Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith,

Varanasi
Faculty of Social Sciences,
Department of Psychology

Course: BA 1st Year

Paper 1: Basic Psychological Processes
Unit I : Methods of psychology: observation,
experimental, field study, interview and
questionnaire

Dr. Durgesh Kumar Upadhyay, Assistant Professor

Department of Psychology
Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi – 221002
dkudurgesh@gmail.com; dkupadhyay@mgkvp.ac.in
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Dr. Durgesh K. Upadhyay
Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description,
prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in
an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these terms.

Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as

accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours.
For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students. Study
habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly,
submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set
schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particular category there may be
further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits.
The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper
understanding.

Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are able to
understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a
particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast
that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.
For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship
between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to
know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely
to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the
number of persons observed.

Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or
determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that
make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not
occur. For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why some children
devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying
the determinants or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that led to the particular behaviour) of
the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or
events could be established.

Control : If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that
behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers to three things: making
a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you can allow the
number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or you can reduce them or there may be an
increase in the study hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment
in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control.

Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives
of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Because of
these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists. For example,
applications of yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and increase efficiency. Scientific
enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research.

Methods
Observation
Observational studies allow researchers to document behavior in a natural setting and witness
events that could not be produced in a lab.

Key Points

 Observation differs from most other forms of data collection in that the researcher does
not manipulate variables or directly question participants.
 The advantages of observation include observing natural behavior, refining hypotheses,
and allowing for observation of behavior that cannot be produced in an artificial
environment for ethical or practical reasons.
 The disadvantages of observation are that these studies do not produce quantitative data,
do not allow for cause and effect statements, may be very time consuming, and can be
prone to researcher bias.

Key Terms

 Observational research: Research focusing on the observation of behavior outside of a

laboratory setting.
 External validity: In research, whether or not study findings can be generalized to real
world scenarios.

Observation allows researchers to experience a specific aspect of social life and get a firsthand
look at a trend, institution, or behavior. Participant observation involves the researcher joining a
sample of individuals without interfering with that group’s normal activities in order to
document their routine behavior or observe them in a natural context. Often researchers in
observational studies will try to blend in seamlessly with the sample group to avoid
compromising the results of their observations.

Observational research is a type of descriptive research that differs from most other forms of data
gathering in that the researcher’s goal is not to manipulate the variables being observed. While
participants may or may not be aware of the researchers’ presence, the researchers do not try to
control variables (as in an experiment), or ask participants to respond to direct questions (as in an
interview or survey based study). Instead, the participants are simply observed in a natural
setting, defined as a place in which behavior ordinarily occurs, rather than a place that has been
arranged specifically for the purpose of observing the behavior. Unlike correlational and
experimental researches which use quantitative data, observational studies tend to use qualitative
data.
For example, social psychologists Roger Barker and Herbert Wright studied how a sample of
children interacted with their daily environments. They observed the children go to school, play
with friends, and complete daily chores, and learned a great deal about how children interact
with their environments and how their environments shape their character. Similarly,
anthropologist Jane Goodall studied the behavior of chimpanzees, taking careful notes on their
tool making, family relationships, hunting, and social behavior. Her early work served as the
basis for future research on chimpanzees and animal behavior in general.

Advantages of Observational Studies

By observing events as they naturally occur, patterns in behavior will emerge and general
questions will become more specific. The hypotheses that result from these observations will
guide the researcher in shaping data into results.

One advantage of this type of research is the ability to make on-the-fly adjustments to the initial
purpose of a study. These observations also capture behavior that is more natural than behavior
occurring in the artificial setting of a lab and that is relatively free of some of the bias seen in
survey responses. However, the researcher must be careful not to apply his or her own biases to
the interpretation. Researchers may also use this type of data to verify external validity, allowing
them to examine whether study findings generalize to real world scenarios.

Laboratory Observation: Laboratory observation can feel artificial to participants and

influence their behavior. Observation in a natural setting allows researchers to document
behavior without this influence.

