TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Using DFR to determine dissipation
factor temperature dependence
With an aging power component population, today’s electrical utility industry faces a tough challenge as failures and consequent repair
and revenue loss may inflict major costs. Transformers have become one of the most mission critical components in the electrical grid. The
need for reliable diagnostic methods drives the world’s leading experts to evaluate new technologies that improve reliability and optimise
the use of the power network.
Modern technology and developments in
signal acquisition and analysis techniques
have provided new tools for transformer
diagnostics. Of particular interest are
dielectric response measurements where
insulation properties of oil-paper systems
can be investigated. Dielectric frequency
response(DFR), was introduced more than
a decade ago and has been thoroughly
evaluated in a number of research projects
and field tests with good results. DFR
data in combination with mathematical
modelling of the oil-paper insulation is
proven as an excellent tool for moisture
assessment. Since the modelling theory
contains influence of temperature, DFR
and modelling can be used to calculate
the temperature dependence of the
insulation system.
The condition of the insulation is an
essential component of the operational
reliability of electrical power transformers,
generators, cables and other high voltage
equipment. Transformers with high moisture
content cannot sustain higher loads
without risk. Bushings and cables with high
dissipation factor at high temperature
can explode due to “thermal runaway ”.
It is also very important to identify “good”
units in the aging population of equipment.
Adding just a few operating years to the
expected end-of-life for a transformer or
cable means substantial cost savings.
Traditional dissipation factor
measurements
The most common insulation diagnostic
test involves measuring capacitance
and power factor at 50/60 Hz. Most
tests are done at 10 kV (or sometimes
Fig. 1: Typical power factor temperature corrections.
Power transformers, oil insulated
Bushings
Table 1: Typical power factor values (IEEE).
lower, depending on the voltage rating
of the component), and at operating
temperature, but there are also tests with
variable voltage (tip-up/step-up testing)
as well as tests where power factor versus
temperature is measured. Analysis is based
on (historical) statistics and comparison
with factor y values. Since insulation
p r o p e r t i e s d e p e n d o n t e m p e r a t u r e,
temperature compensation has to be
used for measurements not performed at
20°C. This is normally achieved by using
temperature correction table values for
certain classes of devices [1].
In IEEE 62-1995, typical power factor
measurement values for transformers and
bushings are categorised.
Typical temperature corrections are shown
in Fig. 1. It is obvious that the given values
are approximate guidelines only.
IEEE 62-1995 states; “The power factors
recorded for routine overall tests on older
apparatus provide information on the
general condition of the ground and
inter-winding insulation of transformers
a n d r e a c t o r s. T h e y a l s o p r o v i d e a
v a l u a b l e i n d e x o f d r y n e s s, a n d a r e
helpful in detecting undesirable operating
conditions and failure hazards resulting
from moisture, carbonisation of insulation,
defective bushings, contamination of oil by
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by Matz Ohlen and Peter Werelius, Megger
Typical power factor values @ 20°C
“New” “Old” Warning-alert limit
0,2 – 0,4% 0,3 – ,5% > 0,5%
0,2 – 0,3% 0,3 – 0,5% > 0,5%
dissolved materials or conducting particles,
improperly grounded or ungrounded
cores, etc. While the power factors for
older transformers will also be <0,5%
(20°C, power factors between 0,5% and
1,0% (20°C) may be acceptable; however,
power factors >1,0% (20°C) should be
investigated.”
Dielectric frequency response
measurements
The first field instrument for DFR
measurements was introduced 1995 [2].
Since then the numerous developments
of the technology have taken place and
several international projects/reports define
dielectric response measurements together
with insulation modelling as the preferred
method for measuring moisture content of
the cellulose insulation in power transformers
[3,4,5]. In DFR tests, capacitance and
dissipation/power factor is measured. The
measurement principle and setup is very
similar to traditional 50/60 Hz testing with
the difference that a lower measurement
voltage is used (200 V) and instead of
measuring at line frequency 50/60 Hz,
insulation properties are measured over
a frequency range, typically from 1 kHz to
1 mHz. The results are normally presented as
capacitance and/or tan delta/power factor
versus frequency. The measurement setup is
Fig. 2: DFR/FDS test setup.
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

Fig. 5: MODS moisture analysis.

Fig. 3: DFR measurements on four different transformers at different
temperatures with moisture content ranging from 0,3 to 3,4%.

