n karaya atlamas› bir c. A subject Noun Clause is used.
oldu. d. A relative clause is used in the wrong place.
e. Nihayet akl›na evine gitmek geldi. e. None of the above
3. How would you define the following clause? 8. Which one of the following clauses is the easiest?
Naftalin konulmam›fl sand›klarda [katlar› aç›lmam›fl] a. [Dün izledi¤imiz] film
çeyizler sararacak.... b. [Yan›nda kütüphanenin bulundu¤u] bina
a. A restrictive relative clause c. [Ankara’da milletvekili olan] arkadafl›m
b. A non-restrictive relative clause d. [kitab›n› ald›¤›m] yazar
c. A subject noun clause e. [içinde benzin bulunmayan] depo
d. An Adverb Clause
e. An object Noun Clause 9. Which one of the following has coordination?
a. Bu ne sihirdir ne keramet.
4. What type of a clause is the following? b. Caner bulafl›klar› y›kad›¤› gibi kad›nlara da
‹çindeki korku [artt›kça] artt›. yard›m etti.
a. A restrictive relative clause c. “Olur” diye yan›t verdi Suna.
b. A non-restrictive relative clause d. Arabay› alt› ay önce sat›n alm›flt›.
c. A subject Noun Clause e. fieftali toplama iflini beceremeyiz.
d. An object Noun Clause
e. An Adverb Clause 10. Which one of the following has a predicative Noun
Clause?
5. Identify the following clause in brackets: a. Yafll› bir ihtiyar o.
Ali A¤a [ki kimin kap›s›na otursa] hiç sormas›z, hiç b. Sinirlerimin dayanaca¤›n› sanmam.
düflünmesiz verilirdi istedi¤i k›z. c. Kad›nlar kuflkusuz anlafl›lmaz yarat›klard›r.
a. A restrictive relative clause d. Amaç aralar›ndaki surunu çözmekti.
b. A non-restrictive relative clause e. Böyle yapmas› çok iyi olmufltu.
c. A subject Noun Clause
d. An object Noun Clause
e. An Adverb Clause
Turkish Alive
“ Büyü Ça¤›
Radikal
9 Nisan 2000:.5
Questions
• Identify the subordinating clauses in the numbered
sentences, as NCs, RCs, and Adv.Cs (3 for each).
TÜRKER ALKAN • What types of subordinating clauses do we encounter
in numbered clauses. Give examples for each types
Geçenlerde Birleflik Arap Emirliklerinde Dubai of clause:
Mahkemesi ilginç bir karar verdi. Bir kad›nca¤›z›n eflinin a. A clause which functions as a subject (Noun
ve görümcesinin içi s›k›lmaya bafllar. Clause)
1. Normal ahvalde depresyon teflhisi konabilecek b. A clause which functions as an object (Noun
olan bu olguyu kad›n›n büyüsüne yorarlar. Clause)
Kad›n hakk›nda dava aç›l›r. Bir bilirkifli oluflturulur. c. A clause which modifies a VP. (Adv.C)
2. Bilirkifli cinlere dan›flarak kad›n›n gerçekten d. A clause inside a PP
büyü yap›p yapmad›¤›n› sorar. e. A restrictive relative clause
3. Cinler (ki onlar herfleyi bilirler) kad›n›n yuvas›n› f. A nonrestrictive relative clause
kurtarmak için büyü yapt›rd›¤›n›, büyüyü eflinin g. A relative clause with ki
ve görümcesinin yeme¤ine kar›flt›rd›¤›n› h. A clause within another clause
söyleyince kad›n mahkum olur, ve kocas› boflar.
4. Koca ve görümce, ayr›ca iç s›k›nt›lar›n›n tazmin
edilmesini istemektedir.
Afrika ve Asya’n›n pek çok ülkesi hala ortaça¤› yafl›yor.
..
5. Yüzde 99.99 oyla milletvekili seçilen devlet
baflkan› çocuklar›,
6. seçim bile yap›lmayan Suudi Arabistan,
7. gitti¤i uluslararas› konferanslara Bedevi çad›r›n›
da götürüp otelin bahçesine kuran Kaddafi,
8. Kuran ezberleyen katillerin affedildi¤i bir adalet
düzeni...
9. ‹çinde yaflad›klar› düzenin rasyonel yap›s›n›n
bask›c›l›¤›ndan ve yaratt›¤› tekdüze dünyadan
s›k›lm›fl olan Bat›l›lar›n son y›llarda ortaya
att›klar› bir postmodern ak›m› var.
10. Bu ak›m›n en önemli önermelerinden birisi,
modernizmin büyük ölçüde rasyonelizme,
pozitivizme dayand›¤›, insan akl›n› gereksiz
biçimde yüceltti¤i, oysa karfl›laflt›klar› sorunlar›
s›rf ak›l, bilim ve mant›kla çözmenin olanaks›z
oldu¤u, insan sezgilerine ve elefltirici tavra daha
fazla yer verilmesi gerekti¤idir.
Ama...
11. Henüz ortaça¤da yaflayan pek çok
modernleflmemifl ülke için postmodernizmin ne
hükmü olabilir ki?
12. Hala büyü ça¤›nda yaflayan bu toplumlarda
insanlar›n as›l gereksinme duyduklar› fley biraz
ak›l, bilim ve teknoloji de¤il midir?
”
References Key to “It’s your turn!”

Erdal, Marcel (1998) “On the Verbal Noun in -(y)Ifl”. In It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1
Kamile ‹mer and Leyla S.Uzun (eds.) Do¤an Aksan
Arma¤an›. Dil ve Tarih-Co¤rafya Fakültesi Examples
It is your turn! of object NCs are repeated below for
It is your turn!
2 2
Yay›nlar›, Ankara: Pp: 53-68. convenience:

Erkman-Akerson, Fatma ve fieyda Ozil (1998) Türkçede • 3Ben [NC 3 senin Frans›zca konufltu¤u]nu
niteleme ifllevli yan tümceler. Simurg, ‹stanbul. It is your turn! bilmiyordum. It is your turn!
4 4
Johansson, Lars and Eva Agnes Csato (1998) The Turkic • Sen [NC Ayfle’nin parti verece¤i]ni duymufl
Languages. Routledge, New York. 5muydun? 5
Keenan, Edward and Bernard Comrie. (1977) “Noun • Ayhan [NCIt is yourMeral’in
It is your turn! turn! her gün yürüyüfl]ünü
Phrase Accessibility and Universal Grammar”. 6 6
sevinçle izliyor.
Linguistic Inquiry 8/1; 63-99. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• 7Ahmet [NC
7 söylediklerini Can’›n yanl›fl
Kornfilt, Jaklin (1996) “On Some Infinitival Wh-
It is your turn! anlamas›]naIt isflafl›rd›.
your turn!
Constructions in Turkish”. Dilbilim Araflr›rmalar›. 8 8
These NCs have the same distribution with object NPs
Ankara. Pp. 192-215. It is your turn! It is your turn!
because
9 these NCs9 can be replaced by full NPs and like
Kornfilt, Jaklin (1997) Turkish Routledge, London and
New York. NPs, they can be replaced
It is your turn! It is your turn! by pronouns as you see in
10 10
Kural, Murat (1994) “Yantümcelerde çekim Ekleri”. the following counterparts of these examples:
Dilbilim Araflt›rmalar›. Ankara. Pp. 80-111 • 11Ben [NP bu]nu
11 bilmiyordum.
Lees; Robert (1966) The Grammar of English • Sen [NP son Ithaber]i
It is your turn! is your turn!
duymufl muydun?
Nominalizations. Indiana University Press, • 12Ayhan [NP12yeni do¤an bebe¤]i sevinçle izliyor.
Bloomington. It is your•turn! Ahmet [
NC13Itbu]na
is your turn! flafl›rd›.
13
1 1
Sezer, Engin. (1991) Issues in Turkish Syntax. Ph.D.
dissertation. Harvard University, Boston. It is your turn!
2 2
It is your turn!
Taylan Erguvanl›, Eser (1998) “Türkçe’de Tümce The reasons for theIt isungrammaticality
It is your turn! your turn! of the following
yap›s›na sahip tümleç yantümceleri” In Kamile ‹mer 3 3
sentences are asked in this question:
and Leyla S. Uzun (eds). Do¤an Aksan Arma¤an›. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• 4*Ali [NC PRO 4 Ankara’ya gitmeye] zorlad›.
Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Co¤rafya Fakültesi
In this
It is your turn! example zorlamak
It is your turn! is an object control verb, but
Yay›nlar›, Ankara: Pp. 155-164. 5 5
no object is used in the matrix clause.
Underhill, Robert (1972) “Turkish participles” It is your turn! It is your turn!
Linguistic Inquiry, 3/1: 87-99. • 6*[PROarb Bu

6 havada ya¤mak] hofl olmaz.
Yavafl, Feryal. (1980) On the meaning of tense and PRO arb
It is your turn! must always
It is your turn! have a human subject
7 7
aspect markers in Turkish. Ph.D. dissertation. interpretation. Thus, it is incompatible with ya¤mak (to
University of Kansas. rain). 8 8
Vendler, Zeno (1968) Adjectives and • * Nurdan Sefer’i

It is your turn! [PRO çal›flmay›] denedi.
It is your turn!
9 9
Nominalizations. Mouton, Paris. Denemek is a subject control verb; but an object is used
Zimmer, Karl. (1990) “Overlapping Strategies in Turkish It is your turn!
in the 10matrix clause.
10
It is your turn!
relativization”. In B. Rona (ed.) Current Issues in • *Müdür sekretere [PRO mektup yazmak] rica etti.
Turkish Linguistics. Proceeding of the Fifth It is your turn!
The verb
1 rica etmek
1
11 11
It is your turn!
requires a -mE+Agreement suffix.
International Conference on Turkish
However,
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12
-mEk is12used in the sentence above.
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
Linguistics. (printed in 1996). Hitit Yay›nevi. 2 2
Ankara. Pp: 159-164. It is your turn!

It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13
3 13
3
The answers are given

It is your turn! below:
It is your turn!
4 4
I. The reasons for ungrammaticality of the following
are explained:
5 5
• *Ahmet sinemaya
It is your turn! It is your turn! gitti¤ine karar verdi.
6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10
1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4
5 5
Karar vermek is a verb that requires an act complement. It is your turn! It is your turn!
6 6
An act is expressed by using -mEk, not -DIk.
II. We can identify the Noun Clauses by using square I.It is your turn! 7 7
It is your turn!
brackets as illustrated in the following table: It is your turn!

S
It is your turn!
8 8
NC Function Meaning It is your turn! It is your turn!

9 9
Uzman bize [PROarb sa¤l›kl› Oblique object of Act NP VP
beslenmekten] söz etti. the matrix verb. It is your turn!
10 10
It is your turn!
Nermin [pro bir s›n›f arkadafl›yla Direct object of the Fact Ahmeti
evlendi¤ini] söyledi matrix verb 11 11
PP Vgr
Nermin; [PROi yak›nda bir Direct object of the Act It is your turn! It is your turn!
12 12
s›n›f arkadafl›yla evlenmek]
It is your turn! It is your turn! matrix verb
istiyor.
1 1
(subject control) It is your turn! S It is your turn! P Adv V
13 13
[Selcan’›n
2 flark› söyleyifli]
2 beni Subject of the Fact
için çok çal›flt›
yordu.
matrix sentence NP VP
3 3
It is your turn! It is your turn! PROi

4 4 NP V
The
It is your turn!RCs in this question It is your turn! can be shown as in the
5 5
s›n›f›n› geçmek
following:
• 6[NP [RC 6Afrika’da yaflayan] filler]] avc›lar
II.
It is your turn! taraf›ndan ac›mas›zcaIt is your turn! avlan›yor.
S
• 7[NP [RC Hayvanlar›n 7
en a¤›r› olan] filler]] tropik
It is your turn!
8
ormanlarda8 Ityaflar.
is your turn!
The head noun is filler in both NPs. In the first sentence,

It is your turn! It is your turn! NP VP
the RRC 9 Afrika’da9 yaflayan selects a subset among
members
ItItisisyour
yourturn!
turn! of elephants.ItItisisyour Without the RC, the meaning of
yourturn!
turn!
Alii
101 1
10
the sentence would change.
ItItisisyour
yourturn!
turn! ItItisisyour
yourturn!
turn! S V
In the 11second
2 sentence
112
the NRC covers all the members
of elephants; the RC merely adds further, optional
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn! geldi
information. 3
12 Omission
3
12 of the NRC would not change NP VP
the
It is yourmeaning
It is your turn!
turn! of theItItissentence.
is your turn!
your turn!
4 4
13 13
PROi koflarak
5 5
In the
It is your turn! following table, Adv.Cs are given in brackets.
It is your turn!
6 6
Adv.C
It is your turn! Meaning
It is your turn!
7 7
[Adv.C Gözlerini Modifies the time of the matrix verb;
kapatt›¤›nda]
8
hep ayn›
8
the action in the Adv.C precedes
rüyay› görüyordu. the event in the matrix clause.
Uzun zamandan
9 beri9 Modifies the verb in terms of frequency
gördü¤ü
It is your turn! rüyalar art›yor;
It is your turn!
10 10
[Adv.C artt›kça]
korkuyordu.
11 11
[PP[Adv.C Masa kurmak Shows purpose

için]] tabak 12 çanak 12

gerekliydi.
13 13
III.
S
NP VP
Hasan
S V
sevindi
NP VP
pro
PP V
gitti¤ine
NP P
okula kadar
IV.
S
S VP
NP VP AdjP Vcop
PRO sa¤l›kl› d›r

NP V
tenis oynamak
5
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
What is semantics?
N
What do denotation and connotation mean?
N
How are lexical items related in terms of meaning?
N
What is hyponymy?
N
What is synonymy?
N
What is antonymy?
N
What is homonymy?
N
What is polysemy?
N
What is entailment?
What is presupposition?
Key Words
• semantics • synonymy • homonymy
• denotation • collocation • polysemy
• connotation • euphemism • entailment
• lexical relations • antonymy • paraphrase
• hyponymy • binary antonyms • presupposition
• superordinte terms • gradable antonyms • presupposition
• hypernymy • converse antonyms triggers
Contents
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, • INTRODUCTION

Pragmatics and Discourse • SENTENCE LEVEL
Semantics
(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, SEMANTICS: BASIC
Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi) CONCEPTS
Semantics
INTRODUCTION
Semantics is the study of meaning in language items such as morphemes, words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences. The branch of linguistics that studies word meaning
is known as lexical semantics and the one that studies the sentence meaning is
known as sentence semantics. We will be mainly concerned with the meaning
in lexical items and how words are related in terms of meaning.
Semantics contrasts with pragmatics in that the former studies linguistic meaning
separately from its extra-linguistic context; while pragmatics is concerned with
meaning in all kinds of contexts, including extra linguistic context. Native speakers
know the structure and meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences.
Lexical semantics investigates the meaning of words.
Denotation and Connotation

These terms are used to show two different types of meaning of words. Denotation
is the literal, referential meaning; while connotation is the meaning with a positive
or negative emotional association of the word. A textbook example to show this
distinction is house (ev) vs. home (yuva). The dictionary definitions - namely the
denotations - are as in the following:
House: A building which people, usually one family, live in

Home: The house, apartment, etc. where you live, especially with your family
(Cambridge Dictionary Online)
Ev: Bir kimsenin veya ailenin içinde yaflad›¤› yer, konut, hane
Yuva: Genellikle ailenin oturdu¤u ev
(Türk Dil Kurumu, Büyük Sözlük)
As shown above these words have approximately the same definitions in the
dictionary: a place where one lives. Since these definitions are the denotations of
these words, house and home have the same or similar denotations. On the other
hand, home and yuva in English and Turkish, respectively have additional
meanings: coziness, warmth, love, comfort, security, and / or privacy are some
emotional associations evoked with the use of the words home and yuva for many
speakers. In the same vein, speakers make connections between various images,
emotions, attitudes, opinions, and memories and words.
It is your turn! Identify the Itdenotations

is your turn! and connotations of the following words:
1 1. Zay›f/s›ska
1
2. Tutumlu/cimri
3. Cömert/müsrif
4. Ak›ll›/cingöz
2 2
Words with different connotations can have the same denotation. For example,
It is your turn! It isthe
the capital of yourUnited
turn! Kingdom and the largest city in the United Kingdom denote
3 the same3object, although they connote different attributes (Bunnin and Yu, 2004).
It is your turn! Lexical Relations

It is your turn!
4 We know4 that every speaker has a mental dictionary, namely lexicon. The speaker
knows how a word is pronounced as well as its syntactic properties, its meaning,
It is your turn!
its collocations, in which cases it can be used, etc. Also words are related to one
It is your turn!
another in different ways. In the following sections, these relations among words
5 5
will be introduced. Most of these relations contain the suffix -nym, which literally
means name. This suffix comes from the Greek onoma meaning name or word:
It is your turn!
Hyponymy,It is your turn!
synonymy, antonymy, etc.
6 6
Hyponymy
It is your turn! It is your between
One relationship turn! the words is known as hyponymy. Hypo- is a prefix that
7 7 Greek meaning under, beneath, below, lower and -nym means name.
comes from
Therefore, hyponyms are specific word meanings that are included under a word
It is your turn! with a moreIt isgeneral
your turn!meaning. Colors like white, red, blue, green are related to one
8 another rather
8 than pairs such as white and spinach. The word white is a hyponym
of the word color.
It is yourFigure
turn! 5.1 It is your turn!
9 9
MEYVA
FRUITS
10 10
elma fleftali armut muz portakal

It is your turn! apples It is your turn!peachec pears bananas oranges
11 11

In the Figure above, the names of fruits are in coordination relationship: apples,
12 12
pears, oranges, bananas, grapefruit, lemons, pineapple, peaches, mango,
nectarines, apricots, strawberries, etc.
In this case, turn!(apple) and all other words are hyponyms of the word meyva
elma
13 13 fleftali and those at the same level are said to be co-hyponyms. The
(fruit). Elma,
word meyva (fruit) is the superordinate term, also known as hypernym.
Verbs can also denote states and actions that are hyponyms and superordinate
terms. An example would be the hyponyms of the verb bakmak (look) as in the
following: dikizlemek (peep), gözetlemek (peep), göz atmak, göz gezdirmek (stare),
bön bön bakmak (gape), bakakalmak (gawk), izlemek (oversee), seyretmek
(watch), etc.
It is your Unit
turn! 5 - Semantics 95
It is your turn!
1 1
Using a Turkish dictionary find out hyponyms of the word k›rm›z› (red)
It is yourinturn!
Turkish. It is your turn!
2 2
Synonymy
Synonyms are words that are supposed to have the same meaning. Some examples
are glad, happy, and felicitous in English and mesut, bahtiyar, and mutlu in
3 3
Turkish. Although these words seem to have the same meaning, they have some
differences in different contexts as we shall see below. Therefore, there are no
perfect synonyms. This is because two words can hardly share It is the
your turn!
same meaning It is your turn!
in all contexts. Synonyms may have different etymologies (foreign or native 4 origin), 4
different connotations, different collocations, and different levels of formality.
Synonyms do not overlap in all contexts because of collocational It is yourconstraints
turn! and It is your turn!
stylistic variation associated with the meaning of the word: 5 5
• Collocational Constraints: Collocation is a term that is used to refer to the
possibility of using two or more words together. The prefix co means
It is your turn! together It is your turn!
and locate means take place. For instance, drink and coffee can collocate 6 but 6
drink stone is not a possible phrase but throw stone is. Therefore, collocational
restrictions do not allow the use of some terms together. In terms of
collocational possibilities, not all synonyms can be used instead of one
another. In the following find out which pair is possible and which 7 is not: 7
1. a. Karalar ba¤lamak - b. siyahlar ba¤lamak
2. a. gençlik dönemi b. gençlik devresiIt is your turn! It is your turn!
3. a. Aln›m ak b. aln›m beyaz 8 8
All native speakers of Turkish would say that examples in (1a), (2a); and (3a)
are possible, while the ones in (1b), (2b), and (3b) are not. This
It is your turn!shows that It is your turn!
although kara - siyah; dönem - devre; ak - beyaz might have the same meanings 9 in 9
some contexts, they do not completely overlap in all collocational contexts.
• Stylistic variation (euphemistic, formal or informal styles) It is your turn! It is your turn!
One word in a synonymous group can be more euphemistic than1the other: 1
10 10
For example, öl-, vefat et- are synonyms but the latter is more euphemistic.
Euphemism is a term that is used to replace a term ItItthat is your
is
canturn!be offensive It is your turn!
is your
your turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
or a taboo. Therefore, no two words mean exactly theIt same turn!
2
thing. 2
turn!
1
11 1
11
Find out whether the following are possible collocations or not. It is your turn! It is your turn!
1. Mutlu insanlar, mesut insanlar, bahtiyar insanlar It is your turn! 3 3 It is your turn!
2. Mutluluk testi, mesutluk testi, bahtiyarl›k testi 2 2
12 12
3. Mutlu bir an, mesut bir an , bahtiyar bir an
4. Mutlulu¤un s›rr›, Mesutlu¤un s›rr›, Bahtiyal›¤›n s›rr› It is your turn! It is your turn!
5. Mutluluk duymak, Mesutluk duymak, Bahtiyarl›k duymak 3 3
13 13
Find out whether bafl and kafa are complete synonyms. Test this byItIt providing
is your turn! examples of
is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
their possible collocations. 5 5
4 4
Antonymy It is your turn!

It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
Antonyms are two words that have opposite meanings, such as siyah (black) 6 and 6
5 5
beyaz (white) or yükselmek (ascend) and alçalmak (descend), etc. There are three
types of antonyms: It is your turn! It is your turn!
7 7
6 6

8 8
7 7

9 9
8 8
a. Binary Antonyms
b. Gradable Antonyms
c. Converse Antonyms
Binary antonyms are words with two opposite ends. There is no continuum
between these two ends. There are only two opposing points. This duality is
signaled with the word binary, which means twofold or dual. Some examples are
ölü — canl› and evli - bekar. These are binary antonyms because all people are
either dead or alive or they are either married or single. These words can not be
graded by using degree adverbs as in the following: daha ölü (more dead), daha
canl› [in this particular sense (more alive)] and daha evli (more married), en evli
(the most married), etc. Gradable antonyms show the meaning of words that are
at the opposite ends of gradable terms. For example, küçük (small) and büyük
(big) are an examples of gradable antonyms. This is because they are gradable
such as daha küçük (smaller), en büyük (the biggest), etc. Furthermore, there is
another dimension such as orta (medium), which is between the two opposing
It is your turn! ends. Likewise,
It is yours›cak
turn! (hot) and so¤uk (cold) are gradable antonyms and there are
1 degrees of
1 heat including ›l›k (cool) among others. Gradable antonyms are usually
found in the case of gradable adjectives or adverbs and sometimes in verbs
denoting degree such as bay›lmak and nefret etmek. Converse antonyms are
pairs that describe the relationship from opposite perspectives. For example, anne
2 2
- çocuk; iflçi - patron; ö¤retmen - ö¤renci are converse antonyms because their
relationship depends on the other pair. Somebody is a parent, because that person
It is your turn! has a child,It and
is yoursomebody
turn! is a child of someone who is the parent.
3 3
In summary, binary antonyms denote absolute values; whereas gradable
antonyms show two opposing ends of gradient properties or events / states.
It is your turn! Converse antonyms,
It is your turn! on the other hand, show relative relations from opposing
4 points of4view.
It is your turn! Identify the Ittype of turn!

is your antonymy in the following examples:
5 1. yafll› - 5genç
2. tekil - ço¤ul
3. aç›k - kapal›
4. temiz - pis
6 6
5. önce - sonra - converse antonyms
6. almak - satmak
It is your turn! 7. dinlemekIt -iskonuflmak
your turn!
7 7
8. izin vermek - yasaklamak
9. sevmek - sevmek
It is your turn! 10. uyan›k It- uykuda
is your turn!
8 11. kazanmak8 - kaybetmek
It is your turn!
Homonymy
It is your turn!
Homonyms are words that are pronounced the same way but have completely
9 9
different meanings. The word comes from Greek homos (same) + nym (name),
meaning the same name. Examples from Turkish are given below:
10 10

11 11

12 12
Unit 5 - Semantics 97
ac›: bitter kart: card Table 5.1

ac›: spicy hot kart: aged, not fresh
aç: hungry kur: currency
aç: open kur: set
(as in Çalar saati kur-Set the alarm clock).
kur yap- court
a¤r›: pain sa¤: right
A¤r›: a city in Eastern Turkey sa¤: healthy and alive
cilt: complexion sak›z: Chewing gum 1 1
cilt: volume (of a book) Sak›z: the name of a Greek island, i.e. Chios
çat›: roof s›kmak: to bore someone
çat›: voice in language (such as active It isof
s›kmak: squeeze juice your turn!
a fruit It is your turn!
and passive voice) 2 2
yar: lover yüz: face
yar: cliff yüz: one hundred
yüz: swim It is your turn! It is your turn!
yüz: 3
to skin (like to skin an animal) 3
yaz: write
yaz: Summer
4 4
As shown in these examples, words that look alike have different meanings.
It is your turn!
They are considered to be different words and they have different entries in the It is your turn!
lexicon. Homonyms have totally different meanings. 5 5
Which examples below are the instances of homonyms? It is your turn! It is your turn!
Ayfle okulu ast›. Ayfle çamafl›rlar› ast›. 6 6
Sert koltuk, sert ö¤retmen, sert hava
Bu terslikler art›k beni s›kt›. Hasan çamafl›rlar› s›kt›. It is your turn! It is your turn!
Hava açt›, çiçekler açt›, Ayfle kap›y› açt›.
7 7
Polysemy
is your turn! 1 1 It is your turn!
Polysemy is the case when the same word refers to many Itdifferent things. The
word comes from Greek poly (many) + semeion (sign). Polysemy and homonymy 8 8
are terms that can cause some confusion at times because there may be some
problems when we deal with polysemy and homonymy. While It is your turn! 2
polysemy is one 2 It is your turn!
word with several meanings, homonymy is several words with the same 9 spelling 9
and pronunciation. The problem is to decide when there is aIt case is your of polysemy or
homonymy. A polysemous word has several and related meanings. 3
It is your turn!dictionaries
In 3 It is your turn!
polysemy is given as a single entry with several definitions but homonyms 10 are 10
given as different entries. For example, bafl (head) is a caseItof polysemy
is your turn! in both It is your turn!
Turkish and English. It is the part of a human body and other uses are related:
flirketin bafl› (head of a company), sürünün bafl› (head of the herd), etc. Another
11 11
example is etek (skirt) as in ete¤ini giydi (she wore her skirt) and da¤›n ete¤i (the
skirt of a mountain). When we say üniversitede yay›n say›s› artt› (the publications
have increased at the university), where the university is an institution
It is your turn!and bugün
üniversiteye gittim (I went to the university today); where the university 12 is a 12
It is your turn!
building, the word university has polysemy since the two meanings are related but It is your turn!
distinct (an institution vs. a building). 6 6
13 13
Why do you think alçak involves polysemy in the following examples?
Alçak adam, alçak kald›r›m, alçak gönüllü, alçak bas›nç, etc. 7 7

8 8

SENTENCE LEVEL SEMANTICS: BASIC CONCEPTS

We will now concentrate on meaning at the sentenceevel rather than lexical items.
When we are concerned with meaning of statements, we need the term proposition.
Proposition is a term that is used in semantics and philosophy. It covers the
meaning or the content of a sentence that is represented in the mind of a person.
For example: John is a new student has a proposition exactly corresponding to its
meaning. The proposition is the same in any language it can be uttered, be it
English, French, German, Japanese or Turkish. According to Merriam - Webster
dictionary a proposition is an expression in language or signs of something that
can be believed, doubted, or denied or is either true or false. Therefore, truth or
falsity is an important aspect of a proposition.
Entailment
An entailment is the meaning of a proposition that is necessarily conveyed in
It is your turn! another proposition.
It is your turn! In other words, in the case of entailment, a proposition P
1 entails another
1 proposition Q when the truth of Q is the result of the truth of P.
Some examples are as follows:
Ben Eskiflehir’de oturuyorum. P (proposition P)
Ben Türkiye’de oturuyorum. Q (proposition Q)
2 2
P → Q (P entails Q but not vice versa)
If it is true that I live in Eskiflehir, then this entails that I live in Turkey because
It is your turn! Eskiflehir isIt located
is your turn!
in Turkey.
3 3
Pupa bir fildir. P
Pupa bir hayvand›r. Q
It is your turn! If ‘PupaIt bir fildir.’
is your turn! is true then ‘Pupa bir hayvand›r.’ is necessarily true since
4 elephants4 are animals.
It is your turn! These are

It is called
your turn!unidirectional (one-way) entailment because only P entails Q
5 but Q cannot
5 entail P. In other words, the proposition I live in Turkey does not
entail that I live in Eskiflehir. Likewise, when Pupa is an animal, it is not necessarily
an elephant, it can be a dog, a cat, etc.
Entailment can be bidirectional. This means that both proposition P and
6 6
proposition Q may entail one another. In that case, two propositions have the
same meaning. Then, this is known as paraphrase. For instance, Ali Ayfle’yle
It is your turn! evlendi andIt isAli
yourveturn!
Ayfle nikah k›yd›lar mutually entail each other. Thus, they are
7 7
paraphrases.
It is your turn! Determine which

It is yourpair
turn!is entailed by the other and identify whether they are unidirectional
8 or bidirectional
8 entailments.
1. Ahmet New York’a gitti. Ahmet Amerika k›tas›na gitti.
It is your turn!
2. ‹nsanlar ölümlüdür
It is your turn!
ve Hüsamettin de bir insan.
3. Hasan ve Sedat ayn› annenin çocuklar›d›r. Hasan ve Sedat kardefltirler.
9 9
Presupposition
Presupposition is used to refer to the part(s) of a proposition taken for granted.
10 10
For example, if I say sigaray› b›rakt›n (You’ve quit smoking), this presupposes that
you used to smoke. Presupposition persists under negation, interrogation, and
conditionals.
11 11

12 12

1 1
Sigaray› b›rakt›n. 2 2
Sigaray› b›rakmad›n.
Sigaray› b›rakt›n m›?
E¤er sigaray› b›raksayd›n,.....
3 3
In all of the examples above the presupposition is still the same (You used to
smoke). The presupposition does not change when the statement is negated,
questioned or used within the scope of a conditional. There isIt ais your
groupturn!of linguistic It is your turn!
items that bring presupposition to the sentence in which they are used. 4These are 4
known as presupposition triggers. The following are some presupposition
triggers: It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Some verbs: anla- (realize), fark et- (notice), bil- (know), piflman ol- 5 (regret), 5
fark›na var- (become aware of), baflar- (succeed), hallet- (manage), bitir-
(finish), devam et- (continue), etc. It is your turn! It is your turn!
• Some adverbials: yeniden (again), bir kez daha (one more time), 6 bir tane 6
daha (one more), biraz daha (some more), art›k (any more), etc.
These lexical items as well as some constructions known as cleft sentences
(What John did was to buy the best picture in the shop) carry presuppositions (in
that case John bought a picture). 7 7
The term presupposition is used both in semantics and pragmatics. Therefore,
It is your
it is relevant to these branches of linguistics. This topic is also turn!
explained in the It is your turn!
Pragmatics unit in this book. 8 8
What do the following presuppose? It is your turn! It is your turn!