There are some areas of study where observational studies are more advantageous than others.
This type of research allows for the study of phenomena that may be unethical to control for in a
lab, such as verbal abuse between romantic partners. Observation is also particularly
advantageous as a cross-cultural reference. By observing people from different cultures in the
same setting, it is possible to gain information on cultural differences.

Disadvantages of Observational Studies

While observational studies can generate rich qualitative data, they do not produce quantitative
data, and thus mathematical analysis is limited. Researchers also cannot infer causal statements
about the situations they observe, meaning that cause and effect cannot be determined. Behavior
seen in these studies can only be described, not explained.

There are also ethical concerns related to observing individuals without their consent. One way
to avoid this problem is to debrief participants after observing them and to ask for their consent
at that time. Overt observation, where the participants are aware of the researcher’s presence, is
another option to overcome this problem. However, this tactic does have its drawbacks. When
subjects know they are being watched, they may alter their behavior in an attempt to make
themselves look more admirable.
This type of research can also be very time consuming. Some studies require dozens of
observation sessions lasting for several hours and sometimes involving several researchers.
Without the use of multiple researchers, the chances of observer bias increase; because behavior
is perceived so subjectively, it is possible that two observers will notice different things or draw
different conclusions from the same behavior.

Experimental Method
Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of
events or variables in a controlled setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes
are made in one factor and its effect is studied on another factor, while keeping other related
factors constant. In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is
the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.

The Concept of Variable

You read earlier that in the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal
relationship between two variables. What is a variable? Any stimulus or event which varies, that
is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is a variable. An object by itself
is not a variable. But its attributes are. For example, the pen that you use for writing is NOT a
variable. But there are varieties of pens available in different shapes, sizes, and colour. All of
these are variables. The room in which you are sitting is NOT a variable but its size is as there
are rooms of different sizes. The height of the individuals (5' to 6') is another variable. Similarly,
people of different races have different colours. Young people have started dyeing their hair in
different colours. Thus, colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence is a variable (there are
people with varying levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low).

The presence or absence of persons in the room is a variable as shown in the experiment in Box
2.1. Thus, the variation can be in the quality or quantity of objects/events. Variables are of many
types. We will however focus on independent and dependent variables. Independent variable is
that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in the
experiment. It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or
note in the study. In the experiment conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2.1), the researchers
wanted to examine the effect of the presence of other persons on reporting of the smoke. The
independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room. The variables on
which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable. Dependent
variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. It is expected that change
in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable. The frequency of
reporting of smoke in the above case was the dependent variable. Thus, the independent variable
is the cause, and dependent variable the effect in any experimental situation.

One must remember that independent and dependent variables are interdependent. Neither of
them can be defined without the other. Also, independent variable chosen by the researcher is not
the only variable that influences the dependent variable. Any behavioural event contains many
variables. It also takes place within a context. Independent and dependent variables are chosen
because of the researcher’s theoretical interest. However, there are many other relevant or
extraneous variables that influence the dependent variable, but the researcher may not be
interested in examining their effects. These extraneous variables need to be controlled in an
experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause and effect relationship between
independent and dependent variables.

Experimental and Control Groups

Experiments generally involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups.
An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent
variable manipulation. The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like
the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it. For example, in the
study by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control group.

As you may have noted, the participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms. In one
room no one was present (control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already
seated (experimental groups). Of the two experimental groups, one group was instructed not to
do anything when smoke filled in the room. The other group was not given any instructions.
After the experimental manipulation had occured the performance of the control group measured
in terms of reporting of smoke was compared with that of the experimental group. It was found
that the control group participants reported in maximum numbers about the emergency, followed
by the first experimental group members where the participants were not given any instructions,
and the second experimental group (consisting of 2019-20 confederates) reported the emergency
situation, the least.

