Research methods

Types of research

Experiments

People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete various
tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration, reasoning
ability etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The results of different groups are then
compared. Participants should not be anxious about performing well but simply do their best.
The aim of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-called intelligence, but to look for
links between performance and other factors. If computers are used, this has to be done in such
a way that no previous knowledge of computers is necessary. So people should not be put off
by this either.

The study might include an intervention such as a training programme, some kind of social
activity, the introduction of a change in the person’s living environment (e.g. different lighting,
background noise, different care routine) or different forms of interaction (e.g. linked to physical
contact, conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.). Often the interaction will be followed
by some kind of test (as mentioned above), sometimes before and after the intervention. In
other cases, the person may be asked to complete a questionnaire (e.g. about his/her feelings,
level of satisfaction or general well-being).

Some studies are just based on one group (within-group design). The researchers might be
interested in observing people’s reactions or behaviour before and after a certain intervention
(e.g. a training programme). However, in most cases, there are at least two groups (a between-
subjects design). One of the groups serves as a control group and is not exposed to the
intervention. This is quite similar to the procedure in clinical trials whereby one group does not
receive the experimental drug. This enables researchers to compare the two groups and
determine the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two groups might differ in some
important way (e.g. gender, severity of dementia, living at home or in residential care, etc.) and
it is that difference that is of interest to the researchers.
Surveys

Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by means of
questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also be used. There
are different types of survey. The most straightforward type (the “one shot survey”) is
administered to a sample of people at a set point in time. Another type is the “before and after
survey” which people complete before a major event or experience and then again afterwards.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people and/or
people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments. They
enable people to take their time, think about it and come back to the questionnaire later.
Participants can state their views or feelings privately without worrying about the possible
reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be inclined to try to give socially
acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the questions as honestly as
possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false conclusions from their study.

Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions and
open-ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have a fairly low
response rate and people do not always answer all the questions and/or do not answer them
correctly. Questionnaires can be administered in a number of different ways (e.g. sent by post or
as email attachments, posted on Internet sites, handed out personally or administered to captive
audience (such as people attending conferences). Researchers may even decide to administer
the questionnaire in person which has the advantage of including people who have difficulties
reading and writing. In this case, the participant may feel that s/he is taking part in an interview
rather than completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be noting down the responses on
his/her behalf.

Interviews

Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be administered by
telephone or using more advance computer technology such as Skype. Sometimes they are
held in the interviewee’s home, sometimes at a more neutral place. It is important for
interviewees to decide whether they are comfortable about inviting the researcher into their
home and whether they have a room or area where they can speak freely without disturbing
other members of the household.
The interviewer (which is not necessarily the researcher) could adopt a formal or informal
approach, either letting the interviewee speak freely about a particular issue or asking specific
pre-determined questions. This will have been decided in advance and depend on the approach
used by the researchers. A semi-structured approach would enable the interviewee to speak
relatively freely, at the same time allowing the researcher to ensure that certain issues were
covered.

When conducting the interview, the researcher might have a check list or a form to record
answers. This might even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere with the
flow of the conversation, particularly in less structured interviews. Also, it is difficult to pay
attention to the non-verbal aspects of communication and to remember everything that was said
and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be helpful for the researchers to have some kind
of additional record of the interview such as an audio or video recording. They should of course
obtain permission before recording an interview.

Case studies

Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small group).
Various methods of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes observation
and interviews and may involve consulting other people and personal or public records. The
researchers may be interested in a particular phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a
move into residential care) and select one or more individuals in the respective situation on
whom to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very narrow focus which results in
detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful in
clinical settings and may even challenge existing theories and practices in other domains.

Participant and non-participant observation

Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories, namely
participant observation and non-participant observation.

In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of the group to be
observed. This involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of the group and at the same
time remaining sufficiently detached as to be able to carry out the observation. The observations
made might be based on what people do, the explanations they give for what they do, the roles
they have, relationships amongst them and features of the situation in which they find
themselves. The researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give the participants in
the study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their comments seriously.

