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By
SAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS P81540
DECEMBER 2015
Supervisors
PROF. DATO' IR. DR. WAN RAMLI BIN WAN DAUD
The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of
Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering for acceptance, a design project
entitled Production of 60,000 MTPA of Oleochemical Methyl Ester from RBD
Palm Kernel Oil submitted by
______________________________
ABSTRACT
The plant is designed to produce Maleic Anhydride by the reaction of butane with oxygen
using the vanadium phosphorus oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst (VPO) and also the by-
products are carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. The reaction carried out in the Packed
Bed Reactor (PBR) with condition at the range of 350 to 500oC at pressure is 275 kPa.
This report includes mass and energy balances, heat integration, control and
instrumentation, mechanical equipment and process design, waste treatment and safety
analysis. The location of this plant is in Phase 2, Gebeng, Pahang. The plant operates with
loading production of 200 000 tonnes per year and operating year in 2011 with one years
of construction. The design of each operation unit has been done based on the ASME
standard and presented in AutoCAD drawing. The plant will be operated for 25 years
with a payback period of 3 years. The plant’s site which considered the safety factors,
design for the treatment plant which ensure that the level of waste disposals meet the
requirements of the Environmental Quality Act 1974. For analysis profitability of the
plant showed that the NPV is RM 260,000,000 and DCFRR, the value of the interest rate
is 0.27. In addition, the analysis of the plant hazards with HAZOP also has been done
successfully. In conclusion, the production of Maleic Anhydride is to be expected to
fulfill the needs of local and world market especially in Malaysia and Asia.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF ILUSTRATION xv
LIST OF TABLE xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Maleic Anhydride 1
1.2 Product Usage 3
1.2.1 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) 4
1.2.2 Production of 1,4-butanediol 4
1.2.3 Lube Oil Additives 5
1.2.4 Copolymers 5
1.2.5 Agricultural Chemicals 5
1.2.6 Formation of Fumaric Acid and Malic Acid 6
1.2.7 Others Application 6
1.3 Sources of Raw Material and Product 9
1.3.1 n-butane 9
1.3.2 Oxygen 10
1.3.3 Water 11
1.3.4 Carbon Monoxide 12
1.3.5 Carbon Dioxide 13
1.4 Economic 13
1.4.1 Demand and Production of Maleic Anhydride 13
1.4.2 Consumption of Maleic Anhydride 17
1.4.3 Prices of Feed Material and Product 19
vi
REFERENCES 381
APPENDIX 385
xv
LIST OF ILUSTRATION
LIST OF TABLE
7.3 Standard Welded Neck Flange Design (All dimensions mm) 130
7.16 Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic 176
Vapour)
7.17 Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Cooling Water) 176
7.18 Maximum Allowance Working Pressure Result 182
7.19 Standard of Dimension for Saddle Support for vessel up to 1.2m 189
7.20 Diameter Size for Each Opening 190
xix
7.21 Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic 191
Vapour)
7.22 Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Heating 191
medium)
7.23 Minimum Wall Thickness for shell and head 194
7.24 Modification of Dimension of Saddle Support 200
7.25 Pipe diameter inlet an outlet of reboiler 200
7.26 Selected standard flange design 201
7.27 Flange bolting 201
8.1 Component flow rate of waste gases. 203
8.2 Component flow rate of waste water 211
8.3 Environment Parameters for Standard B 212
8.4 COD and BOD Value for Effluent Content and Standard B 217
8.5 COD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit 220
8.6 BOD Removal Efficiency in Each Processing Unit 220
9.1 Summary of Cooling Water Flow Rate for each Plant Heat 227
exchanger
9.2 General Rules Used to Determine Tower Heights 229
9.3 Summary of power required for each component 231
9.4 Calculation of Steam Supply Flow Rate 233
10.1 Plant specification 243
10.2 Cost estimated for equipments 262
10.3 Summary of Instrumentation and Controls Cost 267
10.4 Cost estimated for piping 268
10.5 Cost estimated for building cost 269
10.6 Total fixed capital investment 271
10.7 Summary total capital investment 273
10.8 Total operator per shift for equipment 275
10.9 Summary of utilities cost 279
10.10 Chemical Cost for waste treatment plant 281
xx
INTRODUCTION
Maleic anhydride was first synthesized in the 1830’s, but was not manufactured
commercially until about 1930. Prior to 1930, MA was formed only in small quantities as
a by-product of the phthalic anhydride process. This can be converted to maleic
anhydride. The use of benzene as a feedstock for the production of maleic anhydride was
dominant in the world market well into the 1980s. Several processes have been used for
the production of maleic anhydride from benzene with the most common one from
Scientific Design. The advent of patents for the catalytic oxidation of benzene coupled
with improvements in the vanadium oxide catalysts was integral to the creation of a
commercially viable process for MA. (Amanda Lee 1991)
3
Initially, maleic anhydride was produced by the partial oxidation of benzene using
a vanadium oxide catalyst. Rapid increases in the price of benzene and the recognition of
benzene as a hazardous material strictly regulated by the EPA and OSHA, efforts to find a
suitable replacement have been pursued. These factors led to the first commercial
production of maleic anhydride from butane at Monsanto's J. F. Queeny plant in 1974.
In 1983, Monsanto started up the world's first butane to maleic anhydride plant,
incorporating an energy efficient solvent-based product collection and refining system.
This plant was the world's largest maleic anhydride production facility in 1983 at
59,000t/yr capacity. Advances in catalyst technology, increased regulatory pressures, and
continuing cost advantages of butane over benzene have led to a rapid conversion of
benzene to butane based plants. By the mid-1980s in the United States 100% of maleic
anhydride production used butane as the feedstock. Over the years, n-butane has been
utilized with increasingly successful results and is gradually overtaking benzene as the
reactant of choice. (Timothy et al. 2001)
More than 42% of world maleic anhydride output is used in the manufacture of
unsaturated polyester resins (UPR). Chopped glass fibres are added to UPR to produce
fibreglass reinforced plastics which are used in a wide range of applications such as
pleasure boats, bathroom fixtures, automobiles, tanks and pipes. However, the UPR
market is affected by general economic conditions being tied to the construction,
automobile and marine industries.
An important developing use for maleic anhydride is the production of products in the
1,4-butanediol (BDO). BDO is one of the world’s fastest growing chemicals used in the
production of thermoplastic polyurethanes, elastane/Spandex fibres, polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT) resins and many other products. In organic chemistry, 1,4-butanediol
is used for the synthesis of γ-butyrolactone (GBL). The production of 1,4-butandiol is
also having an impact on the MA market. However, BDO is made from a crude MA
which is not traded and only used for this application.
5
Lube oil additives represent another important market segment for maleic anhydride
derivatives, the molecular structure of importance being adducts of polyalkenyl succinic
anhydrides. These additives are used in gasoline and diesel engine crankcase oils as
dispersants and corrosion inhibitors. One particularly important polyalkenyl succinic
anhydride molecule in this market is polyisobutylene succinic anhydride (PIBSA) where
the polyisobutylene group has a molecular weight of 900 to 1500. Other polyalkenes are
also used. Polyalkenyl succinic anhydride is further derivatized with various amines to
produce both dispersants and corrosion inhibitors. Another type of dispersant is a
polyester produced from a polyalkenyl succinic anhydride and pentaerythritol.
1.2.4 Copolymers
The use of maleic anhydride in the manufacture of agricultural chemicals has declined in
the United States over the last decade. Malathion (S-[1,2-dicarbethoxyethyl]O,O-
dimethyldithiophosphate) and Difolatan (cis-N-[1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylthio]-4
6
cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximide) are no longer produced in the United States and Alar (N-
dimethylaminosuccinamic acid) volumes have been significantly reduced by intense
environmental scrutiny. Maleic hydrazide, Captan(cis-N-[trichloromethylthio]-4-
cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximide), Endothall(7-oxabicyclo[2,2,1]-heptane-2,3-dicarboxylic
acid , disodium salt), and several other maleic derivatives continue use in a number
ofagricultural functions: plant growth regulation, fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides.
Fumaric acid and malic acid are produced from maleic anhydride. The primary use for
fumaric acid is in the manufacture of paper sizing products, unsaturated polyester, alkyd
resins and printing inks. Fumaric acid is also used as a food acidulant, as is malic acid.
Fumaric acid is the strongest organic food acid in titratable acidity and in sourness. Malic
acid is a particularly desirable acidulant in certain beverage selections, specifically those
sweetened with the artificial sweetener aspartame. Malic acid's synergism with certain
food ingredients and flavours makes it a versatile and flexible acid of choice to create
new taste sensations and to add new twists to existing products. (Icis.com 2007)
There are numerous further applications for which maleic anhydride serves as a raw
material. These applications prove the versatility of this molecule. The popular artificial
sweetener aspartame is a dipeptide with one amino acid(L-aspartic acid) which is
produced from maleic anhydride as the starting material. Processes have been reported for
production of poly(aspartic acid) with applications for this biodegradable polymer aimed
at detergent builders, water treatment, and poly(acrylic acid) replacement.
7
Alkenylsuccinic anhydrides made from several linear alpha olefins are used in
paper sizing, detergents, and other uses. Sulfosuccinic acid esters serve as surface active
agents. Alkyd resins are used as surface coatings. Chlorendric anhydride is used as a
flame resistant component. Tetrahydrophthalic acid and hexahydrophthalic anhydride
have specialty resin applications. Gas barrier films made by grafting maleic anhydride to
polypropylene film are used in food packaging. Poly(maleic anhydride) is used as a scale
preventer and corrosion inhibitor. Maleic anhydride forms copolymers with mono-O-
methyl-oligoethylene glycol vinyl ethers that are partially esterified for biomedical and
pharmaceutical uses.
8
1.3.1 n-butane
Butane also called n-butane, is the unbranched alkane with four carbon atoms,
CH3CH2CH2CH3. Butane is also used as a collective term for n-butane together with its
only other isomer, isobutene (also called methylpropane), CH(CH3)3. Butanes are highly
flammable, colorless, odorless, easily liquefied gases. The name butane comes from the
roots but (from butyric acid) and ane. Below are the physical and chemical properties of
butane.
1.3.2 Oxygen
Oxygen is a colorless at standard temperature and pressure and odorless gas with the
molecular formula, O2. Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen which water
contain approximately 1 molecule of O2 for every 2 molecule of N2. Then compared to an
atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. It is condensed at 90.20K and freezes at 54.36K.
Both liquid and gas O2 are clear substances with a light sky blue color caused by
absorption in the red. High purity liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional
distillation of liquefied air. Liquid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of
air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must
segregated from combustible materials. Below are the physical and chemical properties of
oxygen.
1.429 g/L
Boiling point 90.20 K, -182.95 °C, -297.31 °F
Melting Point 54.36 K, -218.79 °C, -361.82 °F
Phase Gas
Critical point 154.59 K, 5.043 MPa
Heat of fusion 0.22259 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 3.4099 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capcity 920 J/(kg.K)
Thermal conductivity 0.03 J/m.s.K
1.3.3 Water
Water has a very simple atomic structure. This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms
bonded to one oxygen atom. Water molecules exist in liquid form over an important
range of temperature from 0 - 100° Celsius. Below are the physical properties of water.
Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless and tasteless,
yet highly toxic gas. Its molecules consist of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom,
connected by a covalent double bond and a dative covalent bond. Carbon monoxide has
significant fuel value, burning in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide still plays a major role in modern technology, in industrial
processes such as iron smelting and as a precursor to myriad products. Below are the
physical properties of Carbon Monoxide.
1.4 ECONOMIC
Maleic anhydride has become the third biggest acid anhydride only next to phthalic
anhydride and acetic anhydride and its application sector is constantly expanding. Since
14
the construction of the first maleic anhydride unit using the fluidized bed n-butane
process by BP in 1988, the process has made a rapid development due to its great
advantage and development potential and become the main trend in the development of
maleic anhydride production processes. Maleic anhydride world demand primarily
depends on unsaturated polyester resins (UPR) production, lube oil adhesives synthesis
and maleic and fumaric acids formation. (Nexant ChemSystems 2005)
Global demand of maleic anhydride in 2008 approximately 1.7 million metric tons
while production capacity is about 1359000 tone/year. Maleic anhydride demand is
expected to grow an average 5.7% per year from 2008 to 2013, then slow to around 2.5%
per year from 2013 to 2016. The constant demand increase in 1, 4-butanediol and
tetrahydrofuran in recent years has led to a stable demand increase of maleic anhydride in
the world. European MA demand is typically lower than the U.S., at 2.5%-3%/year.
European and North American market conditions are balanced, while Asia is long. (Sri
Consulting 2009). The graph below show global demand and production capacity of MA.
2200000
Demand
Tonnes/year
2000000
1800000
1600000
Production Capacity
1400000
1200000
1000000
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Year
Figure 1.3: Global demand and production capacity of MA (Sri Consulting 2009 &
Cortelli 2006)
An estimated 51% of global maleic anhydride consumption in 2008 was for the
production of unsaturated polyester resins (UPR), followed by 1,4-butanediol with around
13% of total consumption. Other applications for maleic anhydride include agricultural
chemicals, malic acid, fumaric acid, lube oil additives, maleic anhydride-based
copolymers, alkenyl succinic anhydrides, reactive plasticizers, sulfosuccinic acid esters,
and a number of other specialty chemicals and organic intermediates. The pie chart below
show world consumption of Maleic Anhydride by end use in year 2008.
18
Lube Oil
Additives Agricultural
3% Chemicals
Fumaric Acid 1.8%
4%
Unsaturated
Polyester resin
1,4-butanediol
51%
13%
Other
27.2%
Unsaturated polyester resins will continue to have the largest market share and
will drive refined maleic anhydride consumption on a global scale. The developing
regions will experience the highest growth in maleic anhydride for UPR production since
a considerable amount of UPR goes into infrastructure. Overall economic health will
affect the UPR market as it is tied to the construction, automotive and marine industries.
Maleic anhydride consumption for butanediol will grow primarily in Asia and the Middle
East. A plant in the Republic of Korea uses refined maleic anhydride for butanediol
production. In Asia, China is the most important MA market. The following pie chart
shows world consumption of maleic anhydride in year 2008.
19
North American prices have been stable after peaking during shortages in 2004-05. The
North American market is balanced, with imports down by 25% in 2006 from 2005.
European prices posted "all-time highs" in third-quarter 2006, because of planned and
unplanned shutdowns at a time of growing demand from the key UPR sector, but have
weakened in line with an improved supply-demand balance during first-quarter 2007.
20
From an economic point of view, the price of MA is much higher than MTBE. Therefore
MA is a very good choice of alternative product to be considered. Besides that, low costs
of n-butane as a raw material have its own market value in production of MA and this
will lower the maleic anhydride production cost.