1. Bir kahve daha içer misiniz? 9 9
2. Ahmet, ne zaman fabrikada çal›flmaya bafllad›?
3. Sekreter mektup yazmay› ne zaman bitirdi? It is your turn! It is your turn!
4. Sezen’in çok fazla domates ald›¤›n› fark ettim.
10 10
5. Can, Paris’e son gidiflinde beni de götürdü.
6. Serap piyano çalmaya devam edecek.
7. Cem’in sorusunu yan›tlad›m.
11 11

12 12

13 13
Summary
In this unit we have presented some basic Antonyms are words that have opposite
concepts of Semantics. Semantics is the study of meanings. While binary antonyms denote only
meaning in language. We have concentrated on two opposing aspects; gradable antonyms have
lexical semantics in Turkish. Firstly, we have seen degrees and values in between two opposite
the terms denotation vs. connotation. While ends. Converse antonyms show opposing
denotation is the literal dictionary meaning, relations from the other’s perspective.
connotation conveys additional meaning shaded Homonyms are different words with the same
with some emotions, opinions, perspectives spelling and/or pronunciation, but mean
either positive or negative. Words are related to completely different things: Gül is in fact two
one another in terms of their meaning. Among different words, meaning the flower rose and the
these relations, we have considered hyponymy, imperative form of the verb smile. This is an
synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, and example of homonymy. In the case of polysemy
polysemy. Terms like sandalye (chair), masa a single word may have different but related
(table), koltuk (airmchair), gradrop (wardrobe), meanings, such as tafl (stone) in plajdaki tafl (the
etc. are homonyms of mobilya (furniture). stone on the beach) and tafl kalpli (stone-hearted),
Mobilya is in turn the superordinate term that where in the latter the hard property of a stone
covers all other words denoting the types of is likened to the property of a heart.
furniture. Masa and sandalye are also related Other terms included in the unit are not lexical
because they are co-hyponyms. Synonymy is a relations but relations between sentence-level
lexical relation where two words have the same propositions: Entailment and presupposition.
meaning. Although two words may have the Entailment is a type of meaning that is conveyed
same or similar meaning, their uses do not in the meaning of another proposition.
completely overlap in all contexts. Even two Presupposition is background information that is
synonymous words may have different taken for granted in a proposition.
connotations, might be used in different
collocations, and at differing formality contexts.
Self-test
1. The word in bebek in Ayfle’nin bebe¤i ‘Ayfle’s baby’ 6. Dönmek in Sedat sevgilisine döndü ve Dünya Güne-
and göz bebe¤i ‘pupil’ are examples of: flin etraf›nda dönüyor is an example of:
a. Synonymy a. Polysemy
b. Antonymy b. Homonymy
c. Homonymy c. Synonymy
d. Polysemy d. Presupposition
e. Entailment e. Euphemism
2. Cam› açt›. Bu zümrüt yeflili ormana bak›nca içim 7. The phrase ruhsal özürlü is a ....... for deli.
aç›ld›. Çocuk denizde çok aç›ld›. Acele bu konuyu hiç a. Polysemy
açt›. b. Homonymy
The verb aç- in the examples above is an example of: c. Synonymy
a. Synonymy d. Presupposition
b. Antonymy e. Euphemism
c. Homonymy
d. Polysemy 8. – Ayfle uçakta çok korktu.
e. Entailment – Ayfle uçakla seyahat etti.
The propositions above are related because:
3. Kalp krizi vs. yürek krizi; yüreklilik göstermek vs. a. The first is a paraphrase of the second.
kalplilik göstermek b. the second is a paraphrase of the first.
Although the words kalp and yürek are synonymous, c. The first entails the second.
they are different in terms of their: d. The second entails the first.
a. Denotation e. The second is presupposed by the first.
b. Euphemism
c. Entailment 9. Which pair of propositions involves entailment?
d. Presupposition a. Ahmet Bey’in çocuklar› geldi. Ahmet Bey’in
e. Collocational properties k›zlar› geldi.
b. Ayfle anne oldu. Ayfle bir kad›nd›r.
4. Köpek (dog) is a ........ of hayvan (animal). c. Ahmet baba oldu. Ahmet’in o¤lu 2 yafl›nda.
a. Hyponym d. Sedat ‹stanbul’a gitti. ‹stanbul Türkiye’nin en
b. Antonym büyük kentidir.
c. Connotation e. Telefonumu kaybettim. Telefon almam gerek.
d. Denotation
e. Polysemy 10. Which one presupposes that I have a sister?
a. K›zkardeflimi görmedim.
5. The adjectives ak›ll› and aptal are: b. K›zkardeflim Eskiflehir’e gelirse, onunla konufla-
a. Converse antonyms ca¤›m.
b. Binary antonyms c. K›zkardeflim sinemaya gitti.
c. Gradable antonyms d. K›zkardeflim bana küstü.
d. Denotations e. All of the above.
e. Entailments
Turkish Alive
“ The following text is a short extract from a research

study on the significance of colors in ancient Turkish
culture. Try to figure out connotations of various colors
ederler. Bazen de bunun tam tersi olarak lohusa kad›-
na k›rm›z› hiçbir fley göstermezler ve tedavi için alaz-
lamaya baflvururlar (‹nan 1987: 259, 260, 261, 264).
given in the text. Bununla ilgili olarak Türk hurafelerinde ruhlar›n ak,
Eski Türk Kültüründe Renk Kavram› kara, sar› ve kuba-esmer denilen renklerde oldu¤una
Salim Küçük inan›l›rd› (‹nan 1987: 265).
Mitoloji, Egemenlik ve Renkler Türk mitolojisinde hay›r ilah› Ülgen’ in koruyucu ruh
Altay Türklerine ait Yarad›l›fl destan›nda tanr› Kara olarak kabul edilen yedi o¤lundan birinin ad› Yafl›l’ d›r.
Han (Kayra Han) güç sahibi olarak karfl›m›za ç›kar. Yafl›l Ka¤an’›n bitkilerin yetiflip büyümesinden sorumlu
Gök tanr›n›n Ak Han, K›z›l Han, Sar› (Kara) Han, Ye- oldu¤una inan›l›rd› (Genç 1996: 41, 42). Tanr› Ülgen’in
flil Han adlar›nda dört o¤lu vard›. Yakut Türklerine ait k›zlar›na ise Ak K›zlar deniyordu (Ögel 1998: 571).
Yarat›l›fl destan›nda Ürüng-Ay›g-Toyon denilen Yakut- Türk mitolojisinde kap›lar› alt›ndan bir saraya ve alt›n
lar›n en büyük Tanr›s›n›n ad› Beyaz-Yarat›c›-Tanr› bir tahta sahip olan ve
veya Beyaz-Yarat›c›’ d›r. Bu efsanede geçen Ak-Ene Yakutlar taraf›ndan Ak Toyun da denilen ve kendisine
veya Ak-Ana ya da Ürüng-Ay¤s›t ise Beyaz Kad›n Ya- beyaz at kurban edilen Tanr› Ülgen’ in taht›, nas›l dev-
rat›c›’d›r (Ögel 1998: 430,431, 444). Altay Türkçesinde letin, ülkenin ve dünyan›n merkezi olarak alg›lanm›fl
ak “cennet” Manas›na geliyordu. Cennette oturan tan- ise, sar› renk de merkez ve hükümranl›¤›n sembolü ol-
r›lara Aktu yani Akl›lar; “rengi ve ruhu bembeyaz olan” mufltur (Genç 1997: VIII, 31, K›r›mhan 2001: 110). Ör-
deniyordu. Bunlar Süt-Ak Göl’ ün yani süt renginde ne¤in; O¤uz Ka¤an destan›nda ka¤anl›k sembolü “Al-
olan göllerin bulundu¤u gö¤ün üçüncü kat›nda oturu- tunlug bel ba¤›”d›r. Cengiz Han’da bu, bez veya ipek
yorlard› (Ögel 1998: 571). üzerine yap›lm›fl alt›n bir kuflakt› (Ögel 1991: 364). Al-
‹yilik tanr›s› ve Yakutlar›n güzellik tanr›ças› Ayz›t gök- t›n›n rengini, merkezin hâkimiyetini ve gücü ifade eden
ten gümüfl tüylü beyaz k›srak suretinde yere iner, bir sar›, tarihte Türklerin s›kça kulland›¤› renklerden biri
çocuk do¤aca¤› zaman tarla, çiçek ve yemifl perileriyle olmufltur. Öyle ki Türk sar›s›na “Alt›n Sar›s›” denilmifl-
birlikte lohusan›n yan›na gider, Ak Göl’ den (Ak Deniz, tir. Buna karfl›l›k sar›, Türk kültüründe ayn› zamanda
Süt Denizi, Süt-Ak göl) ald›¤› bir damla sütü çocu¤un felaketin, kötülü¤ün, hastal›¤›n, yabanc›l›¤›n, düflmanl›-
a¤z›na damlat›r ve böylece ruh bedene girmifl olurdu ¤›n ve nefretin de simgesi olmufltur (Bayat 1993: 52).
”
(Ögel 1995: 365, Ögel 1998: 103). Bafl›nda ak bir kal-
pak, omuzlar›nda ak bir atk› ve ayaklar›nda siyah bir From: Küçük, Salim (2010) “Eski Türk Kültüründe
çizme oldu¤una inan›lan Ayz›t ad›na düzenlenen Ayz›t Renk Kavram›” bilig Yaz 2010 Say› 54: 185-210 Ahmet
Bayram›’nda yaz›n yap›lan törenleri beyaz elbise giyin- Yesevi Üniversitesi Mütevelli Heyet Baflkanl›¤›
mifl Ülgen’e ba¤l› Ak fiamanlar idare eder ve ormanda
yap›lan bu törene kad›nlar kat›lmazd›. Kad›nlar›n da
kat›ld›¤› k›fl›n yap›lan törenleri ise siyah elbise giyinmifl
Erlik’e ba¤l› Kara fiamanlar idare ederdi (2002: 287).
Türklerin en eski inançlar›nda yer alan al ruhu veya
al atefl ad› verilen atefl tanr›s› ise koruyucu bir ruhtu
(Ögel 1995: 516, Genç 1996: 41). Yakut, Altay, Yeni-
sey Türklerinin inançlar›nda rastlad›¤›m›z ve izleri bu-
gün Anadolu’da görülen Al ruhuyla ilgili olarak Albas-
t›, Alkar›s›, Alb›z/Alb›s, Alm›fl, Abas› gibi kelimelere
rastlar›z. Al bast›, Kara Albast› ve Sar› Albast› olmak
üzere ikiye ayr›l›r. Lohusa kad›nlara kötülük yapt›¤›na
inan›lan bir ruhtur (Ögel 1998: 69, 300). Bu nedenle
lohusa yatakta iken bafl›na beyaz yaflmak ve k›rm›z›
tül ba¤lay›p k›rm›z› alt›n takarlar, k›rm›z› fleker hediye
References
Aksan, Do¤an. (1978). Anlambilimi ve Türk i The distinction between denotation and connotation
Anlambilimi (Ana Çizgileriyle). Ankara: Ankara was first introduced by the 19th Century British
Üniversitesi DTCF Yay›nlar›. philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806 -1873). These words
Aksan, Do¤an. (1998). Anlambilim, Anlambilim are approximately synonymous with the German
Konular› ve Türkçenin Anlambilimi. Ankara: logician, and philosopher Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob
Engin Yay›nevi. Frege’s (1848 1925) distinction between Sinn (sense)
Aksan, Do¤an. (2007). Her Yönüyle Dil Ana and Bedeutung (reference). (For further information, cf.
Çizgileriyle Dilbilim. Ankara: TDK Yay›nlar›. Bunnin and Jiyuan (2004) The Blackwell Dictionary
Barker, Chris (2006) “Lexical Semantics”, Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy).
of Cognitive Science.
Bunnin, Nicholas and Jiyuan Yu (eds.) (2004) The
Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy,
Malden: Blackwell.
Çetinkaya, Bayram (2007) “Ba¤lam ‹çerisinde yürek ve
kalp sözcükleri” Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal
Bilimler Dergisi, 2007: 111-134.
Jackson, Howard and Etienne Zé Amvela (2000) Words,
meaning and vocabulary: An introduction to
modern English lexicology. London: Continuum
International Publishing Group.
Karaman, Burcu ‹lkay (2009) Türkçede anlam karfl›tl›¤›,
Turkish Studies: International Periodical For
the Languages, Literature and History of
Turkish or Turkic, 4/8: 1642- 1651.
Küçük, Salim (2010) “Eski Türk Kültüründe Renk
Kavram›”. Bilig, Yaz 2010 Say› 54: 185-210 Ahmet
Yesevi Üniversitesi Mütevelli Heyet Baflkanl›¤›
Sar›, Mustafa. (2011). “Türkiye Türkçesinde efl
anlamal›l›k ile ilgili baz› sorunlar”. Turkish Studies:
International Periodical For The Languages,
Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 6/1:
523-528
Stamenkovi_, Du_an.(2010) . “Metaphoric and Extended
uses of the hyponyms of the verbs look in English
and gledati in Serbian”. Facta Universitatis:
Linguistics and Literature 8/ 1: 19 - 33
Uçar, Aygül (2009) “Anlambilimsel ba¤lant›l›l›k: Türkçe
eylemlerde çokanlaml›l›k ve efladl›l›¤›n ayr›m›”. In
Essays on Turkish Linguistics (S. Ay; Ö. Aydin;
‹ Ergenç; S. Gökmen; S. ‹flsever, D. Peçenek, Eds.)
Harrasotitz Verlag. Wiesbaden Pp:207-216)
1 1
2 2
Key to It’s your turn It is your turn!

3 3
It is your turn!

1 1 4 4

Identify
It is your turn!
2
the denotations
2
It is your turn!
and connotations of the Although 5 bafl and 5kafa are synonymous in that they are
following words: both used
It is your turn!
to refer to the same organ in our body, they
It is your turn!
While 3zay›f is a neutral 3 property, s›ska has negative cannot
It is your turn!
6
be used 6
interchangeably
It is your turn!
in thefolloiwng
connotations,
It is your turn! i.e. It some
is your turn! unwanted degree of being collocations:
It is your turn! 1 1It is your turn!
4 4 7 7
skinny and it has associations with weakness. tek bafl›na,
It is your turn! bafl› sonu, It is yourbafl
turn! köfle, bafl harf, kara bafl›m,
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! 2 2It is your turn!
Tutumlu, 5 cömert, 5and ak›ll› are all adjectives that show yumuflak 8 bafll›, her8 seyin bafl› sa¤l›k, bafl a¤r›s›, etc.
positive
It is your turn!
qualities ofIt isayourperson,
turn!
while cimri, müsrif, and kafa tutmak, ay›k3Itkafa,
It is your turn! 3 is your turn!
kuru kafa, eski kafal›, kal›n
9 9
cingöz contain negative associations, namely negative
6 6 kafal›,
It is your turn!
bu kafayla, etc It is your turn!
unwanted
It is your turn! qualitiesIt isinyour terms
turn! of spending money. It is your turn! 4
10
4It is your turn!
10
1 1
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! 5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn! 8 8 It is your turn! 11 11
2 2 Identify
It is your turn!
the type6 It isof antonymy in the following
your turn!
It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! 6 It is your turn!

It is your turn! 9
The following are93 Itthe hyponyms of the word k›rm›z›
is your turn! examples: 12 12
3
(red) in Turkish:
It is your turn! It is your turn! 1.turn!yafll›
It is your 7 - genç GRADABLE
7 It is your turn! ANTONYMS
atefl k›rm›z›s›, 4 fes 4rengi, gelincik k›rm›z›s›, gül kurusu, 2.turn!tekil - ço¤ul BINARY
It is your It is your turn! ANTONYMS
8 8
It is your turn!
kiremit
It is your turn! 11 rengi, nar 11
It is your turn!
çiçe¤i,
It is your turn! flarap rengi, tarç›n rengi, viflne
3. aç›k - kapal› BINARY ANTONYMS
çürü¤ü,
5 5
flarabi, siklamen, tavflan kan›, ayva çürü¤ü, 4. temiz 9
- pis GRADABLE
9
ANTONYMS
mercan
It is your turn! 12
rengi, bak›r rengi,
12 It is your turn!
güvez, aç›k k›rm›z›, alev It is your5.turn! önce - sonra It-is CONVERSE
It is your turn!
your turn!
It is your turn!
ANTONYMS
6 6 1 1
k›rm›z›s›,
It is your turn!
It is your turn! k›z›l, bordo, kan
It is your turn!
It is your turn! k›rm›z›, koyu k›rm›z›, gül 6. almak - satmak CONVERSE ANTONYMS
10 10
It is your turn! 13 13 It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn!
1
kurusu, bayrak rengi
7
1
7 7.turn!dinlemek
It is your
2 - konuflmak
2
It is your turn! CONVERSE ANTONYMS
11 11
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8.
It is your turn!
izin vermek - yasaklamak
It is your turn!
BINARY ANTONYMS
2 2
8 8
9. sevmek
It is your turn!3
12
- nefret
3 It is your
12
etmek
turn!
GRADABLE ANTONYMS
It is your turn!
3 3
It is your turn! It is your10. uyan›k - uykuda
turn!
It is your turn!4
It is your BINARY ANTONYMS
turn!
9 9 4 It is your turn!
Find out whether the

It is your turn! following
It is your turn! are possible collocations 11. kazanmak
13 -13 kaybetmek BINARY ANTONYMS
4 4
or not.10 10 5 5

It is your1.turn! Mutlu insanlar, It is yourmesut
turn! insanlar, bahtiyar insanlar It is your turn! It is your turn!
5 5
11 11 6 6
ALL POSSIBLE
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 6
It is your turn!
6 It is your turn!
Which
It is your turn! examples below are the instances of homonyms?
It is your turn!
2. Mutluluk
12 testi,
12 mesutluk testi, bahtiyarl›k testi 7 7
1. Ayfle okulu ast›. Ayfle çamafl›rlar› ast›. The verb
It is your turn! ONLY THE 1st It is yourIS
turn!POSSIBLE
It is your turn! 7 7 It is your turn! as- has homonyms in this case because while
3. Mutlu13 bir an,
13 mesut bir an , bahtiyar bir an ALL 8 8
It is your turn! It is your turn! okul as- is metaphoric in the sense of forego
POSSIBLE
8 8
doing
9 something,
9 çamafl›r as- is hanging the
It is your4.turn! Mutlulu¤un Its›rr›,is your turn!Mesutlu¤un s›rr›, Bahtiyal›¤›n
It is your turn! washed clothes. Since these two meanings are
It is your turn!
9 9
s›rr› ONLY THE 1st IS POSSIBLE 10 10
completely separate, they are different words
5. 10Mutluluk duymak,
Mesutluk duymak, Bahtiyarl›k It is your turn! It is your turn!
10 with
11 the same11 spelling and pronunciation.
duymak ALL POSSIBLE
It is your turn! It is your turn! 2. Sert koltuk, sert ö¤retmen, sert hava
These 11examples show 11 that although all synonyms can It is your turn! It is your turn!
The adjective 12 sert12 is related in all these instances. It

be used in all collocations,
sometimes some collocations
seems
It is your turn! that they have the property of being harsh or
It is your turn!
are not12 possible 12and certain words are reserved for 13 13
hard. In this case it appears that the same word has
certain
It is your turn!
collocations.It is your turn!
13 13 different meanings. Therefore, this is polysemy.
3. Bu terslikler art›k beni s›kt›. Hasan çamafl›rlar›
s›kt›. Homonymy (for the reasons, see
explanations above).
4. Hava açt›, çiçekler açt›, Ayfle kap›y› açt›.
Homonymy (for the reasons, see explanations
above).
2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5
It is your turn!
1 1
It is your turn!
6 6
2 2
7 7
3 3
Why do
It is your turn!
8
you think8
alçak involves polysemy in the
It is your turn!

following 4
examples?4
Alçak
It is your turn!
9adam, alçak 9 kald›r›m, alçak gönüllü, alçak
It is your turn!
bas›nç,
It is your turn!
5 etc. 5
It is your turn!
10 10
This is an instance
It is your turn! It is your of
turn! polysemy because all the
6 6
meanings 11
are related.
11
7 7
It
It is
is your
your turn!
18 81
13 13
Determine
It
It is
is your
your turn!
turn!
29
which2 ItItpair
is
is your
is entailed by the other and
your turn!
turn!
9
identify whether they are unidirectional or bidirectional
It
It is
is your
your turn!
turn! It
It is
is your
your turn!
turn!
entailments. 3
10 3
10
It
It is 1.turn!
is your
your turn!Ahmet New York’aIt
It is
is your turn! gitti. Ahmet Amerika k›tas›na
your turn!
4
11 4
11
gitti.
It is your turn!
(New
It is your turn! York
5
is in
5
It is your turn!
the
It is your turn! U.S., but not vice versa,
12 12
unidirectional
It is your turn!
entailment)
It is your turn!
2. Hasan 6
13 ve Sedat
6
13 ayn› annenin çocuklar›d›r. Hasan
It is your turn!ve Sedat kardefltirler.
It is your turn!
7 7
(Bidirectional entailment, i.e. paraphrase)
8 8

9 9
What
It is your turn!do the following presuppose?
It is your turn!
10 10
1. Bir kahve daha içer misiniz?
You11 have already 11 had coffee.
2.
It is your turn!
Ahmet, ne zaman fabrikada çal›flmaya bafllad›?
It is your turn!
Ahmet 12
works in12
the factory.
3.turn!Sekreter mektup
It is your yazmay› ne zaman bitirdi?
It is your turn!
13 13
The secretary was writing a letter.
4. Sezen’in çok fazla domates ald›¤›n› fark ettim.
Sezen bought domatoes.
5. Can, Paris’e son gidiflinde beni de götürdü.
Can has been to Paris before.
6. Cem’in sorusunu yan›tlad›m.
Cem asked a question.
6
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
What is Pragmatics?
N
What are the features of Pragmatics?
N
What is context?
N
What are speech acts?
N
What are felicity conditions?
N
What are conversational maxims?
N
What does implicature mean?
N
What is deixis?
N
What is meant by politeness principle and face-saving?
What is conversational analysis?
Key Words
• Context • Performative verb
• Conversational analysis • Pragmatics
• Co-operative principle • Pragmatic competence
• Co-text • Politeness
• Deixis • Presupposition
• Face • Reference
• Implicature • Speech Acts
• Inference
Contents
• INTRODUCTION
• DEFINING PRAGMATICS
• THE FEATURES OF
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, PRAGMATICS
Pragmatics and Discourse • SPEECH ACTS
Pragmatics
(Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim, • CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS
Edimbilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi) • DEIXIS
• POLITENESS PRINCIPLE AND
FACE-SAVING
• CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
Pragmatics
INTRODUCTION
Figure 6.1
Printed by
permission from
Erdil Yaflaro¤lu,
(Komikaze. Net)
In this unit we will deal with the way speakers use language in context.
Context includes the speaker, hearer and any other party who are present in that
particular context as well as their beliefs and what they believe about other people’s
beliefs. If you study our drawing above, you will notice that the Duck who is
ordering in the restaurant seems to be asking a question that is expected from a
customer in a restaurant. The waiter who believes that the customer is asking for
food gives the expected answer in the restaurant context. However, as readers we
are surprised and so is the waiter. The Duck apparently is not asking for food but
for a friend or a Duck who is from Beijing. Now, it is up to us as readers to change
our belief and try to interpret what the Duck really means. This kind of speaker
intention is investigated within the domain of Pragmatics.
108 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
DEFINING PRAGMATICS
A subfield of linguistics developed in the late 1970s, pragmatics studies how
people comprehend and produce a communicative act or speech act in a concrete
speech situation. It distinguishes two intents or meanings in each utterance or
communicative act of verbal communication. One is the informative intent or the
sentence meaning, and the other the communicative intent or speaker meaning
(Mey 1993, Verschueren1999). In other words, semantics focuses on linguistic
meaning without broader context, whereas pragmatics focuses on contextualized
meaning.
Let’s consider the following example:
Two people come into a library and they are talking really loud. They sit at
your table and continue their babbling. So, you look up at them and say:
1. “Affedersiniz. Ne konufltu¤unuzu anlayamad›m. Lütfen biraz daha yüksek
sesle konuflur musunuz?.”
What do we know pragmatically about this utterance? What contributes to our
understanding of why its literal meaning (i.e. please speak up) departs so much
from what its intended meaning is (i.e. shut up!)? The contextual properties of the
utterance and the relationship of the speech partners lead us to the contextualized
meaning rather than the literal meaning of the utterance.
From the example above, we can conclude that pragmatics is a branch of
linguistics which concerns with language use in context and the study of meaning
related to the context or situation. It explains the way language use is understood
after connecting it to the situation where, when and by whom it is uttered.
Pragmatics can then be defined as “the study of speaker”, “contextual meaning”,
“how more gets communicated than is said” and “the expression of relative
distance”. In other words, to study pragmatics is to “study the relationships between
linguistic forms and the users of those forms” (Yule 2000). According to
Verschueren (1999), pragmatics is “meaning in use” or “meaning in context”.
The ability to comprehend and produce a communicative act is referred to as
pragmatic competence (Kasper, 1995) which often includes one’s knowledge
about the social distance, social status between the speakers involved, the cultural
knowledge such as politeness, and the linguistic knowledge explicit and implicit.
Pragmatics studies the factors that decide our choice of language in social interaction.
It looks at the social rules that affect our choice. It looks at the meaning of speech acts
and the intention of the speaker and includes information about the social status of
the speakers, cultural features such as politeness and formality, and both explicit and
implicit linguistic features.
Pragmatics plays an important role in our social life as it shows us how human
beings communicate, understand each other and all in all, how they make use of
language (Mey 1993). Semantics is related to the meaning of words and sentences
while pragmatics is related to the meaning of utterances, or speaker meaning. In
other words, both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with the meaning of
linguistic expressions, but pragmatics takes the interlocutors, the speaker and the
hearer, as the focus of attention, whereas semantics focuses only on linguistic
expressions. In semantics, we just pay attention to the literal meaning of a word
whereas the true meaning of a phrase or a sentence is determined by the context,
namely the conditions under which a speaker uses language.
Unit 6 - Pragmatics 109
Let us see another example to explain the difference between semantics and
pragmatics further.
2. “Karanl›k oluyor.”
Literally, the sentence means that it is getting dark and the day is drawing in.
These are the literal meanings of the sentence at the semantics level.
However, a pragmatic analysis of this example provides some other invisible
meanings in different contexts as in the following:
3. “Karanl›k oluyor.”
(A) A mother talking to her son who has been playing outside with his friends
from the sunrise to the sunset.
Intended meaning: You shall come back home since you have played for a
long time.
(B) Husband who is not willing to go to the supermarket with his wife in the
evening because of an exciting football match.
Intended meaning: We can go shopping tomorrow morning.
(C) A girl talking to her boyfriend who wants to spend more time with her on
the beach.
Intended meaning: I must go back home, since my father might get angry
with me.
(D) A grandmother talking to her granddaughter who has been doing her
homework on the dining table.
Intended meaning: Stop doing your homework and/or turn the light on.
(E) A child talking to her mother who is closing the sun blinds of the sitting
room.
Intended meaning: Don’t close the curtains down.
We can give other contextual clues and obtain many different meanings for the
same utterance.
From the above examples, it is obvious that the pragmatic meaning is
determined by context. In case we do not relate the specific word to an appropriate
situation, it will easily give rise to a blurry concept of the meaning uttered by the
speaker, even lead to a wrong meaning and ambiguity. Consider this example for
ambiguity: Hastalar dinleniyor.
a) The sick people are resting; or b) The sick people are being listened to by
other people; or c) The sick people are wiretapped.
Although this utterance is ambiguous out of context; the context disambiguates
it. In real life among real language users there is no such thing as ambiguity when
people share the same contexual information.
Therefore, it is vital to put the utterance into the relevant conditions when we
try to explain its pragmatic meaning.
1. What is the difference between semantics and pragmatics? It is your turn! It is your turn!
2. Try to create different contexts and identify the intended meaning for the1utterance: 1
“Cold”
THE FEATURES OF PRAGMATICS 2 2
Context It is your turn! It is your turn!