Fig. 4: Parameters that effects the dissipation Fig. 6: MODS analysis for two transformers with
factor at various frequencies. different oil quality and moisture content.

shown in Fig. 2 and typical DFR results from
measurement on transformers in different
conditions in Fig. 3.
Moisture assessment
The capability of DFR to measure dissipation
factor as function of frequency, gives the
user a powerful tool for diagnostic testing.
Moisture assessment is one example. High
moisture levels in transformers is a serious
issue since it limits the maximum loading
capacity (IEEE Std C57.91 – 1995) and the
aging process is accelerated. Accurate
knowledge of the actual moisture content
is necessary in order to make decisions
on corrective actions, replacement/
scrapping or relocation to a different site
in the network with reduced loading.
Using DFR for determining moisture content
in the oil-paper insulation inside an oil-
immersed power transformer has been
described in detail in several papers
and articles elsewhere [3,4,5], and is
only briefly summarised in this paper.
The dissipation factor for an oil/cellulose
insulation plotted against frequency shows
a typical inverted S-shaped curve. With
increasing temperature the curve shifts
towards higher frequencies. Moisture
influences mainly the low and the high
frequency areas. The middle section of
the curve with the steep gradient reflects
oil conductivity. Fig. 4 describes parameter
influence on the master curve.
Using DFR for moisture determination
is based on a comparison of the
transformers dielectric response to a
modelled dielectric response (master
curve). A matching algorithm rearranges
the modelled dielectric response and
delivers a new cur ve that reflects the
measured transformer. The moisture
content along with the oil conductivity for
the master curve is presented. Only the
insulation temperature (top oil temperature
and/or winding temperature) needs to be
entered as a fixed parameter.
Two different transformers are shown in
Fig. 6. The two units have the same 0,7%,
50/60 Hz dissipation factor, characterised
by IEEE 6 – 1995 as “warning/alert” status
calling for “investigation”. The investigation
is done as moisture analysis using MODS.
The two transformers are ver y different
and maintenance measures for the two
would also be different. Transformer 1 has
good oil but needs drying. Transformer 2
has low moisture but needs oil change or
regeneration.
Bushing diagnostics
A g i n g / d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f h i g h -v o l t a g e
bushings is a growing problem and
manufacturers as well as utilities and
test system providers are suggesting and
testing various methods for detecting
bushing problems before they turn
into catastrophic failures. This includes
on-line monitoring as well as off-line
diagnostic measurements [6,7]. Traditional
50/60 Hz dissipation/power factor testing
may give an indication of aging/high
moisture content, especially if performed
at various temperatures as shown in
Fig. 7, [8] and Fig. 8, [10]. As seen in

Fig. 7: Dissipation factor (%) vs temperature Fig. 8: Power factor (%) vs temperature (°C) for “good”
for OIP bushings with various moisture content [6]. and “bad” bushings, [10].