Taking 60% from the difference between demand and production capacity,
Therefore, our plant production capacity is = 0.6 x (1749000 – 1435000)
= 204600 tonnes/ yr
= 200 kt /yr (rounded up)
The fast increasing capacity of Chinese MA industry, together with the China’s endeavor
to improve the production technology, has shown the world that China will play an
important role in the world market in the future, even to become a global MA
manufacturing base. Consumption of maleic anhydride in the production of butanediol is
one of the world’s fastest growing chemicals used is expected to gather momentum in the
upcoming years, given butanediol's widespread and growing use in the production of
thermoplastic polyurethanes, elastic fibers, pharmaceuticals, solvents, plant protection,
coatings and electronic chemicals. (Reportlinker.com 2009)
Regionally, smaller end use applications will experience higher than average
growth, such as maleic copolymers in the United States. New product development driven
by increasing the use of renewables or replacing one petroleum based chemical with a
more environmentally friendly one will drive maleic anhydride consumption in this
application. The use of maleic anhydride and maleic anhydride copolymers will stand to
gain from the increasing importance of recyclability, biodegradability and the use of more
sustainable chemicals. (Sri Consulting 2009)
CHAPTER II
Gebeng industrial area is one of the main place located of chemical and petrochemical
industry that broadly 9600 acres. Currently, there are three phases of industrial area
developed since the 80's. Phase one is near the main trunk road Kuantan-Gebeng by-pass
and consisting of small and medium scale industries such as wood processing industries,
metal works factories and concrete ducting company. Phase two was developed in the
early 90's and the majority of industries here are petrochemical companies such as
Petronas MTBE-Polypropylene, BP Chemicals, WR Grace, EASTMAN, Kaneka and
Cryovac. The third phase currently occupied by Polyplastics Asia Pacific, BASF-
Petronas, Petronas CUF, Petronas Centralized Emergency Facilities and PDH Plant.
Gebeng industrial area is located at north region of Kuantan and near the state of
Terengganu. The distance between Gebeng and Kuantan Port is 4 kilometer and 25
kilometer to Kuantan.
23
Raw material that use in maleic anhydride plant is n-butane that in liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG). N- Butane stock is get from 2 company that is from Petronas Gas Berhad at
Kerteh and Malaysia LNG Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu. The main source of raw material for
our plant is from Petronas Gas Berhad located at Kerteh with production capacity of
1,332,000 mt per year. Delivery of n-butane from Kerteh is by using PGU (Peninsular
Gas Utilisation) piping project that provided by Petronas. If there anything happen with
source of raw material from Kerteh, we can get source of raw material from Malaysia
24
LNG Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu that can produced capacity of n-butane with the amount of
273,000 mt per year using sea transportation. Therefore, in terms of logistic consideration
of our feed material, it will be beneficial for us since the feed material we used, i.e. n-
butane can be obtained directly from Petronas Gas Berhad at Kerteh and Malaysia LNG
Tiga Sdn Bhd, Bintulu.
Final product from our company is maleic anhydride which is in solid form. Every year,
our company can produce 200 kt of maleic anhydride. The product is firstly packing
before being transport to the buyer. Container is used for the transportation of our product
and being transported by the lorry to the port and other plant that demanding our product.
We are concern about the safety issues to transports our chemical, so were put some
safety features to protecting our customer products. Our vehicle safety features include
such technologies as:
25
Temperature control
Emergency spill containment equipment
Vapor vents and skylights
Rigid door frames and air ride suspension
Double E-track load locks
Sealed floors
Secondary containment dams
Additionally our over-the-road (OTR) refrigerated trailers and dry van trailers are
equipped with GPS technology and our OTR trucks are equipped with both on-board
computers and GPS, which allow for real time reporting of shipment status.
There are 3 highways that connected to the Gebeng Industrial Area. There are:
i. Karak – Kuantan Highway (274 KM)
ii. Kuantan – Terengganu Highway (205 KM)
iii. Kuantan – Segamat Highway (189 KM)
Besides that, there are 2 railways that connected to the Gebeng Industrial Area. There are:
i. Kuantan Port to Kerteh
ii. Gebeng Industrial Area to Kuantan Port
There are also general piping system that done in 1999 to connecting Gebeng
Industrial Area with Kuantan Port. These piping systems have a distance of 9 km and 5 m
width. It enables product delivery or raw material directly between plant and port.
Kuantan Port situated about 25 KM to the north of Kuantan city and facing South
China Sea, Kuantan Port (Latitude 3°58'N, Longitude 103° 26'E) is a multipurpose port in
26
the East Coast Region of Peninsular Malaysia. Kuantan port is a deep water port and
functioned in any weather. The distance between Kuantan Port and Gebeng Industrial
Area is 4 km. This port can run 9 million tons per year, and this port is suitable for any
ship including sea ship. Besides that, it has 80 hectare port basin and also had 11 streams,
including 2 streams for transportation of liquid chemical 4 stream for general uses.
Facilities for air transportation at Gebeng Industrial Area are Kuantan Airport that
located 12 km from Kuantan city and 42 km from Gebeng Industrial Area. Mainly, there
are 5 daily flights a days from KLIA to Kuantan. Kuantan Airport that has an area of
2000 m × 46 m can accommodate Boeing 737, Airbus and Air Asia. As conclusion,
transport facilities are no longer be a problem for this area.
2.6 UTILITIES
Electricity supply fall into 2 categories namely 11kV power supply and 132 kV. 11kV
power supply supplied to promontory substation ring in capacity 30 MW. 132kV power
supply on the other hand supported further of grid line transmission 132 kV. Apart from
Tnjung Gelang promontory, there were 3 again substation located nearby namely Kuantan
Sustation (60 MW), Semambu promontory (30 MW) and Bandar Indera Mahkota
substation (60MW).
Utility that likes integration shaped (central utility facilities, CUF) were supplied
by Petronas Gas Bhd intend to equip all type of utility of necessity.
Climate at this area is just like the climate in Malaysia namely humid year round. Climate
study on Gebeng Industrial Area is depending on Malaysian Meteorological Services
(MMS) that located on Kuantan airport. Climate overall condition in this area may be said
27
is modest and had high moisture. This area also influenced by north-east monsoon wind
in month November to Mac and south-west monsoon in month May to September. This
area encompassed by southern east monsoon winds in month November to Mac and May
to September. The average wind speed daily is 3.1 m/s and maximum wind speed is 41.7
m/s.
Topographical condition in the Gebeng Industrial Area is swamp forest and flat
ground area. Highland region where height less than 100m is surrounding the small west-
south divison area of Gebeng. The land gradient is in radius 1-30% and more than 98%
Gebeng Industrial Area having land gradient 5% or less from it.
2.8 INCENTIVE
Pahang State government offered many attractive incentive especially to companies just
started step in petrochemical industry. Gebeng Industrial Area is situated in range of east
coast corridor (eastern corridor) which offers income tax exemption as much as 85% of to
the company having total income which holds pioneer level. Pahang state government
also provides a few other incentives such as general incentive, incentive to export,
incentive for development and research, incentive for training and incentive for storage,
ill treatment and toxic waste disposal.
28
CHAPTER III
CONCEPT DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
a) Relative rates:
C 4 H 10 3.5O2 C 4 H 2 O3 4 H 2 O
r 1A r 1B r 1c r 1D
Reaction 1 : = = =
−1 −3.5 1 4
b) Concentration:
F
Species A : CA = FA CT0
T
F
Species B : CB = FB CT0
T
F
Species C : CC = F C CT0
T
FD
Species D : CD = CT0
FT
F
Species E : CE = F E CT0
T
FF
Species F : CF = CT0
FT
30
A 3.5B C 4D (1)
A 5.5B 2E 2F 5D (2)
r2 A k 20 e E2 / RT CA /[1 ( K1C A / C B ) ( K 2 CC / C B )
cm 3 1000gcat 1m 3 3600s
k10 1.96 1010
s.gcat 1kgcat 1 10 cm
6 3
h
m3
7.056 1010
h.kgcat
cm 3 1000gcat 1m 3 3600s
k 20 3.40 1011
s.gcat 1kgcat 1 10 cm
6 3
h
m3
1.224 1012
h.kgcat
dF A
Species A : = rA
dW
dF B
Species B : = rB
dW
dF C
Species C : = rC
dW
dF D
Species D : = rD
dW
dF E
Species E : = rE
dW
dF F
Species F : = rF
dW
Total ∶ FT = FA + FB + FC + FD + FE + FF
FA0 = 302800mol/hr
FB0 = 17330000mol/hr
FA
X = 1−
FA0
32
W Fc
V= , S=
900 FA0 X
mol
CT0 = CA0 + CB0 = 48
m3
FC
Selectivity, S with FAo = 34500 mol/hr
FAo X
Selectivity of MA vs Conversion X
0.76
0.74
0.72
S
0.7
Selectivity
0.68
0.66
0.64
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
X
Graph V versus X
Graph W versus X
37
3.2 CATALYST
Maleic anhydride is produced by reaction of butane with oxygen using the vanadium
phosphorus oxide heterogeneous catalyst (VPO). Several routes may be used to prepare
the catalyst, but the route favored by industry involves the reaction of vanadium (V)
oxide and phosphoric acid to form vanadyl hydrogen phosphate, VOHPO4.0.5H2O. This
material is then heated to eliminate water from the structure and irreversibly form vanadyl
pyrophosphate, (VO)2P2O7. Vanadyl pyrophosphate is believed to be the catalytically
active phase required for the conversion of butane to maleic anhydride. The reaction of
V2O5 with H3PO4 to form VOHPO4.0.5H2O can be carried out in either an aqueous or
organic medium such as isobutyl alcohol. Two possible routes are as follows:
The product is dried and calcined to yield the catalyst precursor, which is then
pelletized or formed into spheres. Finally, the catalyst is loaded into the reactor where it is
activated under carefully controlled conditions.
Promoters are sometimes added to the vanadium phosphorus oxide (VPO) catalyst
during synthesis to increase its overall activity and/or selectivity. Promoters may be
added during formation of the catalyst precursor (VOHPO4.0.5H2O), or impregnated onto
the surface of the precursor before transformation into its activated phase. (Felthouse et
al. 2001)
38
Butane concentrations are often limited to less than 1.7 mol % to stay below the lower
flammable limit of butane. Operation of the reactor at butane concentrations below the
flammable limit does not eliminate the requirement for combustion venting, and
consequently most processes use rupture disks on both the inlet and exit reactor heads.
Vanadium phosphorus oxide-based catalysts are unstable in that they tend to lose
phosphorus over time at reaction temperatures. Hot spots in fixed-bed reactors tend to
accelerate this loss of phosphorus. This loss of phosphorus also produces a decrease in
selectivity. Many steps have been taken, however, to alleviate these problems and create
an environment where the catalyst can operate at lower temperatures.
Organic
Off gas
solvent
Butane
Maleic
Reactor Absorber anhydrid
wee
Distillation
Heat Heat column
Air
exchanger exchanger
Recycle
absorber
40
For the mass balance of a utility or equipment that doesn’t involve reaction, the total inlet
mass flow rate is equal to the total outlet flow rate.
∑ F in = ∑ F out
For the mass balance of equipment which involves reactions, the mass flow rate must be
converted into mole flow rate.
Mass flow rate(kg / hr)
Mole flow rate(kmol / hr)
JMR(kg / kmol)
Outlet of each component coming out from reactor is calculated using the following
formula.
Fin Fout r
where α is the stoichiometry coefficient and r is the conversion flow rate of a reaction.
The following reactions occur during the reaction of butane with oxygen:
C 4 H 10 3.5O2 C 4 H 2 O3 4 H 2 O
Pw = 4n1+5n2
FN = YFN (FG-FB)
Fo = FG-FB-FN
Table 3.3: Mass Balance from manual calculation for the overall process
T2
At constant pressure, H C p dT
T1
At constant temperature, H v P
Tables below show the coefficients for the heat capacity calculation for each component.
S19 S25
S20 S21 S22 S23 S24-1 S24
Stream (MA (MA to
(Vapour) (Crystal) (Filtrate) (Concentrate) (Air In) (Air Out)
from DC) storage)
CHAPTER IV
HEAT INTEGRATION
Most industrial processes involve transfer of heat either from one process stream to
another process stream (interchanging) or from a utility stream to a process stream. The
target in any industrial process design is to maximize the process to process heat recovery
and to minimize the utility (energy) requirements. To meet the goal of maximum energy
recovery or minimum energy requirement an appropriate heat exchanger network (HEN)
is required. Pinch analysis is used to identify energy cost and heat exchanger network
(HEN) capital cost targets for a process and recognizing the pinch point. The objective of
pinch analysis is to achieve financial savings by better process heat integration
(maximizing process to process heat recovery and reducing the external utility loads).
In the production of Maleic Anhydride, the streams that we need to consider are
the feed and the outlet stream of reactor. A hot stream which is stream 8 (from reactor
outlet) gives off heat to another stream while cold stream which is stream 7 (reactor feed)
absorbs heat from another streams. The process data for the streams is set out in table
4.10. Each stream starts from source temperature, Ts and is to be heated or cooled to a
target temperature, Tt.
56
Stream Type Heat capacity, Flow rate, Heat capacity, Source Target Heat Load
0 0 0 0
Number Cp,(kJ/kmol. C) (kmol/h) CP,(kW/ C) temp,( C) temp, ( C) (kW)
8 hot 32.2 4724.7 42.2599 350 132 9212.08
7 cold 32.52 4574 41.3185 131.1 350 9044.62
Tmin
For hot stream: Tint Tact
2
Tmin
For cold stream: Tint Tact
2
Figure 4.1: Relationship between Interval Temperature with Hot and Cold streams
Figure 4.3: Grid Representations ( above and below the pinch point )
Figure 4.4: Heat exchanger network designs above and below the pinch
59
The objective of the design control system for a chemical plant is to maximize profits
by transforming raw materials into useful products while satisfying product
specification, safety and operational constraints, and environment regulations. All
these constraints require special consideration, for example the product specification
has been the driving force for the implementation of on-line, optimal process control
in chemical industry.
There are two important control objectives for reactor which are to make sure the
plant are safety and control quality of product and operate at desired conversion. The
63
The objective is to control the temperature of the reactant before feed into reactor. It is
also for the reason to avoid the equipment overheat, and make sure the temperature of the
streams are under desired specification. The controlled variable is temperature of the
process stream, and the manipulated variable is the flow rate of heating medium which
control by the degree of opening of control valve. The controller used normally is
feedback controller.
65
The objectives of the need of control on a absorber is make sure the flow rate of organic
solvent which enter to absorber is under specification, and to control the flow rate of
product that fed to absorber, and the flow rate of the vapour product.
Flow rate of To control the flow The flow rate change will detect
product fed to rate of the product and send signal to FC that will
absorber that will enter the be ordering valve to control the
absorber. flow rate of product stream.
Liquid Outlet liquid flow To control the liquid LT will take the reading of
level rate level in absorber and liquid level and send
to prevent overflow. information to LIC and will be
ordering valve to control the
outflow if there is interference
in set point
The control objectives for distillation column are also to make sure the plant are safety
and control quality of product and operate at desired efficiency too. The distillation
column pressure is selected as controlled variable because it must be regulated properly to
avoid safety problem and keep good separation efficiency of Maleic Anhydride from
Dibutyl Phatalate solvent. Distillation column pressure is control by the opening of valve
in the fuel gas line.