As it is obvious from the definition of pragmatics as “the meaning in use or meaning
3 3
in context”, context is an important aspect of interpreting utterances. In order to
figure out the implicit meaning from what the speaker says, we need various types
4 4

5 5
of information to understand the context of an utterance. Some of it is crucial, such

as the speaker, the listener, the people’s mood and intonation, the environment,
the location, the time, and so on. For example, intonation usually shows what the
speaker’s mood is like or what his attitude toward the conversation is.
When these components are taken into consideration, context can be divided
into four different kinds:
1. Physical context
2. Epistemic context
3. Linguistic context
4. Social context
Physical context: we can think of this in terms of where the conversation is
taking place, what objects are present, what actions are occurring, and so forth.
Epistemic context: the epistemic context refers to what speakers know about
the world. For example, what background knowledge is shared by the speakers is
a crucially part of your epistemic knowledge when you have a conversation with
someone else.
Linguistic context: the linguistic context refers to what has been said already
in the utterance. Yule (2000) refers to linguistic context as co-text. In this
condition, what the word means is decided by the certain rules or regular usage.
In other words, the co-text has a strong effect on our understanding of the words.
For example; if I begin a discussion by referring to Sertab Erener and in the next
sentence refer to “her” as being a top Turkish pop singer, the linguistic context lets
me know that the antecedent of “her” (the person “her” refers to) is Sertab Erener.
Social context: the social context refers to the socio-cultural realities of the
setting and social relationship among speakers and hearers.
Let us think about our earlier library example once again :
4. “Affedersiniz. Ne konufltu¤unuzu anlayamad›m. Lütfen biraz daha yüksek
sesle konuflur musunuz?”
What factors make us understand the intended meaning rather than literal
meaning?
Let us consider some of the contextual properties of the utterance:
Physical: the conversation occurs in a library.
Epistemic: libraries are quiet places.
Linguistic: sarcastic tone of voice (intonation cues are linguistic).
Social context: you have the right to ask someone to be quiet in a place
where people are supposed to be quiet, especially if their rule-breaking is injurious
to the needs of others, which overrides the social norm of not giving orders to total
strangers.
The above mentioned contextual knowledge allows for the hearer to
comprehend that the intended meaning is distinct from the literal meaning.
Besides understanding broad notions of how context is important, pragmatics
It is your turn! also examines the
It is your kinds of Speech Acts that people employ when they speak.
turn!
1 We’ll next1 talk about the notion of Speech Acts.
It is your turn! What types of

It iscontext
your turn!help you understand the following utterances?
2 K›rm›z› fiimflekler
2 kazand›.
Güzelmifl!!!!!
Taze mi? (asked at a market place)
Sen bana sen diyemezsin!
3 3

4 4

SPEECH ACTS
We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint,
invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act is an utterance that serves a
function in communication. A speech act might contain just one word , as in
“Afedersin!” to perform an apology, or several words or clauses: “Do¤um gününü
unuttu¤um için çok özür dilerim.” Speech acts include real-life interactions and
require not only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of that
language within a given culture. In this manner, pragmatics has a close relation
with discourse analysis and sociolinguistics.
Speech Act Theory was initiated by the English philosopher J. L. Austin in his
lectures published posthumously as How to Do Things with Words (1962). John
Austin, kindled many scholars’ interest in contextualized utterance meaning in
linguistics and triggered the development of the field of pragmatics.
Speech act theory begins with the distinction between ‘constative’ utterances
(which report truly or falsely on some external state of affairs) and performatives
(which are verbal actions in themselves-such as promising-rather than true or false
statements).
In Speech Act Theory, an utterance may comprise three different speech acts:
The performance of an utterance is a locutionary act with it’s phonetic, syntactic
and semantic features. Speakers in producing an utterance, say something without
pragmatic meaning. However, as soon as an utterance is spoken, it has an intented
meaning depending on the temporal condition and speakers’ purpose which is
called illocutionary act, and in certain cases the actual effect of the utterance on
the hearer comprises the perlocutionary act, that is how the hearer treats what
he or she has heard.
In short, the act of saying something is an locutionary act as constrasted with
an act performed by saying something, illocutionary act, such as promising,
commanding or promising, and these two acts can be contrasted with the
perlocutionary act an act performed after hearing something. For example, if I
say “Sak›n sobaya dokunma”, I am performing a locutionary act by producing
this utterance with all the phonetic and syntactic properties. This utterance is a
warning to you and tells you not to touch the stove, the illocutionary act, and if
you listen to my warning and do not touch the stove I have managed to pursuade
you act upon hearing my warning, the perlocutionary act.
When you hear “Yemek paralar›n› sen ödersin”, you may not know if this
ulterance is a threat, a prediction or a command. The semantic, intended meaning
of an utterance comprises the illocutionary force. The illocutionary force will
depend on the context, the intention of the speaker. However, the force of an
utterance may not be obvious to the hearer.
After Austin’s death in 1960, Speech Act Theory has been further developed by
J.R. Searle.
Searle (1976) maintains five classes of speech acts, namely:
1. Representatives/Assertives: describing something, maybe states or events in
the real world. For example, using a declaration, a claim, a revealment.
5. “This is Eiffel Tower.” “Buras› Topkap› Saray›.”
2. Directives: expressing speaker attempts to get listener to do something, such
as suggestion, a request, or an order.
6. “You’d better not call him this afternoon.” “Bugün gelmesen iyi olur.”
3. Commissives: speaker commits him/herself to doing something in the future

by promising or a threat.
7. “I will have dinner with you tonight, I promise.” “Yar›n sana mutlaka
paran› öderim.”
4. Expressives: expressing speakers’ feelings and psychological attitudes about
It is your turn! something,Itsuchis youras
turn!
making a apology, complaining, expressing sympathy, to thank
1 someone. 1
8. “I’m sorry about the mess in your room.” “Odam›n kusuruna bakmay›n.”
It is your turn! 5. Declarations: changing the state of affairs in the world.
It is your turn!
2 9. 2“I now pronounce you man and wife.” “Sizi kar› koca ilan ediyorum.”
It is your turn! Give an example ofturn!

It is your locutionary act.
3 Give an example
3 of illocutionary force.
Give an example of perlocutionary force.
4
Direct4 Speech Acts
We can divide Speech Acts into two categories: direct and indirect. Direct speech
acts means that listener can judge speaker’s intention by the literal meaning of the
sentences while indirect speech acts mean that there are hidden meanings.
5 5
The direct speech acts can be declarative, interrogative or imperative.
Declarative: these are propositions, such as the following: “Ali`nin arabas›
var.” Propositions are things we are familiar with from semantics. We can figure
6 6
out the truth conditions for these types of sentences and arrive at a truth value in
many cases.
Interrogative: Basically, these seek information, and “interrogative” is thus
7 7 term for question, as in “‹stanbul’a gidiyor musun?”
just another
Imperative: These, of course, have the property of attempting to cause others
It is your turn! to behave inIt isparticular
your turn! ways. They are known more colloquially as commands. An
8 example 8would be: “Gel .”
Note that imperatives and interrogatives are different from declaratives in that
It is your turn! they don’t Ithave
is yourtruth
turn! conditions. Rather, they seem better understood in terms of
9 whether 9they are appropriately used or not. For example, if you say to your two
year old brother, “Ali, can you explain the basic idea behind string theory in
It is your turn!
contemporary physics?” it is more than likely that Ali won’t have a clue what you
It is your turn!
are talking about. The question itself is understandable, but not to Ali. Thus, its use
10 10
is inappropriate. This refers to the idea of “felicity”, which we will discuss later.

Performative
11 11
A special kind of direct speech act is called a performative. Performatives are
interesting in that they are basically verbs whose action is a speech act.
12 Performative
12 Verbs
There is a special class of verbs which are special in that they name speech acts,
It is your turn! and when they are
It is your uttered they perform the speech acts they name.
turn!
13 Thus 13
they are a direct indication of the power of language to perform various
tasks. Examine the following examples:
10. I request that you stop that.

11. I order you to go to your room.
12. I bet you hundred liras Fenerbahce will win the cup.
13. I fine you 100 liras for smoking in your office.
14. I nominate Micky Mouse for Oscar Awards.
15. I promise to improve.
16. I pronounce you man and wife.
17. Seni ömür boyu sevece¤ime söz veriyorum.
18. Seninle elbisesine bahse giriyorum.
19. K›rm›z› ›fl›kta geçti¤iniz için size 130 TL para cezas› veriyorum.
We can embed declaratives, interrogatives, and imperatives as in the following
sentences:
20. I assert that Fenerbahçe will defeat Galatasaray this weekend.
21. I ask who Trabzonspor will beat.
22. I order Befliktafl to beat Real Madrid.
These are interesting in that they call our attention to the fact that “speech
action” is like any other action for us. The main verbs of these sentences are
performing actions that are purely linguistic, asserting, asking, and ordering.
Identifying Performatives
Consider the following three sentences:
23. I promise to take Selin to the movies tonight.
24. Selin promises to take me to the movies tonight.
25. I will promise to take Selin to the movies tonight.
Which of these is a PERFORMATIVE use of the verb promise?
First, to be a performative verb, the subject of the verb must be “I”, since by
definition a performative is about an interaction between speaker and hearers.
This rules out sentence (2). Second, the future use (I will) rules out sentence (3).
Performatives must take place in the present. Therefore, only the first one is a
performative. Note that the other sentences are still direct speech acts, but just not
performatives.
How else can we test for a performative use of a verb? One trick is to insert
“hereby”.
26. I hereby promise to take you to the movies tonight.
27. #Selin hereby promises to take me to the movies tonight.
28. #I will hereby promise to take you to the movies tonight.
The insertion of “hereby” in the other two makes them seem somewhat less
than entirely acceptable.
In summary; we must have the following conditions to say that a verb is being
used performatively:
1. The speech act must be between the speaker and the hearer.
Speech acts involving non-present 3rd parties never occur.
2. The speech act must occur in the present.
If you talk about a speech act you did or will do, then you are reporting that
speech act, regardless if you use a performative verb to describe the speech act.
2 2
It114
is your turn! Turkish Syntax, ItSemantics,
is your turn!
Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
3 3
It is your turn! A. Identify the

It isspeech
your turn!act in the following:
4 1. “fiu karl›
4 da¤›n bafl›nda salk›m salk›m duran bulut, saç›n çözüp benim için yafl›n yafl›n
a¤lar m›s›n?” (Yunus Emre)
It is your turn! 2. Bilirsin Itunutulmak
is your turn! dokunur ya her insana
5 Sen de kendi
5 pay›ndan bir hat›ra seç
Ve o ben olay›m unutma, beni unutma (Sezen Aksu flark›lar›)
B. Identify the performative verbs
a. okumak
6 6
b. promise
c. yemin etmek
It is your turn! d. geliflmekIt is your turn!
7 7
e. konuflmak
It is your turn! Felicity Conditions

It is your turn!
8 Think about8 the many ways that an utterance can go wrong. It can be
mispronounced. It can be an ungrammatical sentence. These errors aren’t exactly
It is your turn! pragmatic errors. The kind of pragmatic error that we want to think about here is
It is your turn!
the situationally inappropriate use of a sentence. Inappropriate sentences can be
9 9
perfectly well-formed, but they can nevertheless be situationally all wrong.
Think of this example: A asks B the following question on Anadolu University
Campus:
10 10
29. A- Buras› Eskiflehir mi?
B- ???
It is your turn! A asks BIt isthe
yoursame
turn! question looking at some holiday snapshots :
11 30. A-11Buras› Eskiflehir mi?
B- Evet. Ne kadar güzel de¤il mi?
It is your turn!
The notion of situational inappropriateness is described in terms of what are
It is your turn!
called felicity conditions. The basic idea here is that felicity conditions allow us
12 12
to determine under what circumstances it is appropriate to ask questions, give
commands, and so forth. One big thing to bear in mind is that if we get the felicity
conditions down explicitly enough, we can pinpoint the nature of the inappropriate
13 13
use of language in terms of the particular felicity condition or conditions violated.
As an example, here are some felicity conditions associated with questioning
and requesting.
S (speaker) questions H (hearer) about P (some state of affairs)
S does not know the truth about P.
S wants to know the truth about P.
S believes H may know the truth about P.
What’s going on with the felicity conditions for questioning? Well, for starters,
we can see that appropriate use of questions must satisfy a number of criteria:
1. If someone asks you a question, you assume that s/he doesn’t know the
answer to the question.
2. If someone asks you, they actually want to know the truth.
3. If someone asks you, they think you may know the truth (or answer).
Note that these felicity conditions don’t hold of all questioning contexts. In
class, for example, the teacher might ask you a question about the lesson. It is
obvious that he/she already knows the answer. So, for teacher-to-student questions,
the first condition is suspended. If we think about it, our knowledge of social and
physical context allows us to understand why. Teachers, we know, ask questions

of students in order to test what students know about the topic. Physically, we’re
in the classroom—the place where teachers are likely to be in this kind of
questioning role. So, this is a kind of question for which those felicity conditions
are suspended.
Additionally, (2) and (3) don’t exactly hold. The teacher doesn’t so much want
to know the truth about the topic as to know what the student knows about it.
And, when asking the question, the teacher doesn’t necessarily know whether the
student knows the truth about the topic. Rather, the teacher often asks in order to
see IF the student knows something about the topic.
Finally, consider this. If the teacher asks in front of the class the following
question: “Does anybody have the time?” Immediately, the students will most
likely shift back into understanding the question in terms of the felicity conditions
in (1-3) above and give him an answer. Since this is not the kind of question that
would be asked in the teacher role. The question would be infelicitous only if the
teacher has a watch or if there is a huge clock with the time in front of him,
because he would be violating the first condition.
Think about how you do this kind of interpreting all the time. Think about how
you are constantly sifting through your knowledge of context and of the felicity
conditions behind questions in order to understand whether the question is used
appropriately.
Here’s a general set of felicity conditions on requests: 1 1
S (speaker) requests H (hearer) to do A (action):
S believes that A has not yet been done. It is your turn! It is your turn!
S believes that H is able to do A.
2 2
S believes that H is willing to do A-type things for S.
S wants A to be done.
Let us consider this example uttered by a child to his mother:
31. “Anneci¤im, ‹ngilizce ödevime yard›m eder misin?” 3 3
The child believes that the mother is able to help with his homework and he
wants his homework to be done. Consider what happens ifItthe is your turn! says.
mother It is your turn!
32. “Ben ‹ngilizce bilmem.” 4 4
Does the sentence “Seni flövalye ilan ediyorum.”, said jokingly to your friend,
It is your turn! meet felicity It is your turn!
conditions? Why/ why not? 5 5
Indirect Speech Acts It is your turn! It is your turn!

This last observation gives us a nice transition to the notion of indirect speech acts.
6 6
Consider the following sentences
33. Beni Esparka götür.
34. Beni Esparka götürürür müsün?
35. Daha Espark› görmedim. 7 7
Given the right context, all three can “mean” basically the same thing, i.e. “Give
me a ride to the shopping mall.” or “Take me to Espark” However,It is your the
turn!hallmark of It is your turn!
an indirect speech act is that its literal meaning is different from its8 intended 8
meaning. People are intuitively aware of this, and that’s why we can play around
this as follows: It is your turn! It is your turn!
9 9

10 10

36. A: Bana suyu uzatabilir misin?”

B: Evet.
If B says yes and does nothing. Clearly, B has responded literally to A’s question,
while A’s meaning was a request for B to pass the water, and not a query regarding
B’s ability to engage in the activity.
If I say to you “Could you give me a ride to the mall?”, I am assuming that I
know you could take me to the mall. So, if my question is felicitous, it is only
felicitous with the understanding that it is really a request to take me to the mall
and not a question about your ability to do so.
1 1 is a question literally, but intended as a request. It is an indirect
So, this
speech act. This said, we might wonder why we use indirect speech acts at all. In
this question/request, we can think of the indirect speech act as a way of
2 2
communicating to the hearer that although the speaker believes that the hearer is
willing to take her/him to the mall, there is also recognition that asking this favor
It is your turn! constitutes Itaiskind of imposition. Framing the request as a question thus allows the
your turn!
3 hearer the 3 opportunity to more gracefully decline. There are many subtle elements
here. Perhaps the speaker has the power to make the hearer take him/her to the
It is your turn!
mall but does not want to make a show of that power by making a direct request.
It is your turn!
Perhaps the speaker is unsure about whether the hearer will be willing to take
4 4
him/her to the mall.
It is important to notice that indirect speech is fundamental to the way in which
we communicate, because much more is communicated than the so-called literal
5 5
meaning of our utterances when we use language.
It is your turn! What does the

It isspeaker
your turn! want when he asks “Saatiniz var m›?”
6 6
CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS (GRICEAN MAXIMS)
It is your turn!
The Gricean maxims are a framework for understanding how humans co-operate
It is your turn!
socially in their use of language. In an attempt to better explain how speakers
7 7
mean things that they do not actually say in words, the linguistic philosopher
Grice (1967) makes a distinction between “natural” and “unnatural” meanings of
It is your turn! utterances.It Heis your turn! argues that a speaker and a hearer are guided by some
further
8 8
“conversational principles” in order to make the right references and interpret
meaning beyond the linguistic content of an utterance (Grice, 1975).
It is your turn! Grice first
It is formulated
your turn! the notion of the so-called co-operative principle. This
is not to say that only one type of co-operation underlies all communication.
9 9
Rather, it attempts to characterize the more generally co-operative aspect of human
behavior across situations.
It is your turn! ExamineIt istheyourfollowing
turn! exchange between a child and an adult taking place in
10 10
a play ground:
37. A: Sana dondurma alay›m m›?
It is your turn! C: Annem
It is your bana
turn! kedi alacak.
11 Gricean
11 Maxims help us understand why such conversations seem bizarre
and/or funny, while we accept the following exchanges as meaningful.
38. A: Bu akflam sinemaya gidelim.
It is your turn! It is youryar›n
B: Benim turn! s›nav›m var.
12 12
39. A: Kap› çal›yor.
B: Banyoday›m.
It is your turn! Grice observed that when people talk they try to be “co-operative” and attempt
It is your turn!
13 to obey 13 some “co-operative principles” which demand that they make their
conversational contributions such as is required, at the stage where it occurred, by

the accepted purpose or direction of the talk in which they are engaged. The
conversational principle operates with some “maxims” in the assumption that the
speaker does not say what is false, or irrelevant, or too much or too little. The
maxims are quality, quantity, relation and manner.
Quantity
(a) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes
of the conversation)
(b) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true
(a) Do not say what you believe to be false
(b) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relation
Be relevant (your contributions should be such that are relevant to the conversation)
Manner
Be perspicuous
(a) Avoid obscurity
(b) Avoid ambiguity
(c) Be brief
(d) Be orderly
Here are some examples where conversational maxims are violated:
At a store:
40. Q: Do you have a selection of red shoes that aren’t on display?
A: Yes.
(Violation of the maxim of quantity)
Two friends conversing during their coffee break:
41. A: I got up, brushed my teeth, got dressed, took a shower, and went to school.
B: Really??
(Violation of the maxim of quality)
Student and teacher talking in an Introduction to Linguistics course.
42. Student: So, why is that sentence ungrammatical?
Teacher: Oh, that’s easy. It’s an ECP violation.
(Violation of the maxim of manner- the student does not understand the
technical terminology ECP.)
The co-operative principles help a hearer to infer some additional invisible
meaning from an utterance beyond its literal semantics, which constitutes the
“truth conditional content” of a message.
Any additional information that is possible in the expression is called “implicature”.
Conversational implicature actually occurs when the conversational maxims namely
quantity, quality, relation (relevance) and manner are seemingly violated, thus
“forcing the hearer to make additional assumptions in order to understand the
speaker as conveying something true and relevant” (Kempson, 1988).
4 4

5 5
It118
is your turn!
6 6
It is your turn! Which conversational maxim do the following texts violate?

It is your turn!
7 A. Selin 7is 4 years old. While visiting her uncle’s house, she lost her teddy bear Bimbo. She
could not find her teddy bear and asked help from her niece, who replied: “ Bimbo’yu
annemin calisma odasindaki etajerin üstündeki Advanced Learners Dictionary’le Collins
COBUILD sözlügünün arasinda gördüm.”
8 8
B. Consider this Nasreddin Hoca Joke:
Nasreddin Hocan›n komflusuna ip laz›m olmufl. Hocaya gitmifl kap›y› çalm›fl. Hoca kap›y›
It is your turn! It is yourselamun
açm›fl. Komflu turn! aleyküm hocam demifl. Hoca da ve aleyküm selam diye karfl›l›k
9 9
vermifl. Adam hemen konuya girmifl:
-Hocam bana ip laz›m oldu sendekini bana ödünç verir misin? demifl.
It is your turn! Hoca: It is your turn!
10 -Verirdim
10 komflu ama bizim hatun ipe un serdi demifl.
Komflu:
It is your turn!
-Aman hocam ipe un serilir mi? demifl.
It is your turn!
Hoca k›zm›fl:
11 11
-Ah bre köftehor vermek istemedi¤imde serilir demifl.
It is your turn! Implicature

It is your turn!
12 As we have12 earlier noted, implicature is a component of speaker meaning that
constitutes an aspect of what is meant without necessarily being part of what is
It is your turn! said. Interestingly, speakers usually mean more than they say, especially drawing
It is your turn!
upon the context of the utterance.
13 13
Implicature actually occurs when the conversational maxims are violated. A
statement like “a child is a child” does not seem to be informative enough and
therefore breaks the maxim of quantity. But you know that this utterance tells the
hearer about the characteristics that make a child. Literary devices and
advertisements often violate these maxims.
Implicature arises because of the speaker’s and hearer’s mutual understanding
of the conversational maxims. Non-conventional meanings which arise as a result
of violating some of the maxims become possible since a statement may result in
different implicature in different contexts. This is another way of saying that an
implicature is a result of a listener making an inference as the most likely meaning
an utterance may have in a given context. The direct implicature of “a child is a
child” said at home, may differ if the same statement is made at a school during a
sports competition. Grice’s “implicature” is synonymous to Yule’s “invisible
meaning.”
Implicature occurs because a speaker flouts some or all of the maxims
deliberately or for reasons such as linguistic imperfection, socio-cultural reasons,
or where violation is already expected in order to encode some particular social
meaning. Conversational principles are another attempt at explaining how speaker
and hearer encode and interpret meaning in different contexts.
To sum up, the conversational principles operate with maxims namely Quantity,
Quality, Relation and Manner which ensure that speakers give adequate
information, tell the truth, be relevant and be clear as much as possible. Implicature
results when a maxim is violated forcing the hearer to make an assumption of
some additional information which the utterance conveys. Unlike entailment, as
you have read in the Semantics unit, which is the logical meaning that may be
inferred from an utterance, implicature relies more on the context for their
1 1

2 2
interpretation. Implicature may be identified in our everyday conversations, adverts,
3 3
literary works, news headlines etc.
Consider the following news headlines after the death of famous cartoonist
Turhan Selçuk. It is your turn! It is your turn!
43. Abdülcanbaz babas›z kald›. 4 4
Abdülcanbaz yetim kald›.
Türk Mizahinin babas› öldü. It is your turn! It is your turn!
Turhan Selçuk hayat›n› kaybetti. 5 5
Turhan Selçuk topra¤a verildi.
Turhan Selçuk’a Veda It is your turn! It is your turn!
‹stanbul Selçuk’u u¤urlad›.
6 6
All the headlines listed above are all informing the readers about the death of
the famous cartoonist. However, notice how some of them rely more heavy on the
readers’ interpretation. For example ‘Turhan Selçuk topra¤a verildi.’ is a much
more direct message than ‘Abdülcanbaz yetim kald›.’ 7 7
What is the implicature when a man at work shouts “We are pregnant” after
It is your turn!talking to his It is your turn!
wife on the telephone? 8 8
DEIXIS It is your turn! It is your turn!