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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 9: Power factor at 60 Hz for oil impregnated cellulose insulation
with various moisture contents as a function of temperature (ºC).
Fig. 10: Relationship between power factor values at different
frequencies taken at different temperatures.
Fig. 7, dissipation factor values at lower
temperatures are quite similar from
very low to moderate moisture content.
A significant change is not seen until
measuring at about 50°C.
The “ bad ” bushing in Fig. 8 can be
compared with bushing data in Fig. 7.
Estimated moisture content is about 4%.
Increased dissipation factor at higher
temperatures is a good indicator of
bushing problems. Catastrophic bushing
failures (explosions) are often caused by
what is called “thermal runaway ”. A high
dissipation factor at higher temperatures
result in an increased heating of the
bushing which in turn increases the
losses causing additional heating which
increases the losses even further and the
bushing finally explodes.
Individual temperature correction (ITC)
DFR measurements and analysis together
with modelling of the insulation system
i n c l u d e s t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e.
A new methodology (patent pending)
Fig. 13: Power factor as function of temperature (ºC)
for three different bushings [11].
Fig. 11: Bushing dissipation factor as a function of temperature.
Measured and converted data compared to published data, [6].
Fig. 12: Power factor as function of temperature (ºC) for four
different transformers [11].
is to per form DFR measurements and Fig. 11. Two bushings, “OK” and “bad” are
convert the results to dissipation factor at compared with manufacturer's values from
50/60 Hz as a function of temperature. Fig 7, [6]. The “bad” bushing is estimated
This technique has major advantages in to have about 4% moisture and should be
measurement simplicity. Instead of time considered “at risk”.
consuming heating/cooling of the bushing
Temperature correction tables such as
and doing several measurements at various
in IEEE/C57.12.90 give average values
temperatures, one DFR measurement is
assuming “average” conditions and are
performed and the results are converted
not correct for an individual transformer
to 50/60 Hz tan delta values as a function
or bushing. This was confirmed in field
of temperature. A result of the technique
experiments and some utilities tr y to
is shown and compared with the classical
avoid applying temperature correction by
results presented by Blodget [9] in Fig. 9.
recommending performing measurements
The method is based on the fact that a within a narrow temperature range [11].
certain power factor measurement at
Examples are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
a certain frequency and temperature
Power factor was measured at 10 kV on
corresponds to a measurement made
four transformers and three bushings of
at a different temperature at a different
different age, condition and at various
frequency. The conversion calculations
temperatures. Temperature dependence
are based on Arrhenius' law/equation,
is very different for the transformers and
describing how the insulation properties
bushings and using standard temperature
are changing over temperature. The
correction tables will not give correct
relationship is depicted for three different
values for the 20°C reference value.
activation energies in Fig. 10. Applying this
technique on real-world DFR measurements With DFR and the technique for converting
on bushings gives results as shown in data to temperature dependence, it
Fig. 14: Standard temperature correction compared with individual
temperature correction for samples of GE Type U bushings.
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TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 15: Temperature correction for transformers in various conditions.
Fig. 16: Dissipation factor as function of
frequency for dry Kraft paper.
is possible to do accurate, individual
temperature compensation. For a “good”
component, the temperature dependence
is weak. When the component gets older
and/or deteriorated, the temperature
correction factor becomes much
larger, i.e. the temperature correction
is a function of aging status. This is in
line with several projects and studies
[8,10]. Examples of individual temperature
correction for bushings are shown in Fig. 14.
Manufacturer's table data is only valid for
as-new bushings. As soon as the bushing
starts to show deterioration, the temperature
dependence increases. “Bad” bushings
have a very large temperature correction.
Individual temperature correction for
transformers is more complex compared
to “single-material ” components e.g.
bushings. The oil-paper insulation activation
energy constant Wa in Arrhenius' law, for
oil impregnated paper is typically
0,9 – 1 eV, while for transformer oil Wa is
typically around 0,4 – 0,5 eV
Individual temperature corrections for
transformers of various ages are shown in
Fig. 15. transformer data is summarised
in Table 2.
Manufacturer Year Moisture
Pauwels 2005 0,4%
Pauwels 2000 0,3%
Westinghouse 1985 1,5%
Yorkshire 1977 4,5%
Table 2: Transformer data.
Fig. 17: Tan delta at 50 Hz for dry Kraft paper
Fig. 18: DFR measurements and moisture analysis
results at different temperatures.
As seen in the figure, each transformer
has its individual temperature correction.
New units have a “negative” correction
for slightly elevated temperatures and
will show dramatically different results
if the standard table are used. Aged
transformers show the same behaviour
as the standard tables but with a much
stronger temperature dependence
compared to the average IEEE values.
Experimental results
Oil impregnated Kraft paper
Samples of Kraft paper with various
moisture contents was measured at
different temperatures [13]. Results for dry
paper, moisture content <0,5% is shown
in Fig. 16
Using DFR technique to estimate
temperature dependence based on
measurements at one temperature only,
gives the results shown in Fig. 17. As seen in
the diagram, the calculated temperature
dependence matches very closely to the
actually measured dissipation factors.
Transformers
DFR measurements on a distribution
Power rating Status
80 MVA New, at factory
20 MVA New, at utility
40 MVA Used, spare at utility
10 MVA Used and scrapped
energize - April 2012 - Page 42
as function of temperature.
transformer at various temperatures are
shown in Fig. 18. As expected the moisture
analysis (moisture in paper insulation) show
the same values independent of insulation
temperature (insulation temperature
was estimated as winding temperature,
measured as winding resistance).
Oil and paper insulation must be treated
separately when modeling a transformer
to estimate temperature dependence.
This is described in Fig. 18. Combining
the modeling results and converting to
temperature dependence gives the
temperature curves in Fig. 20. Also for this
insulation system containing two different
temperature dependent materials, the
conversion gives results very close to the
actual measured tan delta values.
Bushings
An Asea/ABB GOB OIP bushing, used but
expected to be in good condition, has
been measured at different temperatures.
Tan Delta and DFR measurements were
performed at three temperatures; Indoor
at 22°C, outdoor at -8°C and in a heated
chamber at 42°C. Results are shown in
Table 3.
Calculated temperature corrections using
DFR results are presented together with
the manufacturer's average temperature
correction data in Fig. 20.
Fo r t h e s p e c i f i c b u s h i n g, i n d i v i d u a l
temperature correction (ITC) both at 22°C
and 42°C fits very well with manufacturer's
data, indicating a bushing in normal
condition.