The control system must maintain the distillation pressure at the safe level in order
to prevent explosion of the column. So, in the design of reactor in piping and
68
instrumentation diagram should include a pressure controller and pressure relief valve.
The feed flow rate of distillation column should be controlled by flow controller in order
to keep good product quality and prevent overflow. While the level transmitter and level
controller must be added to the control system to prevent overflow.
Liquid level Flow rate of To control the liquid Level Transmitter will detect
bottom stream level in the column the liquid level in the column
to cooler E-107 and prevent overflow. and send signal to Level
Controller. The valve at the
bottom stream will open or
close to keep the liquid level in
desired set point.
70
NATIONAL
STEAM/
CONDENSATE
UNIVERSITY OF
MALAYSIA
DIBUTYL
OFF GAS
PHTHALATE
VAPOUR
S14 DEPARTMENT OF
PIC
CHEMICAL AND PROCESS
PRV-E-1-01 C-1-02
PT
PIC ENGINEERING
C-1-02
PT
S1 S3
cws
S20
TIC
N-BUTANE E-1-09
S4
E-1-01 PRV-C-1-01
TT S8 TT GROUP 3
cwr cws
E-1-09 CR-1-01
PRV-V-1-01
TIC
E-1-01 E-1-02 TIC FIC
FT C100
E-1-02
TIC
E-1-03
PRV-C-1-01 S21 TITLE:
TT cwr V-1-01
TT S15 Piping and Instrumentation
Diagram for Maleic Anhydride
S7
S5 S22
Production Plant before
PIC
C-1-01
HAZOP
FIC
C-1-01
PRV-R-1-01 FT C100
FILTRATE
FIC
E-1-03 S7-1 PT S19
E-1-03 FIC
C-1-02
FT F-1-01
GROUP MEMBERS
FT E-1-04
LT
TIC
E-1-04
mss 1. Ong Siong Hoe (A114059)
PIC
PT C-1-02
PRV-K-1-01
K-1-01
TT 2. Tan Soo Chin (A113467)
TIC PRV-E-1-07
S2 S6 S7-2 R-1-01
LIC 3. Chia Siew Kian (A114265)
C-1-01
TT
AIR S12 S13 LT
4. Nurul Ainie Bte Arifin
msr (A114866)
K-1-01 R-1-01 TT
PRV-E-1-08
5. Sharifah Noor Munirah Bte
cws
S8-1
E-1-07 TT S23 Syed Mohd Yunus (A113755)
LIC
TIC TIC
C-1-02
E-1-05 E-1-07
6. Mohd Shahrin Bin Rahami
(A114859)
TT E-1-08
TIC
S9 E-1-08
DR-1-01
E-1-05 DRAWN BY:
S24
TIC Mohd Shahrin Bin Rahami
cwr E-1-06
E-1-06
P-1-01 S25
MA to
STEAM
STORAGE
DATE:
20 APRIL 2010
Pipe sizing is use to determine the pipe size in a system and was sized so that the
substances will flow through optimally. To estimate the optimum pipe diameter, we use
the equation 5.14 in chemical engineering design book (Sinnot 2005). Carbon steel pipe
will be used. Calculation of liquid flow pipe diameter influenced by the flow type
whether is laminar or turbulence which refer to Reynolds number. Because the exponent
of the viscosity term is small, its value will change very little over a wide range of
viscosity and give the equation for optimum diameter for turbulent flow:
The calculated optimum diameter is then compared with standard value based on
ASME/ANSI B 36.10/19 to get the value of pipe diameter and thickness.
For the long size pipe, the vapor velocity is near with sonic velocity (Crowl and Louvar
1990). Sonic velocity is the maximum velocity that a gas or gas-liquid mixture can attain
in a conduit at a given upstream pressure, no matter how low the discharge pressure is.
For gases this maximum velocity is equal to the speed of sound at the local conditions.
72
4G
Thus, the diameter of pipe is: D
a
The sizing of pipelines for multiphase flow is significantly more complex than for single-
phase flow because the resultant erosional conditions are totally dependent on the specific
flow regimes. In general, when considering erosion criteria, the flow velocity must be
limited to the following carbon steel conditions:
c
Ve
m
where: Ve = fluid erosional velocity, feet/second
c = empirical constant = 150 to 200
m = gas/liquid mixture density at flowing pressure and temperature, lbs/ft3
73
The minimum cross-sectional are required to avoid fluid erosion may be determined from
the following derived equation:
ZRT
9.35
A 21.25P
Ve
where: A = minimum pipe cross-sectional flow area required, in2 /1000 barrels
liquid/day.
74
S6 154.0 1322.66 34.460 2.3152 1.13E-02 0.12 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S7 131.1 1249.40 38.884 2.5949 1.20E-02 0.12 5 125 141.30 6.55 STD40
S7-1 350.0 1551.00 38.884 1.6244 1.54E-02 0.14 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S8 350.0 1576.28 38.884 1.4296 1.73E-02 0.15 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S9 132.0 1271.10 38.884 1.7591 1.74E-02 0.15 6 150 168.28 7.11 STD40
S11 98.2 1295.06 32.322 1.2711 1.96E-02 0.16 8 200 219.08 8.18 40XS10S
S14 149.3 1238.16 0.205 1.0197 1.62E-04 0.01 1 25 33.40 3.38 STD40
S17 98.6 1294.86 32.527 0.9322 2.69E-02 0.19 8 200 219.08 8.18 30XS10S
76
Relief devices are used to help prevent a catastrophic failure of equipment or minimize
the effects of any unanticipated or uncontrolled events. Relief devices are used for
individualized equipment as well as equipment assembled as part of a chemical process.
Relief devices are designed to protect a vessel or system from excess pressure by
removing or relieving fluid from that vessel or system.
There are two main types of mechanical relief devices, the bursting disc or rupture
disc and spring-loaded valve. A rupture disc or bursting disc is a non-reclosing pressure
relief device that protects a vessel, equipment or system from overpressurization or
potentially damaging vacuum conditions. Rupture discs provide instantaneous response
(within milliseconds) to an increase or decrease in system pressure, but once the disc has
ruptured it will not reseal. Major advantages of the application of rupture discs compared
to using pressure relief valves include leak-tightness and cost.
On spring-operated valves the adjustable spring tension offsets the inlet pressure.
For a conventional spring-operated relief, the valve opens based on the pressure drop
across the valve seat; that is, the set pressure is proportional to the pressure drop across
the seat. For the balanced-bellows design the bellows on the backside of the valve seat
ensures that the pressure on that side of the seat is always atmospheric. Thus the
balanced-bellows valve will always open at the desired set pressure.
Air Compressor Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-K-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(K-1-01) compreesor due to overpressure.
Reactor Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-R-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(R-1-01) reactor due to overpressure.
Absorber Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-C-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(C-1-01) absorber due to overpressure.
Boiler Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-E-1-07 To avoid damage of boiler because of
(E-1-07) high temperature and pressure.
78
Distillation Column Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-C-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(C-1-02) column due to overpressure.
Accumulator Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-V-1-01 To avoid the damage and explosion of
(V-1-01) column due to overpressure.
Kettle Reboiler Spring Loaded Pressure Relief Valve PSV-E-1-08 To avoid damage of reboiler because
(E-1-08) of high temperature and pressure.
CHAPTER VI
6.1 REACTOR
From figure 12.10 (Sources from Chemical Engineering Design), for outside packed bed,
Shell inside diameter – bundle diameter = 38 mm
So, shell inside diameter = 38 + 2761 = 2799 mm
Thus, L/D = 14.35/ 2.8 = 5, which is between 3 and 6. (Acceptable)
The molten salt used as a cooling medium is a mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate and
40 percent potassium-nitrate, commonly called saltpeter. The heat generated from the
reaction is 1050 kW. The required mass flow rate of molten salt is calculated as below:
From, Q mCT
J
1050000J / s m 41230 80K
kg.K
m 10.67kg / s
81
11
T = 98.2oC
P = 150kpa
Organic solvent Q = 1.17E+04 kg/h
(Dibutyl phtalate)
T = 30.1oC 10-1
P = 170 kpa
Q = 9.3E+04 kg/h
T = 132oC
T = 151.4oC
P = 200kPa
P = 160kpa
Q = 1.4E+05kg/h
Q = 1.17E+05kg/h
n-butane = 1592.55 kg/h
n-butane = 10.01 kg/h
O2 = 399.99 kg/h
O2 = 0.13 kg/h
N2 = 95161.79 kg/h 9
N2 = 53.86 kg/h
MA = 22837.45 kg/h
MA = 22811.91 kg/h
CO = 767.48 kg/h
CO = 0.75 kg/h
CO2 = 7.35E+03kg/h
CO2 = 0.71 kg/h
H2O = 4.80E+04kg/h 12
H2O = 768.87 kg/h
Dbp = 92978.66 kg/h
0.0493 0
m Lm (4.7 103 )
0.0493
0.3804
0.11
mLm 3418.5kmol / h
83
L
Absorption factor: Ai 1.5
KV
Generally, the design that minimizes the combination of operating costs (i.e., the
consumption of separating agent) and the capital costs (i.e., the number of plates) occurs
when KV/L is chosen to be between 1.5 and 3 for an absorber.
N 1
( Ai Ai )
Using Kremser equation for calculation of number of stages: N 1
( Ai 1)
( Ai )
Simplifiying above equation: N 1log( Ai ) log
(1 )
N 7.70 8 trays
Using graph for the efficiency of the column for gas absorption, E o = 51%
(For absorbers, the volatility is taken as ten times Kk for the key component)
84
N 8
Number of actual stages, N a 15.7 16 trays
E o 0.51
H c 11.15 m
1/ 2 1/ 2
L v 9.3 10 4 1.7591
Liquid- vapor flow factor, FLV w 0.027
Vw L 1.4 105 1037.9
Using graph 11.27 (vol.6 Coulson & Richidson), for FLV = 0.027 and tray spacing=0.57m,
K1 = 0.09
0.2
0.05
Corrected, K 1 0.09 0.11
0.02
L v
Flooding velocity, u f K1 2.67m / s
v
m v 10c.5
Net column area, An 5.22m 2
u n 2.013
Ac An 0.12 Ac
Ac 5.93m 2
86
0.5
4A
Diameter of column, Dc c 2.75m
Ratio L/D ≌ 4 (Therefore, the calculated value of DT and H is acceptable.)
lw 2.118
From figure 11.32(reference 1), at 0.77 , θ = 100o
Dc 2.75
Ah 0.45 lp
From figure 11.33 (reference 1), when 0.1 , 2.9 (acceptable)
Ap 4.094 dh
From figure 11.34 (referece 1), for plate thickness/ hole diameter = 1, and A h/Ap=0.1,
C0=0.84.
2 2
u v 21 1.7591
Dry plate drop, hd 51 h 51 54.024mm liquid
CO L 0.84 1037.9
6.3.1 Introduction
The detailed process design of the maleic anhydride distillation column is given
below and can be divided into few following steps. The feed to the column is a mixture of
Maleic Anhydride (MA), N-Butane, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon
Dioxide, Water and Dibutyl phthalate (DP). The distillate is the required product
consisting of mainly MA. While the top vapor product is sent to fuel gas line. The bottom
liquid product for example dibutyl phthalate is sent back to absorber.
Top product, D
Feed
Bottom product, B
In this design, a continuous distillation process with sieve plate column type was adopted.
Sieve trays are the most widely used mass transfer devices due to their simplicity,
versatility, capacity and cost effectiveness. Besides that, there is lower pressure drop also
experience compare to bubble-cap trays.
For a given separation (i.e. constant xD and xB) from a given feed condition (xF and q),
using a higher reflux ratio (R) will results in lesser number of theoretical trays (N)
required, and vice versa. In other words, there are many possible combination of reflux
ratio R and number of theoretical trays, N. For a new design, of course the reflux ratio
and number of theoretical stages can both be varied to achieve an optimum balance.
The number of minimum theoretical plates required for the desired separation under
conditions of total reflux can be found by applying Fenske equation to the two key
components, thus:
d b j
log i
d j bi
N min
log( m )
K LK
rectifying 0.2154
K HK
K LK
stripping 6.8318
K HK
= 1.2131
Nm 7
Thus, the minimum number of theoretical plates is 7.
The estimation of the actual number of theoretical plates can be obtained by using the
Nm
equation below: N= = 12
0.6
(Ttop + Tbottom )
Average column temperature, Tav = = 250.35℃
2
From ICON results, molar average viscosity of the feed, μav = 8.9581 x 10 -5 Pa.s.
The overall column efficiency can be obtained from the correlation given by O’Connell
correlation as; E o = 51- 32.5 log(av . m ) 79.82 %
The feed point location can be determined by using empirical equation given by
Kirkbride (1994):
Nr W xMA xDP,b
log =0.206 log
Ns B xDP xMA,d
Nr
= 1.0268
Ns
As the liquid and vapour flowrates and compositions vary up the column, plate design
should be made above and below the feed point. A flow diagram
D for liquid and vapour is
shown in figure 3.5 below:
93
𝑉𝑛 𝐿𝑛
𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚
Lm ρV
Bottom: FLV = = 0.04659
Vm ρL
Bottom: An =3.9132 m2
As first trial take downcomer area as 12% of total area, column cross-sectional area:
A
Top: n
As = 0.88 =1.4394 m2
Bottom: As =4.4468 m2
Column diameter;
4As
Top: Dc = =1.3538m
π
Bottom: Dc=2.3795 m
Use same diameter above and below the feed for ease of fabrication and to reduce the
perforated are for plate above the feed. Therefore, in this design, the column diameter is
that is 2.40 m.
96
Lm Mw
Maximum volumetric liquid flow: QL = =0.0072
ρL 3600
From Fig. 11.28 in reference (1), it is clear that a single pass plate can be used.
Lm Mw
Maximum liquid rate, Lw = =78.18 kmol/s
3600
Minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down, Lw = 0.7 x 78.18 = 54.726 kmol/s
97
0.7 x Q m
Actual minimum vapour velocity: Uac= =10.39 s > Uh
Ah
From Fig. 11.34 in reference (1), for tp/dh =0.6, Ah/Ap=Ah/Aa =0.1, Co = 0.74
2
Um ρv
hd =51 ≅17.8772mm
Co ρL
100mm was assumed to calculate the bottom pressure. The calcualtion could be repeated
with a revised estimate but the small change in physical properties will have little effect
on the plate design, so 80 mm per plate is considered acceptable.
For safe design, the clear liquid back-up, hb, should not exceed height:
hb <0.5 (plate spacing + weir length) = 0.87 mm.
Since, hb < 0.87 mm. Thus, the tray spacing 0.6m is acceptable to avoid any flooding in
the column.