In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part of the group being studied. The
researcher decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour is relevant to the study and can
be realistically and ethically observed. The observation can be carried out in a few different
ways. For example, it could be continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one hour) or regularly
for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds every so often) or on a random basis. Observation
does not only include noting what happened or was said but also the fact that a specific
behaviour did not occur at the time of observation.

Observational trials

Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural
settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a group of people over a fairly
lengthy period of time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life paying specific
attention to diet and lifestyle factors. In some cases, the researchers might monitor people when
they are middle-aged and then again after 15 years and so on. The aim of such studies is
usually to determine whether there is a link between one factor and another (e.g. whether high
alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved in this kind of
study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic or experience within a
defined period. Within the cohort, there may be subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately,
people who drink heavily, people who binge drink etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be
made.
In some cases, rather than following a group of people from a specific point in time onwards, the
researchers take a retrospective approach, working backwards as it were. They might ask
participants to tell them about their past behaviour, diet or lifestyle (e.g. their alcohol
consumption, how much exercise they did, whether they smoked etc.) They might also ask for
permission to consult the participants’ medical records (a chart review). This is not always a
reliable method and may be problematic as some people may forget, exaggerate or idealise
their behaviour. For this reason, a prospective study is generally preferred if feasible although a
retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective study may be helpful in focusing the study
question and clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the latter (Hess, 2004).
Studies using the Delphi method
The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s in the military
domain. It has been considered particularly useful in helping researchers determine the range of
opinions which exist on a particular subject, in investigating issues of policy or clinical relevance
and in trying to come to a consensus on controversial issues. The objectives can be roughly
divided into those which aim to measure diversity and those which aim to reach consensus.
Different ways to employ this method have been devised but they tend to share common
features, namely a series of “rounds” in which the participants (known as “panellists”) generate
ideas or identify salient issues, comment on a questionnaire (constructed on the basis of the
results from the first round) and re-evaluate their original responses. After each round, a
facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the forecasts/opinions made by the experts and
of their reasons.

There is no limit to the number of panellists involved but between 10 and 50 might be
considered manageable. The panellists are chosen on the basis of their expertise which could
take many forms (e.g. academic, professional or practical knowledge, personal experience of
having a condition, being a service user etc.).

A research design[1] is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and analyzing
measures of the variables specified in the problem research. The design of a study defines the
study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and
sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent
and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a
statistical analysis plan. A research design is a framework that has been created to find answers
to research questions.

esign types and sub-types[edit]

There are many ways to classify research designs. Nonetheless, the list below offers a number
of useful distinctions between possible research designs. A research design is an arrangement
of conditions or collection.[2]

 Descriptives (e.g., case-study, naturalistic observation, survey)

 Correlational (e.g., case-control study, observational study)

 Semi-experimental (e.g., field experiment, quasi-experiment)

 Experimental (experiment with random assignment)

 Review (literature review, systematic review)

 Meta-analytic (meta-analysis)
Sometimes a distinction is made between "fixed" and "flexible" designs. In some cases, these
types coincide with quantitative and qualitativeresearch designs respectively,[3] though this need
not be the case. In fixed designs, the design of the study is fixed before the main stage of data
collection takes place. Fixed designs are normally theory-driven; otherwise, it is impossible to
know in advance which variables need to be controlled and measured. Often, these variables
are measured quantitatively. Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data collection
process. One reason for using a flexible research design can be that the variable of interest is
not quantitatively measurable, such as culture. In other cases, the theory might not be available
before one starts the research.
Grouping[edit]

The choice of how to group participants depends on the research hypothesis and on how the
participants are sampled. In a typical experimental study, there will be at least one
"experimental" condition (e.g., "treatment") and one "control" condition ("no treatment"), but the
appropriate method of grouping may depend on factors such as the duration of measurement
phase and participant characteristics:

