LINEAR CONTROL

SYSTEMS

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 Topics to be covered include:
Introduction
A brief history of control.
Introducing of some advanced control system.
Important parts of a control system.
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 Introduction
System An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

Control is the process of causing a system variable such as tempreture to

conform to some desired value.
Control System An interconnection of components forming a system
configuration that will provide a desired response.
Process The device, plant, or system under control.The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-effect relationship of the process.

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 History of Control Engineering
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possibl e to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully d eveloped
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptiv e control and
1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed.

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Dr. Ali Karimpour Feb 2013
 History of Control Engineering

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 History of Control Engineering

This photograph shows a flyball

governor used on a steam engine
in a cotton factory near Manchester
in the United Kingdom.Actually,
this cotton factory is still running today.

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 Control System Design process
1. Establish control goals

2. Identify the variables to control

3. Write the specifications for the variables

4. Establish the system

configuration and identify the
actuator
If the performance does 5. Obtain a model of the process, the actuator and the
not meet specifications, sensor
then iterate the
configuration and 6. Describe a controller and select key parameters to be
actuator adjusted

7. Optimize the parameters and analyze the performance

If the performance meet the specifications, then finalize

29
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 Control System Classification
An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the
process directly without using feedback.

Desired Output Actuating

Process Output
Response Device

A closed-loop feedback control system uses a measurement of the

output and feedback of the output signal to compare it with the desired
output or reference.
Desired
Output Comparison Controller Process Outpu
Respon t
se Measurement

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 Control Systems
• Human System

i. Pancreas
•  Regulates blood glucose level
ii. Adrenaline
•  Automatically generated to increase the heart rate and oxygen in
• times of flight
iii. Eye
•  Follow moving object
iv. Hand
•  Pick up an object and place it at a predetermined location

v. Temperature
 Regulated temperature of 36°C to 37°C
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 A manual level control
system

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 Control system for a boiler of a thermal
plant

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 A modern high voltage
tranformator

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 Transportation
Car and Driver

Objective: To control direction and speed of car

Outputs: Actual direction and speed of car
Control inputs: Road markings and speed signs
Disturbances: Road surface and grade, wind, obstacles
Possible subsystems: The car alone, power steering system, breaking
system
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 Transportation
Functional block diagram:

Desired Actual
course course
of travel + Error Steering of travel
Driver Automobile
Mechanism
-

Measurement, visual and tactile

Time response:

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 Control benefits

• Improved control is a key enabling technology

to:
enhanced product quality
waste minimization
environmental protection
greater throughput for a given installed capacity
greater yield, and
higher safety margins
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 Successful Control

Success in control engineering depends on some of

the issues:
plant, i.e. the process to be controlled
objectives
sensors
actuators
computing
accounting for disturbances and uncertainty

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 Plant
The physical layout of a plant is an intrinsic part of
control problems.

Thus a control engineer needs to be familiar with the

"physics" of the process under study.

This includes a knowledge of the basic energy balance,

mass balance and material flows in the system.
As an example consider position control of an aeroplane,
or temperature control of a room.
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 Objectives

Before designing sensors, actuators or control

architectures, it is important to know the goal, that is,
to formulate the control objectives. This includes
what does one want to achieve (energy reduction, yield
increase,...)

what variables need to be controlled to achieve

these objectives

what level of performance is necessary (accuracy, speed,...)

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 Sensors

Sensors are the eyes of control enabling one to see

what is going on. Indeed, one statement that is
sometimes made about control is:

If you can measure it, you can control it.

As an example consider the altitude sensor in an

aeroplane or the temperature in a room.
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 Actuators

Once sensors are in place to report on the state of a

process, then the next issue is the ability to affect, or
actuate, the system in order to move the process
from the current state to a desired state.

As an example consider the ballet in an aeroplane or

the fan in a room.

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 Typical flatness control set-up for rolling mill

A typical industrial control problem will usually

involve many different actuators - see below:

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 A modern rolling mill

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 Computing

In modern control systems, the connection between sensors and

actuators is invariably made via a computer of some sort.

Thus, computer issues are necessarily part of the overall design.

Current control systems use a variety of computational devices

Including PLC's (Programmable Logic Controllers), PC's (Personal
Computers), microcontrollers, etc.

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 In
Summary

In summary:

Sensors provide the eyes and actuators the muscle

but control science provides the finesse.

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 In
Summary
 Better Sensors
Provide better Vision

 BetterActuators
Provide more Muscle

 Better Control(Computing)
Provides more finesse by combining sensors and
actuators in more intelligent ways

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 Mathematical Modeling of Mechanical Systems
with examples of Mechanical systems &
Electrical systems, Transfer Function with simple
Examples

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 Learning Outcomes:

After completing this chapter the student will be able to:

• Obtain the transfer function of linear translational mechanical systems.

• Convert mechanical system into series and parallel circuit analogs.

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 Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance
relationships for springs, viscous dampers, and mass

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where, K, f v, and M are called spring constant, coefficient of viscous friction, and mass, respectively.
 Analogies Between Electrical and
Mechanical Components
• Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have three passive, linear components.

• Two of them, the spring and the mass, are energy-storage elements;

• One of them, the viscous damper, dissipates energy.

• The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two electrical energy-storage

elements, the inductor and capacitor.

• The energy dissipater is analogous to electrical resistance.

• The motion of translation is defined as a motion that takes place along a straight or

curved path. The variables that are used to describe translational motion are acceleration,

velocity,
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 Newton’s Second Law

Newton's law of motion states that the algebraic sum of

external forces acting on a rigid body in a given
direction is equal to the product of the mass of the
body and its acceleration in the same direction. The
law can be expressed as

෍ 𝑭 = 𝑴𝒂

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 Steps to Obtain the Transfer Function
of Mechanical System.

• The mechanical system requires just one differential equation, called the equation of
motion, to describe it.
• Assume a positive direction of motion, for example, to the right.
• This assumed positive direction of motion is similar to assuming a current direction in an
electrical loop.

• First, draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces that act on the body either
in the direction of motion or opposite to it.
• Second, use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion by summing the
forces and setting the sum equal to zero.
• Finally, assuming zero initial conditions, we take the Laplace transform of the differential
equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer function.

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 Example-1: Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), of the system.

Free Body Diagram (FBD)

• First step is to draw the free-body diagram.

• Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass.
• We assume the mass is traveling toward the right. Thus, only the applied force points to
the right; all other forces impede the motion and act to oppose it. Hence, the spring,
viscous damper, and the force due to acceleration point to the left.

• Second step is to write the differential equation of motion using Newton’s law to sum to
zero all of the forces shown on the mass.

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 Example-1: Continue.

• Third step is to take the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

• Finally, solving for the transfer function yields

Block Diagram

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 Impedance Approach to Obtain the
Transfer Function of Mechanical
System.
• Taking the Laplace transform of the force-displacement terms of mechanical
components , we get

For the spring,

For the viscous damper,

and for the mass,

• We can define impedance for mechanical components as

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 Example-2: Solve example-1 using the Impedance Approach.

Laplace Transformed FBD

• Summing the forces in the Laplace Transformed FBD, we get

• Which is in the form of

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 Example-3: Find the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), of the system.

• The system has two degrees of freedom, since each mass can be moved in the horizontal
direction while the other is held still.
• Thus, two simultaneous equations of motion will be required to describe the system.
• The two equations come from free-body diagrams of each mass.
• Superposition is used to draw the free body diagrams.
• For example, the forces on M1 are due to (1) its own motion and (2) the motion of M2
transmitted toM1 through the system.
• We will consider these two sources separately.
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Example-3: Continue.

Case-I: Forces on M1

All forces on M1

Combine (a) & (b)

Figure-1.

Case-II: Forces on M2

All forces on M2

Combine (a) & (b)

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 Example-3:
Case-I: Continue.
Forces on M1

• If we hold M2 still and move M1 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure-1.
• The total force on M1 is the superposition, or sum of the forces, as shown in Figure-1(c).