99
Q
Actual percentage flooding design area; Uaf = =1.9119 m/s
An
Uaf
Percent flooding, Pf % = x 100%=68.87 %
Uf
Use catridge-type construction. Allow 50mm unperforated strip round plate edge; 50mm
wide calming zones. Perforated area,
θ=88°
94
Mean length, unperforated edge strip: Ls = Dc - 0.05 π x =3.8554 m
180
lp
From Fin 11.33, reference (1), =2.9, satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0.
dh
πd2
Area of one hole, an = =2.8274 x 10-5 m2
4
Ah
Number of hole, Nh = =12160
ah
6.3.22 Summary
Flowrate:
Feed, F 611.50 kmole/hr
Top Product, D 260.00 kmole/hr
Bottom Product, B 328.83 kmole/hr
Column:
Minimum Reflux Ratio, Rm 1.23
Optimun Reflux Ratio, R 1.5375
Plate Efficiency, Eo 79.82%
101
Plate:
Net Area, An 3.9810 m2
Active Area, Aa 3.4381 m2
Downcomer Area, Ad 0.5429 m2
Hole Area, Ah 0.3438 m2
Hole Area (one), ah 2.8274 x 10-4 m2
Hole Pitch,lp 17.4mm
Hole Diameter, dh 6mm
No. of Holes, Nh 12160
Plate Thickness, t p 3mm
Weir Height, hw 40mm
Weir Length, lw 1.824m
102
There are many different condenser designs. In this process, the design is horizontal with
condensation in the shell and the cooling medium in the tubes. This condenser design
provides cooling water flow through straight tubes from the inlet water box on one end, to
the outlet water box on the other end. In our case, we use condenser to condense the
organic vapor from distillation column to liquid maleic anhydride. The cooling medium
used is cooling water. The condenser design is one shell pass, two tube passes, pull-
through floating head with each tubes dimension of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m
long of steel and square pitch arrangement.
= 24252 𝑘𝑊
103
(25 55)o C
Cooling water mean temperature = 40o C
2
24252
Cooling water flow, mcw 193.35kg/s
(55 25)4.181
T1 = 232°C
t1 = 25°C
(234.9 149.3)
R 2.85
(55 25)
(55 25)
S 0.14
(234.9 25)
Use a horizontal exchanger, condensation in the shell, four tube passes. For one shell
pass, four tube passes, from figure 12.19, Ft = 0.97.
∆Tm = 0.97 x 150.4 = 145.9 oC
Select tubes of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Surface area of one tube = 20 x 10-3 x x 4.88 = 0.305 m2
184.69
Number of tubes 606
0.305
Use square pitch, Pt 1.25x20mm 25mm
1
606 2.263
Tube bundle diameter, Db 20( ) 766.8 mm
0.158
Db 767
Number of tubes in centre row, Nr 31
Pt 25
Take as pull-through floating head, select baffle spacing = shell diameter, 45 per cent cut
From figure 12.10, the shell-bundle clearance = 93 mm
Shell diameter, Ds = 1134 mm + 97 mm = 860 mm
606
Tube cross-sectional area x(16.8 x103 ) 2 x 0.0672m 2
4 2
55 25
At mean temperature, t 40 o C
2
193.35 1
Water linear velocity, ut 992.26 0.0672 2.90 m / s
x
4200(1.35 0.02x40)2.900.8
hi 0.2
12038 W / m 2o C
16.8
105
234.9 149.3
Mean temp, Shell-side 192.1 o C
2
55 25
Tube-side 40 o C
2
192.1 90.7
Mean Temperature Condensate 141.4 oC
2
Wc
Horizontal tube loading, Ґh
LN t
1
12.70kg / s x
4.88m x 606
0.0043kg / s m
2
Average no. of tube in vertical tube row, Nr x31 21
3
106
𝜌 𝐿 𝜌 𝐿 −𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 1/3
Heat transfer coefficient, hc = 0.95 𝑥 𝑘𝐿 𝑁𝑟 −1/6
𝜇 𝐿 𝛤
= 1623 W/𝑚2 𝑜 𝐶
do
d o ln
1 1 1 di do 1 d 1
( x )( o x
U o ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi )
20
20 x103 ln( )
1 1 1 16.8 ) 20 x 1 20 x 1
(
U 1623 5000 2 x50 16.8 5000 16.8 12038
U 866W / m2oC
Close to estimate.
Take as pull-through floating head, select baffle spacing = shell diameter, 45 per cent cut
( PT do ) Ds B (25 20)
Cross-flow area, As x 860x860 x 10 6 0.1479m2
PT 25
Ws 1
Mass velocity, G s A 12.7 x 0.1479 85.86 kg / sm
2
Gs 85.86
Velocity, us 2.56 33.54 m / s
v
1.27
2 2
Equivalent diameter, d e d ( PT 0.785d o )
o
1.27
(252 0.785x20 2 )
20
19.8 mm
Take pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow; neglect viscosity
correction.
3
ud i 992.26 x 2.90x16.8 x10
Reynolds number, Re 6.6 x104
73246.83
L x ut 2
T2= 145.75 0C
T1 =350 0C
The transfer of heat to and from process fluids is an essential part of most chemical
process. The n-butane from mixer at stream 7 needs to be heated before entering the
reactor. A shell and tube exchanger is used to heat the component from 131.1 0C to about
3400C. The outlet flow from the reactor is used as a heating medium and operates in the
tube side while the n-butane stream in shell side. Kern method is used to calculate the
overall heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop. Table below shows the parameter that
required in the calculation.
6.5.1 Calculation
Heat load, Q
Q = 𝑚1 Cp∆T
139982.19 𝑘𝑔 J 1kW
= x 1075 ℃ x (340 − 131.1)℃ x
3600 𝑠 kg 1000W
= 8732.06 𝑘𝑊
Heating medium, 𝑚2
𝑄 8732060
𝑚2 = =
𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 3000 × 350 − 145.75
= 14.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
110
T1 − T2 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑅= = 1.00 𝑆= = 0.95
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
= 12.18℃
271.56
Number of tubes, Nt =
0.377
= 720
111
Nt 1 n1
720 1 2.285
Tube bundle diametar, Db = do ( ) = 20 ( ) = 763 mm
K1 0.175
Gs 311.07
Velocity, ut = = = 0.0872 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 3567
𝜌ut 𝑑𝑖 3567 × 0.0872 × 18 𝑥 10−3
Reynolds number, Re = = = 25322
𝜇 0.2211 × 10−3
𝐿
= 277.78
𝑑𝑖
112
𝑘𝑓
Heat transfer coefficient, hi = 𝑗 Re𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑑𝑖
0.1254
= (0.0038) (25322)(5.289)1 3
18 × 10−3
= 1161.05 W/m² °C
𝐷𝑠
Baffle spacing, ℓB = = 171.2 mm
5
𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜
Cross sectional area, As = ( 𝐷𝑆 ℓb )
𝑃𝑡
25 − 20
=( × 856 × 10−3 × 171.2 × 10−3 )
25
= 0.0293 m²
𝑚1 139982.19 1
Mass velocity, Gs = = ×
As 3600 0.0293
= 1327.09 kg/ s.m²
Gs 1327.09
Velocity, us = = = 0.5745 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌 2310
1.1
For triangular pitch, equivalent diameter, de = (P ² − 0.917do ²)
𝑑𝑜 t
= 0.000213 m
𝐺𝑠 𝑑𝑒 1327.09 × 0.000213
Reynolds number, Re = = = 11782.83
𝜇 0.02399 × 10−3
𝑘𝑓
Heat transfer coefficient, hs = 𝑗 Re𝑃𝑟 1 3
𝑑𝑒
0.03411
= (0.0048) (11782.83)(0.76)1 3
0.000213
= 8265.41 W/m² °C
Using fouling factor, 5000 W/m² K and wall thermal conductivity, k W = 45W/m² K.
𝑑
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜 ln𝑑𝑜 𝑑 1 1
𝑖 𝑜
= + + + ( + )
𝑈 𝑜 𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝑖𝑑
20
1 1 20 × 10−3 ln18 20 1 1
= + + + ( + )
8265.41 5000 2 × 45 18 1161.05 5000
U = 656.42 W/m² °C
𝑢𝑡 𝜌𝑑𝑖
Reynolds Number, Re =
𝜇
0.0872 × 3567 × 18 × 10−3
=
0.2211 × 10−3
= 25322
𝐿 𝜇 𝜌𝑢𝑡 2
Pressure drop , ∆Pt = Np [8 jf ( )( )−𝑚 + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
5 3567 × 0.08722
= 4 [8 x 5.9 × 10−1 × + 2.5][ ]
18 × 10−3 2
= 71257 N/m²
= 0.712 bar
Steam outlet
E-1-06
From C-1-02
S16
Steam inlet
T = 351.4 C
P = 130 kPa
F = 91520.60 kg/h
Kettle reboilers are essentially pool boiling devices and their design is based on data for
nucleate boiling. Kettle reboilers are very simple and reliable. In this reboiler type, steam
flow through the tube bundle and exits as condensate. The liquid from the bottom of the
tower flows through the shell side. The liquid circulation through the exchanger is
maintained by the difference in density between the two phase mixture of vapour and
liquid in the exchanger and the single phase liquid in the base of the column. The
component enters the reboiler at a pressure of 130 kPa and vaporisation rate of 91520.60
kg/h is required.
Heat loads:
Sensible heat (maximum) = (355.8 – 0)46.6 = 16580.28 kJ/kg
91520 .60
Total heat load = (16580 + 526.4) × = 434885.6 W
3600
456629 .8
Area (outside) require= = 10.53 m2
800 ×54.2
116
From fig. 12.10, use the split-ring floating head, shell diameter clearance = 78mm
Shell inside diameter = 324.86 + 78 = 402.86 mm
Outlet pipe diameter, take area are equal to total tube cross-sectional area,
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋
Area = Nt = 24 x (25x10-3)2 x ( 4 ) = 0.01178 m2
4
0.01178 ×4
Pipe diameter = = 0.1225 m
𝜋
= 43.36 kW/m2
Take steam condensing coefficient as 8000 W/m2 oC, fouling coefficient 5000 W/m2 oC;
dibutyl phthalate fouling coefficient, essentially clean, 5000 W/m2 oC.
Tube material will be normal carbon steel, kw = 36 W/m2 oC
Then, 1/UO = 1.21115×10-3 m2 oC/W
UO = 825.66 W/m2 oC
117
526.41 × 103
𝑞𝑐 = 0.44 × 1.5 × 3.34 × 10−3 × 9.81 1050 − 9.58 9.582 0.25
80
2
= 290510 W/m
= 290 kW/m2
Applying a factor of 0.7, maximum flux should not exceed 290 × 0.7 = 203 kW/m2.
Actual flux is 43.36 kW/m2 is well below maximum allowable.
6.6.3 Layout
91520 .60 1 1 𝑚
Vapour velocity at surface = × 9.58 × 1.488 = 1.78
3600 𝑠
So, actual velocity is well below maximum allowable velocity. This design is safe.
CHAPTER VII
MECHANICAL DESIGN
7.1.1 Introduction
The type of reactor used for the production of maleic anhydride is packed bed reactor
(PBR). The basic process consists of mixing a stream of vaporized n-butane with
compressed air and then feeding this stream into the catalytic reactor. The reactor
operates in the temperature range of 300 to 400°C and in the pressure range of 1 to
3bar. The reaction is highly exothermic and the reacting gas stream must be cooled in
the reactor to avoid excessive temperatures and a runaway reaction. This cooling can
be achieved by placing the catalyst in tubes and passing a cooling medium (molten
salt) on the outside of the tubes with the reacting gases passing on the inside of the
tubes over the catalyst. This configuration is similar to a shell and tube heat
exchanger.
According to Martyn & Martin (1998), the preferred construction material for the
reactor is stainless steel type 316 (18%Cr, 8%Ni, 2.5%Mo). This is due to the facts
that:
Tensile strength and stresses according to Sinnott (2005) are shown in the
following table:
Thickness of tube = 4 mm
Diameter of tubes = 8 x 5 = 40 mm (Sources from Perry Handbook)
From figure 12.10 (Sources from Chemical Engineering Design), for outside packed
bed,
Shell inside diameter – bundle diameter = 38 mm
So, shell inside diameter = 38 + 2761 = 2799 mm
The molten salt used as a cooling medium is a mixture of 60 percent sodium nitrate
and 40 percent potassium-nitrate, commonly called saltpeter. The heat generated from
the reaction is 1050 kW. The required mass flow rate of molten salt is calculated as
below:
121
From, Q = mCpΔT
1050000 J/s = m x 1230 J/K.kg x 80 K
m = 10.67 kg/s
The reactor is divided into 3 parts consists of top and bottom head and shell.
Cylindrical shell is used while torispherical head is chosen as the top and bottom head
since it is the most common used heads as ends of cylindrical vessels operating up to
15bar.
Design stress for stainless steel 316 at 450ºC = 100 N/mm2 = 14503.77 psi
Joint efficiency, E= 1.0
PD = Po + PH = 40 + 0.433(2.31) = 41 psi
Take 10% safety factor,
Design Pressure, PJ = 1.1 x 41 = 45.1 psi
= 0.264 in = 6.71mm
b) Cylindrical shell
𝑃𝑅 67.5 (55.1)
Circumferential stress: t = =
𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃 14503 .77 1.0 − (0.6)(67.5)
= 0.257 in = 6.53mm
𝑃𝑅 67.5 (55.1)
Longitudinal stress: t = 2𝑆𝐸+0.4𝑃 = 2 14503 .77 1.0 + (0.4)(67.5)
= 0.128 in = 3.25mm
= 0.4 in = 10.16mm
For the uniformity of thickness, we choose the largest value of the minimum
thickness. Thus, the largest value of minimum thickness is 0.4 in (10.16mm).
123
According to Sinnott (2005), for vessel diameter between 2.5 to 3.0m, the minimum
thickness including CA is 10mm. Since the calculated minimum thickness is 14.16mm
including CA = 4mm, therefore, the calculated value of tmin = 14.16mm is acceptable.
Since MAWPvessel (355.63kPa) is bigger than Design Pressure (275kPa), hence we can
say that the calculated value fulfilled the requirement of ASME Code.
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads (major and subsidiary loads) in addition
to pressure. Hence, it must be designed to withstand the worst combination of loading
without failure.
Wv = 240(1.15)(2.815)[14.82 + 0.8(2.815)](15)
= 198958.8 N
= 198.96 kN
Weight of tubes:
Volume of stainless steel tube = πr02L – πri2L
= π(0.024)2(14.35) – 0.018035
= 7.93 x 10-3 m3
Wind loading:
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m2
Mean diameter = 2.8 + 2(15) x 10-3 = 2.83m
Loading (per linear meter) Fw = 1280 x 2.83 = 3622.4 N/m
Bending moment at bottom tangent line:
Mx = (wx2)/2 = [3622.4(14.82)2]/2 = 397798.2 Nm
Analysis of stresses:
σL = PDi/4t = (0.275)(2.8 x 10-3)/(4)(15) = 12.83 N/mm2
σh = PDi/2t = (0.275)(2.8 x 10-3)/(2)(15) = 25.67 N/mm2
Bending stresses:
D0 = 2800 + 2 x 15 = 2830mm
Iv = π(D04 – Di4)/64 = π(28304 – 28004)/64 = 1.314 x 1011 mm4
σb = ± M/Iv(Di/2 +t) = ±397798.2 x 103/1.314 x 1011(2800/2 + 15)
= ±4.28 N/mm2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be σ z and σh.