 Cohort study

 Cross-sectional study

 Cross-sequential study

 Longitudinal study

Confirmatory versus exploratory research[edit]

Confirmatory research tests a priori hypotheses — outcome predictions that are made before
the measurement phase begins. Such a priorihypotheses are usually derived from a theory or
the results of previous studies. The advantage of confirmatory research is that the result is more
meaningful, in the sense that it is much harder to claim that a certain result is generalizable
beyond the data set. The reason for this is that in confirmatory research, one ideally strives to
reduce the probability of falsely reporting a coincidental result as meaningful. This probability is
known as α-level or the probability of a type I error.
Exploratory research, on the other hand, seeks to generate a posteriorihypotheses by
examining a data-set and looking for potential relations between variables. It is also possible to
have an idea about a relation between variables but to lack knowledge of the direction and
strength of the relation. If the researcher does not have any specific hypotheses beforehand, the
study is exploratory with respect to the variables in question (although it might be confirmatory
for others). The advantage of exploratory research is that it is easier to make new discoveries
due to the less stringent methodological restrictions. Here, the researcher does not want to miss
a potentially interesting relation and therefore aims to minimize the probability of rejecting
a real effect or relation; this probability is sometimes referred to as β and the associated error is
of type II. In other words, if the researcher simply wants to see whether some measured
variables could be related, he would want to increase the chances of finding a significant result
by lowering the threshold of what is deemed to be significant.
Sometimes, a researcher may conduct exploratory research but report it as if it had been
confirmatory ('Hypothesizing After the Results are Known', HARKing—see Hypotheses
suggested by the data); this is a questionable research practice bordering on fraud.

State problems versus process problems[edit]

A distinction can be made between state problems and process problems. State problems aim
to answer what the state of a phenomenon is at a given time, while process problems deal with
the change of phenomena over time. Examples of state problems are the level of mathematical
skills of sixteen-year-old children or the level, computer skills of the elderly, the depression level
of a person, etc. Examples of process problems are the development of mathematical skills
from puberty to adulthood, the change in computer skills when people get older and how
depression symptoms change during therapy.
State problems are easier to measure than process problems. State problems just require one
measurement of the phenomena of interest, while process problems always require multiple
measurements. Research designs such as repeated measurements and longitudinal study are
needed to address process problems.

Examples of fixed designs[edit]

Experimental research designs[edit]

See also: Experiment

In an experimental design, the researcher actively tries to change the situation, circumstances,
or experience of participants (manipulation), which may lead to a change in behaviour or
outcomes for the participants of the study. The researcher randomly assigns participants to
different conditions, measures the variables of interest and tries to control for confounding
variables. Therefore, experiments are often highly fixed even before the data collection starts.
In a good experimental design, a few things are of great importance. First of all, it is necessary
to think of the best way to operationalize the variables that will be measured, as well as which
statistical methods would be most appropriate to answer the research question. Thus, the
researcher should consider what the expectations of the study are as well as how to analyse
any potential results. Finally, in an experimental design, the researcher must think of the
practical limitations including the availability of participants as well as how representative the
participants are to the target population. It is important to consider each of these factors before
beginning the experiment.[4] Additionally, many researchers employ power analysis before they
conduct an experiment, in order to determine how large the sample must be to find an effect of
a given size with a given design at the desired probability of making a Type I or Type II error.
Non-experimental research designs[edit]

Non-experimental research designs do not involve a manipulation of the situation,

circumstances or experience of the participants. Non-experimental research designs can be
broadly classified into three categories. First, in relational designs, a range of variables are
measured. These designs are also called correlation studies because correlation data are most
often used in the analysis. Since correlation does not imply causation, such studies simply
identify co-movements of variables. Correlational designs are helpful in identifying the relation of
one variable to another, and seeing the frequency of co-occurrence in two natural groups
(See correlation and dependence). The second type is comparative research. These designs
compare two or more groups on one or more variable, such as the effect of gender on grades.
The third type of non-experimental research is a longitudinal design. A longitudinal design
examines variables such as performance exhibited by a group or groups over
time. See Longitudinal study.