44. Orda m›s›n?- Are you there?
9 9
Buraday›m.- I am here.
45. Onda bunda flundad›r.
fiunda bunda ondad›r.
Mavi boncuk kimdeyse 10 10
Benim gönlüm ondad›r
If you look at the examples above, you will notice that Itasis readers
your turn! we cannot It is your turn!
really understand where burada/here or flurada/there is unless we are11provided 11
with a context which tells exactly where the conversation is taking place.
To fully understand the speaker/writer’s intended meaning, his identity,
situation, time and environment should be known to the reader/hearer. If you get
12 12
a short note that says: “Bizi bu akflam orada bekleyin” it is assumed you understand
‘us’, ‘there’ or ‘this evening’ since meaning depends on the knowledge of who is
speaking, about whom, where and when the expressions areItmade. is your turn!
In this section It is your turn!
we will examine how little words like ‘us’ ‘there’ ‘this evening’, ‘burada’, 13 ‘orada’ 13
and ‘bu akflam’ etc. are used to identify particular persons, time or place associated
with utterances. These expressions are called deictic expressions.
All languages have deixis, and it is only through linguistic analysis we can
capture the contextual meaning of a deictic expression. The most common and
important types of deixis in Turkish, like in other languages, are grouped under
the headings like adverbs, pronouns, adjectives and verbs.
Deixis is an important field of language study in its own right and it has some
relevance to the analysis of conversation and pragmatics. It is often and best
described as “verbal pointing”, that is to say pointing by means of language.
Deictic expressions include such lexemes as:
Personal or possessive pronouns (I/you/mine/yours) (ben, sen o, benim senin etc.),
Demonstrative pronouns (this/that) (bu, flu, o),
(Spatial/temporal) adverbs (here/there/now) (buras›, oras›, fluras›, flimdi, yar›n,
bugün etc.),
Demonstrative adjectives (this/that) (bu, flu, o),
Deictic Reference
Words such as biz , ben ,o, sonra , flimdi, buras›, oras› (us, I, we, him, then, now,
there, here) etc. usually identify referents so that the addressee may be able to
quickly pick out a person, place or time relevant to the understanding of the
intended meaning. The deictic references are used as pointers to persons, place
or time the speaker has in mind. It is important to note that it is the context of
utterance that again gives meaning to deictic expressions like you, here, now, or
there. Examine the following examples:
46. You, you and you, see me in my office.
47. You don’t come here often, do you?
48. When you pick up the book, you don’t know whether to read the entire text
or a few chapters.
49. Now is the right place to meet there.
In 46 you will expect that the speaker practically point specifically to certain
persons using gestures or eye contact apart from just speaking. And you will also
notice that each of the ‘you’ will refer to a different person whose identity will be
known only by those present when I make the statement. In 47 ‘you’ refers to a
particular person at a particular time and place and ‘here’ will be meaningful if
both the speaker and the hearer are at the same place. My ‘here’ in 47 and ‘now’
and ‘there’ in 49 may not be your ‘here’ or ‘now’ if both of us are at different places
and at different times. But notice the ‘you’ in 48. The ‘you’ does not refer to any
particular referent, so that being present when it is used does not help you to
identify the referent. This generalized use of ‘you’ is said to be non-deictic.
Deictic expressions used to point to persons are called person deixis, e.g.
ben, o, biz, I, him, we, you etc. Place deixis is used to point to locations e.g.
buras›, oras›, here, there, beside, etc, demonstrative deixis is used to point
things e.g. bu, bunlar, su, flunlar, o, onlar this, that, while time deixis is used to
point to time, e.g. flimdi, yar›n, dün, now, then, this evening, tomorrow etc.
As you can see from the above examples, context has a very crucial role in
determining deictic references.
Person Deixis
Deictic expressions that refer to persons (e.g. Ben, sen ,siz, biz, onlar, bizim, o,
onlar, etc.) where the context or co-text is required to determine the referent.
Examine the examples below:
50. Onu ben ald›m.
51. Onlar daha oraya gitmediler mi?
52. Seni o gün onlarla gördüm.
53. Sizinle bugün buraya gelirim.
Look also at these examples from English:
54. We are not pleased. (uttered by the Queen Elizabeth II)
55. They are calling you.
Place Deixis
Consider the following examples:
i) The lecturer’s office is along the corridor on your right
ii) The lecturer’s office is along the corridor on your left
Let us assume that the above descriptions are given to two different students
who are going to the same place. You will naturally assume that the place each
student is standing when the description is made determines the location of the
lecturer’s office, i.e. the context indicates whether the office is ‘on your right’ or
‘on your left.’ If you and I are standing facing each other, your right will be my left,
while your left will be my right. So it is always important to know where the
speaker is at the time he is speaking to be able to interpret correctly what s/he
means by right, left, here, there, above, go or come.
In Turkish, demonstratives such as bu/bunlar and buras›/burda are often
used to indicate proximity to the speaker, while flu/flunlar, o/onlar, and orada,
indicate distance.
Consider these examples:
56. Bunlar› al.
57. fiunlar› getir.
58. Onu b›rak.
59. Çantay› götür
60. Su kalemi ver.
61. Buraya gel.
62. Oraya git
Here is another example:
63. I’m going to Eskiflehir.
64. I’m coming to Eskiflehir.
Again the difference between the two expressions depends on the location of
the speaker and what s/he considers as either moving toward or moving away
from. Proximity to Eskiflehir from where the speaker is, again may be a determining
factor. In all the examples, you can see how deictic expressions depend on the
context to determine the reference of the items they point to.
Time Deixis
Time deixis refers to deictic references that point to the time an utterance is made
as well as the time the speaker intends to communicate to the hearer. The reference
of the following deictic items can only be determined by the time the utterance is
made: flimdi, sonra, hemen, dün, yar›n, bugün, gelecek, geçen, hafta, ay, y›l, etc.
now, then, soon, before, later, ago; yesterday, today, tomorrow; next, last; Monday,
week, month, year, etc.
If you read a letter your dad wrote you last year, and it says:
65. Bu y›l çok çal›flmal›s›n o¤lum.
You are not likely to be mistaken about ‘this year’ since the above expression
was not made at the time you picked up the letter. Therefore, the instruction to
work hard at school may not apply to you at the time you are reading the letter
probably the second or the third time.
You will understand that ‘this year’ refers to the school year and not necessarily
the calendar year. But if the expression was part of a card he gave you on the 1st
of January, of course you will know he meant the new year (the calendar year).
But if you read that on your birth day, then ‘this year’ will refer to the period up
to your next birth day. We also see this kind of variety of references with deictic
items like today, now, tomorrow or Wednesday.
Consider these other examples:
66. Today is my birthday.
67. Today women are strong political office holders.
If I said 66 on a Monday, then Monday is my birthday. But if said 67 on a

Monday, the referent merely includes Monday plus all other times the speaker
considers as ‘today.’ In other words, ‘today’ in 67 refers to the present time (not
It is your turn! old time). It is your turn!
1 68. Let’s
1 do the work now.
69. I don’t really know what to do now.
It is your turn! Again now in turn!
It is your 68 refers to the present time, either at 8 a.m. or 12 noon. While
2 ‘now’ in 69 2 refers to an unspecified moment and remains unexpired.
70. I’ll see you tomorrow
‘Tomorrow’ in 70 refers to the day after today if the speaker and hearer are
within the same time frame. Otherwise, the hearer’s ‘tomorrow’ may not be the
3 3
speaker’s ‘tomorrow.’
When people make statements they are usually careful to let the listeners
It is your turn! understandIt whenis your turn!
they are speaking and where they are speaking to enable the
4 listeners 4interpretation of their intentions correctly. If they do not manage words
that indicate time expressions such as flimdi, they may end up confusing the
It is your turn! listeners. It is your turn!
5 In summary,
5 there is a strong relationship between the context and deictic
reference. We can say that in Turkish, like English most pronouns, adverbs and
It is your turn!
demonstratives perform this function. Hence deictic expressions like I, we, you,
It is your turn!
him, them etc. are called person deixis. Other deictic references like, here, there,
6 6
thence etc are pointers to locations and are known as place deixis, while time
deixis indicate time and are referred to as time deixis e.g. now, then, this evening,
today, tomorrow etc. All of these deictic references depend on the context to
7 7
indicate their referents. It is possible to distinguish between what is considered as
close to the speaker (this, here, now) and what is distant (that, those, there, then).
It is also possible to indicate whether movement is taking place towards the
8 speaker’s8 location (gel/come) or away from his/her location (git/go).
It is your turn! What are the It isdeictic expressions in the following sentences? (Please note that not all
your turn!
9 sentences9have deictic expressions.)
a. Orada ayakta duruyordu.
b. fiimdi herkese k›zma zaman›.
c. Çiçeklerin de can› var.
10 10
d. Seni görünce onu hat›rlar›m.
e. Yan›mdamki yan›mda, karfl›mdaki can›mda.
11 11
Presupposition
Speakers or writers usually design their message on the assumption that the hearer
It is your turn! or reader already has a degree of the knowledge of what is being communicated.
It is your turn!
12 What the12writer assumes the reader already knows about the subject and the
context of the information is known as presupposition. Inference is actually
based on presupposition because whether inference is right or wrong, the reader
is acting upon some relevant information about the subject. Take the headline
13 13
“U¤ur Mumcu’yu kim öldürdü?” for example. This question presupposes that a)
the writer and reader know who U¤ur Mumcu was; b) both know that U¤ur
Mumcu actually got killed and that his killers are unknown;
c) the unknown assassins might be discovered; d) the reader has the right to
know and may do something about the information he gets.
When we speak with people, we generally make valid assumptions about the
background of what we say, which we presume to be mutually It isknown.
your turn! If someone It is your turn!
tells you: 1 1
71. Kongreye kay›t yar›n bitiyor.
For you to respond appropriately it is assumed that you know something about
“the conference” in question. If you do not know, we conclude that the speaker
made a wrong assumption about your knowledge of the conference. This 2 results 2
in a failure of presupposition in which case you ask to know what he is talking
about. There would not be any point in saying: registration forIt isthe
yourconference
turn! ends It is your turn!
tomorrow unless the speaker knew that the hearer is properly informed3about the 3
upcoming conference and the process of registration. In fact, this condition must
be met before making the utterance. The speaker must presuppose that the hearer
knows about the conference and perhaps eager to register. 4 4
In our daily interactions with people, we often rely on a number of
presuppositions in order to communicate effectively with them. In some specialized
settings such as courts, police stations, hospitals, post office, classrooms etc, the
5 5
role we assume as speech partners will affect the type of presupposition. Think of
an exchange between a doctor and his patient, or between a suspect and police.
Presupposition is a feature of a normal everyday discourse/conversation. When
we communicate, our knowledge of the language system enables us to make 6 valid 6
assumptions and conclusions in order to interpret utterances correctly. Very often
we do not always express all we have in mind in words, much It isofyour
theturn!
meanings we It is your turn!
convey are rooted in the context we find ourselves. Because we rely7 on some 7
background knowledge and information, we take for granted that the hearer knows
about us and we expect them to make the right interpretations It isof what
your turn! we say. It is your turn!
To sum up, presupposition is the assumption that the hearer already 8 knows 8
about the subject and the context of the information. The context includes shared
knowledge of the environment, culture, belief or world view. This enables the
hearer to make the right assumption or inference as he interprets a piece of
9 9
information.
What do you think is presupposed in the following statements? It is your turn! It is your turn!
1) Ali çocuklar›n› dövmekten vazgeçti . 10 10
2) Bugün içmedi¤in için teflekkür ederim.
3) Ayfle s›nav› geçmeyi becerdi. It is your turn! It is your turn!
4) Hoca derse gelmeyi unuttu. 11 11
POLITENESS PRINCIPLE AND FACE-SAVING

In this section we shall consider the role of politeness phenomena as an important
12 12
concern of pragmatics in the role of communicating social meaning. Politeness is
not just about giving compliments, it is rather the exercise of language choice to
create a context intended to match addressee’s notion of howIt he
is your
orturn!
she should be It is your turn!
addressed. Among the aspects of context that are particularly determined 13 by 13
language choice in the domain of politeness are the power-distance relationship
of the speaker and hearer and the extent to which a speaker imposes on or requires
something of their addressee. Thus, being “polite” is simply a way a speaker
implicates a context that matches the one assumed by the hearer (Grundy, 2000)
This we do by applying some great deal of linguistic politeness as a rule for
ensuring the appropriate etiquette or conduct.
Look at the examples below showing expressions of politeness phenomena:

72. Size zahmet olmazsa bir bardak su rica edebilir miyim?
73. Bana su ver.
As we can see in the above examples, politeness principle does not always
encourage economy of words. Rather the speaker in 72 adopts a politeness
strategy by using a long sentence. Polite utterances often encode the relationship
between the speaker and hearer. According to Grundy (2000), if we do not see the
relationship between us and the persons who address us as they do, we may be
upset by the strategies they use, since these strategies imply the kind of relationship
we have with them, thus linguistic politeness is the function of language to imply
the most appropriate speaker-addressee relationship.
Politeness as Face-Saving
The concept of “face” in pragmatics refers to someone’s self image. Your face,
therefore, is your emotional and social sense of self worth that you expect someone
else to recognize (Yule, 2000). If anyone says something to you that constitutes a
threat to your self image, that is called a face-threatening act. If someone tells you:
74. Çekil git!
And another tells you:
75. Geçmeme müsaade eder misiniz lütfen?
The first person in 74 speaks to you as if s/he has some authority or social
power over you. If he does not really have that power, s/he is indeed threatening
your face. The other person who adopts an indirect speech act (in form of a
question) removes the face threatening act, thus making his request less threatening.
In 75 the speaker has removed any potential face threatening act and thus has
performed a face-saving act. This face saving strategy constitutes politeness.
People have both the negative face and positive face. The negative face is the
need to be independent and free of any form of imposition, while the positive face
is the person’s need to be well treated, to belong, to be a member of a group
(Yule, 2000). A face-saving act that recognizes another person’s negative face will
be concerned about his need not to be imposed, harassed or insulted. Thus, the
need to use such expressions as “I’m sorry to bother you...”, “I just couldn’t help
asking if...” “I know you’re busy but...”, “Size zahmet olacak ama...”, “Rica etsem...”,
“Bir dakika bakar m›s›n›z ...” etc. A face-saving act that emphasizes a person’s
positive face will show solidarity and be mindful of a common goal, tendency or
a common weakness. For instance, if someone tells you: “O’ you’re very kind.”,
“Ne kadar naziksiniz.” And in response you say: “Thanks, but I’m not as kind as
you are.”,”Sizin kadar de¤il.” You are being polite by applying a positive face-
saving act, implying that you are not in any way better than the other person and
that you are equals. The appropriate language use that shows politeness varies
among cultures. Many times what some cultures consider as impolite may not be
impolite to some. For instance, in Turkish culture, it will be impolite to respond
with ‘ne?’ if you have not understood what has been said. On the other hand, in
English speaking cultures ‘what?’ is quite appropriate, thus not impolite, in the
same context. For politeness to take place, someone has recognized the other
person’s “self esteem” and the need to protect it.
Lakoff (1973) argues that politeness principle, like conversational principle,
operates with some maxims which are assumed to be followed by the speaker and
hearer in their conversations with others. As with the cooperative principles, any
flouting of these maxims will definitely affect the meaning. Lakoff, therefore,
formulates the maxims as follows:
a) Don’t impose
b) Give options
c) Make your receiver feel good
We often use such expressions as “would you mind...” “could you possibly...”
“May I ask if...” etc. which give the addressee the option of refusal and then we
often apologize for imposing (“I’m sorry for interfering ...”) and add praise to
make our hearer feel good (e.g. “I’m indeed not as kind as you...”).
Politeness principle often violates much of conversational maxims. In our effort
to be polite we often ignore what we may call the “truth” or be as brief as possible
in order to achieve some face-saving goal. A friend of yours stands in front of you
with a horrible look in her new dress and seeks your opinion. Although you may
later tell her the truth or you may not, at that instant for the sake of politeness you
may utter “Çok güzel. fiahane görünüyorsun.” or you may say something which
gives a little warning like ‘Fena olmam›fl.’ This will help her take-in whatever
bland comment you may need to make later. In this case you have violated the
maxim of quality.
When a speaker tries not to cause offence, he is said to be protecting the
hearer’s face. So face-saving tact is a strategy in communication aimed at lessening
someone feeling of threat or fear. It might be in form of a polite request or a
statement that is actually a question, in order to reduce someone’s possibility to
feel threatened, embarrassed or insulted. “Could you possibly close the door please”
is a more face-saving tact than an imperative “close the door.”
In pragmatics, we always pay attention to the force of our utterance. When
people speak, their words or expressions generally have some force (or illocution)
on the hearer. And this illocution may be positive or negative. To increase the
level of politeness, it is recommended that it is better to use more indirect kind of
illocution. The indirect illocutions tend to be more polite because they increase
the degree of options that people have. The more indirect an illocution is the more
diminished its force tends to be.
Consider the following examples listed in less polite to more polite.
76. Return my book
77. I want you to return my book
78. Will you return my book?
79. Would you mind returning my book?
80. Could you possibly return my book?
In summary, every communicative event puts our face at risk. Therefore,
linguistic politeness is the other person’s recognition of this face and the need to
protect it through discursive means. This is called face-saving. A threat to your self
esteem constitutes face threatening act. Your negative face is your need to be
independent and free of any form of imposition, while your positive face is your
need to be well treated, to belong, to be a member of the group. Whenever
someone’s face is threatened communicators do often apply some redressive
(making amends or compensation) Politeness Strategies to mitigate the
impoliteness. The appropriate language use that shows politeness however varies
from culture to culture.
8 8

9 9
It126
is your turn!
10 10
It is your turn! Which one ofIt isthe

yourfollowing
turn! is a face threatening act?
11 A. Baksana
11 buraya.
B. Çok rica ediyorum.
C. Bir dakikan›z› alabilir miyim?
D. Al götür bunu.
12 E. Daha12kaç saat bekleteceksiniz bizi.
F. K›zmazsan senden bir fley isteyecektim.
G. Bula bula bunu turn!
mu buldun.
13 13 yok.
H. Zarar›
I. Seninle sonra konuflaca¤›z.
J. Hadi can›m sen de.
CONVERSATION ANALYSIS
Conversation analysis (CA) is the study of talk in interaction (both verbal and non-
verbal in situations of everyday life). Conversation analysis generally attempts to
describe the orderliness, structure and sequential patterns of interaction, whether
institutional (in school, a doctor’s surgery, court or elsewhere) or in casual
conversation (telephone conversation). Conversation analysis is an approach to
the study of natural conversation, especially with a view to determining the
following:
Participants’ methods of
1) turn-taking
2) constructing sequences of utterances across turns
3) identifying and repairing problems, and
4) employing gaze and movement
as well as how conversation works in different conventional settings.
A conversation is like other speech events organized in such a way as to
demand certain types of contributions from participants in the form of turn-
taking elements. Each contribution to a talk exchange is purposeful and contributes
significantly to the general anticipated outcome of the event (Grundy, 2000). In
such conversations the speaker and the hearer are able to take some natural turns,
employ their knowledge of the language system to convey their intentions, employ
discourse strategies like hesitations, pauses, false starts, attention getters, slurs,
fillers etc. and engage other language devices in conversation. This topic will
further be discussed in the next unit.
Conversation analysis is an interdisciplinary area and it is still disputed whether
it is the interest of ethnomethodology, sociolinguistics or discourse analysis.
Nonetheless, conversation provides the raw data for a pragmatic study. While the
conversation analyst is involved on the structure of turn-taking in a conversation
and what they imply about the roles and relationships of the speaker and the
hearer, a pragmatic analyst is primarily concerned with how this structure
contributes to the meaning making process and other speech acts that signal the
speaker’s intention; how direct or indirect speech acts, contribute to the overall
communication of the speaker’s intention and what results s/he expects.
Utterances as words or sentences that are linked with a particular speech event
reveal the context in which the utterances occur. So it is easy to identify a discourse
event as occurring at a hospital, a police station, a classroom or a business office.
Utterances often convey some speech acts which represent the intention of the
It is yourUnit
turn!6 - Pragmatics It is your turn!
127
1 1
speech/the function of the act itself. A conversation is a speech event like radio
interview, telephone exchange, career talks or a debate. In either
It is your of these events
there are elements of systematic turn-taking that demands certain2 types of 2
contributions from participants. A conversation analyst is concerned with a
description of how people take turns and the circumstances under which they
overlap or pause between them. A pragmatic analyst is interested in how a
3 3
conversation demonstrates meaning through speech acts and other discourse
strategies that communication the speaker’s intention.
Ethnomethodologists identify turn types, the main one being what they describe
as adjacency pair. This occurs when the utterance of one speaker4 makes a 4
particular kind of response likely, usually a choice of two likely responses. For
It is yourOther
example, a request will likely attract either an acceptance or refusal. turn! examples It is your turn!
of adjacency pairs are shown below: 5 5
Preferred Dispreferred Table 6.1

Request Acceptance Refusal
Offer acceptance refusal 6 6
Assessment agreement disagreement
Blame denial admission
Question expected answer unexpected answer
7 7
A “dispreferred” response is often marked by either a slight pause or a preface
like “well,””you see,””em...er (hesitation) etc. It is your turn! It is your turn!
Consider the following examples which are adjacency pairs: 8 8
81. A: Sinemaya gidelim mi?
B: Hmmm. Bilmem ki? It is your turn! It is your turn!
82. A: Sinemaya gidelim mi? 9 9
B: Ya....Benim yar›n s›nav›m var.
83. A: Sinemaya gidelim mi? It is your turn! It is your turn!
B: ‹yi bir film var m›? 10 10
B: Can›m hiç istemiyor.
11 11
B: Harika..
Identify the preferred/dispreferred answers in the following conversations.

A. - Yar›n okulda olacak m›s›n? 12 12
- Hay›r
B. - Yar›n okulda olacak m›s›n? It is your turn! It is your turn!
- Sana ne?
13 13
C - Limonlu bir çay rica edebilir miyim?
- Derhal
D - Sana yard›m edeyim.
- Ben kendim yapar›m.
E - Saç›n›n bu rengi sana yak›flm›fl.
- Benim hiç içime sinmedi.
Summary
Knowing a language does not only mean to know all

the grammatical rules, but it also involves interpreting
what the speaker is saying and understanding requires
different types of analysis. The study of language in
context and how context affects linguistics
interpretation is called pragmatics. Pragmatics includes
the study of speech acts that are discussed under two
basic categories-direct and indirect speech acts. Speech
act theory studies utterances beyond what is said. Within
the study of utterances we have locutions-what an
utterance means without its pragmatics meaning;
illocutions that depend on the temporal condition of
the speaker and perlocutions which really are about
what the hearer makes out from what the speaker is
saying. Furthermore, each utterance needs to meet a
condition that is called the felicity condition which is
concerned with the appropriate use of language in a
particular context.
The Gricean maxims are a framework for understanding
how individuals co-operate socially in their use of
language. These maxims involve being informative, not
saying anything that is false, being relevant and present
information in a brief, orderly fashion. A part of speaker
meaning is called implicature. Implicature results when
a maxim is violated and the hearer is forced to make
and an assumption.
Deictic terms such as you, there, now require knowledge
of the context in which the utterance is made in order
to be interpreted referentially. As the hearer needs to
know the circumstances of the utterance in the
interpretation of deictic expressions, the hearer also
needs to share some degree of information with the
speaker or writer. The assumptions that hearer make
about an utterance is called presuppositions.
One important social, psychological and contextual
concept in pragmatics is the concept of face,
which refers to someone’s self image. This concept is
closely related to politeness. Pragmatic analysis is made
possible by studying context in which the conversations
take place. Conversational analysis is the study of talk
in interaction in situations in everyday life.
Self Test
1. Speech acts are actions ___________ 6. Which linguist comes up with the theory of
a. Performed when we are talking Cooperative Principle?
b. Performed when reading a. Lakoff
c. Performed for realizing speakers’ intention b. Searle
d. Performed to help speakers’ uttering c. Grice
e. Performed when listening d. Yule
e. Chomsky
2. Which one of the following is a performative verb?
a. saklanmak 7. What type of context would you need to understand
b. a¤lamak the following conversation?
c. uyarmak To a taxi driver parked on the street.
d. yürümek A- Bofl musunuz?
e. üzülmek a. Epistemic
b. Social
3. Speech acts can be used in ___________ c. Discourse
a. representatives d. Physical
b. directives e. Linguistic
c. expressives
d. imperatives 8. “Yerde cam k›r›klar› var! Dikkat et!”
e. all of the above What kind of context does it refer to?
a. Epistemic
4. - A: Akflam yeme¤inde ne var? b. Co-text
- B: Ben tavuk sevmem. c. Physical context
What kind of maxim of cooperative principle the dialog d. Written context
flouts? e. all of the above
a. Quantity
b. Quality 9. “Ayfle, biraz daha çay içer misin?”
c. Relevance What is the presupposition in this sentence?
d. Manner a. Ayfle likes tea.
e. Quantity and manner b. Ayfle is drinking tea.
c. Ayfle already drank some tea.
5. - “Hey, Kapasana flu kap›y›!” d. Ayfle did not like the tea she’s drinking.
Which politeness principle does the sentence violate? e. Somebody is asking Ayfle about drinking tea.
a. Do not impose
b. Do not talk too much 10. What are the two main Gricean maxims involved if
c. Be sincere someone is called ‘çenesi düflük’ in Turkish?
d. Be calm a. Quality and Quantity
e. Do not use questions b. Relation and Quality
c. Manner and Quality
d. Manner and Quantity
e. All of the above
Turkish Alive
“ YARDIM DE⁄‹L PAYLAfiIM

Notice how the write uses pragmatic devices in her essay.
Pamukkale Üniversitesinde düzenlenen edebiyat gün-
“Karn›m aç.” diyen bir koca ve bir kad›n, ayn› fleyi söy-
lemez. Kad›n “Karn›m aç.” diyorsa karn›n›n ac›kt›¤›n›
söylüyordur; ama koca bu laf› etti¤inde, kar›s›na “Sofra-
lerine kat›lmak için Denizli’ye gitti¤imde üniversitenin y› kur.” diyordur asl›nda. Ayr›ca, bunun ille sözle söy-
konukevinde kalm›flt›m. Kat›laca¤›m ve konuflaca¤›m lenmesi de gerekmez. Eve geldi¤inde koltu¤una oturup
toplant› ö¤leden sonra oldu¤u için acelem yoktu. Sa- gazetesini kar›flt›ran, televizyon haberlerini izlemeye
bah rahat rahat kahvalt›m› yapabilir; kitab›m›, gazetemi bafllayan kocan›n da davran›fl›yla söyledi¤i bu de¤il mi-
okurken kahvemi yudumlayabilirdim. dir? Ayn› iflte çal›flan, ayn› anda eve dönen bir çiftten
Kahvalt› için konukevinin restoran›na indim. Ben yafl- söz ettikten sonra, birinin salona, ötekinin mutfa¤a yö-
larda bir bey, masalardan birinde tek bafl›na oturuyor. neldi¤ini söylesem kimse mutfa¤a yönelenin hangisi ol-
Etrafta baflka kimse yok; ne konuk ne görevli. fiöyle bir du¤unu merak etmez, de¤il mi?
doland›m. Çay makinesinden buharlar ç›k›yor; demek Salata taba¤›n› mutfaktan al›p masaya getiren erkek,
ki çay demlenmifl. Ötede, haz›rlanm›fl kahvalt› tabakla- kar›s›na yard›m etti¤ini düflünüp (sadece düflünüp de-
r›, hafllanm›fl yumurtalar, dilimlenmifl ekmekler... Her ¤il elbette, yeri geldi¤inde, “Nankörlük etme! Yard›m
fley haz›r. Daha ne ar›yorum? Kahvalt› tabaklar›ndan bi- etmiyor muyum sana?” diye hesap sorup) üste ç›karak;
rini, ekme¤imi, yumurtam› ald›m; çay›m› doldurdum, yard›mseverli¤inden dolay› kendisiyle gurur duyabilir.
bofl bir masaya yöneldim. Tam yan›ndan geçerken, “Bu- Yaln›z Türkiye’de de¤il, dünyan›n her yerinde. Oysa
rada usul böyle mi?” diye sordu o ben yafllardaki bey. yard›m de¤il, paylafl›md›r önemli olan. 21. yüzy›l›n ikin-
Usul mü? Bilmem. Her fleyi haz›rlam›fllar. Gidip al›yor- ci on y›l›na girildi¤inde hâlâ evlerde yemek pifliyor, bu-
sunuz. Hepsi bu! lafl›k y›kan›yorsa zevkleri ve dertleri oldu¤u kadar bu-
Az sonra yerinden kalkt›. Kahvalt›l›klar›n bulundu¤u lafl›¤› da paylaflmak gerek.
”
bölüme gitti. “Kimse yok mu?” diye seslendi mutfa¤a
do¤ru. ‹çeriden ç›kan delikanl›ya kahvalt› istedi¤ini söy- Kaynak: Hepçilingir, Feyza. (2011). Geçen Gün Ömür-
ledi, yerine döndü. Kahvalt›s›n› beklemeye bafllad›. Az dendir- Yard›m De¤il Paylafl›m. Yolculuk Kamil Koç
sonra garson kahvalt› taba¤›n› getirdi¤inde, tabaktaki Ayl›k Kültür ve Yaflam Dergisi, Say› 79, s.8.
tek salam dilimini gösterecek, “Ben salam yemiyorum.”
diyerek taba¤› geri gönderdi. Salams›z taba¤› bekleme-
ye bafllad›. Ben kahvalt›m› bitirirken o daha yumurtas›-
n› soyuyordu.
Bir üniversitede bulundu¤umuza göre, o beyin profe-
sör olma ihtimali yüksek. Ön çal›flmalar› araflt›rma gö-
revlilerine yapt›rmaya al›fl›k bir profesör, kahvalt›n›n ön
çal›flmas›n› da birilerinin yapmas›n› beklemifl olabilir.
Önce böyle düflündüm. Sonra, profesör olmasa baflka
türlü mü davran›rd›, diye sordum kendime. Yok, pek
fark etmezdi. O bir erkek. Yaflam›nda her zaman onu
kollayan, gözeten kad›nlar olmufltur: annesi, ablas›, k›z
kardefli, kar›s›... Öyleyse az önceki kahvalt› serüvenini
mevki fark›ndan çok, cinsiyet fark›na ba¤lamak, daha
mant›kl› görünüyor.
Bir kad›n›n “Ne yiyece¤iz?” demesi, duruma ve konu-
ma göre, “Evde yiyecek bir fley yok.” anlam›na gelebi-
lir; “Hiç param›z kalmad›.” demek olabilir. “Bak, bugün
de yemeklik bir fley getirmeden, elini kolunu sallayarak
geldin eve.” diye bir sitem iletebilir. Oysa bir kocan›n,
kar›s›na sordu¤u, “Ne yiyece¤iz?” sorusunun anlam› tek-
tir: “Ne piflirdin?”
References Key to Self Test

Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1
Language.Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. London: 1. Semantics
It is your turn!
2
is the2 Itstudy
is your turn!
of literal meaning in language
Longman. items such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and
Fromkin, Victoria, Rodman, Robert. (1974). An sentences. 3 Pragmatics
3 deals with the meaning of
Introduction to Language. New York: Hardcourt language
It is your turn! use in context.
It is your turn!
4 4
Brace College Publishers. 2. Here are some suggestions; however, you may find
Grice, H. P., (1967). “Logic and Conversation” in Cole different 5
contexts 5yourselves.
and Morgan (1975), Syntax and Semantic III. Context:
It is your turn!
You are leaving
It is your turn!
your house to go to school
Academic Press. and you see your neighbor leaving at the same time
6 6
Grice, H. P., 1968, “Utterer’s Meaning, Sentence- Intended

It is your turn! meaning:It Theis your turn!weather is cold.
7 7
Meaning and Word-Meaning”. Foundations of Context: You have been introduced to a new person at
Languag, 4: 225-42. a party,8 after the 8introduction you are talking to your
Grice, H. P., (1975), “Logic and Conversation”, in P. close friend and make
It is your turn!
a comment about this person
It is your turn!
Cole and J. Morgan, eds., Syntax and Semantics, vol. Intended 9

meaning:9 A cold person, or a cold personality
3, Academic Press, pp. 41-58 It is your turn!
1 1
It is your turn!
10 10
Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics (2nd Ed.). London: It is your turn! It is your turn!
Arnold 2
11
2
11
Hepçilingir, Feyza. (2011). “Geçen Gün Ömürdendir- What

It is your turn! types of context
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
help you understand the
3 3
Yard›m De¤il Paylafl›m”. Yolculuk, Say› 79, s.8 following utterances?
12 12
Lakoff,R. (1973) The logic of politeness;or minding K›rm›z›
It is your turn!
4 fiimflekler kazand›.-
4 It is your turn! Here the context is
13 13
yourP’s and Q’s. CLS 9:292-305 epistemic.
It is your turn! UnderstandingIt is your turn! this utterance requires world
5
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of Pragmatics. London: knowledge. If you5 are interested in football and know
Longman. that K›rm›z›
It is your turn!
6
fiimflekler
6
is the nick name for Eskiflehirspor,
It is your turn!
Levinson, S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP the utterance will be clear to you immediately.
Kasper, G. (1995) ‘Interlanguage Pragmatics’, in Güzelmifl!!!!! 7 If this7 utterance is spoken in a sarcastic
Verschueren, J. & Östman, J.O & Blommaert, J. (eds.) tone,
It is your turn!then the hearer It is yourwill
turn! know that the speaker does
8 8
Handbook of Pragmatics 1995, Amsterdam: John not really believe that she is really beautiful. The context
Benjamins isIt islinguistic
your turn!
9
because 9
It is your turn!
we have tone and “mifl” morpheme
Kempson, R. (1988). Grammar and conversational to help us understand
It is your turn!
the meaning.
It is your turn!
principles. In Newmeyer F. (ed.) Taze mi? 10 Physical context

10 help understand the meaning.
Linguistics : the Cambridge Survey, vol. II : Linguistic Hearer
It is your turn! knows thatIt is the your turn! speaker is asking about the
11 11
theory : extensions and freshness of vegetables or fruit at the market.
implications, Cambridge : CUP : 139-163. Sen bana
It is your turn!
12
sen diyemezsin!
12
It is your turn!
This is most probably uttered
Searle, John. (1969). Speech acts: An essay in the inIt is your
a turn!
social context where It is your turn!
the speaker feels insulted by
philosophy of language. Cambridge: CUP the other 13 person who 13 he or she feels is not socially his
Searle, John. (1976). “A classification of illocutionary or her
It is your turn! equal. The social It is your turn! rules help us understand the
1 1
acts.” Language in Society (1976),5:1-23. Cambridge: meaning.
Cambridge University Press 2 2
Mey, J.L. (1993) Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: It is your turn! It is your turn!
Blackwell 3 3
Verschueren,J. (1999). Understanding Pragmatics. In asking a question,

It is your turn!
or giving an answer or warning a
It is your turn!
4 4
London: Arnold person are all Locutionary acts because the speaker is
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language (2nd ed). performing 5 the act5 of warning or asking a question
Cambridge: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Illocutionary
It is your turn! force Itof an
is your turn! utterance is what the speaker
6 6
Yule, G. (2000). Pragmatics (5th ed). Oxford: Oxford means by it. The utterance “Ne zaman gidiyorsun?” can
University Press vary in 7its illocutionary
It is your turn!
7
force depending on the context.
It is your turn!