The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side:
[25.67 – (-8.8)] = 34.47 N/mm2
well below the maximum allowable design stress.
126
For reactor, the support used for the design is skirt type since the reactor is a vertical
vessel.
Try a straight cylindrical skirt (θs = 90º) of plain carbon steel, design stress 135N/mm2
and Young’s modulus 200,000N/mm2 at ambient temperature.
As the first trial, take the skirt thickness as the same as that of the bottom section of
the vessel, 15mm.
4Ms
Bending stress in the skirt: σbs = π Ds +ts ts Ds
= 4(453 x 106)/(π)(2800+15)(15)(2800)
= 4.88N/mm2
127
𝑊𝑠
Dead weight stress in the skirt: σws (test) = π Ds +ts ts
= (895.21 x 103)/(π)(2800+15)(15)
= 6.75N/mm2
𝑊
σws (operating) = π Ds +ts ts
= (2301.31 x 103)/(π)(2800+15)(15)
= 17.35N/mm2
Note: The test condition is with the vessel full of water for the hydraulic test.
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion, gives a design skirt thickness of
17mm.
Ms = 453kNm
Take W = 895.21kN
1 4𝑀𝑠 1 4 453 𝑋 10 3
Bolt area, 𝐴𝑏 = [ − 𝑊 ] = 16 𝑋 125 [ − 895.21 𝑋 10 3 ]
𝑁𝑏 𝑓 𝑏 𝐷𝑏 3
= 805mm2
4𝐴𝑏 4 𝑋 805
Bolt root diameter = Db = = = 32mm
𝜋 𝜋
4 𝑋 453 𝑋 10 3 895.21 𝑋 10 3
=[ + ]
𝜋𝑋 2.82 𝜋 𝑋 2.8
= 175.34kN/m
3 𝑓𝑐′ 3 𝑋 1.04
Base ring thickness, tb = 𝐿𝑟 = 102 = 15.23mm
𝑓𝑟 140
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manholes
covers, and for removable vessels head when ease of access is required. Flanges may
also be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections
for transport and maintenance. In the reactor design, the welding-neck flanges which
made from stainless steel are selected. Its gradual transition of the section reduces the
discontinuity stresses between flange and branch, and increase the strength of the
flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are also suitable for extreme service condition
where it is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
The optimum diameter size for each opening is calculated by the following equation:
For liquid flow: d , optimum 293G 0.53 0.37
4G
For vapor flow: D
a
where: a = sonic velocity (m/s)
Table 7.3: Standard Welded Neck Flange Design (All dimensions mm)
D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
Molt.
Salt(in) 89 80 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Molt.
Salt(out) 89 80 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Flanges used for feed inlets, molten salt inlet and outlets and product outlet are steel
welding neck flanges while for manhole covers is blind flange is used.
131
Carbon steel (plate) SA-516 type 56 is selected as construction material because of its
availability, low cost and ease of fabrication, steel is often used in services with corrosion
rates of 0.005-0.02 in./yr, with added thickness to provide a corrosion allowance.
133
Since the operating pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure Po Patm , the design
of pressure vessel is under internal pressure. Design pressure for each part of the vessel is
calculated by using the equation PD Po 0.433h where h is the height of each part from
top shell. In order to prevent anything happen to pressure vessel, the safety factor about
10% can be added to design pressure. So, the new design pressure is PJ 1.1PD
i) Torispherical top:
0.885PL 0.885 32.790108.27
t 0.169in 4.291mm
SE 0.1P 186001 0.132.790
a) Circumferential stress
t
PR
49.32454.13 0.144in 3.652mm
SE 0.6P 186001 0.649.324
b) Longitudinal stress
t
PR
49.32454.13 0.072in 1.822mm
2SE 0.4P 2186001 0.449.324
i) Torispherical top:
P
SEt
1860010.335 64.939 psi
0.885L 0.1t (0.885)108.268 0.10.335
a) Circumferential stress:
P
SEt
1860010.335 114.557 psi
R 0.6t 54.134 0.60.335
b) Longitudinal stress:
P
SEt
1860010.335 230.534 psi
R 0.4t 54.134 0.40.335
iii) Torispherical bottom:
P
SEt
1860010.335 64.939 psi
0.885L 0.1t (0.885)108.268 0.10.335
To choose the MAWP vessel, the design pressure must be minus with hydrostatic pressure.
From the calculation, the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure Vessel, MAWPvessel for
absorber is 64.277 psi (443.174 kPa). The design thickness of the absorber is 12.5 mm
after considering the corrosion allowance of 4 mm.
Pressure vessels are subjected to other loads in addition to pressure and must be designed
to withstand the worst combination of loading without failure.
a) Weight Loads
For preliminary calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed
ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation :
Weight of plates is calculate based on total trays that are using in absorber which is 16
trays. The area of plate where the diameter of plate is 2.75m is,
Area d 2 2.75 5.94m2
2
4 4
Weight of 16 Trays, WF 1.2 5.94 16 114.055kN
1 ( Di ht )
(0.5 R 2 Hc)
2
2ht Di (2r c 2rDi )(Di ht ) 3r c sin
2 2 2
3 ( Di r )
33.373m3
Liquid mass, m V
1037.09kg / m 3 33.373m 3
3.46 10 4 kg
(3.46 10 4 kg ) 9.81
339.532kN
138
Process equipment that do not need to be insulated to conserve energy but have a surface
temperature greater than 60°C (140°F) and can be touched by personnel must be insulated
to prevent personal injury. The economic thickness of insulation is that thickness of
insulation which will save enough energy to pay for itself in a given time period.
2.7510.960 50 103
4.735m3
Weight of insulation I v I g
6.039kN
The density of insulation material should be doubled to allow for attachment fitting,
sealing, and moisture adsorption and hence the real weight of insulation is,
6.039kN 2 12.077kN
Total weight load, W = Weight of vessel + Weight of internal fittings + Weight of liquid
+ Weight of insulation
29.442 114.055 339.532 12.077
495.106kN
139
b) Wind Loading
Wind loading is important for tall columns installed in open. A column or vessel must be
designed to withstand the highest wind speed that is likely to be encountered at the site
during the life of the plant.
The loading per unit length of the vessel: Fw = PwDeff = 1280 x 2.7625 = 3536 N/m
w Pw Deff 1280 2.7625 3536N / m
x HV 10.990m
wx 2 353610.990
2
Mx 2.14 105 N / m
2 2
c) Analysis of Stress
i. Primary Stresses
PDi 0.22750
L 11N / mm2
4t 412.5
PDi 0.22750
h 22N / mm2
2t 212.5
140
Direct stress:
W 495.106 103
w 4.563N / mm2
Di t t 2750 12.512.5
Bending stresses
Iv
64
D
o
4 4
Di
64
2.75
4
2.754 0.051m4
S 16824psi 116N / mm 2
If max S design , the material construction that we used is acceptable and an elastic
A column design must be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the resultant axial
stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur when the
compressive c .
For steel at ambient T, E = 200,000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12;
t
2 10 4
12.5
c 2 10 4 3
90.498N / mm 2
Do 2.762 10
Since compressive c , this design is safe and the buckling process does not occur.
The vessel support is intended to support the pressure vessel on the support base. For our
design case, the straight skirt support is chosen because it recommended for vertical
vessels as they do not impose concentrated loads on the vessel shell and suitable for use
with tall columns subject to wind loading.
wv x 2 353612.9902
Ms 2.98 105 Nm
2 2
bs
4M s
4 2.98 105 3.999N / mm 2
Ds t s t s Ds 2.75 0.01250.01252.75
W 495.106 103
ws 0.271N / mm 2
Ds t s t s 2.75 0.01250.0125
s tensile bs ws 3.728N / mm 2
s compressive bs ws 4.271N / mm 2
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead
weight loading, the following criteria are not exceeded:
s tensile f s J sin s and s compressive 0.125E t s Ds sin s
From the criteria above, the skirt thickness fulfill the conditions of
s tensile f s J sin s and s compressive 0.125E t s Ds sin s . Since both criteria
are satisfied, additional 2mm for corrosion will give a design thickness of 14.5 mm.
143
In absorber design, double plate with gusset is used in order to make the vessel more
stable and strongly built.
Ab
1 4M s
1
4 2.983 105
495.106 103 499.389mm 2
W
8125 2 10
3
N b f b Db
499.389 4
Bolt root diameter 25.214mm (satisfactory)
2 103
Bolt spacing 942.6mm (satisfactory)
4
Use M30 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area 561mm2
144
The compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb:
4M s
Fb
W 4 298.348 10 3
495.106 10 3
483.56kN / m
D s
2
D s 2.752 2.75
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design. So, the
actual width required (refer figure 13.30):
Lr t s 50mm
76 14.5 50mm
140.5mm
The required thickness for the base ring is found by treating the ring as a cantilever beam.
The minimum thickness is given by:
3 fc ' 33.442
t b Lr 76 19.882mm 20mm
fr 140
The minumum thickness for base ring is 20 mm with total number of 8 bolts.
145
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanged joints are
also used foe connecting pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is
required for maintanance, but pipework will normally be welded to reduce costs.
Welding-neck flanges are used in our absorber design because it has a long
tapered hub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the
section reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch, and increase the
strength of the flange assembly.
There are five openings in absorber where should place the flanged joints :
1. Opening for feed stream from reactor (S9)
2. Opening for absorbent feed stream (S10-1)
3. Opening for vapor product stream (S11)
4. Opening for liquid product stream to distillation column (S12)
5. Manhole opening
146
7.3.1 Introduction
In this design, the carbon-manganese steel is chosen as our material for distillation
construction. Carbon steel is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon. While
the manganese content in carbon steel is added for the purpose of increasing depth of
hardening and improving strength and toughness of our column design. In this design,
carbon-maganese steel is used because the molybdenum content in this alloy can improve
the corrosion resistance in reducing conditions, such as existances of vapour maleic
anhydride. In this design, take the corrosion allowance as 2.0mm. Besides that, the
carbon-manganese steel has greater strength than the plain carbon steels, particularly at
elevated temperaturers (see Table 7.8, references (1)). Unlike the plain carbon steels,
carbon-manganese steel is not that easy become brittle at low temperatures.
But there will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight, and any incidental loads. (Section 13.4.8
reference (1)). So, the minimum required thickness of the cover is taken as 9 mm.
Pe D i
Thickness of the shell, t s = C = 3.9242 mm
2JF - PI
But the minimum thickness of the material used for construction of the shell is 9 mm. So,
the minimum thickness = 9 mm.
Therefore, the height of the column between the two tangent lines, Hv = 10818 mm.
150
Stress analysis of the material of construction and the column are carried with the
assumptions stated in the require location and specification of the material of
construction.
For preliminery calculations the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with domed
ends, and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation:
Wv = 240Cv D m (H v + 0.8 D m )t
i. Weight of plates:
πDi2
Plate area, A = = 4.5239 m2
4
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for the fittings. Hence, the actual weight of
the insulation = 5.20kN X 2 = 10.40 kN
W 101250
Direct stress, σ w =
π ( Di + t )t (2400 9)9
= 1.4865N/mm2 (compressive)
0.04615N/mm2
As there is no torsional stress, the principal stresses will be σ z and σh.The radical stress
for the thin wall vessel is negligible, σR ≈ (Pe /2) ≈ 0.0715 N/mm2
1
σ 1 = [σ h + σ z + (σ h - σ z ) 2 + 4τ ] = σh = 19.0667 N/mm2
2
1
σ 2 = [σ h + σ z + (σ h - σ z ) 2 + 4τ ] = σz = 11.07 N/mm2
2
σ3 = 0.5P = σR = 0.0715 N/mm2
i. Upwind wind:
σ1 – σ2 = σh - σz
= 19.0667 – 11.07
= 7.9967 N/mm2
σ1 – σ3 = σh + σR
= 19.0667 + 0.0715
= 19.1382 N/mm2
σ2 – σ3 = σz + σR
= 11.07 + 0.0715
= 11.1415 N/mm2
σ1 – σ2 = σh - σz
= 19.0667 – 8.00
= 11.0667 N/mm2
154
σ1 – σ3 = σh + σR
= 19.0667 + 0.0715
= 19.1382 N/mm2
σ2 – σ3 = σz + σR
= 8.00 + 0.0715
= 8.0715 N/mm2
The maximum allowable stresses intensity, Δσ max is 19.1382 N/mm2, which is less than
the design stress for the material construction, S, that is, 19.1382 N/mm2 < 105 N/mm2.
Therefore, the wall thickness = 9mm is sufficient for the vessel design of the distillation
column.
E t
σc = ( )
3(1 - v 2 ) R p
For steel at ambient temperature with E = = 1.88×10 5 MN/m2, the formula for elastic
stability is shown as below:
t 9
σ c = 2 × 10 4 ( ) 2 10 4 ( )
Do 2418
= 74.44 N/mm2
Therefore, (Σ σ)max = σb + σw
= 0.04615 N/mm2 + 1.4865N/mm2
= 1.5327 N/mm2
\
In this design, skirt support is used. A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical
shell welded to the base of the vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the
load to the foundations. The skirt is welded flush with shell which is usually preferrred.
Besides that, skirt supports is recommended for vertical vessels as they do not impose
concentrated loads on the vessel shell; they are particularly suitable for use with tall
columns subject to wind loading.
a) Skirt Thickness
The maximum dead-weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of liquid.
πDi 2 H v ρg
Approximate weight, Ws =
4
2.4 2 10.8181165.9398 9.81
4
= 559.76 kN
1
Bending moment at the base of skirt, M s = Fw x 2
2
x = Hv + height of skirt = 12.818 m
1
M s 3223.04 12.8182 = 264.77 kNm
2
Take skirt thickness, t s as 9mm (minimum thickness). The skirt thickness must be
sufficient to withstand the dead loads and bending moments imposed on it by the vessel.
156
4M s
Bending stress in the skirt, σ bs =
π ( Ds + t s )t s Ds
4(264.77 106 )
(2400 9)9 2400
= 6.4787 N/mm2
Ws
Dead weight stress in the skirt, σ ws (test) =
π ( Ds + t s )t s
559.76 103
(2400 9)9
= 8.2181 N/mm2
W 101.25 103
σ bs (operating) =
π ( Ds + t s )t s (2400 9)9
= 1.4865 N/mm2
The test condition is with the vessel full of liquid for the hydraulic test. In estimating total
weight, the weight of liquid on the plates has been counted twice. The weight has not
been adjusted to allow for this as error is small, and on the “safe side”.
ts
σs (compressive) < 0.125E ( ) sinθ
Ds
9
< 0.125188,000( ) sin 90
2400
< 88.13 N/mm2
Since both criteria are satisfied, hence, t = 9mm is accepted. By adding 2mm for
corrosion allowance, gives a design thickness of 9+2 = 11mm.