All forces on M1

Combine (a) & (b)

Figure-1:
a. Forces on M1 due only to motion of M1;
b. forces on M1 due only to motion of M2;
c. all forces on M1.

• The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can be written from Figure-1 (c) as;

(1)
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 Example-3:
Case-II: Continue.
Forces on M2

• If we hold M1 still and move M2 to the right, we see the forces shown in Figure-2.
• For M2, First we move M2 to the right while holding M1 still;
• then we move M1 to the right and hold M2 still.
• For each case we evaluate the forces on M2.

All forces on M2

Combine (a) & (b)

Figure-2:
a. Forces on M2 due only to motion of M2;
b. forces on M2 due only to motion of M1;
c. all forces on M2.

• The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can be written from Figure-2 (c) as;

(2)
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 Example-3: Continue.

(1)

(2)

• From equation (1) and (2), the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), is

Block Diagram

• Where,

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 Example-4: Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the
mechanical network shown below.

• The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three masses can be moved
independently while the others are held still.
• M1 has two springs, two viscous dampers, and mass associated with its motion.
• There is one spring between M1 and M2 and one viscous damper between M1 and M3.

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 Electric Circuit Analogs
• An electric circuit that is analogous to a system from another discipline is called an
electric circuit analog.
• The mechanical systems with which we worked can be represented by equivalent
electric circuits.
• Analogs can be obtained by comparing the equations of motion of a mechanical
system, with either electrical mesh or nodal equations.
• When compared with mesh equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a series
analog.
• When compared with nodal equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a
parallel analog.

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 Series Analog

For a direct analogy b/w Eq (1)

Equation of motion of the
above translational
mechanical system is;
& (2), convert displacement to
Kirchhoff’s mesh equation
velocity by divide and multiply
for the above simple series
the left-hand side of Eq (1) by s,
RLC network is;
yielding;

(1) (2) (3)

Comparing Eqs. (2) & (3), we recognize the sum of

impedances & draw the circuit shown in Figure (c).
The conversions are summarized in Figure (d).

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 Analogous Quantities

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 Mechanical
Electrical
Analog I
Equation
(Force-Current)

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 voltage of ground=0 velocity of ground=0
(you can apply any current to (you can apply any force to
ground and voltage remains 0) ground and velocity remains 0)

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 Conversion from Electrical to Mechanical 1 -- Visual Method

Start with an electrical

circuit. Label all node voltages.

a
Draw over circuit, replacing
electrical elements with their
analogs; current sources replaced by
force generators, voltage sources by
input velocities, resistors with
friction elements, inductors with
springs, and capacitors (which must
be grounded) by capacitors. Each
node becomes a position.

Label currents, positions, and

mechanical elements as they were in
the original electrical circuits.

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The Laplace Transform

Definition


  s t
L( f ( t ) )  f ( t)  e dt = F(s)

0

Here the complex frequency is s   j w

The Laplace Transform exists when


  s t
 f ( t)  e dt  
 this means that the integral converges
0

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The Laplace Transform

Determine the Laplace transform for the functions

a) f1( t)  1 for t0


  s t
F1( s )   e dt 1  ( s t ) 1
 =  e
0 s s

 ( a t )
b) f2( t) e


  ( a t )  ( s t )
F2( s )  e e dt 1  [ ( s a)  t ] 1
 =  e F2( s )
0 s1 sa

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The Laplace Transform

Property Time Domain Frequency Domain

 ( s T )
e  F( s )
1. Time delay f ( t  T )  u ( t  T)

 F

1 s

a a
2. Time scaling f ( at )

d
3. Frequency differentiation t f ( t)  F( s )
ds

 ( a t )
4. Frequency shifting f ( t)  e F( s  a)


f ( t) 
5. Frequency Integration  F( s ) d s
t 
0

6. Initial-value Theorem Lim( f ( t) ) f ( 0) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> 0 s -> infinite

7. Final-value Theorem Lim( f ( t) ) Lim( s  F( s ) )

t -> infinite s -> 0

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The Transfer Function of Linear Systems

 R  1   I( s )
V1( s )   Z1( s ) R
 Cs 
1
 1 Z2( s )
V2( s )  Cs   I( s ) Cs
 
1
V2( s ) Cs Z2( s )
V1( s ) 1 Z1( s )  Z2( s )
R 
Cs
02/02/2016 26
 Converting a Mechanical System to a Series Analog
Example-5: Draw a series analog for the mechanical system.

