CONTRASTIVE

LINGUISTICS

an introduction
Contrastive linguistics: what is it?
◼ Contrastive linguistics is the systematic
comparison of two or more languages,
◼ with the aim of describing their similarities and
differences,
◼ focusing, however, on differences,
◼ it is predominantly practical.
◼ The term “contrastive linguistics”
◼ was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.
CL and linguistics
◼ general linguistics
◼ theory of linguistics
◼ similarities in languages
▪ what is common to all languages in the world
◼ comparative linguistics
◼ differences between languages
◼ typology of languages
▪ aiming at classification of all languages in the world
◼ synchronic similarity or
◼ Diachronic changes in lg
CL and comparative linguistics
◼ comparative linguistics
◼ contrastive linguistics (CL)
◼ differences (and similarities) between two
(usually) languages
contrastive linguistics
◼ differences (usually) between two (usually)
languages
◼ basis for typological description
◼ mainly practical applications
◼ translation
◼ foreign language teaching and learning
◼ bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)
◼ why differences?
◼ it is assumed that the two languages are
similar except for the points described as
different
CL in linguistics
◼ the languages being compared can be
related
◼ or can be unrelated
◼ can be from the same historical period
◼ or can be from different historical periods
CL in linguistics
◼ usually, however,
◼ CL is synchronic comparative linguistics
◼ without the historical dimension
◼ CL can be
◼ theoretical
◼ applied
theoretical CL
◼ gives an exhaustive account of the
differences and similarities between two or
more languages,
◼ provides an adequate model for their
comparison.
applied CL
◼ on the basis of the theoretical framework
◼ provided by theoretical CA/CS,
◼ gives the researcher the information
necessary
◼ to conduct actual contrastive analyses.
CL: terms
◼ contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also
called
◼ contrastive studies
◼ contrastive analysis
◼ interlingual linguistics
advantages
◼ it is suggested that
◼ when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2
contrasts
◼ this makes it easier for them
◼ to learn difficult FL structures
◼ L1 interference accounts for some 30% of
error.
what to compare
◼ early contrastive studies focused on
microlinguistic analysis
◼ phonology/phonetics
◼ grammar (syntax, inflection)
◼ lexis
◼ today there are also
◼ contrastive pragmatics
◼ cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics
◼ contrastive rhetoric
what to compare
◼ microlinguistic analysis: examples
◼ What are the consonant phonemes in
languages X and Y?
◼ How do they differ in inventory, realization, and
distribution?
◼ What is the tense system of languages X and
Y?
◼ What are the verbs of saying in languages X
and Y?
what to compare
◼ pragmatic analysis: examples
◼ How is cohesion expressed in languages X
and Y?
◼ How are the speech acts of apologizing and
requesting expressed in languages X and
◼ Y?
◼ How are conversations opened and closed in
languages X and Y?
how to compare?
◼ object A
◼ object B
◼ either have something in common
◼ and we can compare them
◼ or do not have anything in common
◼ and we cannot compare them
◼ it is arguably difficult to find objects that do
not have anything in common
◼ but:
◼ God and ...
how to compare?
◼ that something in common
◼ is not A
◼ is not B
◼ is C
◼ what is common in comparison between
languages
◼ is probably the meaning of a pair of
sentences,
◼ in other words,
◼ their translation equivalence
translation equivalence
◼ there is one big problem
◼ CL
◼ studies the systems of two languages
◼ translation is not about systems
◼ it is about texts
◼ this is a basic distinction in linguistics
◼ system and text
◼ langue and parole
◼ competence and performance
translation equivalence
◼ text translation
◼ translation of a particular sentence depends
◼ on other sentences around it (context)
◼ on the function of the whole text
◼ its stylistic level
◼ the user of the text
◼ system translation
◼ translation of sentences without any context
◼ though the most probable one is used
translation equivalence
◼ Eng.:
◼ I loved you.
◼ Ind:
◼ Saya cinta kamu.
◼ Saya suka kamu.
◼ Saya sayang kamu.
situations
◼ "How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?„
◼ This is a question based on meaning.
◼ This question goes from the vague notion of
meaning,
◼ about which there is little theoretical
agreement,
◼ goes to two unknowns:
◼ L1 and L2 items.
◼ We can say that we have to do with three
unknown objects here.
situations
◼ How else can one find similarities/contrasts in
meaning between two languages?
◼ "In the situation S, when an expression X is
used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what
would be the most natural expression Y used
by the L1 speaker?".
◼ This does not depend on any theoretical
assumptions.
◼ it includes two known entities (S and X), which
are used to reach the third entity (Y).
◼ Competent bilinguals can easily answer such
questions.
Situations
◼ Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2,
◼ and linguistic expressions are included in the
situations, not vice versa.
◼ Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from
wider contexts,
◼ ultimately from the context of culture.
Situations-applicability
◼ Lyons (1977). Semantics.
◼ a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole
utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied)
in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...;
◼ it is applicable to individuals or properties of
individuals.
◼ We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any
relation that can be established between elements or
units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the
world in which the language operates.
Equivalence: other types
◼ Tomasz Krzeszowski
◼ statistical equivalence
◼ system equivalence
◼ semanto-syntactic equivalence
◼ rule equivalence
◼ pragmatic equivalence
Examples: Plurality
◼ English expresses plural implicitly by creating
patterns how to use –s and –es. Indonesian
on the other hand expresses plural explicitly.
No definite rules how to create a plural form
of a word except by reduplicating it, e.g
rumah-rumah, mobil-mobil. The idea of plural
can be clearly seen trough the following
examples:
◼ Indonesian English
◼ Serigala itu binatang A wolf is an animal
Wolves are animal
Wolf is animal
◼ Hiu itu ikan apa mamalia? Is a shark fish or
Are sharks fish or mammal? mammal?
Is shark fish or mammal?
◼ Tukang pos selalu membawa surat A postman always
Postmen always bring letters brings letters
Postman always bring letters
◼ Hewan peliharaan membutuhkan perhatian A pet needs care
Pets need care
Pet need care
Sentence Structure
Passive and Object-Focus
Construction
Relative Clause
◼ Indonesian
Orang tua yang ditemui Rika di sekolah
adalah kakeknya
◼ English
The old man (whom) Rika met at the school
was his grand father
Subject prominence in English
and –nya in Indonesian
◼ Indonesian English

Tinggalnya dimana sekarang? Where do you stay now?

Pekerjaannya apa? What do you do for living?

Butuhnya apa dariku? What do you need from me?

Uangnya berapa? How much money do you have?

Terms of Address
◼ Indonesian English

◼ Anda sudah makan? Have you had your dinner?

◼ Bapak/Ibu Are you hungry?

Pak Roni/Bu Dewi
Adik/Kakak/Mbak/Mas
Heri/Puspita lapar?