1 4M s
- W ) 1 ( 4 264.77 10 - 101.25 103 )
3
Ab = (
Nb fb Db 12 125 2.0
= 285.53mm2
158
4 Ab
Bolt root dia. = = 19.07 mm
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4M s W
) ( 4 264.77 2 10 101.25 10 )
3 3
Fb = ( 2 +
πDs πDs 2.0 2.0
= 100.39kN/m
3 f c'
Base ring thickness, t b = Lr
fr
3 7.3277
76
140
= 30.11mm (Round-off to 30.50 mm.)
Chair dimensions from Fig. 13.30 (reference (1)) for bolt size M24 .
Skirt to be welded flush with outer diameter of column shell.
159
Manholes are necessary in closed vessels to permit inspection, cleaning, repairs an so on.
Entry into the shell of a distillation tower is made via manholes. There are usually fitted
in the column so that each serves 10 to 20 trays. When the service is clean and
noncorrosive, up to 30 trays or more may be served by one manhole. Recommended
manhole diameters vary from one designer to another, but are always in the range of 16 to
24 in (406.40 to 609.60 mm) (Henry Z. Kister 1989).
The manhole diameter must be less than plate spacing (600mm). Therefore, it is
decided to use 450mm manhole diameter, while the blind flanges are used as covers for
manholes
There are many different flange standards to be found worldwide. To allow easy
functionality and inter-changeability, flanges joints are designed to have standardised
dimensions. In this design, all flanges used were of the narrow-faced welding neck type,
which are suitable for extreme service conditions subjected to temperature, shear and
vibration loads. The flanges have a long tapered hub between the flange ring and the
welded joint. This gradual transition of the section reduces the discontinuity stresses
between the flange and branch and increases the strength of the flange assembly. Besides
that, welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreame service conditions; where the flange
is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads. They will normally be
specified for the connections and nozzles on process vessels and process equipment. The
diameter of each of the welding-neck flange will be calculated by applying equation
below with the construction material of carbon steel SA516 Grade 70.
160
Welding-neck flanges were found to be the best option for this design. Details
of the detail of the flanges design are summarized below:
Opening ρ, kg/m3
G, kg/s do , mm Nominal, d, mm
Manholes - - 450.00 450
Feed inlet 32.40 962.90 168.28 150
Top outlet 12.70 27.46 330.81 350
Bottom outlet 25.42 701.327 168.28 150
Reflux return inlet 5.7166 1165.94 54.14 150
Reboiler return inlet 28.14 31.63 478.58 350
Table 7.12: Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar (600 kPa)
Raised Face,
Nominal Pipe o.d., Flange, mm
Opening mm
Size, mm mm
D b h1 d4 f
Manholes 457.20 457.20 635 38.0 39.60 533.40 1.60
Feed inlet 150 168.30 265 18 48 202 3
Top outlet 350 355.60 490 22 62 415 4
Bottom
outlet 150 168.30 265 18 48 202 3
Reflux
return inlet 50 60.30 140 14 38 90 3
Reboiler
return inlet 500 508 645 24 65 520 4
161
Table 7.13: Standard steel flanges dimension for nominal pressure of 6 bar (600 kPa)
Nominal Drilling, mm Neck, mm
Opening Bolting
Size, mm No. d2 k d3 h2 r
Manhole 457.20 M32 16 31.75 577.90 - - -
Feed inlet 150 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Top outlet 350 M20 12 22 445 385 15 12
Bottom
outlet 150 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Reflux
return inlet 50 M12 4 14 110 74 8 6
Reboiler
return inlet 500 M20 20 22 600 538 15 12
A gasket is a mechanical seal that fills the space between flanges, may also be called a
seal, generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while under
compression.
Metal-reinforced gaskets were found to be the best option for this application, in which it
can be used up to 450C. Details of the gasket type are summarized below (Table 13.4,
reference (1)):
Figure 7.4: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for Distillation Column
164
The design of the condenser is included of cylindrical shell and hemispherical heads at
both ends. Since vapour maleic anhydride present in the condenser which has very low
corrosivity, carbon-manganese steel is chosen to construct condenser’s wall. The price of
carbon-manganese steel is quite acceptable.
a) Cylindrical Shell
Wall thickness of Cylindrical shell is determined based on UG-27, thin shell. Cylindrical
shell’s height is equal to the shell diameter because the condenser is fitted horizontally.
While cylindrical shell’s length is equal to tube length.
The minimum thickness or maximum allowable working pressure for cylindrical shell
shall be the greater thickness or lesser pressure.
b) Hemispherical Head
Hemispherical heads are used to joint at the both end for the condenser and carbon-
manganese steel are selected as material to construct condenser’s heads. Refer to ASME
Code UG-32(f), the required thickness of a hemispherical head shall be determined by:
𝑃𝐿
𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃
PJ = 19.11 psi
At temperature = 234.9 °C,
Maximum allowable stress, S = 133020 kPa = 19292.9 psi (Sinott R.K 2005)
Joint efficiency, E = 1
Inside spherical, L = 33.86’’/2 =16.93’’
𝑃𝐿
Minimum thickness of hemispherical head, 𝑡 =
2𝑆𝐸−0.2𝑃
19.11𝑥16 .93
= 2(19292 .9)(1)−0.2(19.11)
= 0.0084 in
Compare between the thickness of shell and head calculated, the minimum thickness is
2.4mm. Thus,
Minimum nominal thickness, t nominal = 0.25 in = 6.35 mm (ASTM International)
tmin = tnominal – CA = 6.35 – 2 = 4.35mm = 0.1713 in
167
a) Cylindrical shell
b) Hemispherical Part
a) Primary Stress
Di = 860 mm
PDi (131.8 10 3 )(860)
i. Longitudinal Stresses, L 4.46N / mm 2
4t 4(6.35)
For a steel vessel: Cv = 1.08 for vessels with only few internal fittings
Hv = height or length between tangent lines of the cylindrical section
= 0.860 m
There are many tubes inside the condenser, thus tube’s weight cannot be ignored. Besides
that, the weight of baffles, fluid inside both of the tubes and shell also need to be
considered.
169
Weight of tubes:
Dimension of tubes is 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Number of tubes = 606
Density of steel = 7.85 g/cm3 = 7850 kg/m3
𝜋 𝑑 𝑜 2 −𝑑 𝑖 2
Total tube’s weight, Wt = 𝑥 𝑙 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑥𝑁𝑡 𝑥𝑔
4
𝜋 0.020 2 −0.0168 2
= 𝑥 4.88 𝑥7850𝑥606𝑥9.81
4
= 21062.93 N
= 21.06 kN
Weight of baffles:
Let number of baffles = Nb
𝐿
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 𝐷
𝑠
4.88
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 0.860
𝑁𝑏 + 1 = 6
𝑁𝑏 = 5
Thickness of baffles, t = 6 mm
𝜋
Weight of the baffles = 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 𝐷2 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
𝜋
= 5𝑥 0.006 𝑥 𝑥 0.8602 𝑥7850
4
= 136.80 kg
= 1368N
=1.37 kN
= 15mm
Since the design plate thickness must be greater than the minimum thickness. Thus, the
thickness of tube plate use is 20mm or 0.020m.
= 6381.10N + 3241.82N
= 9622.92N
= 9.62 kN
= 34742.16 N
171
= 34.74 kN
𝑊
Thus, direct stress, 𝜍𝑤 =
𝜋 𝐷𝑖 +𝑡 𝑡
34742 .16
=𝜋 860 +6.35 𝑥6.35
= 2.01 N/mm2
σw is compressive stress above the vessel support, therefore it is negative value is -2.01
N/mm2.
Di = 860 mm = 0.860 m
Do = 860 mm + 2(6.35mm) = 872.7 mm = 0.8727m
The second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,
𝜋
𝐼𝑣 = 64 (𝐷𝑜 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )
𝜋
= 64 0.87272 − 0.8602
= 0.00108 m4
= ± 0.1694 N/mm2
b) Principal Stress
The torsional shear stress is normally negligible, τ = 0, the principle stresses will be:
σ1 = σh and σ2 = σz
c) Elastic Stability
173
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜍𝑐 =
3 1−𝑣 2 𝑅𝑝
For steel at ambient T, E = 200 000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12:
𝑡
𝜍𝑐 = 2𝑥104 𝐷𝑜
6.35
= 2𝑥104 872 .7
= 145.53 N/mm2
Saddles are the most commonly used support for horizontal cylindrical vessels. A
horizontal vessel is supported at two cross-sections. A vessel supported on two saddles
can be considered as a simply supported beam, with an essentially uniform load, and the
distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment.
The saddle must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the
vessel and contents. They are contrcuted of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel
plate. The contact angle should not be less than 120ο, and will not normally be greater
than 150ο . Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall over the
area of contact with the saddle. (Sinott R.K 2005)
For the condenser, saddle saddle must be able to withstand total loading, 34.74
kN. Refering to Figure 13.26 (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the standard saddle
support should be designed as in the table below. All contacting edges fillet welded.
174
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels. Flanges may also
be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport and maintenance. In the condenser design, the welding-neck flanges which
made from carbon are selected. Its gradual transition of the section reduces the
discontinuity stresses between flange and branch, and increase the strength of the flange
assembly. Welding-neck flanges are also suitable for extreme service condition where it
is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Since carbon steel pipe will be used, the optimum diameter size for each opening is
calculated by the following equation: (R.K. Sinnott 2005)
d, optimum = 293 G 0.53 ρ – 0.37
Refering to Appendix E (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the welding neck flanges
should be designed as in the table below.
Table 3.16: Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic Vapour)
Raised
Pipe Flange Drilling Neck
dNominal face
Flange o.d. Bolting
(mm) h2
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 r
≈
Inlet 350 355.6 490 22 62 415 4 M20 12 22 445 385 15 12
outlet 80 88.9 190 16 42 128 3 M16 4 18 150 102 10 8
Table 3.17: Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Cooling Water)
Raised
Pipe Flange Drilling Neck
dNominal face
Flange o.d. Bolting
(mm) h2
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 R
≈
Inlet 400 406.4 540 22 65 465 4 M20 16 22 495 438 15 12
outlet 400 406.4 540 22 65 465 4 M20 16 22 495 438 15 12
177
The design of heat exchanger consists of cylindrical shell and torispherical heads at both
ends. In addition, the heat exchanger is fitted horizontally. Carbon steel typed SA-352
grade LCB are selected to construct heat exchanger. The reasons that choose carbon steel
as a material construction is because it is cheaper and works well in many applications.
Operating pressure, Po = 280 kPa = 40.61 psi. Since Po>Patm, thus the design is follow
internal pressure.
Maximum temperature, T = 350 °C = 662 °F. .
a) Cylindrical Shell
Cylindrical shell’s height is equal to the shell diameter because the heat exchanger is
fitted horizontally. While cylindrical shell’s length is equal to tube length.
From ASME Code, Table 1A, Section II, Part D, at operating temperature at 662 0F:
Maximum allowable stress, S = 17 156 psi = 118 286 kPa
179
Thus the value t min (circumferential stress) is higher than t min (longitudinal stress) so that
the largest value of t min is choosen as tcal.
b) Torispherical Head
Both end part of heat exchanger are used torispherical head which fitted horizontally and
carbon steel typed SA-352 are selected as a material construction.
0.885 𝑃𝐿
Minimum thickness of torispherical head, 𝑡 = 𝑆𝐸−0.1𝑃
Joint efficiency, E = 1
a) Cylindrical shell
𝑫𝒔 0.856
L= radius of torispherical = = = 0.428 𝑚 = 16.85𝑖𝑛
𝟐 2
𝑆𝐸𝑡
𝑀𝐴𝑊𝑃 =
0.885 𝐿 + 0.1𝑡
17 156 1 (0.0787)
=
0.885 16.85 + 0.1(0.0787)
= 90.49 psi ≈ 623.91 𝑘𝑃𝑎
= 6.23 × 102 𝑘𝑃𝑎
182
a) Shell weight
From the equation, for steel vessel, is reduced to, W 240Cv Dm ( H v 0.8 Dm )t
𝐷𝑠
Height between tangent lines, Hv = 𝐿 + 1/3( 2 )(2)
b) Tube Weight
= 3284.30 N = 3.284 kN
c) Internal fittings
𝑊𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑔(𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠)𝑡
Number of baffle =5
Baffle thickness, t = 171.2 mm = 0.1712 m
Shell’s density, s = 7790 kg/m3
Shell’s diamter, Ds = 856 mm = 0.856 m
184
Number of Baffles =5
Number of tubes,Nt = 720
Density tube side fluid, t = 3567 kg/m3
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81 m/s2
Tube’s inside diameter,di = 0.018 m
Weight fluid (tube) = 𝜋 3567 0.0182 720 9.81
= 25 644.81 N = 25.6 kN
Number of baffles =5
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81 m/s2
Density of shell fluid,s = 2310 kg/m3
𝜋 0.856 2
Shell’s area,As = Ds2 4 = = 0.575 m2
4
f) Weight of baffles
𝜋
Weight of baffles= 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
𝜋
Weight of the baffles = 𝑁𝑏 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
4
𝜋
= 5𝑥 0.1712 𝑥 𝑥 0.8872 𝑥7790
4
= 4120 kg
= 40 400= 40.4 kN
g) Weight of insulation
t=6 mm
Di=856 mm
P = 40.61 psi
𝑁
6.895 𝑘𝑃𝑎 1
= 40.61𝑝𝑠𝑖 × ( 𝑚𝑚 2
) = 0.28 N/mm2
1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 1000
Longitudinal:
PDi (0.28)(856)
L 9.987N / mm 2
4t 4(6)
= 9.987 x 103 kPa
Circumferential:
PDi (0.28)(856)
h 19.97N / mm 2
2t 2(6)
Di = Ds = 856 mm = 0.856 m
Deff = Do = Di + 2t
= 856 + 2(6)
= 868 mm = 0.868 m
Since the torsional shear stress is normally negligible, τ = 0, the principle stresses will be:
σ1 = σh and σ2 = σz
The third principle stress, σ3 = 0 (negligible for thin walled vessel)
e) Elastic Stability
𝐸 𝑡
Critical buckling stress, 𝜍𝑐 =
3 1−𝑣 2 𝑅𝑝
For steel at ambient T, E = 200 000 N/mm2 and with a safety factor of 12:
𝑡
𝜍𝑐 = 2𝑥104 𝐷𝑜
6
= 2𝑥104 868
The supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and any
superimposed loads, such as wind. Besides, support should be designed to allow easy
access to the vessel and fitting for inspection and maintenance. Saddle support is the
support that selected for heat exchanger. Saddles are the most commonly used support for
horizontal cylindrical vessels, legs can be used for small vessels. This criteria is satisfied
to support the heat exchanger.