Examples of flexible research designs[edit]

Case study[edit]

See also: Case study

Famous case studies are for example the descriptions about the patients of Freud, who were
thoroughly analysed and described.
Bell (1999) states “a case study approach is particularly appropriate for individual researchers
because it gives an opportunity for one aspect of a problem to be studied in some depth within a
limited time scale”.[5]
Ethnographic study[edit]

See also: Ethnography

This type of research is involved with a group, organization, culture, or community. Normally the
researcher shares a lot of time with the group.
Grounded theory study[edit]

Grounded theory research is a systematic research process that works to develop "a process,
and action or an interaction about a substantive topic".[6]

A research participant, also called a human subject or an experiment, trial, or study

participant or subject, is a person who participates in human subject research by being the
target of observation by researchers.

A research subject is a person who decides to participate in a research study. This is

completely voluntary. You are helping the researcher look at the questions he/she wants to
study. You can quit the study any time you want to.

A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. The
dependent variable is thevariable a researcher is interested in. An independentvariable is
a variable believed to affect the dependentvariable. Confounding variables are defined as
interference caused by another variable.

Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to
change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. It is
the presumed effect.
Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to measure. It
refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator. It
is the presumed cause.
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying
to measure in some way. The best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by what the words tell us about the
variable you are using. You can do this with a simple exercise from the website, Graphic
Tutorial. Take the sentence, "The [independent variable] causes a change in [dependent
variable] and it is not possible that [dependent variable] could cause a change in [independent
variable]." Insert the names of variables you are using in the sentence in the way that makes the
most sense. This will help you identify each type of variable. If you're still not sure, consult with
your professor before you begin to write.

The process of examining a research problem in the social and behavioral sciences is
often framed around methods of analysis that compare, contrast, correlate, average, or
integrate relationships between or among variables. Techniques include associations,
sampling, random selection, and blind selection. Designation of the dependent and independent
variable involves unpacking the research problem in a way that identifies a general cause and
effect and classifying these variables as either independent or dependent.
The variables should be outlined in the introduction of your paper and explained in more
detail in the methods section. There are no rules about the structure and style for writing
about independent or dependent variables but, as with any academic writing, clarity and being
succinct is most important.
After you have described the research problem and its significance in relation to prior
research, explain why you have chosen to examine the problem using a method of
analysis that investigates the relationships between or among independent and
dependent variables. State what it is about the research problem that lends itself to this type of
analysis. For example, if you are investigating the relationship between corporate environmental
sustainability efforts [the independent variable] and dependent variables associated with
measuring employee satisfaction at work using a survey instrument, you would first identify
each variable and then provide background information about the variables. What is meant by
"environmental sustainability"? Are you looking at a particular company [e.g., General Motors] or
are you investigating an industry [e.g., the meat packing industry]? Why is employee satisfaction
in the workplace important? How does a company make their employees aware of sustainability
efforts and why would a company even care that its employees know about these efforts?
Identify each variable for the reader and define each. In the introduction, this information can
be presented in a paragraph or two when you describe how you are going to study the research
problem. In the methods section, you build on the literature review of prior studies about the
research problem to describe in detail background about each variable, breaking each down for
measurement and analysis. For example, what activities do you examine that reflect a
company's commitment to environmental sustainability? Levels of employee satisfaction can be
measured by a survey that asks about things like volunteerism or a desire to stay at the
company for a long time.
The structure and writing style of describing the variables and their application to analyzing the
research problem should be stated and unpacked in such a way that the reader obtains a clear
understanding of the relationships between the variables and why they are important. This is
also important so that the study can be replicated in the future using the same variables but
applied in a different way.
Measurement is the process observing and recording the observations that are collected as
part of a research effort. There are two major issues that will be considered here. ... In Levels
of Measurement, I explain the meaning of the four major levels of measurement: nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio.