1.

Explain the methods used to increase tensile and impact strength of glasses:

At room temperature glass shows brittle behaviour. The tensile strength (crack sensitivity)
theoretical=10-30mpa and practical 100mpa, indeed compressive strength is 600-1200mpa. The
behaviour of glass depends on the presence of defects. Its fracture toughness is very low so even
defects on the surface with small dimensions can take to the reaching of critical conditions for the
crack. So the tensile strength depends on the surface. The requirements for safety glasses are: a, a
certain impact strength and tensile strength b; minimize the risk for people we have:
1. REINFORCED or wired glass produced by inserting (during the lamination phase, when the glass is
still pastous) a metallic net that is able to hold the fragments in case of impact.
2. TEMPERED GLASS: heated to 650 C and rapidly cooled by air to room temperature. Surface glass
occur more volume since its rapidly cooled and its put in compression. In this way they break in
small rounded fragments, tempered glass is a type of safety glass processed by controlled thermal or
chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass.
3. CHEMICAL STRENGHTENING: ion exchange
LAMINATED SAFETY GLASS: two sheets of annealed float glass bonded by a tough polymer (PVB or
PC) Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of
breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two or
more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken, and its high
strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic
"spider web" cracking pattern when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass.

2. Tempering, chemical strengthening. Explain briefly the methods to increase tensile and
impact strength.

Methods have been devised to modify the yield strength, ductility, and toughness of both crystalline
and amorphous materials. These strengthening mechanisms give engineers the ability to tailor the
mechanical properties of materials to suit a variety of different applications.
If we want to enhance a material's mechanical properties (i.e. increase the yield and tensile
strength), we simply need to introduce a mechanism which prohibits the mobility of these
dislocations. Whatever the mechanism may be, (work hardening, grain size reduction, etc.) they all
hinder dislocation motion and render the material stronger than previously. The stress required to
cause dislocation motion is orders of magnitude lower than the theoretical stress required to shift an
entire plane of atoms, so this mode of stress relief is energetically favorable. Hence, the hardness
and strength (both yield and tensile) critically depend on the ease with which dislocations move.
Pinning points, or locations in the crystal that oppose the motion of dislocations,[5] can be
introduced into the lattice to reduce dislocation mobility, thereby increasing mechanical strength.
Dislocations may be pinned due to stress field interactions with other dislocations and solute
particles, creating physical barriers from second phase precipitates forming along grain boundaries.
There are four main strengthening mechanisms for metals, each is a method to prevent dislocation
motion and propagation, or make it energetically unfavorable for the dislocation to move. For a
material that has been strengthened, by some processing method, the amount of force required to
start irreversible (plastic) deformation is greater than it was for the original material.

In amorphous materials such as polymers, amorphous ceramics (glass), and amorphous metals, the
lack of long range order leads to yielding via mechanisms such as brittle fracture, crazing, and shear
band formation. In these systems, strengthening mechanisms do not involve dislocations, but rather
consist of modifications to the chemical structure and processing of the constituent material. The
strength of materials cannot infinitely increase.
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to
achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is
usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal.
Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its
hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a
temperature below its "lower critical temperature". This is also called the lower transformation
temperature or lower arrest (A1) temperature; the temperature at which the crystalline phases of
the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred
to as austenite.

Chemically strengthened glass is a type of glass that has increased strength as a result of a post-
production chemical process. When broken, it still shatters in long pointed splinters similar to float
glass. For this reason, it is not considered a safety glass and must be laminated if a safety glass is
required. However, chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times the strength of float
glass.

3. Explain briefly one mechanism test at your choice between impact test and hardness and
discuss about the information that can be gained.

HARDNESS:
Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change
when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular
bonds, but the behaviour of solid materials under force is complex; therefore, there are different
measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.

Hardness is dependent on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness,

viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard materials,
which can be contrasted with soft matter.

Indentation hardness: Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material

deformation due to a constant compression load from a sharp object; they are primarily used in
engineering and metallurgy fields. The tests work on the basic premise of measuring the critical
dimensions of an indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded indenter.

IMPACT TEST: Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test is
a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high velocity. Most of us
think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively high speed.
Why is Impact Testing Important?

Molded-in stresses, polymer orientation, weak spots (e.g. weld lines or gate areas), and part
geometry will affect impact performance. Impact properties also change when additives, e.g.
coloring agents, are added to plastics.

An instrumented impact test is an impact test where the load on the specimen is continuously
recorded as a function of time and/or specimen deflection prior to fracture. All of the above impact
tests can be retrofitted or designed with electronic sensing instrumentation.

The best systems record load vs. time or deformation for the entire period of the impact event. This
gives a much more complete representation of an impact than a single calculated value. Another
area of improvement with instrumentation is time. Test times can be reduced and automation can
even be incorporated into the testing.