Below is the table that show the dimension for the saddle support that should be
designed as followed condition for the vessel up to 1.2m. The shell diameter for heat
exchanger is 0.856 m. Based on the table below, the dimension for the saddle support that
suitable is 0.9 m which nearest value of vessel diameter with maximum weight 65 kN.
While the bolt diameter is 20mm and the bolt holes is 25 mm.
Table 7.19: Standard of Dimension for Saddle Support for vessel up to 1.2m
Vessel Maximum
Dimension (m) (mm)
diam. weight
Bolt Bolt
(m) (kN) V Y C E J G t2 t1
Diam. Holes
0.8 50 0.58 0.15 0.70 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25
0.9 65 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20 25
1.0 90 0.68 0.15 0.91 0.39 0.310 0.095 11 8 20 25
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole
covers, and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also
190
be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for
transport or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other
equipment, such as pumps and valves. Several different type of flange are sued for
various application.
Welding-neck flanges are used in heat exchanger design. It has a long tapered hub
between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual transition of the section
reduces the discontinuity stresses between the flange and branch, and increase the
strength of the flange assembly. Welding-neck flanges are suitable for extreme service
conditions, where the flange is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration
loads.
Refering to Appendix E (R.K. Sinnott 2005), the dimension of the steel welding neck
flanges should be designed as in the table below.
191
Table 7.21: Typical Standard Flange Design for Shell Sides (Organic Vapour)
Pipe Raised
dNominal Flange Drilling Neck
Flange o.d. face Bolting
(mm)
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2≈ r
Inlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
outlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
Table 7.22: Typical Standard Flange Design for Tube Sides (Heating medium)
Pipe Raised
dNominal Flange Drilling Neck
Flange o.d. face Bolting
(mm)
d1 D b h1 d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2≈ r
Inlet 125 139.7 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200 155 10 8
outlet 150 168.3 265 18 48 202 3 M16 8 18 225 184 12 10
192
Figure 7.9: Drawing of mechanical design by using AutoCAD for heat exchanger
193
Stainless steel alloy 18Cr/8Ni Ti stable grades 321 are used for the design of the shell of
reboiler. The operating pressure for this reboiler is 130kPa and the highest temperature
was 400oC.
a) Cylindrical Shell
𝑃𝑅 18.855 ×12.79
Circumferential stress,𝑡 = =
𝑆𝐸−0.6𝑃 17000 ×0.85 − 0.6×18.855
Then, t = 0.0167 in
𝑃𝑅 18.855 ×25.59
Longitudinal stress, 𝑡 = 2𝑆𝐸+0.4𝑃 = 2×17000 ×0.85 + 0.4×18.855
Then, t = 0.0083 in
P = 18.855 psia
S = 17000 psia
E = 0.85
L = 94.488 in
M = 1.44
Based on the practical minimum thickness of pressure vessel, wall thickness must not less
than 5.00 mm (Sinnot 1994). So the minimum wall thickness of the vessel (shell) is 5.00
mm.
195
b) Torispherical Part
Ds 25.59
L = radius of torispherical = 12.80in
2 2
SEt
MAWP = 0.885L 0.1t
= 121.08 psia
196
PDi
Longitudinal Stress: σL = = 7167.39 psia
4t
PDi
Circumferential Stress: σh = = 14334.78 psia
2t
Number of tubes, Nt = 24
Inside diameter of tube, di = 0.025 m
Outside diameter of tube, do = 0.030 m
Density of tube, t = 7700kg/m3
Gravity acceleration, g = 9.81m/s2
Tube weight, WT = 391.56 N
197
Number of baffle =5
Baffle thickness, t = 0.010 m
Shell’s density, s = 7700 kg/m3
Shell’s diamter, Ds = 0.65 m
Baffle weight,Ws = 944.21 N
Number of Baffles =5
Number of tubes,Nt = 24
Density tube side fluid, t = 9.58 kg/m3
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81 m/s2
Tube’s inside diameter,di = 0.025 m
Flow weight (tube) = 22.14 N
Number of baffles =5
Gravity acceleration,g = 9.81m/s2
Density of shell fluid,s = 1050 kg/m3
Flow weight (shell) = 12875.63 N
f) Total weight
Wv 14238.9 4
σw = 27.78x10 Pa
π(Di t)t π(0.650 0.0242)(0.0242)
198
Saddle support must be designed in order to withstand the load resulted from dead weight
of the vessel as well as the contents inside the vessel.
a) Bending Moment
Π
I= (Do 4 Di 4 ) = (0.6504 0.6474 )
64 64
= 1.61 x 10-4 m4
M Di
σb = ( t)
I 2
269.51 0.647
= ( 0.0242)
1.61 104 2
= ± 5.8 x105Pa
Since torsional shear stress is negligible, the principle stresses will be total longitudinal
stress, σz and circumferential stress, σh. Greatest difference between principle stresses will
be on a downside side.
9.8834x107 – 49.115 x106 = 98.83 x106Pa
199
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure
(Σ σ)max = 27.78 x104 + 5.8 x105
= 0.858 x106 Pa
Since σc > (Σ σ)max. Thus, the design is satisfactory.
The saddle must be designed to withstand the load imposed by the weight of the vessel
and contents. They are contrcuted of bricks or concrete, or are fabricated from steel plate.
The contact angle should not be less than 120ο, and will not normally be greater than
150ο . Wear plates are often welded to the shell wall to reinforce the wall over the area of
contact with the saddle.
Refering to Figure 13.26 (R.K. Sinnott 1983), the dimension of the standard
saddle support should be designed as followed condition. Table below shown the
modification of dimension of saddle support. From shell diameter of the shell that gets
from calculation, standard saddle design is choose and all the information is given in the
table below.
200
and Boss Flange , N1 = Dia of Weld Neck , N2 = Dia of Boss, R = corner Radius, H1 =
Length of Boss Flange, H2 = Length of Weld Neck Flange, H3 = Length of Neck.
WASTE TREATMENT
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Maleic Anhydride plant consists of a packed bed reactor area, absorbing & maleic
anyhydride refining area. The off-gas which consists mainly of carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, un-reacted n-butane & some maleic anhydride & dibutylphthalate
from the absorbing system flows to an incinerator where these components are
destroyed. Basically, these gaseous wastes can be categorized into two groups:
Table below showed the flow rate of component waste gases from S17.
Since the amount of maleic anyhydride and dibutyl phthalate released is small,
therefore, treatment for these two substances is not required. According to McCoy, J.T.
(2008), for n-butane, there is clearly limited potential for toxicity associated with
environmentally relevant exposures to this compound in air as its concentration is
maintained under the explosivity limit. In these case, the mole fraction of n-butane is
0.006 which is under the explosivity limit (0.017). By maintaining concentrations
below each chemical’s limit, health concerns (including the potential for them to act
as simple asphyxiants) are minimized. Therefore, there is no need to treat n-butane .
Concentration of CO emitted,
27.40 28.01
6.1102 10 3 kg / m 3 6.1102mg / m 3
125606.016
205
22.40 T ( K ) 1 mg
c
M (kg / kgmole) 273 P(atm) m 3
22.40 371.60 1
6.1102
28.01 273 1.0856
6.1268 8hours
49 ppm
Therefore, carbon monoxide needs to be treated.
22.40 T ( K ) 1 mg
c
M (kg / kgmole) 273 P(atm) m 3
22.40 371.60 1
9.6004
44.010 273 1.0856
6.1267 8hours
49 ppm
In this case, our target is to reduce it to 5ppm.
206
In this case, wet scrubber is used to reduce the concentration of carbon monoxide and
carbon dioxide with NaOH solution.
The principle of this type of scrubber is to remove contaminants from the gas stream
(S17) by passing the stream through a packed structure which provides a large wetted
surface area to induce intimate contact between the gas and the scrubbing liquor
(sodium hydroxide, NaOH). Then, the contaminant (CO2 and CO) is absorbed into or
reacted with the scrubbing liquor. A schematic flowchart of wet scrubber is shown in
figure 8.1.
The stoichiometric chemical equation for the reaction that occurs in the wet
scrubber is shown below:
2 NaOH CO 2 Na 2 CO3 H 2 O
NaOH CO HCOONa
At the end, all treated gases will send to the flue gas stacks for emission. On
the other hand, the excess natrium hidroxide solution, sodium bicarbonate (Na 2CO3)
and sodium formate (HCOONa) that formed at the bottom of scrubber will be further
treated in the waste water treatment process that will be discussed later.
207
Plate efficiency can be obtained from the correlation given by O’Connell correlation
as:
0.0498 0.0498
Eo 0.334
( K n M L L / PL ) 0.209
0.87 40 0.0035
0.209
1100
5.53
Therefore, number of actual tray 17trays
0.334
In this design, the plate spacing is taken as 0.69m.
Therefore, the height of the wet scrubber, H 17 0.69 11.73 12m
0 .5
LM L v
Liquid flow rate factor, FLV
VM V L
208
0 .5
278.13 40 1.2
1241.67 26.2 1100
0.06
2.72m / s
0.5 0.5
4VM V 4 1241.67 103 26.2
DT
fu f 1 Ad / AV 0.8 2.72 1 0.1 1.2
2.10m
A flue gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure
through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside
air. In this design, the flue gas is composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor
as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air.
Basically, the flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 meters (1300 feet) or more,
so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the
concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental
policy and environmental regulation.
There are many factors that need to be considered when designing the flue gas
stacks, namely, effective height of the stack, H which is related to the physical height
of stack, hs and height of dispersing plume H. A schematic flowchart of flue gas
stack is shown below.
Where the effective height of stack, H hs H , with hs 2.5 (highest stack height
estimation).
210
Equation above is used for neutral condition. When the condition is not stable, ∆H
needs to be added with a factor that is from 1.1 to 1.2, while when the condition is
stable, ∆H have to be reduced with the factor from 0.8 to 0.9. The calculation steps for
effective height of stack are shown as below.
For flue gas flow, the outer diameter of the standard pipe used is 8.625 in, in which
the thickness of the pipe is 0.148 in. So, the inner pipe diameter = 8.329 in = 0.2116 m.
(332.74 / 3600)
Velocity of flue gas stack, vs 2.6283m / s
(0.2116) 2
4
H
2.6283 1.3
1.5 2.68 103 101.325 1.3
353.15 298.15
3.5 353.15
1.5180m
211
8.4.1 Introduction
The wastewater coming out from wet scrubber consists of un-reacted NaOH, sodium
bicarbonate and sodium formate. These wastewater needs to be treated before it can be
released to river. Table 8.2 below showed the component flow rate to wastewater
treatment plant. Calculations are as follows:
2 NaOH CO 2 Na 2 CO3 H 2 O
2mol of NaOH are required to react with 1mol of CO2,
Therefore 54.8 kmol/hr of NaOH is required to react with 27.4 kmol/hr of CO 2 to
produce 27.4 kmol/hr of sodium bicarbonate.
NaOH CO HCOONa
1mol of NaOH are required to react with 1mol of CO,
Therefore 27.4 kmol/hr of NaOH is required to react with 27.4 kmol/hr of CO to
produce 27.4 kmol/hr of sodium formate.
will be discharged to South China Sea. Table 8.3 below showed the acceptable
conditions for discharge of industrial effluent or mixed effluent of Standard B where
the maleic anhydride plant has to adhere according to Fifth Schedule and Seventh
Schedule (Regulation 12) for other industries of EQ (Industrial Effluent) Regulations
2009.
The simplified waste treatment plant flow diagram is shown in Figure 8.3. Incoming
wastewater is pumped from the wet scrubber at the beginning of the treatment primary
pH adjustment tank. The pH adjustment tank used to adjust the pH of the incoming
wastewater to desired pH. Neutralization of alkaline waste streams (NaOH) involves
reducing the pH, usually by adding an acidic chemical, such as HCl. This pH
adjustment tanks utilizes high speed mixer sized to properly blend the incoming
wastewater and the added adjustment chemicals (HCl) within the detention time of the
mixing tank. Besides that, pH analyzers that have been selected with proper probe will
be used for each application. This is a complete integration system with a complete
system control panel.
213
The true core of the treatment process is biological treatment, which is carried
out as an active process. In this wastewater treatment process, activated sludge process
is used. Activated sludge is a process dealing with the treatment of sewage or
industrial wastewaters. Atmospheric air is introduced to a mixture of primary treated
wastewater combined with organisms to develop a biological floc which reduces the
organic content of the sewage. The combination of raw sewage (or industrial
wastewater) and biological mass is commonly known as Mixed Liquor. Once the
sewage (or industrial wastewater) has received sufficient treatment in aeration tank,
excess mixed liquor is discharged into clarifier tanks. In the clarifier tank, part of the
settled material, the sludge, is returned to the head of the aeration system to re-seed
the new sewage (or industrial wastewater) entering the tank. This fraction of the floc
is called Return Activated Sludge (R.A.S.). Excess sludge which eventually
accumulates beyond what is returned is called Waste Activated Sludge (W.A.S.).
W.A.S is removed from the treatment process to keep the ratio of biomass to food
supplied (sewage or wastewater) in balance. This is called the F:M ratio. W.A.S is
stored away from the main treatment process in storage tanks and is further treated by
digestion, either under anaerobic or aerobic conditions prior to disposal.
Figure 8.3: Process Flow Diagram for Waste Treatment Plant
217
In this section, we will carry out some calculation on the design of wastewater treatment
units.
C 4 H 10 3.5O2 C 4 H 2 O3 4 H 2 O
O2
Effluent COD Concentration = molecular weight of x concentration of C4H10
C 4 H 10
32
= x2064.64mg / L
58
= 1139.11 mg/L
1139.11
Ratio of COD/BOD =
800
= 1.14
From the calculation, we noticed that the value of COD and BOD is a little bit too high,
therefore it has to be reduced to reach the standard B. The value of COD and BOD in
standard B is shown in table 8.4.
Table 8.4: COD and BOD Value for Effluent Content and Standard B
Parameter Effluent Content Standard B
(mg/L) (mg/L)
COD 1139.11 100
BOD5 at 20°C 800 50
218
The operation units for wastewater treatment plant dependant on the physical and chemical
properties of effluent.
a) pH Adjustment Tank
24hour
= 57.9 m3
b) Aeration tank
24hour
= 38.6 m3
219
c) Clarifier
24hour
= 57.9 m3
220
CHAPTER IX
UTILITY DESIGN
For maleic anhydride plant, the utilities required are cooling water, steam, and fuel
(natural gas). Thus, in this chapter, the amounts of these utilities usage are calculated and
those utility systems are designed.
Cooling tower is a very important part of many chemical plants. They have a relatively
inexpensive and dependable means of removing low grade heat from cooling water.
Mechanical draft counterflow cooling tower is used in our plant. The tower
utilizes large fan to force air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill
surfaces which help increase the contact time between the water and the air. This helps
maximize heat transfer between them. The counterflow tower occupies less floor space
than a crossflow tower. The figure below show the structure of mechanical draft
counterflow tower.