8 8

9 9

10 10

2 2

3 3

4 4
132
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse 1(Türkçe Tümce1 Bilgisi, Anlambilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi)
5 5

2 2
It may mean “When are you leaving, I would like to go we go through 6 a series
6 of deductions in our minds and
home with you” OR “You have been working hard it is assume3 that he has
It is your turn!
3
It received good news from his wife
is your turn!
7 7
time for you to go. that his
It is your turn!
wife is pregnant.
It is your turn!
Agreeing, persuading, comforting are mostly It is your turn! 4
8
1
4 It is your turn!
8
1
perlocutionary acts. These acts cause physical changes It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9
in the audience. ForIt isexample:
It is your turn! your turn!
if you shout “FIRE” in the 2 2
theatre1 and cause 1people to exit the building you have a.Orada
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 6
It is your turn!
6 It is your turn!
10 10
3 3
performed
It is your turn!
a perlocutionary
It is your turn!
act of convincing people to b.fiimdi
2 2 It is your turn! It is your turn!
exit the building c.-
It is your turn! 7
11
4
7 It is your turn!
11
4
3 3 d.Sen,
It
It
is
is
your
your
turn!
turn!
o It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn! It is your turn! e.Yan›m, 5 karfl›m
12 12
5
It is your turn! 4 It is your turn! It is your turn!
4 It is your turn!
1 1 ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
9 9 ItIt isis your
your turn!
turn!
13
6 13
6
A. Identify the speech
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 5
act in the following:
It is your turn!
5 It is your turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
1
10
1. Interrogative 2 2
7 7
ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
2. Imperative
It is your turn! 6 6 It is your turn! 1) The 2
It is your turn!11
presupposition
2 It is your turn!
11
is that ‘Ali çocuklar›n› dövüyor.’
3 3
B. Identify
It is your turn! the performative
It is your turn! verbs: b, c 2) The
It is your turn!
presupposition
8 8
It is your turn!
is that ‘Hergün içki içiyor.’
It is your turn! 7 7 It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn!
It is your turn! 4 4 It is your turn! 3)It is your
The 3presupposition
turn! 12 3
12 It is your is
turn! that ‘Ayfle s›nava girdi.’
9 9
4) The
It is your
It is your
turn! presupposition
turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn!is that ‘Ders var.’
It is your turn! 4 4
It is your turn! 5 5 It is your turn! 13 13 It is your turn!
10 10
This sentence does
It is your turn! 9
It is your turn! 6
not
9 It is your turn!
6 It is your turn!
meet the felicity condition. It is your turn! 5 5 It is your turn!
11 11
Because
It is your turn! 3 we all know that
3 It is your turn! royalty are the ones who can
pronounce
It is your turn! 7 “knigthnood”.
7 It is your turn! So, the speaker does not have The following sentences
will threaten or increase the
the
It is your appropriate
turn! 11 social
11It is your authority
turn! to do so. fear in the hearer. It is your turn!
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 8 8 It is your turn! It is your turn!

5 5 It is your turn! A. Baksana 13 buraya.13
ItIt isis your
your turn!
turn! It is your turn! It is your turn! It is your turn!
It is your turn! 9
12
1 12
1
9 It is your turn!
D. Al götür 8 bunu. 8
ItIt isis your
your turn!
It is your turn!
turn!
6 6
ItIt isis your
your turn!
It is your turn!
turn! E. Daha
It is your turn! kaç saat bekleteceksiniz
It is your turn! bizi.
13
2 13
2
Actually the speaker
It is your turn!10 10 It is yourwants
turn!
to know what time it is. G. Bula9 bula bunu9 mu buldun.
7 7
Most probably
It is your turn!
3
he 3
or she
It is your turn! does not have a watch. If the I.It is your
Seninle
turn!
10
sonra konuflaca¤›z.
10
It is your turn!

hearer
It is your turn!
8answers by8 telling the speaker time then he has
It is your turn!
J. Hadi can›m sende.
It is your turn!
understood 4 4 It is your turn!However, if he only says “ Var”
the request. 11 11
9 9
then he has not understood
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 5
It is your turn! the speaker’s request but It is your turn! It is your turn!
5 It is your turn!
12 12
thought10 he was asking
It is your turn! 13
a
13 It is your turn!
10
question.
6 6 AIt is your-Yar›n
turn!
13
okulda olacak
13
m›s›n?
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 11
It is your turn!
11 It is your turn! - Hay›r PREFERRED
It is your turn!
7 7
It is your turn! B - Yar›n okulda olacak m›s›n?
- Sana ne? DISPREFERRED
A. The2 answer provided 2 violates the quantity maxim.
8 8
The speaker
It is your turn!
It is your turn! gives a lot of
It is your turn!
It is your turn! information that is not really C - Limonlu bir çay rica edebilir miyim?
3 3
necessary. 9 The answer
9 also has irrelevant information. Derhal PREFERRED
ItItIt isis also
your turn! violates the Itmaxim
your turn!
4 4
It is your turn!
is your turn! of manner. Remember Selin D - Sana yard›m edeyim.
10 10
is 4 years old .She doesn’t know how to read English. Ben kendim yapar›m. DISPREFERRED
B. Nasreddin
It is your turn!
5
11
hoca isturn!violating quality and manner
5 It is your
11
E - Saç›n›n bu rengi sana yak›flm›fl.
maxims.
It is your turn! What he says is not the truth and he has given
It is your turn! Benim hiç içime sinmedi. DISPREFERRED
a really12 obscure answer 12 to his neighbor
13 13
8 8
The sentence violates

It is your turn! the relevance maxim as well as
It is your turn!
9 9
quality. We know that a man cannot be pregnant.
However, 10 if we know
10 that he is talking to his wife, then
11 11

12 12

13 13
7
ÇÖZÜMLEMES‹)
Aims
N
N
Definition of Discourse Analysis
N
Features of Discourse
N
Types of Discourse
N
Written and Spoken Discourse
N
Spoken Discourse Analysis
N
Turn Taking
N
Devices for Discourse
N
Cohesion and Coherence
N
Reference
N
Anaphoric and Cataphoric Relation
N
Substitution
Ellipsis
Key Words
• Discourse • Reference
• Text • Ellipsis
• Discourse Analysis • Anaphora
• Cohesion • Cataphora
• Coherence • Exophora
• Written vs. Spoken Discourse • Substitution
• Schemata • Turn-taking
Contents

Discourse Analysis • INTRODUCTION
Discourse Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Discourse is a term becoming increasingly common in a wide range of academic
and non-academic contexts. Sometimes it can seem as if each time it is used, it
means something different.
Within linguistics, discourse is often described as “language-in-use” or “socially
situated text and talk”, i.e., analysts ask how written, oral and visual texts are used
in specific contexts to make meanings, as opposed to analyzing language-as-an-
abstract-system. Other disciplines - philosophy, history, sociology, anthropology,
political science, media studies - tend to use the term to mean what is ‘sayable’ or
‘thinkable’ about a topic in any given political, social, historical, cultural context.
Zellig Harris (1952), one of Chomsky’s teachers, paved the way for linguists to
analyze language above the sentence level, calling this unit of analysis ‘discourse’
(e.g., paragraphs, essays, interviews). Discourse Analysis, therefore, focuses on
language in use, the relation of language to context and the relations of sentential
links within a text.
Defining Discourse Analysis (DA)

It is almost impossible to have an agreed definition to discourse analysis and other
fundamental issues of terminology. The definition offered by The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of Language (Crystal, 1997) says: Discourse analysis is the study of
how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such
as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. It also deals with:
a) how the choices of articles, pronouns, and tenses affect the structures of the
discourse
b) the relationship between utterances in a discourse, and
c) the moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or
insert a higher role relationship to the other participants.
Discourse analysis can then be described as the analysis of language beyond
sentence level. This contrasts with typical studies of modern linguistics, which are
chiefly concerned with the study of the structure of language, such as sound
segments (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning
(semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts
study the larger chunks of language as they flow together. In recent studies of
textual unity and inter-sentential links small bits of language like “oh”, “well” and
interjections are also covered (Tannen, 1999).
Discourse Analysis is an extensive body of pragmatic and linguistic research

that deals with functional utterances in human interaction and it is also known by
a variety of other names, such as text analysis, text linguistics, and text grammar.
Some linguists use the term text linguistics only for the study of written discourse.
Schiffrin (1994) points out that all approaches within Discourse Analysis view
text and context as the two kinds of information that contribute to the
communicative content of an utterance. Thus, the terms text and discourse are
sometimes used to mean the same and therefore one might conclude that Text
Linguistics and Discourse Analysis are the same, too. Discourse Analysis is viewed
as an all-embracing term which would include Discourse Analysis studies as one
approach among others.
As van Dijk (2008) points out another important characteristic of discourse
studies is that they are essentially multidisciplinary, and therefore, it can be said
that they cross the linguistic border into different and varied domains. Thus, when
analyzing discourse, researchers are not only concerned with “purely” linguistic
facts; they pay equal or more attention to language use in relation to social, political
and cultural aspects. In short, in this chapter, we are going to adopt the general
definition of Discourse Analysis as the study of language in use.
Discourse analysis is the study of language performance. As we have studied
in the syntax units, there is a distinction between competence and performance.
Remember that competence is an abstract perfection; while performance is
concrete. While syntax deals with competence, discourse deals with performance.
To conclude, Discourse Analysis or Text Linguistics is the examination of
language use by members of a speech community. It involves looking at both
language form and language functions and includes the study of both spoken
interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic features that characterize
different genres as well as social and cultural factors used in interpreting and
understanding different texts and types of talk. Discourse analysis of written texts
might include linguistic aspects, such as tense, aspect, reference, etc. while an
analysis of spoken language might focuses on these aspects plus turn taking
practices, opening and closing sequences of social encounters.
Examples of Discourse / Text

A discourse / text can be a unit that can be a non-verbal sign, an utterance, a
whole spoken discourse, or written texts, such as obituaries, commercials, poems,
newspaper articles, e-mail messages, etc. The following examples are from different
genres of discourse:
Example 1 Example 2
Examples in (1) and (2) are non-verbal messages that convey particular
meanings but they still are considered to be discourses. Example (1) means
“Do not enter” even without a written message. Example (2) by the same logic
provides a message, which means “Do not smoke”.
Unit 7 - Discourse Analysis 137
Example 3
Example (3) is more explicit with both a visual and

verbal message.
Example 4
‹MDAT!!!!!
Example (4) is a one-word- utterance-discourse that asks for help.
Example 5
SLM NABER. YRN 5 Espark.
The discourse in (5) belongs to a particular genre which is telegraphic (short)
message possibly a text message sent from a phone or from a computer as an e-mail
message. Notice that the vowels are deleted, yet the message is still comprehensible.
Example 6, 7, 8
Buraya çöp döken eflektir.
Lütfen yerlere çöp atmay›n›z.
Buraya çöp döken Say›n Eflek, görüntü hoflunuza gidiyor mu?
Examples (6); (7); and (8) are warnings to the potential offenders who might
throw their garbage to a particular place, which probably disturbs the writer of the
message. (6) is a direct message that insults the potential offender. Remember that
this is a face-threatening act; whereas (7) gives the message in a face-saving fashion,
and in (8) the writer is ironic because it contains both the politeness address SAYIN
and the insulting word EfiEK together.
Example 9
Example 10
BORNOVADA Aile yan›nda
ev ve yemek ifllerinde
çal›flacak 35 yafl üstü, sigara
içmeyen bayan aran›yor.
0.533.XXX-XX-XX
MARMAR‹S’TE aileye yard›mc›

yat›l› bayan eleman. 0.232.XXX-XX-XX
A‹LE yan›nda çal›flacak

yat›l› bayan 0.537. XXX-XX-XX
EV‹MDE Bayan hastaya

bakar›m. 0.531. XXX-XX-XX
KUfiADASI Davutlar sahilinde

eflyal› villa 0.546. XXX-XX-XX
ÇEfiME’de denize s›f›r 0. XXX-XX-XX
ODTÜ’lüden matematik, geometri, fizik

25 TL 0.536. XXX-XX-XX
ÇOCUKLARA piyano dersi.

0530. XXX-XX-XX
‹LK Sahibinden çok temiz 1993 Safrane

Söke’de 0.532. XXX-XX-XX
DOKTORDAN 2009 BMW 3.18-d

36.500 Euro. 0532. XXX-XX-XX
Examples in (9) and (10) are newspaper ads that are also considered within the
domain of discourse analysis because they are self-explanatory texts that fulfill the
conventions of their own genre.
Example 11
Seviyorum ama kimi?
En tatl› birisini,
Nasil anlatsam sana,
Ilk harflarine baksana
Discourse in (11) conveys an affectionate message in a humorous manner. This
cliche verse is known by almost everyone in the Turkish speech community.
Example 12
Bir varm›fl, bir yokmufl, evvel zaman içinde, kalbur zaman içinde deve-
ler tellalken, pireler berberken, ben annemin befli¤ini t›ng›r m›ng›r sallar-
ken; ülkenin birinde bir kasaba varm›fl. Bu kasaban›n kenar mahallelerin-
deki bir kulübede, çok fakir bir kelo¤lan ile ihtiyar annesi yaflamakta imifl.
Kelo¤lan çok ak›ll› ve becerikli olmas›na ra¤men çal›flmaktan hofllanmaz,
tembel tembel evde oturmay›, ne buldu ise yiyip, içmeyi ve uyumay› sever-
mifl. Tembel mi tembel, saçs›z kafas› ile de çok çirkin oldu¤u için herkes
ona kelo¤lan dermifl. Kelo¤lan›n ihtiyar annesi ise ellere çamafl›r› y›kar,
hem kendini, hem de tembel kelo¤lan› besleme¤e çal›fl›r, zorluklar içinde
geçinirlermifl......
Example (12) is a discourse that is part of a folk tale. The reader immediately
understands that it is a folktale by its conventionalized style from its beginning and
by the use of the aspect marker -mIfl.
Example 13
Example (13) is a discourse augmented by

the use of a picture and both the text and the
picture are understood through background
knowledge. Since there are less people smoking,
there is less need for waiters to change ashtrays.
Example 14
‹ngiliz aktris Googie Withers öldü!
‹ngiliz aktris Googie Withers, 94 yafl›ndayken Avustralya’n›n Sidney kentindeki
evinde öldü.
Hollywood’un alt›n ça¤›n›n bafll›ca kad›n oyuncular›ndan biri olan Withers’in dün-
ya çap›nda tan›nmas›na neden olan film ise ünlü ‹ngiliz yönetmen Alfred Hitchco-
ok’un “The Lady Vanishes” (Kaybolan Kad›n) filmi olmufltu.
As›l ad› Georgette Lizette Withers olan Googie Withers, flimdi Pakistan s›n›rlar›
içinde olan British ‹ndia’da do¤du, ancak hayat› boyunca Hintli dad›s› taraf›ndan
kendisine verilen Googie ad›n› tafl›d›.
1930’lu ve 40’l› y›llarda onlarca filmde görünen Withers’in en tan›nm›fl filmi
Margaret Lockwood ve Michael Redgrave ile oynad›¤› “The Lady Vanishes” idi.
Withers’in en son rol ald›¤› film, Geoffrey Rush’a Oscar kazand›ran “Shine” ad-
l› Avustralya filmiydi.
Haberi Kaydet Arkadafl›na Gönder

0 Yorum - 11 Okunma
Milliyet Internet Haber 16 Temmuz 2011 16:20
Example (14) is a text that reports the death of a British actress, which is taken
from the electronic copy of a newspaper.
Example 15
‹STANBUL ‘UN KÖYLER‹
“‹stanbul’un köyleri” denilince hemen akla gelen, birkaç köy vard›r: “Kad›köy,
Yeniköy, Yeflilköy”
Üç afla¤› befl yukar› eksik olsa da, ‹stanbul’un köyleri denilince ‹stanbullu’nun
akl›na bunlar gelir...
Acaba, baflka köyler de var m›d›r?
Hem de 151 tane, köy gibi köydür bunlar, ço¤unu ‹stanbullu bile bilmez.
***
‹stanbul Özel ‹daresi bir araflt›rma yapt›rm›fl, ortaya bilinen ama bilinmeyen bir
sonuç ç›km›fl............
Hasan Pulur Olaylar ve Insanlar (Milliyet 11/07/2011)
Example (15) is an extract from a column by a Turkish journalist.
Example 16 Example 17
Examples (16) and (17) are obituaries with their own conventional styles of
their genre. Nevertheless, notice that (16) is more formal, whereas; (17) has a more
personal tone.
As can be seen from the texts above, a speaker needs not only sound knowledge
of the Turkish language, but also certain socio cultural, text typological and
contextual knowledge to interpret the meanings of these discourses / texts.
It is your turn! How would you analyze

It is your turn! the example (18) and (19) listed below?
1 1
Example 18 Example 19
2 2
ACI KAYBIMIZ
Mr. & Mrs. BROWN ‘u
KAYBETTIK
3 3

4 4

5 5
Mr. & Mrs. BROWN went to the OTHER side.
Onlarla ingilizce ögrenmek için

Çok çabalad›n›z ama olmad›
Kendilerine Allah’tan turn!
rahmet,
Sevenlerine baflsa¤l›¤› dileriz.
6 6

7 7

8 8
Pragmatics vs. Discourse Analysis

Analyzing a text requires a variety of background knowledge: linguistic, pragmatic,
and epistemic-e.g. world knowledge. However, it is not possible to draw clear-cut
lines among these notions. Thus, the line between pragmatics and discourse
analysis is fuzzy. Discourse analysis makes use of pragmatic concepts while
accounting for human communication. Discourse analysis is related to pragmatics
on the one hand, and their fields of investigation are quite different on the other.
Pragmatics is traditionally labeled in contrast with semantics, and primarily
concerned with language in use. In modern linguistics, pragmatics is applied to
the study of language from the point of view of language users, especially of the
choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social
interaction. Discourse analysis is specifically about understanding and examining
spoken or written language in actual communication. Discourse analysis is to
some extent more application-oriented as opposed to pragmatics; pragmatics
sustains discourse analysis with theoretical preparation in turn.
Properties of Discourse / Text

A discourse / text is not an arbitrary unit but rather it is rule-governed. It has some
properties such as cohesion and coherence as well as intentionality, textuality, etc.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts that link different
parts of sentences or larger units of discourse. It can be defined as the individual
grammatical and lexical devices signaling connectedness within the discourse itself.
It involves the relationship between text and syntax. Phenomena such as conjunction,
ellipsis, anaphora or cataphora, etc. are the basic devices of cohesion (Halliday and
Hasan, 1976). The components of cohesion are illustrated in the figure below:
Figure 7.1
Adapted from Holiday and Hasan, 1976
Cohesion
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Lexical

Cohesion
Anaphora
(referringto the Cataphora Exophora
previous enity) (referringto the (referringto the
followingentity) entity in the
Reiteration Collocation
surrounding)
These components of cohesion are discourse forming elements and are explained
below.
Reference can be described as the use of words in the text which do not have
meaning of their own, such as pronouns, but they contribute greatly to the
connectedness of the text. To infer their meaning the reader has to refer to some
entity within the text. Consider these examples from English and Turkish:
20. A: How do you like my new Mercedes Vito?
B: It is a nice van. I’m also thinking of buying one of them.
In (20), the pronoun it is used to refer to the new Mercedes Vito. Furthermore,
one of them is used to refer to Mercedes cars in general..
21. A: Elbisemi Istanbul’dan ald›m. Önceleri bunu çok severek giymifltim, ama
art›k böylelerinin modas› geçti.
B: Olur mu can›m. Bu hala çok fl›k duruyor.
In example (21) bunu and bu are used to refer to elbise but böyleleri is a
general reference to the type of the dress.
Reference is divided into three categories:
Anaphoric Reference: Anaphora points back in the text and there is a pronoun
after the entity that it refers to. In other words, the pronoun is used to refer back
to an entity.
22. Last week Ali went to ‹stanbul. He went to Bon Jovi concert there.
23. Ayfle benim yalan söyledi¤imi iddia ediyormufl. Do¤rusu ona hiç yak›flm›yor.
In (22) he and there are used to refer back to the entities Ali and ‹stanbul in
the previous text. In (23) ona is used to refer to Ayfle in the previous discourse.
Cataphoric Reference: Cataphora points forward in the text and the entity that
gives its reference comes after the pronoun. In other words, the pronoun is used to
refer ahead to an entity. Cataphora means referring forward.
24. A week before he left the town, my friend came to my birthday party.
25. This is how you get the best results: You fry onions first, until the get
brown and then....
In (24) he is used to refer to my friend, which takes place after the pronoun,
in (25) this is used to refer to the sentences ahead in the discourse.
26. fiunlar› yapmal›s›n: ilaçlar›n› zaman›nda al, yemene dikkat et,.......
In (26) the pronoun flunlar› is used to refer to the sentences that come after
the pronoun.
Exophoric Reference: It takes place when the referent does not appear in the
text, but rather it is situated in the real world. That is to say, the textual element
points outside the text to the context of situation in which it is embedded:
27. fiunu bana uzat›versene..
In (27), the referent of the pronoun flunu exists within the environment, not
within the text.
Reference hooks discourse to its context -anaphora/cataphora- and it relates
referring expressions within the discourse. So reference is basic to our
understanding of discourse.
Substitution: It is another device for cohesion. It is used in order to avoid repeating
the same word several times in one paragraph it occurs, most often by words, such
as one, do or so. So and do in its all forms might also substitute whole phrases or
clauses. In reference, expressions point to the same thing; whereas, in substitution
one item replaces another. There are various types of substitution as exemplified
below:
a. Nominal substitution: It replaces nouns/noun phrases with one, ones,
same
28. Judy has a dog. I want one of my own.
29. Harry buys old cars. Still, Judy prefers new ones.
30. Harry drinks beer. Yeah, Judy drinks the same.
31. Senin ald›¤›n gömlek güzelmifl. Ben de bir tane istiyorum.
In examples (28), (29), and (30) one, ones, and same are used to substitute
the type denoted in the noun/noun phrases in the previous sentences.
Likewise, in (31) bir tane is used as a substitute for gömlek.
b. Verbal substitution: It replaces verbs/verb phrases with do or do so.

32. A: Did Ayfle feed the cat?
B: Yes, she did.
33. Ali evini k›rm›z›ya boyatm›fl. Ben de öyle yapaca¤›m.
In (32) and (33) did and öyle yapaca¤›m are used to substitute the
respective previous Verb Phrases.
c. Clausal substitution: It replaces clauses with so; replaces and negates
with not
34. A: The newspaper says it’s going to rain.
B: But I don’t think so.
35. A: Has Judy already left for London?
B: I certainly hope not.
36. A: Leyla hamileymifl.
B: Evet, öyle.
In (34), (35) and (36) so, not and öyle substitute the whole clauses in the
previous discourse.
Ellipsis: Ellipsis is very similar to substitution; however, a phrase or a clause is
deleted. In other words, it is the omission of a noun / noun phrase, verb / verb
phrase, or a clause on the assumption that it is understood from the linguistic context.
a. Nominal ellipsis:
37. Ayfle mavi elbiseyi denedi. Sonra k›rm›z›y› __ ald›.
38. Peter wrote this book. Then he wrote that __.
39. A: Ayla’y› ziyarete gittin mi?
B: __ Gittim.
b. Verbal ellipsis
40. A: Have you been swimming?
B: Yes, I have __.
41. Ali Adana’ya gidecek. Ben de __
In (37)- (41) some elements represented by __ deleted.
Conjunctions: They specify the relationship between clauses or sentences in the
creation of a text. Most frequently used types of conjunctions are as follows.
a. Additive Conjunctions: They add one statement to another. Some examples
of additive conjunctions are: ve, dahas›, ayr›ca, bunun yan› s›ra, benzer
flekilde, art›, etc.
and, further(more), moreover, in addition, besides that, incidentally, by the
way, similarly, on the other hand, etc.
42. Jill said she was leaving. And out she went.
43. Benimle kavga etti. Ve çekip gitti.
b. Adversative Conjunction: These show contrast and concession. Examples
are: fakat, ama, yine de, her fleye ra¤men, lakin, halbuki, etc.
but, yet, still, nevertheless, however; actually, on the contrary; anyhow, at
any rate, in any case, etc.
44. Judy keeps failing but she never gives up.
45. Herkes Sedat’a bunu yapamayaca¤›n› söyledi. Ama o baflard›.
c. Causal Conjunction: These show cause and reason. Examples are bundan
dolay›, çünkü, sonuç olarak, bunun için, dolay›s›yla, madem, öyleyse, etc.
so, thus, hence, therefore; as a result, because, on the grounds of, etc.
46. Sally left. Therefore, George was free to go.
47. Düflünüyorum. Öyleyse var›m.
(d)Temporal Conjunction: These show time relations between sentences.
Examples are: sonra önce, nihayet, en sonunda, ilk olarak, etc.
then, next, afterwards; at once, immediately; soon, later etc.