It should be noted that in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other
conditions are kept constant for both experimental and control groups. One attempts to control
all those relevant variables which can influence the dependent variable. For example, the speed
with which smoke started entering the rooms, the total amount of smoke in the rooms, physical
and other conditions of the rooms were similar in case of all the three groups. The distribution of
participants to experimental and control groups was done randomly, a method that ensures that
each person has an equal chance of being included in any of the groups. If in one group the
experimenter had included only males and in the other group females, the results obtained in the
study, could be due to the differences in gender rather than due to experimental manipulation.
All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to
be controlled. These are of three major types: organismic variables (such as anxiety, intelligence,
personality, etc.), situational or environmental variables operating at the time of conducting the
experiment (such as noise, temperature, humidity), and sequential variables. The sequence
related variables assume significance when the participants in experiments are required to be
tested in several conditions. Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or
practice effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the
findings difficult.
In order to control relevant variables, experimenters use several control techniques. Some
illustrations are given below.

• Since the goal of an experiment is to minimise extraneous variables, the best way to
handle this problem is to eliminate them from the experimental setting. For example, the
experiment may be conducted in a sound-proof and airconditioned room to eliminate the
effect of noise and temperature.
• Elimination is not always possible. In such cases, effort should be made to hold them
constant so that their effect remains the same throughout the experiment.
• For controlling organismic (e.g., fear, motivation) and background variables (such as
rural/urban, caste, socioeconomic status) matching is also used. In this procedure the
relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held constant by taking matched
pairs across conditions of the experiment.
• Counter-balancing technique is used to minimise the sequence effect. Suppose there are
two tasks to be given in an experiment. Rather than giving the two tasks in the same
sequence the experimenter may interchange the order of the tasks. Thus, half of the group
may receive the tasks in the order of A and B while the other half in order of B and A or
the same individual may be given the task in A, B, B, A order.
• Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any potential
systematic differences between groups.

The strength of a well-designed experiment is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a

convincing evidence of a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. However,
experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this sense, they
only simulate situations that exist in the outside world. They are frequently criticised for this
reason. The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real
situations. In other words, they have low external validity. Another limitation of the laboratory
experiment is that it is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally. For
example, an experiment to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on intelligence level of
children cannot be conducted as it would be ethically wrong to starve anyone. The third problem
is that it is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

If a researcher wants to have high generalisability or to conduct studies which are not possible in
laboratory settings, s/he may go to the field or the natural setting where the particular
phenomenon actually exists. In other words, s/he may conduct a field experiment. For example, a
researcher may want to know which method would lead to better learning among students—
lecture or demonstration method. For this, a researcher may prefer to conduct an experiment in
the school. The researcher may select two groups of participants; teach one group by
demonstration method and another group by the normal teaching method for some time. S/he
may compare their performance at the end of the learning session. In such types of experiments,
the control over relevant variables is less than what we find in laboratory experiments. Also, it is
more time consuming and expensive.
Many variables cannot be manipulated in the laboratory settings. For example, if you want to
study the effect of an earthquake on children who lost their parents, you cannot create this
condition artificially in the laboratory. In such situations, the researcher adopts the method of
quasi (the Latin word meaning ―as if ‖) experimentation. In such types of experiments, the
independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated by the experimenter. For
example, in the experimental group we can have children who lost their parents in the earthquake
and in the control group children who experienced the earthquake but did not lose their parents.

Thus, a quasi-experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in a natural setting

using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups.

Case Studies
A case study is a method of obtaining in-depth information on a person, group or phenomenon to
provide descriptions of specific or rare cases.

Key Points

Case studies allow for the development of novel hypotheses for later testing, provide detailed
descriptions of rare events, and can explore the intricacies of existing theories of causation. Case
studies cannot directly indicate cause and effect relationships or test hypotheses. In addition,
findings from case studies cannot be generalized to a wider population. Famous case studies, like
that of Phineas Gage, and researchers using case studies, like Jean Piaget, have helped establish
entire fields of psychology. Phineas Gage helped researchers understand the relationship between
brain areas and personality, while Piaget developed a model of development based on his studies.

Key Terms

Psychometric test: The measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and
educational measurements.

Case study: Research performed in detail on a single individual, group, incident or community,
as opposed to, for instance, a sample of the whole population.