• The equations of motion in the Laplace transform domain are;

(1)

(2)

• Eqs (1) & (2) are analogous t0 electrical mesh equations after conversion to velocity.
Thus,
(3)

02/02/2016 (4) 27
 Example-5: Continue.

(3)

(4)

• Coefficients represent sums of electrical impedance.

• Mechanical impedances associated withM1 form the first mesh,
• whereas impedances between the two masses are common to the two loops.
• Impedances associated with M2 form the second mesh.
• The result is shown in Figure below, where v1(t) and v2(t) are the velocities of M1
and M2, respectively.

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 Parallel Analog

• Equation of motion of • Kirchhoff’s nodal equation

the above translational for the simple parallel RLC
mechanical system is; network shown above is;

(1) (2)

• Comparing Eqs. (1) & (2), we identify the sum

of admittances & draw the circuit shown in
Figure (c).

• The conversions are summarized in Figure

2.43(d).
02/02/2016 29
 Converting a Mechanical System to a Parallel Analog

Example-6: Draw a parallel analog for the mechanical system.

• Equations of motion after conversion to velocity are;

(1)

(2)
02/02/2016 30
 Example-6: Continue.

(1)

(2)

• The Equation (1) and (2) are also analogous to electrical node equations.
• Coefficients represent sums of electrical admittances.
• Admittances associated with M1 form the elements connected to the first node,
• whereas mechanical admittances b/w the two masses are common to the two nodes.
• Mechanical admittances associated with M2 form the elements connected to the second
node.
• The result is shown in the Figure below, where v1(t) and v2(t) are the velocities of M1
and M2, respectively.

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Block Diagram Algebra-its Use in Feedforward Compensation
Figure : Single block diagram representation

Figure : Block diagram components

Figure : Block diagram of a closed-loop system with a feedback element
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade or in parallel

G1 G2 G1G2

G1
G1  G2
G2

2. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G
G
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G
1
G

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

G G
G
6. Eliminating a feedback loop
G
G
1  GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1

7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A
 Example 1

Find the transfer function of the following

block diagrams

(a)
G4
R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3

H2
H1
 I
G4
R(s) B A
Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1 G2

Solution:
1. Moving pickoff point A ahead of block G2

2. Eliminate loop I & simplify

B
G4  G2G3
 G4
R(s)
GG4 
B A G G
Y (s )
G1 2
2G 3
3

H2
H1G2

3. Moving pickoff point B behind block G4  G2G3

II
R(s) B C
Y (s )
G1 G4  G2G3
H2
H1G2 1 /(G4  G2G3 )
4. Eliminate loop III
R(s) Y (s )
G1 GG4 4GG2G2G3 3
C C

1  H 2 (GH4 2 G2G3 )
G2 H1
G4  G2G3

Using rule 6
R(s) G1 (G4  G2G3 ) Y (s )
1  G1G 2 H1  H 2 (G4  G2G3 )

Y ( s) G1 (G4  G2G3 )
T ( s)  
R ( s ) 1  G1G 2 H1  H 2 (G4  G2G3 )  G1 (G4  G2G3 )
 (b)

R(s) Y (s )
G1 G2

H1 H2

H3
Solution:
1. Eliminate loop I
R(s) A
G2 I
B
Y (s )
G1 G2
H1
1  GH2 H
2
2

H3
G2
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block 1  G2 H 2
R(s) A G2 B
Y (s )
G1
1  G2 H 2