Fig. 19: Dissipation factor as function of
frequency for oil and cellulose insulation.
Fig. 20: Tan delta at 50 Hz for a distribution
transformer as function of temperature.
Discussion
The temperature dependence of the
dissipation factor of an insulating material
needs to be considered when comparing
measurement results with previous tests or
factory values. Historically this has been
done by the use of average temperature
correction tables. Results are disappointing
and many asset owners tr y instead to
perform diagnostic measurements at a
specific (narrow) temperature range.
The new method of using frequency data
and calculate/model the temperature
dependence of the actual component
offers an alternative to waiting for the
“correct ” temperature and then do
the test. It gives the possibility to have
correct 20°C reference values and also to
make a correct comparison to previously
measured non-corrected data at other
insulation temperatures.
How accurate the individual temperature
correction can be is a valid question. As
presented in this paper, using standard
tables can easily give power factor errors
in the order of ±50 – 100% or more.
The ITC examples presented show good
correlation between the calculated and
actually measured dissipation factor at
various temperatures. However, envisioning
a standard method used for a large
population of components of various
design and makes, a certain variation
is anticipated. Preliminar y tests with
commercial test instruments and SW
indicates that the inaccuracy for ITC is
about ±5 – 10% at the extremes of a
5 – 50°C temperature range i.e. correcting
from 5 or 50° to 20° reference.
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
Fig. 21: Temperature correction curves
for ABB/ASEA GOB bushing .
Insulation
Temperature, °C
@ 200 V
-8 0,86
22 0,46
42 0,34
Table 3: Power factor measurents on ABB GOB bushing.
Summary and conclusions
Dielectric Frequency Response (DFR/FDS)
measurement is a technique/methodology
for general insulation testing and
diagnostics. In comparison with standard
50/60 Hz dissipation factor measurements,
DFR measurements provide the following
advantages:
 Capability of performing individual
temperature correction of measured
50/60 Hz dissipation/power factor at
various temperatures to values at
reference temperature, 20°C.
 Capability of comparing test results
from a new measurement at a certain
temperature to another measurement
at a different temperature
 Capability of estimating dissipation/
power factor at operating temperature
in order to assess risk of thermal
runaway catastrophic failure.
 Capability of estimating the moisture
content of oil-immersed cellulose
insulation in power transformers and
bushings
 Capability of investigating increased
dissipation factor in power components
The insulation properties are very important
for determining the condition of a power
system component. Knowing the condition
helps to avoid potential catastrophic
failure and identifying “good” units and
decide upon correct maintenance can
save significant money due to postponed
investment costs.
References
[1] "IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of
Electric Power Apparatus; Part 1: Oil Filled
energize - April 2012 - Page 43
Measured Power Factor
@ 1-10 kV Comments
Voltage dependent
1,04 – 1,14
at low temperatures
0,46
0,32
Power Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors”,
IEEE 62-1995.
[2] P Werelius et al, “Diagnosis of Medium Voltage
XLPE Cables by High Voltage Dielectric
Spectroscopy”, paper presented at ICSD 1998.
[3 ]U Gäfvert et al, “Dielectric Spectroscopy in Time
and Frequency Domain Applied to Diagnostics
of Power Transformers”, 6th International
Conference on Properties and Applications of
Dielectric Materials, June 21-26, 2000, Xi'an,
China.
[4] S M Gubanski et al, "Dielectric Response
Methods for Diagnostics of Power Transformers”,
Electra, No. 202, June 2002, pp 23-34¸also in
CIGRE Technical Brochure, No. 254, Paris 2004.
[5] S M Gubanski et al, “Reliable Diagnostics of
HV Transformer Insulation for Safety Assurance
of Power Transmission System. REDIATOOL - a
European Research Project”, paper D1-207
CIGRÉ 2006.
[6] “Swedish Bushings Plant Sees Growth in RIP
Designs”, INMR Quarterly, Issue 68, 2005.
[7] J M Braun et al.”Accelerated Aging and
Diagnostic Testing of 115 kV Type U Bushings”,
paper presented at IEEE Anaheim 2000.
[8] C Kane, “Bushing, PD and Winding Distortion
Monitoring”, paper presented at ABB Seminar
“Power Transformer Health Monitoring and
Maintenance” Johannesburg 2008.
[9] R B Blodget, “Influence of Absorbed Water
and Temperature on Tan Delta and Dielectric
Constant of Oil-Impregnated Paper Insulation”,
Trans. AIEE, 1961.
[10] R Brusetti, “Experience with On-line Diagnostics
for Bushings and Current Transformers”, NETA
Fall 2002, paper A335.
[11] R K Tyagi, S Victor, N S Sodha, “Application of
Temperature Correction Factors for dissipation
factor Measurements for Power Transformers
– A case study”, Doble Client Conference,
Vadodara, India 2006.
[12] P Werelius, M Ohlen, “Dielectric Frequency
R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e m e n t s o n Po w e r
Transformers”, EuroTechCon 2008, Liverpool,
UK.
[13] R Niemanis et al, “Determination of Moisture
Content in Mass Impregnated Cable Insulation
Using Low Frequency Dielectric Spectroscopy”,
IEEE Power Engineering Society Summer
Meeting 2000, Seattle, Washington, USA.
Contact Marius Pitzer, Megger,
Tel 021 557-6572,
marius.pitzer@megger.com 