A case study in psychology is a descriptive research approach used to obtain in-depth

information about a person, group, or phenomenon. It is different from survey research, which
involves asking a group of participants’ questions through interviews or questionnaires. Cast
studies also tend to be far more in-depth than observational research in that they use multiple
measures or records and focus on a single subject. (A multiple-case design can be used in some
instances.) Case studies may be prospective or retrospective; prospective studies feature criteria
that are established and include additional cases that meet those criteria as they become
available, while retrospective studies use criteria to select cases from historical records. Case
studies also tend to use qualitative data, such as interviews, but may occasionally use quantitative
data as well, like questionnaires. They are often seen in clinical research, where the treatment of
a specific individual is monitored to determine what is effective.
Case studies use techniques such as personal interviews, direct observation, psychometric tests, and
archival records to gather information. They are used to explore causation in order to find underlying
principles. However, they cannot be generalized to the overall population, as can experimental research,
and they cannot provide predictive power, as can correlational research. Rather, they can provide
extensive information for the development of new hypotheses for future testing, or about a rare or
otherwise hard-to-study event or condition. As such, they are often seen in clinical research, where the
treatment of a specific individual is monitored to determine what is effective.

For instance, a client in a mental health hospital could be studied as he progresses through a course of
treatment involving individual counseling, group therapy and medication. While any results from the
study could only be applied to that particular client, the results could inform a future hypothesis about the
relative effectiveness of such treatment options.

Techniques Used in Case Studies

The most common techniques used to collect data for case studies are:

 personal interviews
 direct observation
 psychometric tests
 archival records

Advantages of Case Studies

One major advantage of the case study in psychology is the potential for the development of novel
hypotheses for later testing. Case studies are used to explore ideas on a subject and can determine
underlying principles. An ―average‖ or ―typical‖ case is often not the richest in terms of information, but
with a case study, researchers can choose the most informative subjects to examine in depth. Picking and
choosing data like this is impossible in experimental studies. This method can also provide incredibly
detailed descriptions of specific and rare or otherwise hard-to-study cases. With rare events, such as
specific injuries to the brain or sociopathic behavior, a case study allows for a detailed analysis of the
behaviors and situations related to these events which could not be recorded ordinarily. Lastly, this type
of research also allows for the observation of phenomenon in real-life situations.

Disadvantages of Case Studies

A researcher cannot draw cause and effect relationships from case studies. Even though a case study may
indicate that a specific circumstance is associated with a particular trait or situation, it does not mean that
all cases relate to those same factors. Case studies also cannot test hypotheses. While they can gather
information to inform hypotheses, they cannot support or refute a prediction. Case studies cannot be
generalized to the overall population, as in experimental research, nor can they provide predictive power,
as in correlational research. The observations made in a case study are based on a very limited sample,
and since this sample is not randomized or typically very large, the findings cannot be extrapolated to
apply to broader contexts.

Well-Known Case Studies

Some famous case studies in psychology include:

  Phineas Gage: Gage was a rail construction foreman who survived an accident in which a
tamping rod went through his skull and brain. The injury destroyed most of his frontal
cortex, and subsequently had dramatic effects on his personality, therefore informing
scientists about the connection between regions of the brain and personality and behavior.
 Freud and Little Hans: Sigmund Freud completed an extensive case study about a 5-year-
old boy he called ―Little Hans,‖ exploring the reason for his phobia of horses.
 Little Albert: John Watson’s study of classical conditioning in a 9-month-old boy named
Albert examined whether it was possible to condition an otherwise emotionally stable
child to fear a stimulus that most children would not find fearful.
 John Money and the John/Joan case: An examination of the impacts of sexual
reassignment surgery on David Reimer.
 Genie: The case study of a child who was raised in total isolation and thought of as
―feral.‖
 Jean Piaget’s studies examined phases of cognitive and intellectual development.

Surveys and Interviews

Surveys are a low-cost option for gathering a large amount of data, but they are also susceptible
to reporting bias.