48. Sue got up. Next she looked around. Later she made plans.
49. Önce yumurtalar› k›r. Sonra fleker ilave et.....
Lexical cohesion: It denotes links between words which are semantically related.
Two types of lexical cohesion are differentiated, namely: reiteration and
collocation.
a) Reiteration: It is observed in various forms, particularly synonymy,
repetition, hyponymy or antonymy.
Examples:
50. Alice saw a mushroom. The mushroom was enormous.
51. Alice saw a pine. The tree was wet with dew.
52. Alice saw a deer. The creature was beautiful.
53. Arkadafl› ona sar› güller alm›fl. Çiçekleri çok sever.
54. Cadaloz komflumuz her gün balkon y›k›yor. Münasebetsiz kad›n benim
camlar›m› kirletti¤inin fark›nda de¤il.
In Examples (51)-(55) the lexical items in bold characters are related, therefore
lexically cohesive.
These relations establish links which guide reades through texts. And by using
these relation and links one can better interpret and analyze the discourse content.
b) Collocation: It is another dimension of lexical cohesion. Collocation is the
way in which certain words occur together. For example, denize girmek, mayo
giymek, günefllenip yüzmek, etc. form collocations.
We have seen the linguistic devices that provide cohesion according to Halliday
and Hasan (1976), which glue sentences together to form a well-designed discourse.
Besides Halliday and Hasan’s classification of cohesive devices, there are other
means to provide a well-designed discourse / text. One such device is parallelism.
Parallelism: Sometimes, repeated or parallel sentence patterns can help the
reader/hearer follow along and keep ideas tied together. By parallelism it is meant
any repetition of a syntactic pattern. For example:
55. I have a dream
(...)
a. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up ...
b. I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former
slaves and the sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together
at a table of brotherhood.
c. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state,
sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed
into an oasis of freedom and justice.
d. I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they
will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.
(...) (by Martin Luther KING)
In this example, the sentence pattern I have a dream that... is repeated and
this provides parallelism.
B‹R MEMLEKET ‹STER‹M
Memleket isterim
Gök mavi, dal yeflil, tarla sar› olsun;
Kufllar›n çiçeklerin diyar› olsun.
Memleket isterim
Ne baflta dert ne gönülde hasret olsun;
Kardefl kavgas›na bir nihayet olsun.
Memleket isterim
Ne zengin fakir ne sen ben fark› olsun;
K›fl günü herkesin evi bark› olsun.
Memleket isterim
Yaflamak, sevmek gibi gönülden olsun;
Olursa bir flikayet ölümden olsun.
CAH‹T SITKI TARANCI
In this example, ‘memleket isterim’ and the subjunctive ‘...olsun’ provide
parallelism just like the phrase ‘I have a dream!’ in the English text. .
To conclude, when people produce discourse, they focus not only on the
It is your
correctness of a single sentence, but also on the general turn!
outcome of their It is your turn!
production. 1 1
Identify the cohesive devices in the following texts. It is your turn! It is your turn!
1. Ayfle çocukken Paris’e gitmifl. Orada Frans›zcay› anadili gibi ö¤renmifl. 2 2
2. fiu müzi¤i bir dinlesene, nas›l da insan› rahatlat›yor?
3. Alkollü araba kullanmaktan tutuklanm›fl. Böyle olaca¤›n› bilsem arabam› ona vermezdim.
4. A: F›kra bilir misin?
3 3
B: Bir dolu.
5. Paras›n› özene bezene ev alaca¤›m diye biriktirdi. Yine de istedi¤i gibi bir ev alamad›.
6. Aman kardefl o kadar da üzülme. Bunlar hayat›n tuzu biberi. It is your turn! It is your turn!
7. Oysa gerçek hiç böyle de¤ildi. Sadece seni yitirmekten korkuyordum. Çünkü 4sen özledi- 4
¤im herfleydin. Mükemmeldin, kusursuzdun, s›radanl›¤› aflm›flt›n, en önemlisi kutsal-
d›n. Sana ulaflmam, seni etkilemem için yaflad›¤›m herfleyi inkarItetmem gerekti bu yüz-
is your turn! It is your turn!
den. Hiç olmad›¤›m kadar iyi, hiç olmad›¤›m kadar ince, hiç olmad›¤›m kadar5 derin gö- 5
zükmem gerekiyordu. (Cezmi Ersöz-fiizofren Aflka Mektup)
Coherence
6 6
Coherence is a notion that unifies discourse in terms of the meaning of sentences
and their organization in an orderly manner to make the discourse totally
comprehensible. Coherence derives from the speaker’s/writer’s It is yourcooperation
turn! to It is your turn!
produce and understand the aim, topic and direction of the ongoing discourse in 7 7
the current context.
Coherence is related to contextual - referring to the outside
It is your world
turn! and the It is your turn!
background knowledge known as schemata (schema - sing; schemata- 8 pl.) 8
which are not included in the communicative product itself (Cook 1990).
Schemata might be defined as prior knowledge of typical situations
It is your turn! which It is your turn!
enable people to understand the underlying meaning of words in a given9text. This 9
mental framework is thought to be shared by a language community and to be
activated by key words or context in order for people to understand the message.
This range of inquiry of discourse analysis not only covers linguistic issues, but
is also concerned with other matters, such as: enabling computers to comprehend 10 10
and produce intelligible texts, thus contributing to progress in the study of Artificial
Intelligence. For example, schemata for stories guide tellers inIt is your turn!
what sorts of stories It is your turn!
are appropriate and what to include in them as well as suggesting to hearers 11 what 11
to expect and how to respond to stories. Our schemata for a traditional romantic
love story includes two people who meet, see each other,It fall is yourinturn!
love, usually It is your turn!
while experiencing problems, become engaged, finally marry, go on a honeymoon,
12 12
then take up housekeeping together and have children. Stories that fail to match

13 13
our schemata are hard to understand, e.g. stories without clear causal connections
and stories from other cultural contexts. Schemata also account for inferences we
made during a discourse process.
Coherence understood by using schemata is the whole set of factors which
distinguish a chunk of discourse from a collection of unrelated sentences. Speakers
/ writers signal and produce and listeners and readers interpret the foregoing
discourse within the context. These acts constitute coherence.
Examine the following examples:
56. A: Yar›n Candan Erçetin Konserine geliyor musun?
B: Bana bilet buldunuz mu?
57. A: Telefon!!!!
B: Banyoday›m.
A: Tamam! Kimse gecenin bu saatinde...
58. A: Are your coming to the party tonight?
B: I’ve got exam tomorrow.
As you can see from the above examples, coherence is related to the concepts
of world knowledge, namely epistemic knowledge as well as conversational
implicature. Language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of
knowledge of the world they possess. Coherence is not something which exists in
the language, but something which exists in people’s minds. By using coherence
the reader establishes the semantic unity of the discourse.
Other Aspects of Discourse

Discourse is always produced and interpreted by speakers whose identities are
important for the proper understanding of the message within the speech
community. Discourse always takes place in either physical or linguistic context
and within a meaningful fixed time. That is why discourse deals with performance
rather than competence.
Figure 7.2
SPEECH COMMUNITY
LANGUAGE
Informativity
Encode TEXT/ Decode

Discourse
Co_text
Conesion
Coherence
Sender (speaker/writer) Receiver (hearer/reader)
Intentionality Situationality Acceptibility
CONTEXT (socio-cultural norms & textual tradition) Intertextualitv
The figure above illustrates that each discourse / text has the following
properties:
1) Discourse participants (i.e. a speaker / writer and a hearer / reader)

2) It conveys some information. Therefore, it is informative in certain ways.
3) Each text / discourse is produced with some intention, such as informing,
entertaining, convincing, arguing, etc. Therefore, it has intentionality.
EXAMPLE OF INTENTIONALITY
The following conversation is between a mother and her son:
Mother: Yerdeki palto senin mi?
Son: Evet.
Here, the discourse participants are the mother and the son. It shows the
exploitation of intentionality of the mother’s question: The intention can be a
request to pick up the coat from the floor or an information question to find out
the answer. In the case of the request, the son intentionally or unintentionally
fails to understand this request; rather he deals with this as a simple content
question which can be answered as yes /no.
4) Each text / discourse takes place in a context of situation, not in a vacuum.

5) The hearer / reader accepts or rejects the message. That aspect of discourse
is related to the notion of acceptability.
6) Each text / discourse must have certain features known as cohesion and
coherence as discussed above.
7) Finally, each text / discourse is shaped by other texts. It can include an
author’s borrowing and transformation of a prior text. This is known as
intertextuality (Beaugrande, & Dressler, 1981).
EXAMPLE OF INTERTEXTUALITY
Dünya durdu Orhan indi...
Y‹NE Metin Alt›ok’un fliiriyle bafllayaca¤›z yaz›ya: “Bir bir uzaklafl›yor sevdi-
¤im insanlar.
Ne zaman bir dosta gitsem
Evde yoklar.”
***
ORHAN Duru’yu 1950’li y›llarda Befliktafl’ta tan›d›k, tan›flt›ran› biliyoruz
da, nerede ne vesileyle tan›flt›¤›m›z› hat›rlam›yoruz. Ortak arkadafl›m›z Va-
hit Akal›n’d›, sonra Amerika’ya gitti, Prof. Dr. Y›lmaz Akal›n’›n a¤abeyi...
Orhan Duru’nun hikâyeleri “Yeni Ufuklar”da ç›kard›.........ORHAN Duru’yu
1950’li y›llarda Befliktafl’ta tan›d›k, tan›flt›ran› biliyoruz da, nerede ne vesi-
leyle tan›flt›¤›m›z› hat›rlam›yoruz. Ortak arkadafl›m›z Vahit Akal›n’d›, son-
ra Amerika’ya gitti, Prof. Dr. Y›lmaz Akal›n’›n a¤abeyi...Orhan Duru’nun
hikâyeleri “Yeni Ufuklar”da ç›kard›.........
Hasan Pulur Olaylar ve Insanlar (Milliyet 28 Ocak 2009)
Here Hasan Pulur borrows Metin Alt›nok’s text in his own text.
Discourse Analysis is a process in which the reader and listener’s minds are
working up on the linguistic features of the utterance to grasp the intended
meaning of the writer or speaker. Even if the sentences are ungrammatical, speakers
can grasp the intended meaning due to context of situation and intentionality. This
is shown in the example below:
59. Ben bu gün yok gelmek senle..Ben cok is var. Benim anne baba gelecek. ‹flte
senin üç kitaplar bende veriyor sana.
The above Turkish note written by a foreigner is full of grammatical mistakes.
Nonetheless, we can grasp the message of the writer. Discourse concerns with
communication so Discourse Analysis gives us the interpretation of the
communicated content. Therefore, in order to talk about discourse, we need a
sender, a receiver and a message in the form of text/ discourse formed within the
socio-cultural and textual norms of a given speech community.
Summary of Discourse Properties

To sum up, a discourse/text is a behavioral unit. It is an utterance or sets of
utterances which constitute a recognizable speech event e.g. a conversation, a
joke, a sermon, an interview, an advertisement, news, etc. Discourse/text can be
written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming a sender (speaker/writer) and
a receiver (hearer/reader) can be named as discourse. Some scholars talk about
‘spoken or written discourse’ others about ‘spoken or written text’. It means that
discourse and text can be used almost synonymously. Crystal (1997) defines Text
Linguistics as “the formal account of the linguistic principles governing the structure
of texts” while De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) present a broader view; they
define text as a communicative event that must satisfy the following seven criteria:
1) Cohesion, which has to do with the relationship between text and syntax.
Phenomena such as conjunction, ellipsis, anaphora, cataphora etc. are
basic for cohesion.
2) Coherence, which has to do with the meaning of the text. Here we may
refer to elements of knowledge or to cognitive structures that do not have
a linguistic realization but are implied by the language used, and thus
influence the reception of the message by the interlocutor.
3) Intentionality, which relates to the attitude and purpose of the speaker or
writer.
4) Acceptability, which concerns the preparation of the hearer or reader to
assess the relevance or usefulness of a given text.
5) Informativity, which refers to the quantity and quality of new or expected
information.
6) Situationality, which points to the fact that the situation in which the text is
produced plays a crucial role in the production and reception of the message.
1 1
7) Intertextuality, which refers to two main facts: a) a text is always related
to some preceding or simultaneous discourse; b) texts are always linked
It is your turn! and It grouped
is your turn! in particular text varieties or genres (e.g.: narrative,
2 2
argumentative, descriptive, etc.) by formal criteria.
It is your turn! How would you explain

It is your turn! the intertexuality in the following text?
3 Büyülü ‹nsanlar”
3
Dün elime Cumhuriyet Kitaplar›’ndan yay›nlanm›fl yeni bir kitab› geçti. Ad› “Büyülü ‹nsan-
lar.” Zeynep Oral arka kapakta diyorki: “Günümüzde her fleyin sat›l›k oldu¤u ya da öyle sa-
n›ld›¤›; eme¤in, yarat›c›l›¤›n de¤er olmaktan uzaklaflt›r›ld›¤›, sanat›n her geçen gün maga-
4 4
zinleflti¤i; popülerlik ad›na halk dalkavuklu¤unun alk›flland›¤›; flan flöhret u¤runa her yolun
mubah oldu¤u; de¤er ölçülerinin ‘reyting’ ve sansasyonla ölçüldü¤ü; tüketim ars›zl›¤›n›n re-
It is your turn! vaçta oldu¤uItbiris your turn! bu büyülü insanlara çok fley borçlu oldu¤umuza inan›yorum.”
ortamda,
5 Bu sözlerin 5 üstüne ne söylenebilir ki!
Zülfü Livaneli, Vatan, 25.6.2011
6 6

7 7
Types of Discourse
Discourses / texts are not of a single type, but rather they have various types each
of which share certain characteristics. For example, some texts progress based on
changes in location, time, and space. The following table presents some of types
of discourse which can be either oral or written.
Definition Properties Examples Table 7.1

Narrative A narrative events and states Stories, novels, (Adapted from
passage is a part with the same Tales, folk tales, Smith, 2003)
of a discourse that participants, describing what
describes some event (dynamism of events- happened to you
in a chronological successive stages yesterday
order, which can be in time) certain
fictional or non- chronological order,
fictional fictional or non-
fictional
Descriptive A descriptive passage Specific events, diesel-engine cars,
is a part of a text that entities. describing my
describes particular brother, describing
objects, people, Eskiflehir, describing
places, mental and places to visit in
cognitive states, etc. Eskiflehir, etc.)
Report Events happened reporting what
in the World, News happened (War in
Iraq, reporting an
experiment,
reporting the
assassination that
took place last week,
the Wedding
ceremony of the
Royal couple
last year, etc.)
Informative An informative General statives (Textbooks, journals
passage provides Abstract entities of information,
information on some (no dynamic documentaries, etc.)
event, aspect of progression)
some phenomena.
Argumentative An argument is a part General statives Advocating an
of a text that brings Abstract entities opinion, arguing for
some idea, opinion, (no dynamic an idea in scientific
view point to the progression) Facts texts, trying to
attention of the Propositions convince people to
speaker / reader and Opinions, buy things,
that makes a claim, Viewpoints, etc. commercials,
comment, or explaining pros
argument and that and cons of a
supports or refutes phenomenon, etc.
it in some way.
Expressive A type of text that Linguistic units that Thank-you notes,
reports feelings, evoke & express Poetry, love letters,
attitudes of the Feelings song lyrics, etc.
writer / speaker;
or evokes feelings in
the reader / listener
Consider the following texts in Turkish. How can the following texts be
characterized in terms of types of discourse? Are they informative, narrative,
argumentative or expressive?
EXAMPLE OF EXPRESSIVE TEXT TYPE:
TEfiEKKÜR
BELLA,
Eve 20 günlükken geldin.
13 y›l sonra bugün ise bilinmeyene gittin,
Bu 13 y›l boyunca onca ulu de¤erleri
Ö¤rettin bize,
Saf, tertemiz, sonsuz bir sevgi,
Tam sadakat gibi,
En k›ymetli canl›m›z oldun,
Can›m›z oldun,
Asl›nda hiçbir yere gitmedin,
Ta içimize girdin,
Verdi¤in mutluluk için,
Teflekkürler BELLA...
Annen Baban
EXAMPLE OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT TYPE

ATATÜRK
Atatürk her flart içinde kendisini empoze edenlerdendi. Bak›fl›nda, jestlerin-
de, ellerinin hareketinde, k›m›ldan›fllar›nda ve yüzünün çizgilerinde bütün bir
dinamizm vard›. Bu dinamizm etraf›n› bir çeflit sessiz sars›nt› ile dolduruyordu.
Öyle ki birkaç dakikal›k bir konuflmadan sonra bu mütevaz› ve rahat adam›n, bu
1 1
ö¤reticinin an›nda bir uçtan öbür uca geçebilece¤ini, meselâ en rahat ve kahka-
hal› bir sohbeti keserek en çetin bir karar› verebilece¤ini ve daha gücü bu kara-
r› verdikten sonra yine ayn› noktaya dönece¤ini düflünebilirsiniz. En iyisi istim
2 üzerinde 2 bir harp gemisi gibi çevik, harekete haz›r bir dinamizm diyelim.....
It is your turn!
AhmetIt Hamdi Tanp›nar, Befl fiehir
is your turn!
3 3
It is your turn! Identify the Ittext types

is your turn!in the following.
4 1. Ben seni4 Bir Kum Tanesine Ad›n› Yazacak Kadar De¤il Sahildeki Tüm Kum Tanelerine
Ad›n› Yazacak Kadar Çok Seviyorum .
It is your turn! 2. Genel olarak kültür
It is your turn!kavram› yeterli s›kl›kla incelenmedi¤i ve ö¤rencilere karfl›laflt›rma
5 yapabilecekleri
5 f›rsatlar yeterli dercede sunulmad›¤› için kitab›n evrensel amaçlara
ulaflmak ve bunlar› hayata geçirmek (ifllevsel k›lmak) gibi bir amac›n›n oldu¤unu söyle-
It is your turn! menin zorIt oldu¤u kan›s›nday›m. E¤er kültürel özelliklere, evrensel de¤erlere ait olabi-
is your turn!
6 lecek resim,
6 çizim, okuma parças› gibi ö¤elere daha s›k yer verilmifl olsayd› bunu söy-
lemek do¤ru olabilirdi. (Esra Özdemir- Ders Kitaplar›nda Kültür Akatar›m›
http://www.ingilish.com/kulturaktarimi.htm)
3. Tanzimat Döneminde edebi tenkit, Divan Edebiyat›n› y›kma, Bat› edebiyat›n›n bafll›ca
7 7
türlerini Türk edebiyat›na kazand›rma, Frans›z sanatç›lar›n› tan›tma, edebî bir dil orta-
ya koyma yönünde geliflir. Servet-i Fünûn Dönemi, Türk edebiyat›n›n yenileflerek Bat›l›
8 8

9 9
bir görünüm kazanmas› bak›m›ndan Tanzimat edebiyat›n›n devam› niteli¤inde bir afla-
mad›r. Servet-i Fünûn edebiyat›n›n oluflmas›nda büyük pay› olan tart›flmalar›n alt›nda
elefltiri yaz›lar› yatar. Bu dönemde elefltiri, daha çok, kendilerine yap›lan sald›r›lara ce-
vap verme ve Servet-i Fünûn Edebiyat›n›n aç›klanmas› yönlerinde geliflir. Bu elefltiriler,
fliddetli ve cesur yaz›lardan oluflur. Dolay›s›yla bunlarda tam bir ilmî disiplinden söz et-
mek zordur. Servet-i Fünûn Döneminde sadece edebî tenkitle ilgilenen yazar, Ahmet fiu-
ayb’d›r. Bunun yan›nda Halit Ziya, Mehmet Rauf, Süleyman Nazif, Hüseyin Cahit Yalç›n
da elefltiriler yazm›flt›r. (http://www.edebiyatagaci.com/servet-i-funun-edebiyati/servet-
i-funun-edebiyatinda-og-html-retici-metinler.html)
4. Anadolu Üniversitesinin temelini, 1958 y›l›nda kurulan Eskiflehir ‹ktisadi ve Ticari ‹lim-
ler Akademisi oluflturur. 1982 y›l›nda Anadolu Üniversitesine dönüflen kurumumuz, k›-
sa zamanda yaln›zca ülkemizin de¤il, dünyan›n en büyük üniversiteleri aras›nda ça¤dafl,
dinamik ve yenilikçi bir üniversite olarak yerini alm›flt›r.
Bir bilim ve kültür merkezi ayn› zamanda da bir gençlik kenti olarak nitelenen Eskifle-
hir’in merkezinde yer alan ve ana kampüs niteli¤inde olan, Yunusemre kampüsünde fa-
külte ve yüksekokullar›n baz›lar›yla idari birimler ve sosyal tesislerin önemli bir k›sm›
yer almaktad›r.
5. Tokyo Üniversitesi uzmanlar›, ilk kez laboratuvar ortam›nda kök hücreden tam difl gelifltir-
diklerini duyurdu.Araflt›rmac›lar, laboratuvarda süt diflinin özünde bol miktarda bulunan
kök hücrelerini çeflitli kimyasallar ve vitaminlerle kar›flt›r›p beklemeye b›rakt›. Befl gün
sonra ufak bir difl tomurcu¤u olufltu. (http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25232150/)
6. Leyleksiler tak›m›n›n ‹bisgiller familyas›ndan, bafl ve gerdan› ç›plak, uzun gaga ve ba-
cakl› göçmen bir kufl. Boyu 70-75 cm kadard›r. Ayaklar› ve k›vr›k olan ince uzun gagas›
k›rm›z› renklidir. Tüyleri k›rm›z›, kara, yeflil, külrengi kar›fl›m›d›r. Erginlerinin bafl ve
gerdanlar›nda tüy bulunmad›¤› için “kelaynak” ismi verilmifltir. (http://www.turkcebil-
gi.com/kelaynak_ku%C5%9Fu/ansiklopedi)
Written and Spoken Discourse

Writing includes some medium which keeps record of the conveyed message
while the spoken message takes place on air. Speech develops in time in that the
speaker says with speed that is suitable for him, even if it may not be appropriate
for the listener and though a request for repetition is possible, it is difficult to
imagine a conversation in which every sentence is to be rephrased. Moreover,
talking might be spontaneous which results in mistakes, repetition, sometimes less
coherent sentences where even grunts, stutters or pauses might be meaningful.
The speaker usually knows the listener, or listeners, or he is at least aware of the
fact that he is being listened to, which enables him to adjust the style and the
speed of the speech. As speakers and hearers are most often in face-to-face
encounters (unless using a phone) they take advantage of extra-linguistic signals
as grimaces, gestures, expressions such as ‘here’, ‘now’, or ‘this’ are used.
Employment of nonsense vocabulary, slang and contracted forms -we’re, you’ve-
are other features of spoken discourse. Among other significant features of speech
there are rhythm, intonation, speed of utterance and, what is more important,
inability to conceal mistakes made while speaking (Crystal, 1995).
In contrast, writing develops in space in that it needs a means to carry the
information. The author of the text does not often know who is going to read the
text; as a result he cannot adjust to readers’ specific expectations. The writer is
frequently able to consider the content of his work for almost unlimited period of
time, which makes it more coherent and with complex syntax. Moreover, the reader
might not instantly respond to the text, ask for clarification. Hence, a written text
must have a neat message organization, division to paragraphs, a layout, which are
all of vital importance to make comprehension easier. Additionally, owing to the
lack of context expressions such as ‘now’ or ‘here’ are absent, since they would be
ambiguous as texts might be read at different times and places. One other feature
typical of writing, but never of oral discourse, is the organization of tables, formulas,
or charts which can be observed only in the written form (Crystal 1995).
Naturally, this division into two ways of producing discourse is quite
straightforward; yet, it is possible to combine the two in certain contexts. For
example, in the case of a lesson, when a teacher explains something writing on
the blackboard, it is written but since the teacher speaks at the same time both
written and oral discourse types co-exist. This is also the case when a speaker
prepares detailed written notes to be read out during a speech.
Both written and spoken discourse can take place in varying degrees of
formality, from very formal to informal. However, written discourse mostly tends
to have more formal features than the spoken discourse. In formal spoken language
as well as in most written texts, vernacular vocabulary and slang are not used and
it is possible to see more complex sentence structures, use of passive constructions,
and meticulous choice of vocabulary.
Informal discourse, on the other hand, makes use of simple sentences and
active voice mainly, with personal pronouns and verbs which show feelings,
opinions, and attitudes, such as such as ‘I think’, ‘we believe’, etc. In addition,
contractions are frequent in informal discourse, no matter if it is written or spoken.
It may be said that informal communicative products are casual and loose, while
formal ones are more solemn and governed by strict rules as they are meant to be
used in official and serious circumstances. The relation of the producer of the
message and its receiver, the content of the message and factors such as public or
private occasions are the most important features which determine the choice of
formal or informal language.
Although written and spoken discourses share many common properties, such
as cohesion, coherence, intertextuality, intentionality, etc., there are certain
properties that are particularly relevant to spoken discourse analysis. The following
section will address some of these issues.
Spoken Discourse Analysis

Spoken discourse can be a monologue or a dialogue. Monologues include lectures,
propaganda speech, formal presentations, sermons, etc. Dialogues are interactional
in nature; they are conversations. These conversations are analyzed within the
domain of conversational analysis, which also involves turn taking.
Turn-Taking
Conversation is an enterprise in which one person speaks, and another listens.
Discourse analysts who study conversation note that speakers have systems for
determining when one person’s turn is over and the next person’s turn begins.
This exchange of turns or ‘floors’ is signaled by such linguistic means as intonation,
pausing, and phrasing. Some people await a clear pause before beginning to
speak, but others assume that ‘winding down’ is an invitation to someone else to
take the floor. When speakers have different assumptions about how turn
exchanges are signaled, they may inadvertently interrupt or feel interrupted. On
the other hand, speakers also frequently take the floor even though they know the
other speaker has not invited them to do so.
Listening too may be signaled in different ways. Some people expect frequent
nodding as well as listener feedback such as ‘mhm’, ‘uhuh’, and ‘yeah’. Lack of
these signals can create the impression that someone is not listening; more than
expected signals can give the impression that you are being rushed along. For
some, eye contact is expected nearly continually; for others, it should only be
intermittent. The type of listener response you get can change how you speak: If
someone seems uninterested or uncomprehending -whether or not they truly are-
you may slow down, repeat, or over explain, giving the impression you are ‘talking
down.’ Consider such examples as adult interacting with babies (baby talk), or
native speakers interacting with nonnative speakers (foreigner talk).
Discourse Markers
Discourse markers is the term linguists give to the words like ‘well’, ‘oh’, ‘but’,
and ‘and’ that break our speech up into parts and show the relation between
parts. ‘Oh’ prepares the hearer for a surprising or just-remembered item, and ‘but’
indicates that sentence to follow is in opposition to the one before. However,
these markers do not necessarily mean what the dictionary says they mean. Some
people use ‘and’ just to start a new thought, and some people put ‘but’ at the end
of their sentences, as a way of trailing off gently.
In face-to-face conversation, participants have a wide range of strategies for
creating a complete and meaningful text and maintaining involvement; they
coordinate their talk and secure understanding with body language, paralinguistic
features like intonation, volume, and tempo, interactional cues like understanding
checks and attention signals, along with grammatical features like discourse
markers, hedges, and tags.
(a) Understanding checks: These are signals used by the speaker to check
whether what has been said is understood, such as:
y’know, right?, huh?, yaa? Sahi mi? , öyle mi? , deme yahu?
(b) Attention signals are used by the listeners to show that they are following
the conversation, such as m’hm, uh-huh, wow, really?, Evet, hakkikaten,
hakl›s›n, çok do¤ru, etc.
(c) Discourse markers are words that are used to manipulate the conversation:
well, I’m not sure anyway, she finally quit
it doesn’t matter though they all left early, y’know
yani, hani, iflte, fley, etc.
(d) Hedges are linguistic devices that are used in order to show that the speaker
is not totally involved in what is being said. In other words, the speaker is
trying to weaken the impact of the utterance.
kind of, sort of, a little (bit), well, let’s say
belki, sanmam, emin de¤ilim, etc.

(e) Tags are questions asked to obtain confirmation of the listener on a a
1 1
previously uttered statement.
Tag questions: with auxiliary, reversed negative polarity and personal pronoun
It’s cold, isn’t it? It’s not cold, is it?
2 2
Judy will win, won’t she? Judy won, didn’t she?
Lexical tags: right, okay, huh;
It is your turn! It is Judy,
It was your turn!
right? I’ll do it, okay?
3 So3Judy won, huh?
Bugün have çok güzel, de¤il mi?
It is your turn! Sen Iteve geleceksin,
is your turn! di mi?
4 4
Yar›n bulufluyoruz, tamam m›?
It is your turn! Identify the Itdiscourse

is your turn!markers in the following texts.
5 1. -Hat›rlad›n
5 de¤il mi (1) eski günleri?
- Hat›rlamaz olur muyum?
It is your turn! - Ne kadarIt isoldu
your görüflmeyeli?
turn! Bir on befl y›l olmufltur.
6 - Deme6yahoo (2) ... O kadar olmufl mudur?
- Eeee. En son görüfltü¤ümüzde üniversitedeydik.
- Belki. (3)
7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13
Summary
Although the term discourse is used in a variety Although discourses have a lot in common they
of disciples, it is described as socially situated have certain characteristics that group them into
text and talk in linguistics. Discourse Analysis different text types. These are: narrative,
deals with linguistic items from one word descriptive, report, informative, argumentative
utterances to lengthy texts such as novels, news and expressive discourse types.
paper columns. It investigates the rules and In terms of written and spoken discourses there
patterns used in such discourses. are some distinctions. While written discourse is
Discourse has certain properties which are the recorded spoken discourse is on the air. Written
following: Cohesion is consists of all kinds of discourse contains complex sentences and more
links that glue sentences together to make a well formal structures whereas spoken discourse
designed discourse. Cohesion includes reference, contains simpler sentences and informal
substitution, ellipses, conjunction, and lexical linguistic units and vocabulary.
cohesion. Coherence is about unifying the text
in terms of its meaning and world knowledge.
Another factor that provides a well designed text
is the use of parallelism in terms of syntactic
structures.
Self-test
1. How is discourse defined by linguistics? 6. What type of conjunction is used in the sentence:
a. Socially situated text and talk. Madem kredi kart› kullanarak al›fl verifl yap›yorsun, dik-
b. Only written texts kat et de bankalara borcun ödeyemeyece¤in kadar art-
c. Oral conversations in society. mas›n.
d. Philosophical discussions. a. Temporal
e. Non-verbal clues in conversation. b. Causal
c. Additive
2. ‘the examination of language use by members of a d. Adversative
speech community.’ e. Reasonable
is the definition of.................
a. Semantics 7. Which one of the following is not one of the
b. Morphology properties of discourse/text?
c. Pragmatics a. Intentionality
d. Syntax b. Acceptability
e. Discourse analysis c. Sociability
d. Cohesion
3. Ali went to see the new film yesterday. He loved it e. Coherence
a lot.
What type of relationship do the underlined items 8. A thank you note can be categorized as a/an ———
show? ———— text type.
a. Anaphora a. Informative
b. Collocation b. Argumentative
c. Cohesion c. Narrative
d. Parallel texts d. Descriptive
e. Ellipses e. Expressive
4. What is the cohesive device used in the following 9. In what type of discourse is it possible to find
sentence? contraction like ‘can’t’?
Önce gitti bütün kuyumcular›n vitrinlerine bakt›. a. Informal
Ben de arkas›ndan. b. Formal
a. Collocation c. Incohesive
b. Ellipsis d. Incoherent
c. Substitution e. Comprehensible
d. Anaphoric reference
e. Conjunction 10. ———————- refers to the back and forth
interaction whether it is with gestures, signs, sounds, or
5. What is the cohesive device used in the following words.
sentences? a. Argumentation
Önce banka kart›n› matik’e yerlefltir. Sonra flifreni b. Information
gir... c. Turn taking
a. Ellipsis d. Politeness
b. Reference e. Complementation
c. Exophoric reference
d. Anaphoric reference
e. Conjunction
Turkish Alive
“ What is the reference of ‘O’ in the title? Notice how you

need to go through the text to interpret this pronoun.
O a¤ac›n oldu¤u köfleyi gösterdim.
“Orada da bir a¤aç vard›. Onu da kesmifltiniz.” dedim.
“Ne istiyorsunuz bu a¤açlardan siz?”
O ZATEN B‹L‹YOR-DUR Kesilen a¤ac› hat›rlayan ç›kmad› ya da hat›rlamak iflle-
D›flar› bakm›yordum; masam›n bafl›nda, bilgisayar›m›n rine gelmedi.
karfl›s›ndayd›m. Birden pencereden irice bir gölgenin geç- “Bu a¤ac› kesmenin adam öldürmekten fark› yok.” di-
ti¤ini fark ettim. Sanki büyük bir kufl karalt›s›yla bir an ye ata¤› sürdürdüm. “Kaç y›lda bu boya geldi bu a¤aç
pencerenin önünde kanatlar›n› germifl, sonra da uçmufl fark›nda m›s›n›z? Herkes a¤aç dikmeye çal›fl›r, siz koca
gitmiflti. Zaten zor yazan bir yazar›m, bunu f›rsat bilip he- a¤ac› ac›madan kesiyorsunuz.”
men kalkt›m yaz›n›n bafl›ndan. Büyük olas›l›kla bir fley “Köyde olsa ceza yazarlar.” dedi bahç›van. Bahç›van
olmam›flt›; ama dedim ya, yazmaya k›sa bir ara vermek oldu¤unu da o ara ö¤rendim zaten. “Sen ne biçim bah-
için bulunmaz bahaneydi. Bir fley olmad›¤›n› sanmakla ç›vans›n. Engel olaca¤›na yard›m ediyorsun.” diye azar-
yan›lm›fl›m. Afla¤›da, bahçede bir fleyle oluyor. Apartma- dan onun da pay›n› verdim, sonra adam›n söyledi¤i
n›n duvar›na dallar›n› yaslam›fl kocaman a¤aca bir merdi- flimflek çakt›rd› kafamda.
ven dayanm›fl; bizim kap›c› merdivenin tepesinde, a¤ac›n “Burada ceza yazmazlar m› san›yorsunuz? Ben de sizi fli-
alt dallar›n› kan›rta kan›rta kesiyor. Afla¤›da, sonradan kâyet etmezsem...” diye bir gözda¤› verdim. Hatta abart-
bahç›van oldu¤unu ö¤rendi¤im ifllik gömle¤i giymifl bir t›m da biraz. “Gelip kendimi o a¤aca zincirleyece¤im.
adam merdiveni tutmakta. Sitenin görevlilerinden birkaç Bakal›m kesebiliyor musunuz?” deyince duraksad›lar.
kiflilik bir seyirci kadrosu bile oluflmufl. Onlar da görevle- Yeniden “emir kuluyuz” laflar› edilmeye baflland›. Emri
rini yap›yorlar: seyrediyorlar. A¤ac›n alt›, kesilmifl dallarla verenin telefonunu ö¤rendim. Derhal telefon... Adama
kaplanm›fl, topra¤›n rengi görünmüyor. Üst üste y›¤›lm›fl da en dokunakl› sözler, tehditler... “Biz de çevreciyiz
kocaman dallar koyu yeflil bir tepe oluflturmufl. han›mefendi” gibi laflar etti yönetici. Yok efendim, kök-
“Ne yap›yorsunuz siz?” ba¤›rm›fl›m birden. Sitede, apart- leri bahçe kat›n›n fayanslar›n› kald›rm›flm›fl, dallar› birin-
manda ne olup bitti¤iyle hiç ilgilenmeyen benim böyle ci kat› karart›yormufl. Zaten çam da de¤ilmifl a¤aç. A¤a-
telafl içinde pencereden ba¤›rmama pek flaflan kap›c› c›n türü umurumda bile de¤ildi. A¤açt› iflte. Büyümesini
ne diyece¤ini bilemedi önce. Testereyi öbür eline ald›. an an gözledi¤im kocaman bir canl›yd›. Ben ifle kar›fl›n-
Yorulan kolunu silkeleyip dinlendirmeye çal›flt›. Sonra caya kadar alt dallar zaten gitmiflti. Karartacaksa benim
her gün yapt›¤› iflmifl gibi do¤all›kla aç›klad›. evimi karartacakt›, benim de bundan hiçbir flikâyetim
“A¤ac› kesiyoruz.” yoktu. Ayr›ca sitede apartman duvarlar›na çok daha ya-
“Delirdiniz mi siz?” dedim. “Kocaman a¤aç kesilir mi?” k›n dikilmifl a¤açlar vard›, onlar kald›rm›yordu da fa-
“Hocam emir böyle. Biz emir kuluyuz. Yönetim emret- yanslar›, bizim gariban a¤aç m› kald›r›yordu? Hem bah-
ti, biz de kesece¤iz?” çedeki fayanslar›n tümü yerli yerindeydi, bak›nca görü-
“Peki, burada oturanlara sorulmaz m› hiç? Bu a¤ac› ke- nüyordu iflte. Hiçbirinde ne kalkma vard› ne inme.
sece¤iz, raz› m›s›n›z, siz ne dersiniz denmez mi?” dedim. Daha sonra anlatt› kap›c›. “O han›m var ya,” demifl be-
“Zaten alt kattakiler flikâyetçi olmufllar.” diye bahç›van nim için. “Gazetede yaz›yor. Ya ben a¤ac› keserken res-
söze girdi. mimi çekip gazetelere verirse ne olacak? Ben de sizin
“A¤açtan m› flikâyetçi olmufllar? Ne yapm›fl onlara bu kestirdi¤inizi söylerim mecburen.”
a¤aç?”derken iyiden iyiye k›zmaya bafllam›flt›m. Benzer Yöneticinin benim telefonumla m› ikna oldu¤unu, ka-
bir olay› iki y›l önce yaflam›flt›m çünkü. Çal›flma odam›n p›c›n›n usul usul verdi¤i gözda¤›yla m› yola geldi¤ini
penceresine kocaman dal›n› dayam›fl bir a¤aç vard›. ö¤renemedim. Ama a¤aç kurtuldu. fiimdi ne zaman göz
Pencereyi açt›¤›mda o koca dal odan›n içine dalard›. göze gelsek selamlafl›yoruz. Bafl›na kakmak gibi olur
“Gel bakal›m davetsiz misafir” diye basbaya¤› söyleflir- diye hayat›n› kurtard›¤›m› söylemiyorum. Gerek de yok.
dim onunla. Pencereden bafl›n› uzatm›fl, içeriyi gözle- O zaten biliyordur.
”
yen merakl› ve capcanl› bir komfluydu. Rüzgâr varsa
a¤ac›n öteki dallar› gibi o da nazl› nazl› sallan›r, bahar›, From: Hepçilingir, Feyza. (2011). Geçen Gün Ömür-
yeflili, rüzgâr› içeri tafl›rd›. Yaz dönüflü yerinde bulama- dendir- Zaten Biliyor-dur.. Yolculuk, Say› 60, s.8.
d›m. Birilerine hesap sormaya kalkmak da ifle yaramaz-
d›. Yoktu iflte, kesilmiflti.
References
Alba-Juez, L. (2009 ). Perspectives on Discourse Analysis: McCarthy, M. (1992). Discourse Analysis for Language
Theory and Practice. Newcastle upon Tyne: Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge Scholars Publishing McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (1994). Language as
Beaugrande, Robert-Alain de;& Dressler, W.U. (1981). Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teachers.
Introduction to Textlinguistics. London: Longman. London: Longman.
Brown, G&Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis. Nunan, David (1993). Introducing Discourse Analysis.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Penguin:London
Blommaert, J. (2005). Discourse: A critical introduction. Salkie, R. 1995. Text and Discourse Analysis. New York:
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Routledge.
Crystal, D. (1992). Introducing linguistics. Harlow: Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Oxford:
Penguin. Blackwell.
Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Schiffrin, D., Tannen,D. & Ehernberger Hamilton,
English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge H.(2001) The Handbook of Discourse Analysis.
University Press. Oxford: Blackwell
Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Smith, C. (2003). Modes of Discourse: The Local Structure
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. of Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cook, G. (1990) . Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Tannen, D. (1989). Talking Voices : Repetition, Dialogue,
Press. and Imagery in Conversational Discourse.
Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatics and Discourse. Routledge: Cambridge Cambridge University Press.
London Tannen, D. (1999). The Argument Culture: Moving from
Durmusoglu, G. (1987). “Cohesion in Turkish”, in Debate to Dialogue. New York: Ballentine.
Studies on Modern Turkish: Proceedings of the 3rd Van Dijk, T.A. (2008). Discourse and Context: A
Conference on Turkish Linguistics. H. E. sociocognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge
Boeschoten; L. T. Verhoeven (ed.). Tilburg University Press
University Press. Zeyrek, D.(2001). “Politeness in Turkish and its linguistic
Durmusoglu, G. (1990). “Türkçede iltifat ve hakaret manifestations: A socio-cultural perspective”. In
olgusunun kullan›mbilim aç›s›ndan incelenmesi”. In Linguistic Politeness Across Boundaries,
A. S. Özsoy ve H. Sebüktekin (eds.), IV. Dilbilim Bayraktaro¤lu, A. and Sifianou M. (eds.) Amsterdam:
sempozyumu bildirileri. Istanbul: Bo¤aziçi John Benjamins.
Üniversitesi Yay›nlar›
Gee, J. P. (2005). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis.
London, New York: Routledge.
Georgakopoulou,A. & Goutsos, D. (1998) Discourse
Analysis. An Introduction. Edinburgh University Press
Halliday, M. A. K.& Ruqaiya Hasan. (1976). Cohesion in
English. London: Longman.
Harris, Zellig S. (1952) “Discourse Analysis”. Language
28:1.1-30. (Repr. in The Structure of Language:
Readings in the philosophy of language ed. by J.
A.Fodor & J. J.Katz, pp. 355-383. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964)
Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and Language Education.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hoey, M.(1991) Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: Oxford
University Press Hoey, M. (2001) Textual
Interaction: An Introduction to Written Discourse
Analysis. London: Routledge.
1 1
Key to It’s your turn It is your turn!

2 2
It is your turn!

1 1 3 3
Example 18: 2 2 The writer Zülfü
4
Livaneli
4
has included and given
At first Itglance
is your turn!
the text looks like the announcement of
It is your turn!
reference to another writer,
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 2
Zeynep Oral. This is an
It is your turn!
2 It is your turn!
deaths of two3 people whose 3 names are Mr. and Mrs. example of intertexuality.
5 5
Brown. But reading the text further tells us that they
4 4 6 6
were maybe English language teachers who could not It is your turn! It is your turn!
teach us any5 English. 5There is also a message of 7 7
condolence at the end of the

It is your turn!
text. What the reader may
It is your turn!
1. Expressive:
It is your turn!
It is your turn! 5
Expressing feelings of the writer.
It is your turn!
5 It is your turn!
6 6
not understand is the sentence ‘Mr. and Mrs. Brown 2. Argumentative:
It is your turn!
8
The writer
8
is trying to make a point
It is your turn!
went to the seaside.’ This
It is your turn!
sentence is particularly
It is your turn!
and Itdraw
is your turn! attention
6 to6 aIt is problem.
your turn!
7 7 9 9
puzzling to a younger group of readers. However, for 3. Informative:
It is your turn! The writerIt is informing
is your turn! the reader about
those who has 8 had to learn
8 English through a book a literary era. 10 10
called It‘A Direct MethodIt is your
is your turn! English
turn! Course: A Course 4. Informative:
It is your turn! 1
8 The text gives
18 It is your turn! information about
9 9 11 11
Specially Designed for Turkish Students’, this sentence Anadolu University.
means Itais your

lot. turn!
Mr.
10
and Mrs.10 ItBrown
is your turn!
were characters in the 5. Report: This
It is your turn! 29
text is reporting
29 It is your turn!
an experiment made at
12 12
book. TokyoIt is yourUniversity.
It is your turn! It is your turn! 3 3 It is your turn!
It is your turn! 10 10
11 11 6. Descriptive: 13 The text 13 is describing a type of a bird.
As you can see the analysis of this particular discourse It is your turn! It is your turn!
It is your turn! It is your turn! 4
11 4
11
requires not 12only understanding
12 the written message
ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn! ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
but a lot of background
It is your turn! information.
It is your turn! 5
12 5
12
13 13
Example 19: 1. Tag ItIt isis your

your turn!
turn!
6 6
ItIt is
is your
your turn!
turn!
13 13
This is an advertisement showing the cover page of a 2. Understating check
novel. The message includes the title of the book and 3. Hedge 7 7
its famous Turkish author. It is your turn! It is your turn!

1 1
2 2
Identify the cohesive 3 devices
3 in the following texts.
1. Anaphoric
It is your turn!
reference: orada
It is your turn!
is used to refers to Paris It is your turn!
11 11
It is your turn!
2. Exophoric reference: fiu müzik is used to refer to

4 4
an entity
It is your turn!in the outside It is world.
your turn! 12 12
5 5
3. Substitution: Böyle refers to the verb phrase in the It is your turn! It is your turn!
previous sentence. 6 6
4. Ellipses:
It is your turn!
In B the verb phrase of the previous
It is your turn!
sentence is7 deleted. 7

5. Conjunction:
It is your turn!
Yine is It an adversative conjunction
is your turn!
8 8
showing concession.
6. Collocation: 9 tuz biber9 they occur together.t
7. Reiteration:
It is your turn! The underlined
It is your turn! words are augmenting
10 10
the similar ideas.
11 11

12 12

13 13
Key to “Self-test” 161
Key to “self-test” Unit 3

Unit 1 1. a If incorrect, reread Section Immediate
Constituents of Clauses: Subjects and Predicates
1. b If incorrect, reread Section Descriptive and
Prescriptive Grammar
2. e If incorrect, reread Section Noun Phrases (NPs)
2. b If incorrect, reread Section Descriptive and
Prescriptive Grammar 3. b If incorrect, reread Section Postpositional
Phrases (PPs)
3. b If incorrect, reread Section Mental Grammar
4. d If incorrect, reread Section Relationships
4. a If incorrect, reread Section Mental Grammar
between the Members of a Constituent
5. d If incorrect, reread Section Mental Grammar

5. b If incorrect, reread Section Realization of
6. b If incorrect, reread Section All sections in Unit 9 Adverbials
7. a If incorrect, reread Section Competence and 6. d If incorrect, reread Section Subjects

Performance
7. e If incorrect, reread Section Adverb Pharases
8. a If incorrect, reread Section All sections in Unit 9
8. a If incorrect, reread Section Verb Phrases

9. a If incorrect, reread Section Competence and
Performance
9. c If incorrect, reread Section Adverb Phrases and
10. a If incorrect, reread Section Grammaticality vs. Adverbials
Acceptability
10. a If incorrect, reread Section Why are object
Unit 2 complements in VPs? & What else is in VP?
1. a If incorrect, reread Section Constituents
2. c If incorrect, reread Section Constituents
3. b If incorrect, reread Section Constituents
4. d If incorrect, reread Section Relationships

5. e If incorrect, reread Section Tests for

Constituency
6. a If incorrect, reread Section Relationships

7. b If incorrect, reread Section All sections in Unit 10
8. e If incorrect, reread Section Relationships

9. a If incorrect, reread Section Constituents
10. b If incorrect, reread Section Relationships

162 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Türkçe Tümce Bilgisi, Anlambilim ve Söylem Çözümlemesi
Unit 4 Unit 6
1. d If incorrect, reread Section Types of Clauses The 1. a If incorrect read the section on Speech Acts.
Internal Structure of Noun Clauses
2. c If incorrect read the section on Performative
2. e If incorrect, reread Section The Internal verbs.
Structure of Noun Clauses
3. d If incorrect read the section on Speech Acts.
3. a If incorrect, reread Section Types of Relative
Clauses 4. c If incorrect read the section on Gricean maxims
4. e If incorrect, reread Section Adverbial Clauses 5. a If incorrect read the section on Politeness
Principle and Face-saving.
5. b If incorrect, reread Section Restrictive and Non
restrictive Relative Clauses 6. c If incorrect read the section on Gricean maxims
6. b If incorrect, reread Section Headless Relative

7. d If incorrect read the section on Context.
Clauses
8. e If incorrect read the section on Context.
7. a If incorrect, reread Section The Internal structure
of Noun Clauses
9. c If incorrect read the section on Presuppositions.
8. c If incorrect, reread Section NP Accessibility

10. d If incorrect read the section on Gricean maxims.
Hierarchy in RCs
9. a If incorrect, reread Section Coordination

Unit 7
10. d If incorrect, reread Section Noun Clauses 1. a If incorrect, reread the Introduction
2. e If incorrect, reread the Section on Discourse

Unit 5 Analysis
1.d If incorrect, reread Section on Polysemy 3. c If incorrect, reread the Section on Cohesion
2. c If incorrect, reread Section on Homonymy 4. b If incorrect, reread the Section on Cohesion
3. e If incorrect, reread Section on Synonymy 5. e If incorrect, reread the Section on Cohesion
4. a If incorrect, reread Section on Hyponymy 6. b If incorrect, reread the Section on Cohesion
5. c If incorrect, reread Section on Antonymy 7. c If incorrect, reread the Section on Other Aspects
of Discourse
6. a If incorrect, reread Section on Polysemy
8. e If incorrect, reread the Section on Types of
7. e If incorrect, reread Section on Synonymy
Discourse
8. e If incorrect, reread Section on Presupposition

9. a If incorrect, reread the Section on Written and
Spoken Discourse
9. b If incorrect, reread Section on Entailment
10. c If incorrect, reread the Section on Spoken