1  G2 H 2 II
H1 1  G2 H 2
G2 H 3  H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop
3. Eliminate loop II
R(s) G1G2 Y (s )
1  G2 H 2

H 1 (1  G2 H 2 )
H3 
G2

Using rule 6

Y (s) G1G2
T ( s)  
R( s) 1  G2 H 2  G1G2 H 3  G1 H1  G1G2 H1 H 2
 (c)
H4
R(s) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3 G4

H3

H2

H1
 Solution:
1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G4
I
H4
R(s) Y (s )
A B
G1 G2 G3 G4
H3 1
H3 G4 G4
H2 1
H2
G4 G4
H1
2. Eliminate loop I and Simplify
R(s) II Y (s )
G2G3G4 B
G1
1  G3G4 H 4
H3
G4
H2
G4 III
H1

II feedback III Not feedback

G2G3G4 H 2  G4 H 1
1  G3G4 H 4  G2G3 H 3 G4
 3. Eliminate loop II & IIII

R(s) G1G2G3G4 Y (s )
1  G3G4 H 4  G2G3 H 3

H 2  G4 H 1
G4

Using rule 6

Y ( s) G1G2G3G4
T (s)  
R( s) 1  G2G3 H 3  G3G4 H 4  G1G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3G4 H1
 (d)
H2

R(s) A Y (s )
G1 G2 G3 B

H1

G4
Solution:
1. Moving pickoff point A behind block G3
I
H2

R(s) A B Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
1
H1 G3
1
H1 G3
G4
2. Eliminate loop I & Simplify
H2

B
G2 G3 B G2G3

1 H1
 H2
H1 G3 G3
II
R(s) G2G3 Y (s )
G1 1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2

H1
G3

G4
3. Eliminate loop II

R(s) G1G2G3 Y (s )
1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1

G4

Y ( s) G1G2G3
T ( s)   G4 
R( s) 1  G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1
 Example 2
Determine the effect of R and N on Y in the
following diagram

N
G4
R Y
G1 G2

H1
G3
In this linear system, the output Y contains two parts,
one part is related to R and the other is caused by N:

Y  Y1  Y2  T1R  T2 N

If we set N=0, then we can get Y1:

Y1  YN 0  T1R

The same, we set R=0 and Y2 is also obtained:

Y2  YR 0  T2 N
Thus, the output Y is given as follows:

Y  Y1  Y2  YN 0  YR0
Solution:
1. Swap the summing points A and B
N
G4
II
R G2 Y
G1
1  G2 H1
B A

G3

2. Eliminate loop II & simplify

N
G4
R G1G2 Y
G1G3 
1  G2 H1
Rewrite the diagram:
N
G4
R o G1G2 o Y
G1G3 
1  G2 H1

3. Let N=0
R G1G2 Y
G1G3 
1  G2 H1

We can easily get Y1

G1G2  G1G3  G1G2G3 H1
Y1  R
1  G2 H1  G1G2  G1G3  G1G2G3 H1
 4. Let R=0, we can get:
N Y

G1G2
G1G3 
1  G2 H1

G4
M

5. Break down the summing point M:

N Y
G1G2G4 G1G2
G1G3G4  G1G3 
1  G2 H1 1  G2 H1
 6. Eliminate above loops:
1
G1G2G4
1  G1G3G4  G1G2
N 1  G2 H1 1  G1G3  Y
1  G2 H1

1  G2 H1  G1G2G4  G1G3G4  G1G2G3G4 H1

Y2  N
1  G2 H1  G1G2  G1G3  G1G2G3 H1

7. According to the principle of superposition, Y1 and Y2

can be combined together, So:

Y  Y1  Y2
1
 [(G1G2  G1G3  G1G2G3 H1 ) R
1  G2 H1  G1G2  G1G3  G1G2G3 H1
 (1  G2 H1  G1G2G4  G1G3G4  G1G2G3G4 H1 ) N ]
End
Signal Fow Graph, Masons Gain
formula

1
 Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
2
 Introduction
• Alternative method to block diagram representation,
developed by Samuel Jefferson Mason.

• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula,

also called Mason’s gain formula.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes

are connected by directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system

to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

3
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a
Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.

4
Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s )  R1( s )  G12( s )  R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s )  R1( s )  G22( s )  R2( s )

5
 Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11 x1  a12 x2  r1 x1

a21 x1  a22 x2  r2 x2

6
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

xo is input and x4 is output

x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 f

c
x2  dx1  ex3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3  fx0  gx2
x4  hx 3 b e

7
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are
required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.

• Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.

8
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

9
 Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self
loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path.
i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain
of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have
no nodes in common.

10
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops

11
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are two forward path gains;

12
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are four loops

13
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• Nontouching loop gains;

14
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.

15
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node

16
(c) Forward Paths

17
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops

18
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops

19
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops

20
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops

21
(e) Self Loop(s)

22
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

23
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths

24
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph
to a single transfer function requires the application of one
formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
25
 Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
is;
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
Where

n = number of forward paths.

Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since

∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
26
 Mason’s Rule:
n
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1

R( s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)

27
 Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward

path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward
path i

28
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P11  P2  2

R 
There are three feedback loops

L1  G1G4 H1 , L2  G1G2G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

29
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1  L1  L2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H1  G1G2G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

30
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
31
Example#1: Continue

32
 Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

P1  G1G2G3G4 (path 1) and P2  G5G6G7G8 (path 2)

2. Calculate all loop gains.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7

3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3 33
 Example#2: continue

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1L3  L1L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

  1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7  
G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

34
 Example#2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

1  1  L3  L4 
1  1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 

Eliminate forward path-2

 2  1  L1  L2 

 2  1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 

35
 Example#2: continue

Y ( s ) P11  P2  2

R( s ) 

Y (s) G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G5G6G7 G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 


R( s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

36
 Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in figure below.

37
 Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.

P1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )

38
 Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.

39
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.

40
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.

41
 Example#3

Eliminate forward path-1

42
 Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

3
 Pi  i
C( s ) i 1 P11  P2  2  P3  3
 
R( s )  
43
 Example#4: Forward Paths

P3  A42 A54 A65 A76

P1  A32 A43 A54 A65 A76 P2  A72

44
 Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

L1  A32 A23
L5  A76 A67
L2  A43 A34 L9  A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6  A77
L3  A54 A45 L10  A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7  A42 A34 A23
L4  A65 A56
L8  A65 A76 A67

45
 Example#4: two non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1L5 L2 L6
L1L6 L2 L8

L1 L8
46
 Example#4: Three non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L1L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1L5 L2 L6
L1L6 L2 L8

L1 L8
47
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－H2
－H3
48
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－H2

－H3

  1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1 )

P1  G1G2G3G4 ; 1  1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1
49
 Example#6
－
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ －X +
2
G2
－ Y2

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1

50
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

7 loops:

3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :

51
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

Then: Δ  1  2G2  4G1G2

4 forward paths:
p1  (  1)  G1  1 Δ1  1  G2
p2  (  1)  G1  (  1)  G2  1 Δ2  1
p3  1  G 2  1 Δ3  1  G1
p4  1  G2  1  G1  1 Δ4  1
52
 Example#6

We have
C( s )  pk k

R( s ) 
G  G1  2G1G2
 2
1  2G2  4G1G2

53
 Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below
by signal flow graph techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore 54
 Example-6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward

paths, hence

• Hence the control ratio T = 55

 Design Example#1

1
V1 ( s )  I1 ( s )  I1 ( s ) R
Cs
CsV1 ( s )  CsV2 ( s )  I1 ( s )
V2 ( s )  I1 ( s )R
Cs

Cs R

V1 (s ) I1 (s ) V2 (s )
56
 Design Example#2

F  M1s 2 X1  k1( X1  X 2 ) 0  M 2 s 2 X 2  k1( X 2  X1 )  k2 X 2

57
Design Example#2

58
Design Example#2

59