Key Points

 The survey method of data collection is likely the most common of the four major
research methods.
 The benefits of this method include low cost, large sample size, and efficiency.
 The major problem with this method is accuracy: since surveys depend on subjects’
motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond, they are very susceptible to bias.
 A researcher must have a strong understanding of how to properly frame survey
questions in order to gather reliable and relevant information.

Key Terms

Reliability: The degree to which a measure is likely to yield consistent results each time it is
used.

Validity: The degree to which a measure is actually assessing the concept it was designed to
measure.

Survey: A method for collecting qualitative and quantitative information about individuals in a
population.

Interviews
Interviews are a type of qualitative data in which the researcher asks questions to elicit facts or
statements from the interviewee. Interviews used for research can take several forms:
Informal Interview: A more conversational type of interview, no questions are asked and the
interviewee is allowed to talk freely.

General interview guide approach: Ensures that the same general areas of information are
collected from each interviewee. Provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still
allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.

Standardized, open-ended interview: The same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees. This approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and
compared.

Closed, fixed-response interview (Structured): All interviewees are asked the same questions
and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.

Surveys
The survey method of data collection is a type of descriptive research, and is likely the most
common of the major methods. Surveys have limited use for studying actual social behavior but
are an excellent way to gain an understanding of an individual’s attitude toward a matter.

Similar to an interview, a survey may use close-ended questions, open-ended questions, or a

combination of the two. ―Closed-ended questions‖ are questions that limit the person taking the
survey to choose from a set of responses. Multiple choice, check all that apply, and ratings scale
questions are all examples of closed-ended questions. ―Open-ended questions‖ are simply
questions that allow people to write in their own response.

Surveys are a highly versatile tool in psychology. Although a researcher may choose to only
administer a survey to sample of individuals as their entire study, surveys are often used in
experimental research as well. For example, a researcher may assign one group of individuals to
an experimental condition in which they are asked to focus on all the negative aspects of their
week to induce a negative mood, while he assigns another group of people to a control group in
which they read a book chapter. After the mood induction, he has both groups fill out a survey
about their current emotions. In this example, the mood induction condition is the independent
(manipulated) variable, while participants’ responses on the emotion survey is the dependent
(measured) variable.

Advantages of Surveys

The benefits of this method include its low cost and its large sample size. Surveys are an efficient
way of collecting information from a large sample and are easy to administer compared with an
experiment. Surveys are also an excellent way to measure a wide variety of unobservable data,
such as stated preferences, traits, beliefs, behaviors, and factual information. It is also relatively
simple to use statistical techniques to determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance.

Surveys are flexible in the sense that a wide range of information can be collected. Since surveys
are a standardized measure, they are relatively free from several types of errors. Only questions
of interest to the researcher are asked, codified, and analyzed. Survey research is also a very
affordable option for gathering a large amount of data.

Disadvantages of Surveys

The major issue with this method is its accuracy: since surveys depend on subjects’ motivation,
honesty, memory, and ability to respond, they are very susceptible to bias. There can be
discrepancies between respondents’ stated opinions and their actual opinions that lead to
fundamental inaccuracies in the data. If a participant expects that one answer is more socially
acceptable than another, he may be more motivated to report the more acceptable answer than an
honest one.

When designing a survey, a researcher must be wary of the wording, format, and sequencing of
the questions, all of which can influence how a participant will respond. In particular, a
researcher should be concerned with the reliability of their survey. ―Reliability‖ concerns the
degree to which the survey questions are likely to yield consistent results each time. A survey is
said to have high reliability if it produces similar results each time. For example, a reliable
measure of emotion is one that measures emotion the same way each time it is used. However,
for a survey to be useful, it needs to be not only reliable, but valid. If a measure is has high
―validity‖, this means that it is in fact measuring the concept it was designed to measure (in this
case, emotion). It is important to note that a survey can be reliable, but not valid (and vice versa).
For example, just because our emotion survey is reliable, and provides us with consistent results
each time we administer it, does not necessarily mean it is measuring the aspects of emotion we
want it to. In this case, our emotion survey is reliable, but not necessarily valid.

Structured surveys, particularly those with closed-ended questions, may have low validity when
researching affective variables. Survey samples tend to be self-selected since the the respondents
must choose to complete the survey. Surveys are not appropriate for studying complex social
phenomena since they do not give a full sense of these processes.

Key Elements of a Successful Survey or Interview

While survey research is one of the most common types of psychological study, it can be
difficult to create a survey that is free of bias and that reliably measures the factors it aims to
capture. A researcher must have a strong understanding of the basics before they can create a
valid survey from scratch. Surveys must be carefully worded and include appropriate response
formats. The way a question is written can confuse a participant or bias their response, and
poorly framed or ambiguous questions will likely result in meaningless responses with very little
value. Questions should be clear, address only one topic at a time, and avoid leading the
respondent to a specific answer (in other words, a question should not suggest the correct
response in how it is worded). When designing a survey, it is important to understand your
audience and use words they will understand and make sure your survey is not too long for them
to easily complete.
Survey research books: While survey research is one of the most common types of
psychological study, it can be difficult to create a survey that is free of bias and that reliably
measures the factors it aims to capture. A researcher must have a strong understanding of the
basics before they can create a valid survey from scratch.

Types of Data Gathered in Surveys and Interviews

Surveys may measure either qualitative or quantitative data. Qualitative data are the result of
categorizing or describing attributes of a population such as hair color, blood type, or ethnic
group. Qualitative data are usually described by words or letters. This type of data does not lend
itself to mathematical analysis, but bar graphs and pie charts tend to demonstrate this type of data
well.

Quantitative data are always numbers. Quantitative data are the result of counting or measuring
attributes of a population, such as money, pulse rate, weight, or populations. This type of data
may be either discrete (meaning they take on only certain numerical values, such as the number
of phone calls you receive per day or the number of jeans you own—you might have 2 or 3 pairs
of jeans, but you cannot have 2.5 pairs) or continuous (data that are the result of measurements
such as weight, height, or amount of blood donated). Discrete data use whole numbers, while
continuous data utilize decimals and fractions.

Field Study Methods

Field Study
A field study is a general method for collecting data about users, user needs, and product
requirements that involves observation and interviewing. Data are collected about task flows,
inefficiencies, and the organizational and physical environments of users.

Investigators in field studies observe users as they work, taking notes on particular activities and
often asking questions of the users. Observation may be either direct, where the investigator is
actually present during the task, or indirect, where the task is viewed by some other means like a
video recorder set up in an office. The method is useful early in product development to gather
user requirements. It is also useful for studying currently executed tasks and processes.

Diary Study
A diary study requires users, or observers of users, to keep track of activities or events in some
form of diary or log for a particular period of time.

Participants or observers may be asked to track specific items like mobile device usage, use of
personal calendars, and course work or general activities like "what you did for each 30 minutes
of your work day." Diary entries can include: text accounts of events, pictures, video, audio,
sketches, and voice-mail.
The main benefit of a diary study is to get information about the user's experience over time. The
feedback is also often provided while the user is interacting with the product, so there is less of a
lag in the feedback than with other methods and it is in the actual context of use. The main
disadvantage is that all information is self-reported.

Photo Study
Users take photos to highlight important aspects of their lives and context. The photos are
assembled into collages and studied to highlight opportunities for new technologies and barriers
to their acceptance.

A sample of users are given a set of "missions" to take photos to highlight important aspects of
their lives and day to day context. These may be of things that they value, cause problems, that
generate certain feelings, etc. Data from these studies helps highlight opportunities for new
technologies and barriers to their acceptance.

Phone Interview
A semi-structured or structured interview that is conducted over a phone or Internet audio line.
Phone interviews can supplement other HCI methods and allow HCI specialists to follow users
over an extended time.

References
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/methods-of-collecting-
data/
 https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kepy102.pdf
 https://www.usabilitybok.org/field-study
 https://www.usabilitybok.org/diary-study
 https://www.usabilitybok.org/photo-study
 https://www.usabilitybok.org/phone-interview

Questions
1. List the methods used in psychology to study human behaviour.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of surveys?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of observations?
4. What are the methods of controlling extraneous variables? Explain.