10. e If incorrect, reread Section on Presupposition
Discourse Analysis
Glossary 163
Glossary
A Adverbialization: A grammatical process that creates adverbs
or expressions similar to adverbs: h›zla, h›zl›ca, h›zl›
A superordinate (or a hypernym): It is a word that is gen-
olmak için.
eral enough to include some words with a more specif-
Affix: A bound morpheme which can be attached to a stem
ic meaning, known as hyponyms.
as a prefix, suffix, or infix: -den in evden, na- in nahofl.
Ablative: A type of case which typically marks “direction
Affixation: A process through which a bound morpheme is
from” by the suffix -DAn: evden, arabadan.
attached to a stem either to form a new word or to inflect
Acceptability: Comprehensibility of a grammatical unit in
the stem: evci, evler.
terms of making sense out of it, though it may not be
Affricate: A combination of a stop and a fricative.
grammatical.
Agreement (subject-verb agreement): The compatibility
Accomplishment: A process verb that has an end point to
between the verbal suffixes and subjects in terms of per-
be reached for its completion: daire çizmek, börek yap-
son and number marking.
mak, iyileflmek.
Agreement: A grammatical category marked on a word to
Accusative: A type of case which typically marks the direct
indicate this word’s grammatical relationship to another.
object by the suffix -(y)I: evi, arabay›.
For example, a verb has to agree with its subject in per-
Achievement: A verb expressing an instantaneous change
son and number in Turkish: -m on the verb in ben geldim
which occurs at a single moment: kazanmak, vurmak,
indicates a first person and singular subject which agrees
devirmek, bafllamak, do¤mak, ölmek.
with the syntactic subject ben having the same person
Acronym: A word which is formed as the short for a set of
and number characterization.
other words by combining only the initial letters of these
Allomorph: A variant of a morpheme: the -ak of bardak and
words: RTÜK from Radyo Televizyon Üst Kurulu, CMUK
the -ek of benek are allomorphs of the “diminutive”
from Ceza Muhakemeleri Usulü Kanunu.
morpheme -Ak.
Act: The type of a Noun Clause that denotes the act itself
Allophone: Variation of a phoneme that does not change the
rather than the actual happening. Acts cannot be con-
meaning of a word.
firmed or falsified.
Alveolar: Sound produced at the alveolar ridge.
Active voice: A verb that is not marked for voice and that
Anaphora: The act of referring to an entity that preceed the
requires a subject: iç-, uyu-.
pronoun.
Activity: A process verb that does not require reaching an
Antonyms: A word with an opposite meaning to another
end point for the action to have been performed: yaz-
word: k›sa as the antonym of uzun, büyük as the
mak, içmek, sürmek, yürümek, yüzmek.
antonym of küçük.
Adjectival compound: A compound whose central element
Approximant: Approximation of two articulators but with-
is an adjective: gözü pek, uzun boylu, vurdumduymaz.
out a turbulent airstream.
Adjectivalization: A grammatical process that creates adjec-
Arbitrary PRO: The subject of a -mEK clause that refers to all
tives or expressions similar to adjectives: merakl›, temi-
people or any human being. For example, [PRO iyi uyu-
zlenebilir, ç›kmaz, k›r›k, k›r›lm›fl.
mak] sa¤l›k için gereklidir.
Adjective: A word which modifies a noun: s›cak in s›cak su,
Argument: A noun phrase that occurs in a verb phrase as
faydal› in faydal› kitap.
part of the predication: the verb öpmek in bebe¤i öptü
Adjunct: An optional element in a phrase or clause that func-
has one argument, the direct object bebek. Sometimes
tions as a modifier. For example, adjectives, relative
subjects are treated arguments as well.
clauses, adverbs of manner, time, etc. are adjuncts. Note
Aspect: A grammatical category which is inflected on verbs.
that they can be deleted and the phrase is still complete.
It is indicated by verbal suffixes. It describes the way in
(Also see modifier).
which the event occurs. This information can be con-
Adverb: A modifier of a verb, adjective, or other adverbs:
veyed by the lexical make-up of the verb as in z›pla-
h›zl› in h›zl› koflmak, çok in çok h›zl›.
(punctual) as opposed to yefler- (process). It can also be
Adverbial: Any word, group of words, or clause that func-
conveyed by grammatical markers as in otur-du (per-
tions like an adverb. For example, geçen y›l is a NP; but
fective conveyed by -DI), otur-uyor (imperfective con-
it is an adverbial.
veyed by -(I)yor). Aspect is non-deictic.
Assimilation: One sound acquiring some property or prop- Case: A grammatical category associated with nouns that
erties of the neighboring sound. marks their grammatical relationship to other elements
Attributive adjective: An adjective that modifies a noun in a in a sentence: nominative: kufl, accusative: kuflu, dative:
noun phrase: kolay in kolay ifl, or dikkatli in dikkatli kufla, locative: kuflta, ablative: kufltan, genitive: kuflun.
sürücü. Cataphora: The act of referring to an entity that follows the
pronoun.
B Causative: A verb which indicates a condition which is caused
Backformation: A word formation process through which a by someone or something: öldürmek is causative since
morphologically simple word is formed from a more it implies a causer, but ölmek is not in the absence of a
complex one: iletifl-< iletiflim. causer.
Backness harmony: Vowels within a word agreeing in back- Clause: A grammatical unit with subject and predicate struc-
ness. ture (NP VP).
Backness: Position of the highest tongue body in the vocal Clipping: A process through which words are shortened:
tract. kuru for kuru fasulye, or kondu for gecekondu.
Bilabial: Sound produced with two lips. Closed class: A group of morphemes whose class member-
Binary antonym: Binary antonyms are terms that have oppo- ship is relatively limited and that does not readily allow
site meanings at two distinct points. There is no grading new members: affixes, conjunctions, pronouns, etc.
in between. Coherence: The devices used to make a text the meaningful
Binary branching tree: A tree diagram that has two branch- and unified.
es at each node. Cohesion: The linguistic devices that are used to link sen-
Blending: A word formation process that combines parts of tences in a discourse.
two words to from a single word with a new meaning: Coinage: A word formation process through which a new
Avrasya from Avrupa and Asya. word is made up without using any of the familiar meth-
Borrowing: A process through which words in one language ods of word formation.
are taken and used in another language, and a word Collocation: A sequence of two or more words that co-occur
obtained in this way: eflya from Arabic, amaç from Competence: Abstract and unconscious knowledge of the
Persian, mant› from Chinese, bravo from Italian, enstrü- rules of one’s native language (see also performance).
man from French. Complement: A part of a phrase that completes the meaning
Bound morpheme: A morpheme that cannot stand by itself. of a head. For example, objects in verb phrases are com-
Affixes are bound morphemes: -GAç in süzgeç or k›skaç, plements. A complement is the obligatory element, i.e. it
-DIK and -(I)m in sevdi¤im, -na in natamam. cannot be omitted.
Bracketing: A way of representing the information found in a Complementary distribution: A pattern of distribution
tree diagram by using brackets. For instance, [S [NP k›z which does not allow two or more sound/morphemes
kardeflim] [VP çok kitap okur]] is an example of bracketing. to occur in the same position. For example, -ler does not
Broadening: A widening seen on a word to have a larger occur in the environment where -lar occurs or vice versa:
semantic field: alan now referring to a “research field” in tafllar, but not *tafller.
addition to its earlier meaning referring to an “area of Compounding: A word formation process through which
land” only. two free morphemes are combined to form a single word
with a new meaning: demirperde, kuflkonmaz, akbaba.
C Concessive adverbial: A phrase or clause containing an
Calque: See loan translation. expression that seems surprising or unexpected, as in
Case assigner: A word, usually a verb, an adjective, or a the adverbial clause in the following sentence: [Ayfle çok
postposition, that assigns a grammatical role to another yorgun olmas›na ra¤men] uzun uzun dans etti.
word by case markers. For example, the verb hofllan- Conjunct: An adverbial that is used to link sentences.
mak the adjective uzak and the postposition beri are all Conjunction: A word that is used to join words, phrases, or
ablative case assigners: senden hoflland›m, gözden uzak, clauses: ve, ancak, ama.
y›llardan beri. Conjunctions: Adverbial used to connect sentences in a dis-
course.
Glossary 165
Connotation: Apart from its literal meaning, connotation Deictic expressions: A word (such as this, that, these, those,
involves some kind of emotional associations of the now, then) that points to the time, place, or situation in
word. Denotation and connotation are related like the which the speaker is speaking.
two sides of the same coin. Deictic: A term associated with words or expressions that
Constituent structure: The systematic way in which the take their referents from the context. Deictic words are
words of a sentence group together into phrases and related to a time, person(s) and place. For example,
clauses. buras› and oras› refer to a place in relation to the speak-
Constituent: A word or any natural grouping of words that er. Similarly, ben takes its referent in relation to the
behaves as a syntactic unit with respect to grammatical speaker, but sen in relation to the hearer. fiimdi refers to
rules. a time whenever it is uttered: it may refer to 5 pm if it is
Context: the situation within which a speech act or com- uttered at 5pm, but it may very well refer to 10 am when
municative act exists or happens, and this context can uttered at 10 am.
help explain the meaning in the speech or commu- Deixis: The aspect of pragmatics that covers words or expres-
nicative act. sions whose reference is based on the circumstances of
Control: When the covert subject (PRO) of a -mEk clause is the utterance.
the same as the subject or the object of the matrix clause, Demonstrative: A word that marks the location of some-
PRO is said to be controlled by that subject or object. thing in terms of its proximity to the speaker, i.e. near or
For example, Ali [PRO sinemaya gitmek] istedi is a sub- distant: bu (near the speaker), flu (distant from the speak-
ject control structure; while annesi [PRO bebe¤i yemeye] er), o (more distant), etc.
zorlad› is an object control structure. Denominal: A word that is formed from a noun: yurttafl from
Converse antonyms: Converse antonyms are terms that are yurt, sestefl from ses, dilemek from dil, adamak from ad.
determined by the opposite relations. Denotation: It is the literal meaning of words provided in a
Conversion: A process through which a word is used to sig- dictionary.
nal a grammatical function different from its usual: boya Denotation: The meaning of a word, phrase or clause that
used as both a noun and a verb. relates it to the real life entity or event. For example the
Co-operative principle: The assumption that participants in denotation of the word ev relates it to a building in which
a conversation normally attempt to be informative, truth- people live.
ful, relevant, and clear. Deontic modality: See Mood.
Copula: A verb that links the subject to its complement. For Derivation: A word formation process through which new
example, to be in English, and -ImEk in Turkish, such as words are formed by adding affixes to words or mor-
in: Ali ö¤retmen idi. phemes: the word bulmaca is derived by adding the suf-
Co-referential: When two or more NPs refer to the same real fix -mAcA to the verb bul-
world entity, they are said to be co-referential. Derivational morpheme: An affix that changes the meaning
Correctness: A traditional way of describing grammar that and/or the category a word: -mAcA in bulmaca, -Uz in
claims that there are correct or incorrect ways of speak- üçüz, -(I)t in geçit, -(A)v in türev, -lA in d›flla.
ing. Descriptive grammar: A grammar that describes how the
Co-text: The linguistic context that includes clues such as language is actually spoken or written by native speak-
grammar that help explain meaning. ers rather than dictating what the rules should be.
Covert subject: A subject that is not explicitly expressed but Determiner: A small class of function words (articles, demon-
that can be recovered from the sentence or discourse. stratives, quantifiers, and genitives) that precede the
For example, PRO and pro. head noun in a NP.
Deverbal: A word that is formed from a verb: dalga from dal-
D mak, sezgi from sezmek, an›msamak from anmak,
Dative: A type of case which typically marks “direction at›flmak from atmak.
towards” by the suffix -(y)A: eve, arabaya. Diphthong: Vowel in which there is a change in quality dur-
Daughter: The branches of a node in a tree diagram. ing a single syllable.
Definite: A noun or a pronoun whose referent can be identi- Direct evidence: Information that is directly witnessed by
fied by the hearer: kitab› (definite) as opposed to bir the speaker. Demet gel-di implies that the speaker has
kitap (indefinite). first-hand information about Demet’s coming.
Direct object: The object of a verb that is assigned accusative Exocentric compound: A compound which denotes a mean-
case or remains caseless in Turkish, such as yemek yedim ing that is different from the meaning of its components:
or yeme¤imi yedim. aslana¤z›, devetaban›, imambay›ld›.
Discourse markers: Words that are used to show how a dis- Exophora: The act of referring to and entity that is in the
course is constructed. extra linguistic environment.
Discourse: A self sufficient linguistics unit from single utterance Experiential perfect: A subclass of aspect which indicates
to an extended verbal expression in speech or writing that an event has taken place at least once. This mean-
Discourse: Any stretch of speech or writing that is longer ing is conveyed by -DI accompanied by hiç in Ben böyle
than the sentence. bir toplant›da hiç bulunma-d›-m.
Discourse: Discourse analysis is the study of how sentences
in spoken and written language form larger meaningful F
units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. Face saving act: An act that avoids a loss of dignity or pres-
Disjunct: An adverbial that expresses the speaker’s comment tige or face.
and point of view. Face threatening act: An act that violates expectations
Disjunction: A type of logical relation. If “p and q” are joined regarding self-image
by disjunction, the result is “p or q”. A coordination like Face: In pragmatics, this term refers to someone’s self image.
“p or q” is true only one of the components is true, but Fact: A noun clause that expresses an event that can be
false if both are false: yumurtalar veya bardaklar k›r›ld› observed. This event can be can be true or false. We can
is true if either yumurtalar or bardaklar have been bro- question or argue against this fact.
ken, but false if neither is broken. Factive: A modal meaning that marks actuality: Demet gel-di
Ditransitive: A verb which requires a direct object and an (factive: event taken place), Demet gel-ir (non-factive:
event has not taken place).
indirect object: koymak, vermek.
Felicity conditions: The conditions that allow us to deter-
mine under what circumstances it is appropriate to per-
E
form a certain speech act.
Ellipsis: The act of deleting some phrases that can be under-
Final devoicing rule: A rule which states that voiced stops
stood from discourse content.
and affricates become voiceless either in syllable or
Embedding Principle: In every language a clause can be
word-final position.
subordinated under another clause. In all languages,
Flap: Sound produced by a single tap.
there are noun clauses, relative clauses, etc. This is
Free morpheme: A morpheme that can stand by itself: anne,
known as Embedding Principle.
sa¤l›k, ve, ile.
Embedding: The occurrence of one clause in another clause
Fricative: Sound produced with partial obstruction so that
is known as embedding.
there is friction.
Endocentric compound: A compound the meaning of which
can be inferred from the meanings of the component
G
words: akci¤er, göz kapa¤›, geçifl ücreti.
Generic: A reference type which refers to a group rather than
Entailment: Entailment is a term that denotes that the mean-
the specific members of that group: Kitap (generic) in
ing of a proposition is conveyed in the meaning of anoth-
kitap faydal›d›r as opposed to kitab› (definite) in kitab›
er proposition.
faydal› buldum or bir kitap (indefinite) in bir kitap bul-
Epistemic modality: See Mood.
dum.
Eponymy: A word formation process through which a prop-
Genitive: A type of case which marks the “possessor” by the
er noun has come to be used as a common noun. For
suffix -(n)In: evin, araban›n.
example, röntgen as the name of the person who invent-
Genre: Types of discourse.
ed X-rays is used to refer to X-ray.
Glottal: Sound produced at the glottis.
Euphemism: It is a term that is used instead of a word that
Gradable adjective: An adjective that characterizes a proper-
is associated with a taboo or something that may be
ty in varying degrees. Therefore, the negative of a grad-
offensive. Antonym: Antonyms are words that have
able adjective does not necessarily yield its opposite:
opposite meanings. s›cak; s›cak de¤il may imply not only the opposite so¤uk,
but also ›l›k or serin.
Glossary 167
Gradable antonym: Gradable antonyms denote two oppo- Indefinite pronoun: A pronoun that denotes someone or
site ends of a gradable or scalar dimension. something with an unidentifiable. referent: herfley, biri,
Grammatical category: A category which marks a particular bir fley, herkes.
grammatical inflection that is associated with a particu- Indirect evidence: Information that enables the speaker to
lar word class: case and number as grammatical cate- make a deduction about the actuality of an event (also
gories associated with nouns. see Hearsay and Inferential).
Grammatical relation: The way a constituent of a sentence Indirect speech act: What is meant by a speaker's utterance
functions within a sentence. The most common gram- that is not part of what is explicitly said.
matical relations are subject and object. Inferential: A modal meaning which indicates indirect sen-
Grammaticality: A syntactic unit, i.e. a phrase, clause or sen- sory (visual or auditory) evidence: Demet gel-mifl upon
tence that obeys the rules of grammar in a language and seeing Demet’s shoes on the mat (visual evidence) or
used or interpreted as such by native speakers. upon hearing her talk in another room (auditory evi-
dence). Note that the event has not been experienced
H directly by the speaker.
Head parameter: The variation across languages related to Infinitive: The form of a verb that is not inflected for tense.
the direction of the head in a phrase. The head can be Infix: A sound or group of sounds used within a word to
at initial position, as in English, for the journey, where change the meaning or function of that word: hakim
for is the head of PP. In Turkish the head is at final posi- from hüküm, tacir from tüccar.
tion, as in her fley için, where için is the head of PP. Inflectional morpheme: An affix that marks the grammati-
Head: The central element in a phrase. For example, the head cal class of word as noun, verb, adjective etc.: the “plu-
of a NP is a noun. ral” -lAr of kitaplar as a noun marker, the past tense -DI
Hearsay: A type of modal meaning which indicates indirect of geldi as a verb marker.
(second-hand) evidence. It is also called reportative. For Innate: A quality that is pre-determined by the genetic nature
example, Demet gel-mifl implies that the speaker has of an organism, equipped from birth rather than acquired
heard that Demet has come; not that the event has not through experience.
been witnessed by the speaker. Intensifier: An adverbial that intensifies the meaning of the
Height: Height of the tongue body in the vocal tract. syntactic unit that it modifies.
Hypernym ( also known as superordinate): It is a word Interjection: A closed class consisting of words expressing
which is general and it includes the meaning of words emotional sates such as pain (Ay!), devastation (Yaz›k!),
with more specific meanings. delight (Yaflas›n!).
Hyponym: A word whose meaning is included in the mean- Interrogative pronoun: A pronoun which is used to form
ing of another word. For example, car, ship, bicycle, etc. questions: ne, kim, nerede, neden, nas›l, kimin.
are vehicles and each is a hyponym of the word vehicle. Intransitive verb: A verb that cannot take an object.
IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet used in linguistics to
I represent sounds of the languages of the world.
Idiosyncratic property: Property that is not predictable. Iterative: The type of aspectual meaning which signals that
Illocutionary force: In speech-act theory, a speaker's inten- the event described by the verb has multiple cycles:
tion in delivering an utterance. kahkaha atmak (more than one burst of laugh), h›çk›r›k
Immediate constituent: The highest constituents of a syn- tutmak (more than one hiccup), k›k›rdamak (more than
tactic unit. For example, SÆ NP VP; NP and VP are imme- one giggle).
diate constituents of S.
Impersonal passive: A passive construction made from an L
intransitive verb: gidilir, a¤lan›r, düflülür, bo¤ulunur. Labio-dental: Sound produced with lower lip and upper
Implicature: A result of a listener making an inference as the teeth.
most likely meaning an utterance may have in a given Language Acquisition Device (LAD): The innate mental
context. apparatus for acquiring language.
Letter: Arbitrary symbols used to represent sounds.
Lexical aspect: The type of aspectual meaning that is not Words may consist of one morpheme or more. Sil is a
marked by a grammatical marker, but signaled, instead, word composed of one morpheme, whereas silgiler of
by the lexical content of the verb. For example, three: the stem sil, the noun forming suffix -gi, and the
hapfl›rmak is a verb that lasts only a second. But this plural suffix -ler.
property is hidden in the meaning of the verb. It is not Morphology: The study of morphemes as the building struc-
marked by a grammatical morpheme as in yapar. In this tures of words, allomorphs as different forms of mor-
example, the aspectual meaning of habituality is marked phemes, and the ways in which they combine to form
by -(A)r/-(I)r. (also see Aspect) words.
Lexicon: An inventory of words in a language; or mental dic-
tionary of a native speaker. N
Loan translation/calque: A literal translation of a word or Narrowing: A process during which a word loses some
expression from one language into another: serbest vurufl aspects of its meaning. For example erik was used to
from free kick, insan kaynaklar› from human resources. refer to peaches, apricots and pears in Old Turkish. It is
Locative: A type of case which marks “location” by the suffix now narrowed down to prunes only.
-dA: evde, arabada. Nasal: Sound produced with a total obstruction in the oral
Locutionary act: In speech-act theory, the act of making a tract with a lowered velum.
meaningful utterance. Neutral vowel: Vowel produced when the tongue is at rest
position (schwa is a neutral vowel).
M Node: The labeled points in a tree diagram. For example, the
Main clause: The clause to which subordinate clauses are following diagram illustrates NP, Adj. and N nodes.
embedded (same as a matrix clause). Nominal category: A grammatical category that is associated
Marked: An item which is less basic, less frequent, but more with nouns: case and number.
precise: doberman is more marked than köpek. A dober- Nominal compound: A compound whose central element is
man is always a dog, but not vice versa. a noun: tak›m kaptan›, sokak bafl›, k›rkayak, külhanbeyi.
Matrix clause: The clause that is highest in a sentence and to Nominal: Associated with the category noun.
which other clauses are subordinated. (same as a main Nominalization: A grammatical process that creates nouns
clause). or expressions similar to nouns: yönelme, gedi¤ini, gel-
Metaphorical extension: An extention in the meaning of a men, gelmek, gelifl.
word to refer to a referent with a comparable meaning: Nominative case: A type of case which marks the subject by
as with bafl in so¤an bafl›, or delmek in sözleri yürekleri the zero morpheme -∆: ev, araba.
deldi. Noun incorporation: Fusion of the object noun phrase with
Minimal pair: A pair of words differing only in one sound. the verb: el ç›rpmak, gitar çalmak, bal›k tutmak, söz ver-
Modifier: An element that modifies a head. (See also adjunct). mek.
Monotransitive: A verb that takes a direct object: sevmek, Noun Phrase (NP): A phrase that has a noun as its central
görmek, yemek. constituent.
Mood: A grammatical category which is inflected on verbs. It Noun: A word that heads a noun phrase which functions as
is indicated by verbal suffixes. It describes the speaker’s either the subject or object of a verb or a complement of
opinion about the actuality of an event (epistemic modal- a postposition or an adjective. Nouns can be preceded
ity), or the internal or external compulsion on the part of by adjectives and determiners: k›z, güzel k›z, bir k›z,
the speaker to perform an act (deontic modality). Some güzel bir k›z.
examples are: Gürkan çok çal›fl-mal› (deontic/obliga- Number: A nominal grammatical category which marks the
tion), Gürkan çok çal›fl-m›fl (epistemic/hearsay), Gürkan distinction between plural and singular.
çal›fl-abilir (epistemic/possibility), Gürkan çal›fl-s›n
(deontic/imperative). O
Morpheme: The smallest indivisible meaningful unit of a Oblique: A Noun Phrase which has a case other than nomi-
word. A morpheme cannot be broken into smaller ele- native and accusative.
ments without changing or distorting the meaning. For Onomatopoeia: Echoing natural sound using speech sounds:
example, sil is a morpheme in Turkish. If the initial sound mööö, meee, cik cik, miyav, fl›r›l fl›r›l, v›c›k v›c›k.
is removed it becomes il which has a different meaning.
Glossary 169
Open class: A group of morphemes whose class membership Phrase Structure Rules: Rules formed by generalizing the
is so flexible that new members are readily welcome: structure of phrases.
verbs, adjectives, nouns, adverbs. Phrase: A syntactic unit with a head, a word that is the cen-
Optative: A type of modal meaning which marks the speak- tral element.
er’s wish: Annemi ara-ya-y›m. Polarity: A grammatical category that marks the state of being
Orthography The way words are spelled. positive or negative on a verb: Etem geldi (polarity: pos-
itive), Etem gel-me-di (polarity: negative).
P Polysemy: Polysemy is one word with several but related
Palatal: Sound produced at the hard palate. meanings.
Palato-alveolar: Sound produced at the back of the alveolar Possessive adjective: An adjective used before a noun that
ridge. marks ownership or possession: benim, senin, onun,
Parameters: Variations or dissimilarities across languages. bizim, sizin, onlar›n.
For example, some languages allow verbs to be at sen- Possessive pronoun: A pronoun used in a verb phrase to
tence final position, while in other languages verbs take mark ownership or possession: benimki, seninki, onun-
place at sentence-initial position. This is a parameter. ki, bizimki, sizinki, onlar›nki.
Paraphrase: It is a term that is used to refer to propositions Postposition: A word used after a noun to mark various
that entail each other. grammatical relationships with that noun: beri, sonra,
Passive: The rearrangement of a sentence which allows the üzerinde, için, dek, de¤in, ra¤men.
direct object of a transitive verb to be the subject of that Pragmatic competence: The ability to comprehend and pro-
verb: the change of ö¤renci soruyu cevapland›rd› to soru duce a communicative act.
ö¤renci taraf›ndan cevapland›r›ld›. Pragmatics: Study of speech and its meaning in context.
Predicate: The verb phrase of a sentence which excludes the
Perfect of persistent situation: A type of aspectual mean-
subject as shown in brackets: çocuk [güldü], küçük çocuk
ing which marks events that started in the past but con-
[durmadan güldü], s›n›f›n yaramaz çocu¤u [derste dur-
tinue up to the present: Anadolu Universitesi’nde çal›fl-
madan güldü]. Predicates express the action carried by
›yor-um.
the subject, description of the subject, or what happened
Perfect: A subclass of aspect which marks current relevance.
to the subject.
For example, -DI in Yemek ol-du as a call for dinner to
Predicative: Associated with a verb phrase: a predicative
mean ‘the process of cooking is completed, so we can
adjective used in a verb phrase as in cocuk [yaramazd›],
eat it now’.
a predicative noun used in a verb phrase as in kardefli
Perfective: A subclass of aspect which marks completion.
[doktordu].
Yemek ol-du ama daha salata haz›r de¤il entails that the
Prefix: An affix that is attached to the beginning of a stem:
process of cooking is completed.
gayri- in gayrimeflru, anti- in antipropoganda, inter- in
Performance: A native speaker’s actual use of language in
interdisipliner.
producing sentences. (see also competence).
Prescriptive grammar: A grammar which prescribes or dic-
Performative verb: A verb--such as promise, invite, apolo-
tates how language should be used, and what the rules
gize, and forbid--that explicitly conveys the kind of
are.
speech act being performed.
Presupposition trigger: A presupposition trigger is a lin-
Perlocutionary force: In speech-act theory, a speaker's inten-
guistic item that activates presupposition in an utterance.
tion in delivering an utterance.
Presupposition: A presupposition is background belief, relat-
Personal passive: A passive made from a transitive verb: ara-
ing to an utterance.
balar y›kand› from arabalar› y›kad›lar, duvar örüldü from
Presupposition: Presupposition is the part of an utterance
duvar› ördüler.
that is implicitly assumed to be true and taken for grant-
Personal pronoun: One of the pronouns that represents the
ed. (semantics unit)
grammatical category of person: ben, sen, o, biz siz,
Principles: Similarities across human languages. For exam-
onlar.
ple, every human language has rules, and every lan-
Phoneme: A sound that can change the meaning of a word. guage must obey structure. Thus, structure-dependency
Phonetics: Study of sounds. is a principle of Universal Grammar. Principles can never
Phonology: Study of how speech is organized. be violated in any human language. (See also Embedding
Principle).
Pro: The null subject of a clause where the verb has person Relativize: The process of turning an underlying clause into
and number agreement, such as [pro okula gitti]. a relative clause.
Process: A verb that denotes an event that takes place in an Restrictive Relative clause: A clause that gives information
extended period of time about the head noun and restricts its possible referent.
Pronoun: A word that can replace a noun: o, onu, onlar, Thus, the denotation of the noun is identifiable.
onlar›, etc. Retrospective: A type of aspectual meaning which links a
Proposition: Proposition is the meaning of a statement that present state to a past event: Cüzdan›m› unut-mufl-um (
can be true or false. I cannot pay because I forgot to take my wallet).
Prospective: A type of aspectual meaning that links a pres- Reversal: A process through which the meaning of a word is
ent state to a future point: Art›k tatil planlar›na baflla- reversed from positive to negative or vice versa: felaket
yaca¤-›z (we haven’t yet, but we will soon). from “disaster” to “excellent”.
Prototype: A typical member of a category or class. For exam- Root: A free morpheme that bears neither a derivational nor
ple, serçe, but not akbaba or devekuflu, is considered to an inflectional morpheme: sap, ben, bol, sa¤, sol.
be typical by many people even though all qualify as Rounding harmony: Vowels within a word agreeing in
members of the category bird. rounding as well as backness.
Rounding: Lip position in vowel production.
R
Reciprocal pronoun: A pronoun that is coreferential with S
the plural subject of a reciprocal verb: biribiri in birbir- Schema (sing); Schemata (pl): The background knowledge
leriyle dövüfltüler. that is necessary to understand a discourse.
Reciprocal: A verbal category marked with the morpheme - Semalfactive: The type of aspectual meaning which implies
(I)fl to show that more than one person acting as the a one-cycle/one-time event: öksürmek, varmak (also see
subject of the verb are doing something to one another, Iterative to compare).
or doing something collectively: dövüfltüler, üflüfltüler, Semantic change: A process in which a word’s meaning has
çekifltiler. changed through broadening, narrowing, semantic ele-
Recursion: The repetition of structures such as replacing one vation or semantic degradation.
clause into another. Semantic degradation: A change in meaning from positive
Reduplication: A word formation through which new expres- to negative: felaket meaning “excellent” besides “disas-
sions are formed by repeating a syllable, a word, or even ter”.
a clause: bembeyaz, h›r›l h›r›l, aram›fl taram›fl. Semantic elevation: A change in meaning from negative to
Reference point: The point in time from which events are positive: çocuk now meaning “child” but once meaning
viewed. Conventionally, the moment of speech is taken “piglet”.
as the reference point. Sister: The branches in a tree diagram of the same node.
Reference: The use of linguistic expressions such as pro- Sisters are at the equal level in a tree diagram. Sisters are
nouns to point out a previously mentioned entity or an always in a special relationship, such as modifier-head;
entity within the situational context. complement- head relationship.
Referent: The entity or the event that a NP or a Noun Clause Sound: Air coming out of the lungs.
refers to. Speech act: A speech act is an utterance that serves a func-
Reflexive pronoun: A pronoun that is coreferential with the tion in communication such as an apology, warning or
subject of a reflexive verb: kendi in kendini y›kad›. congratulations.
Reflexive: A verbal category marked with the morpheme - State: A verb which denotes a condition under no change or
(I)n to express action done to or for the subject by the very slow change. Such verbs are non-dynamic and long-
subject: y›kanmak, sar›nmak, sürünmek. lasting: sahip olmak, bilmek, inanmak, içermek, farkl›
Relative clause: A clause that is used to modify the head of olmak, sevmek, istemek.
a Noun Phrase. Stem: A morpheme that bears a derivational or an inflection-
Relative pronoun: A pronoun that is used to replace the al morpheme: sap in sapla, bol in bolluk, sa¤ in sa¤a, sol
head noun in a relative clause: ki in Ecem, ki asla yalan in soldan.
söylemez, olay›n böyle gerçekleflti¤ini söylüyor. Stop: Sound produced with total obstruction in the oral tract
and raised velum.
Glossary 171
Subject complement: A phrase in the predicate of a copular Universal grammar: A grammar which tries to explain the
verb that completes the meaning of the subject. For rules that underlie every human language. (See also prin-
example, Ali [doktor oldu], where doktor completes the ciples and parameters). It also refers to the genetically
subject and it has the same denotation with it. endowed information that consists of principles and
Subordinate clause: Any clause that cannot stand alone and parameters that enable the child to deduce a grammar
that must be embedded under a main clause. from the input s/he receives.
Substitution: The use of linguistics expressions that can take Unmarked: An item which is more basic, more frequent and
place of another linguistic expression. therefore more salient. For example, singular is less
Suffix: An affix that is attached to the end of a stem: -mAlI in marked than plural since the latter is more complex as it
gelmeli, -ArAk in gelerek, -mA and -(y)AcAK in gelmeye- is formed based on the former by adding an extra mor-
cek. pheme.
Superordinate (or a hypernym): is a word that is general
enough to include some words with a more specific V
meaning, known as hyponmys. Valency: The number of noun phrases required by a verb to
Surface realization: How a sound surfaces in speech. complete a sentence: Koflmak has a valency of one as in
Syntax: The subfield of linguistics that investigates the sen- Serap kofltu, but vermek has a valency of three as in
tence structure. Serap paketi annesine verdi.
Systematic regularity: Property that is predictable. Velar: Sound produced at the velum (soft palate)
Verb: A word that typically denotes rapid changes: koflmak,
T yürümek, dökmek, devirmek. A verb functions as the
Tense: A grammatical category that is marked on verbs. It is head of a predicate and bears inflections for the cate-
indicated by verbal suffixes. It describes the meaning gories tense, aspect, mood, person, and number.
expressed by the verb in terms of time such as past or Verbal category: A grammatical category that is associated
non-past. For example, Dünya güneflin etraf›nda dön-er with verbs: tense, aspect, mood, person agreement, num-
is non-past, but adam›n bafl› dön-er ve düfl-er taken from ber agreement.
a narrative is past. Tense is deictic. Verbal compound: A compound whose central element is a
Text: A written discourse verb: resim yapmak, durup kalmak, un elemek, söy-
Transitive verb: Any verb that takes a direct object. leyivermek.
Tree diagram: A representation of internal structure of sen- Verbal: Associated with the category verb.
tences. In tree diagrams, linguists use branches that show Vocal tract: The air passage above the larynx.
the constituent structure. The following is an example of Voice: A category that expresses the relationship between a
a tree diagram: verb and the noun phrases associated with it: active,
Turn-taking: The manner and order in which the roles of the passive, reciprocal, reflexive, causative.
speaker and the listener interchange. Voiced consonants: Consonants produced with vocal cord
vibration.
U Voiceless consonants: Consonants produced without vocal
Ultimate constituent: The smallest constituents of a syntac- cord vibration.
tic unit. Voicing: Presence or absence of vocal cord vibration
Unaccusative: A type of impersonal passive made from intran- Volition: A modal meaning which marks willingness. This
sitive verbs that denote involuntary acts: tak›lmak, meaning is conveyed by -(A)/-(I)r in Ben seninle gel-ir-
bo¤ulmak, batmak, düflmek. im. It implies that the speaker is willing to be a partner
Underlying representation: Representation at the phono- in the event.
logical component of grammar; what is the in the mind. Vowel harmony: Vowels within a word sharing similar prop-
Underlying sentence: The level of sentence structure which erties.
shows the basic form from which a syntactic unit is
derived. For example, the underlying sentence of the W
relative clause dün ald›¤›m çiçek is dün çiçek ald›m. Word class: A group of words which are similar in their seman-
Unergative: A type of impersonal passive made from intran- tic, morphological and syntactic behavior. The most com-
sitive verbs that denote volitional acts: kaçmak, koflmak, mon word classes are: noun, verb, adverb, adjective, pro-
oynamak. noun, postposition, conjunction, interjection.

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T.C.

ANADOLU ÜN‹VERS‹TES‹ YAYINI NO: 2421

TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS,

(TÜRKÇE TÜMCE B‹LG‹S‹,

Copyright © 2011 by Anadolu University

UZAKTAN Ö⁄RET‹M TASARIM B‹R‹M‹

Genel Koordinatör Yard›mc›s›

Grafik Tasar›m Yönetmenleri

Ölçme De¤erlendirme Sorumlusu

Kitap Koordinasyon Birimi

Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse

Bu kitap ANADOLU ÜN‹VERS‹TES‹ Web-Ofset Tesislerinde 2.000 adet bas›lm›flt›r.

Syntax .......................................................................................... 1 UNIT 1

The Internal Structure of Syntactic Categories: UNIT 2

Sentence Structure And Phrase Structure .......................... 30 UNIT 3

VERB PHRASES ............................................................................................ 47

UNIT 4 Complex Sentences: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses,

Turkish Alive ................................................................................................ 88

Semantics ................................................................................. 92 UNIT 5

Pragmatics................................................................................ 106 UNIT 6

Summary ........................................................................................................ 128

UNIT 7 Discourse Analysis ................................................................... 134

Key to “self-test” ................................................................ 161

Güz Döneminde ‘Türkçe Ses ve Biçim Bilgisi’ dersinizi tamamlad›n›z. Türkçe’nin

Sizleri bu kitab› haz›rlarken, yazd›klar›m›z›n anlafl›labilirli¤i ve içeri¤in geçerlili¤i-

Bu kitab›n haz›rlanmas› s›ras›nda karikatürlerden birisini kullanmam›za izin veren

Hepinize baflar›lar diliyorum.

Turkish Syntax, Semantics,

Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar

It is your turn! Adal› suggests thatturn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

2. Ahmet Ali’nin gitti¤ini söyledi.

3. Can bana Ahmet’in Ali’nin gitti¤ini söyledi¤ini haber verdi.

5. Dün gitti¤im okulda karfl›laflt›¤›m Can bana Ahmet’in Ali’nin gitti¤ini

The property of recursion of clauses is also known as the Embedding Principle

It is your turn! Answer the following questions.

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

Answer the following questions. It is your turn! It is your turn!

8. Ben bal›¤›m›n yemini yemedi¤ini gördüm.

11. *Ben bal›¤›m›n yemini yemedi gördüm.

Sentence (11) is ungrammatical. It may be produced by a tired native speaker.

It is your turn! Answer the following questions.

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

In this unit, we have seen that syntax investigates the

We have seen that syntactic investigation is not

We have also seen that since language is specifically a

In syntax, we analyze grammatical sentences and we

“ Read the following and try to answer whether it has a

References Key to “It is your turn!”

Introduction. Cambridge University Press, hayli bozulmufl, ziyadesiyle üzülmüfltü is not

Yalç›n, fiiar. (1997) Do¤ru Türkçe. Metis Yay›nlar›, It is your turn!

It is your turn! sentence as Ititis your isturn!

I.It is your turn! Turkish hasIt is yourSubject-Object-Verb

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!

It is your turn! It is your turn!