223
Figure 9.1 show the cooling system in our plant. The heat exchanger that need to use
cooling water as a cooling medium are cooler E-2, cooler E-3, cooler E-5, reactor cooling
system (cooler), condenser located at the outlet of distillation column, and condenser
located at the steam system. After exchange heat with plant heat exchanger, hot water will
flow to the cooling tower to cool down to 25oC. Then, the cold water from cooling tower
is pump to plant heat exchanger again and repeat the cycles. The make-up water source is
used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to
other units for further cooling.
a) Cooler E-2
Q = 428.54 kW
For hot stream (n-butane): Mass flow rate of n-butane = 15925.48 kg/hr
Tin = 90oC
Tout = 39oC
= 14738.42 kg/hr
b) Cooler E-3
Q = 937.07 kW
Inlet temperature of hot stream = 151.5 oC
Outlet temperature of hot stream = 132 oC
937.07
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw
(55 25)4.181
= 7.471 kg/s
3600s
7.471kg / s
1hr
= 26895.10 kg/hr
c) Cooler E-5
Q = 16, 333 kW
For hot stream (Dibutyl Phthalate solvent, DBP): Mass flow rate of = 91,520.60 kg/hr
Tin= 351.43 oC
Tout = 30 oC
16333
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw:
(55 25)4.181
= 130.216 kg/s
3600s
130.216kg / s
1hr
= 468777.80 kg/hr
Tout: 55oC
e) Condenser
Q = 24252 kW
For hot stream (organic vapour with maleic anhydride):
Total Mass flow of organic vapor, mv = 45683.97 kg/hr = 12.70kg/s
Tin = 234.9oC
Tout = 149.3oC
24252
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw
(55 25)4.181
= 193.35 kg/s
3600s
193.35 kg / s
1hr
= 696 060 kg/hr
Table 9.1: Summary of Cooling Water Flow Rate for each Plant Heat exchanger
227
Once a tower characteristic has been established, the required tower size will be a
function of:
i. Cooling range
ii. Approach to wet bulb temperature
iii. Mass flow rate of water
iv. Wet bulb temperature
v. Air velocity through tower or individual tower cell
vi. Tower height
Figure 9.3: Sizing chart for a counterflow induced-draft cooling tower (Perry Chemical
Engineer’s Handbook)
A straight line on Figure 9.3, connecting the points representing the design water and wet-
bulb temperatures, shows that a water concentration of 1.25 gal/(min/ft2) is required.
= 294006 ft2
= 194006 ft2 x (0.3048m x 0.3048m)/1ft 2
= 18024 m2
General rules are usually used to determine tower heights depending on the necessary
time of contact are shown in table below:
229
From the table, we know that typical tower height for this cooling tower is in the range
15-20 ft. Let say, the cooling tower’s height is 18ft = 4.57m
Make-up requirements for a cooling tower consist of the evaporation loss, drift loss, and
blowdown.
Wm = We + Wd + Wb
Thus,
We = 0.00085 x 2295m3/hr x (131°F -77°F) x 1.8
= 189.61 m3/hr
(b) Drift is entrained water in the tower discharge vapors. Drift loss is a function of
the drift-eliminator design, which typically varies between 0.1 and 0.2 percent of
the water supplied to the tower. Thus,
(c) Blowdown discards a portion of the concentrated circulating water due to the
evaporation process in order to lower the system solids concentration. Cycles of
concentration involved with cooling-tower operation normally range from three to
five cycles. Five cycles are selected for this cooling tower.
Wb = We / (cycles - 1)
= 189.61 m3/hr / (5-1)
= 47.40 m3/ hr
Thus,
Amount of make up water, Wm
= 189.61 m3/hr + 4.59 m3/hr + 47.40 m3/hr
= 241.6 m3/hr
In this steam system, raw water is feed to demineralization plant for treatment before it is
fed to boiler. Then, the treated water is pumped to the boiler and heat up to 400 oC
superheated steam. The superheated steam generated is used to supply the steam for plant
boiler and heater, and supply steam for steam turbine to generate electricity. After supply
heat for plant boiler and heater, the steam is flow to the steam condenser to condense. The
steam at outlet of steam turbine is also will flow to the condenser. Water from the
condenser will recycle back to the demineralization plant and undergo same process again.
Reboiler 456.630
9.2.1 Steam usage to generate power by steam turbine
232
In this Maleic anhydride plant, steam turbine is used to generate power to supply the
compressor CP-1.
Power of compressor CP-1 = 4528.934 kW
m1h1 = m2 h2 + Q, m1 = m2 = m
m(h1-h2) = Q
m (3276.7 kJ/kg - 2721.5 kJ/kg) = 4528.934 kW
m = 8.1573 kg/s
Therefore, total steam required for steam turbine to generate 4528.934 kW is 8.1573 kg/s.
If we know the heat transfer rate, the amount of steam can be calculated:
ms = q / he = q/ 2085 kJ/k
Thus, Total steam supply = total steam supply + total steam required for steam turbine
= 8.0183 kg/s + 8.1573 kg/s
= 16.1756 kg/s
= 16.1756 kg/s x 3600s/hr x 24 hr /day
= 1397571.84 kg/day
= 48848.1 kJ/kg
Calculate heat duty for this boiler that generating 58232.16 kg/h at 200 kPa and 400 oC
Water inlet temperature = 125 oC
= 58232.16 (0.02)(295-125)
= 198 kW
Duty = 32198 kW
Steam flow-rate = 58232.16 kg/h
From figure 12.1 (Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Design), for steam and
heavy organic liquid as fuel supply to boiler, take:
U = 300 Wm-2 C-1
The superheated steam from plant boiler and heater and also the steam from the steam
turbine will flow to condenser to condense before entering the demineralization plant
again. The cooling medium is cooling water which supply by cooling tower. The
condenser design is one shell pass, two tube passes, pull-through floating head with each
tubes dimension of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel and square pitch
arrangement. The operating pressure = 120 kPa.
16.1765 kg kJ
Heat transferred from steam, Qv = x (2724 − 444.356) kg
s
= 36877 𝑘𝑊
T1 = 125oC
t2= 55°C T2 = 75 °C
237
t1 = 25°C
For one shell pass, two tube passes, from figure 12.19,
Ft = 0.93.
∆Tm = 0.93 x 59.44 = 55.28oC
Select tubes of 20 mm o.d., 16.8 mm i.d., 4.88 m long of steel, square pitch.
Surface area of one tube = 20 x 10-3 x x 4.88 = 0.305 m2
741.22
Number of tubes 2430
0.305
Use square pitch, Pt 1.25x20mm 25mm
1
2430 2.263
Tube bundle diameter, Db 20( ) 1417 mm
0.158
Db 1417
Number of tubes in centre row, Nr 57
Pt 25
Take as pull-through floating head, select baffle spacing = shell diameter, 45 per cent cut
238
2430
Tube cross-sectional area x(16.8 x103 ) 2 x 0.2693m 2
4 2
55 25
At mean temperature, t 40 o C
2
Density of water, ρL 992.26 kg / m 3
294.01 1
Water linear velocity, ut 992.26 x 0.2693 1.1m / s
4200(1.35 0.02x40)1.10.8
hi 0.2
5543 W / m 2o C
16.8
125 75
Mean temp, Shell-side 100 o C
2
55 25
Tube-side 40 o C
2
Wc
Horizontal tube loading, Ґh
LN t
1
16.1756kg / s x
4.88m x 2430
0.0014 kg / s m
= 5146 W/𝑚2 𝑜 𝐶
c) Overall Coefficient
do
d o ln
1 1 1 di do 1 d 1
( x )( o x
U o ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi )
20
20x103 ln( )
1 1 1 16.8 20 1 20 1
( ) x x
U 5146 3000 2 x50 16.8 3000 16.8 5543
U 851W / m 2o C
240
Close to estimate.
Take as pull-through floating head, select baffle spacing = shell diameter, 45 per cent cut
From figure 12.10, the shell-bundle clearance = 97 mm
Shell diameter, Ds = 1417mm + 97 mm = 1514 mm
( PT d o ) Ds B (25 20)
Cross-flow area, As x 1514 x1514 x 10 6 0.458m 2
PT 25
Ws 1
Mass velocity, G s 16.1756x 35.32 kg / sm 2
As 0.458
G s 35.32
Velocity, us 0.71 49.75 m / s
v
1.27 2 2
Equivalent diameter, d e d ( PT 0.785d o )
o
1.27
(252 0.785x202 )
20
19.8 mm
Take pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow; neglect viscosity
correction.
1 D s L 0.14 u s
2
Ps 8 j f ( )( )( )
2 de B w 2
L x ut 2
CHAPTER X
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The propose of this analysis is to estimate total cost to build a maleic anhydride
production plant that will be constructed at Gebeng, Kuantan in order can analyze the
profit accurately and worth pursuing financially. Another objectives are:
a) Enable to make sure whether the planed project will make profit or not.
b) Allow company to consider about the alternative investment.
c) Help to decide the alternative design for the plant.
d) Estimate total capital investment to build the plant.
The main product that produces from this plant is maleic anhydride. The price of maleic
Anhydride on August 2009 is RM 4587.20 per tonne.
Total capital investment, CTC is the sum of capital required to provide facilities in the
plant, start plant operation and acquire land for the site to construct the plant.
𝐶𝑇𝐶 = 𝐶𝐹𝐶 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶 + 𝐶𝐿
where : CTC = Total investment cost
CFC = Fixed capital investment
CWC = Working capital
CL = Capital to purchase land for the plant
244
Boiler E-1
Size, S = 15, 925 kg/hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Boiler E-1 in year 2007 = RM 2,000,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Compressor CP-1
Size, S = 4.53x103 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of compressor in year 2007 = RM 5,000,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
245
Cooler E-2
Q = 428.54 kW
For hot stream (n-butane): Mass flow rate of n-butane = 15925.48 kg/hr
Tin = 90oC
Tout = 39oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin: 25oC
Tout: 55oC
kJ
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw: 428.54 kw mcw 4.187 (50 25)
kg.K
= 14738.42 kg/hr
Log mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇lm = 22.92 oC
R = 1.7, S = 0.46
From figure 12.20 ( Sinott R.K 2005), for two shell passes and four tube passes, Ft = 0.9
𝑇m = 0.9 x 22.92 oC = 20.63 oC
Overall coefficient, U assume = 500 W/ oC m2
Reactor R-1
Size, S=91.25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Reactor R-1 in year 2007 = RM 2,500,000
247
Q mCT
kJ
1050kw m 1.23 (280 200)
kg.K
3600s
mhot 10.67kg / s
1h
3.84 10 4 kg / h
kJ
1050kw mcw 4.187 (55 25)
kg.K
3600s
mcw 8.36kg / s
1h
3.01x 10 4 kg / h
From figure 6.3 b (Sinott R.K 2005): Bare vessel cost = $ 8, 000 (in year 2004)
Pressure factor = 1.0
Type factor (U-tube) = 0.85
For vessel cost = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $8, 000 x 1.0 x 0.85
= $6, 800
= RM 26,000
Index CEPCI 2004 = 444.2
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Absorber C-1
Vessel Height = 11.15 m
Diameter, d = 2.75 m
Number of tray = 16
Type of column plate = Sieve
Material =carbon steel
Pressure = 200kPa = 2 bar
Boiler E-4
Size, S = 116, 624 kg/hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of Boiler E-4 in year 2007 = RM 9,000,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Condenser
Q = 24252 kW
For hot stream (organic vapour with maleic anhydride):
Total Mass flow of organic vapor, mv = 45683.97 kg/hr
Tin = 234.9oC
Tout = 149.3oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin= 25oC
Tout = 55oC
24252
Mass flow rate of cooling water, mcw:
(55 25)4.181
= 193.35kg/s
3600s
193.35 kg / s
1hr
= 696060.00 kg/hr
Reboiler
Area of reboiler = 10.53 m2
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of reboiler in year 2007 = RM 47,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Cooler E-5
Q = 16, 333 kW
For hot stream (Dibutyl Phthalate solvent, DBP): Mass flow rate of = 91,520.60 kg/hr
Tin= 351.43 oC
Tout = 30 oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin: 25oC
Tout: 55oC
For vessel cost = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $100, 000 x 1.0 x 1.0
= $100, 000
= RM 380, 000
Pump
Power = 1.837 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of pump in year 2007 = RM 34,000
Heater E-6
Size, S=464.199 kW
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of heater in year 2007 = RM 280,000
253
Cooler E-3
Q = 937.07 kW
Inlet temperature of hot stream = 151.5 oC
Outlet temperature of hot stream = 132 oC
For cold stream (cooling water): Tin = 25oC
Tout = 55oC
Log mean temperature difference, ∆𝑇lm = 98.67 oC
R = 0.46, S = 0.25
From figure 12.19( Sinott R.K 2005), Ft = 0.98
𝑇m 0.98 x 98.67 oC = 96.7 oC
Overall coefficient, U assume = 500 W/ oC m2
For vessel cost = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $8, 000 x 1.0 x 0.85
= $ 6,800
= RM 25,840
254
Crystallizer P-1/CR-101
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cystallizer type: Batch, Atmospheric
Crystallizer volume = 20,558 L
≈ 21,000 L
≈ 5548 gal
Material: Carbon steel
Cost of crystallizer in year 2007 = $122,900 = RM 467,020
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Filter P-2/UF-101
Capacity = 20,178 L/hr
≈ 20.2 m3/hr
Type: Plate and frame
Material: Cast iron
Size, S ≈ 25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of filter in year 2007 = RM 230,000
Product tank
Cystal MA produced = 19,398 L/hr
= 19.4 m3/hr
Size, S ≈ 25 m3
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of product tank in year 2007 = RM 124,600
Wet scrubber
Vessel Height = 12 m
Diameter, d = 2.10 m
Number of tray = 17
Type of column plate = Sieve
Material =carbon steel
Pressure = 110 kPa = 1.1 bar
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost in year 2007 = $ 165, 500 (RM 628, 900)
257
pH Adjustment Tank
Size, S = 231 m3
Constant, C = 1750 £
Index, n = 0.6
Cost in year 2004, (Sinott R.K 2005)
Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 231 0.6
= 45 835£
= RM 246, 592
Aeration Tank
Size, S = 154.0 m3
Constant, C = 1750 £
Index, n = 0.6
Cost in year 2004, (Sinott R.K 2005)
258
Clarifier
Size, S = 231.0 m3
Constant, C = 1750 £
Index, n = 0.6
Cost in year 2004, (Sinott R.K 2005)
Ce = CSn = 1750 £ x 231 0.6
= 45, 835£
= RM 246, 592
Dechlorination Tank
Size, S = 231.0 m3
Constant, C = 1750 £
Index, n = 0.6
259
Cooling tower
Water rate = 242508 gal/min
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost in year 2007 = $ 4,082,400 = RM 15,000,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Boiler
Capacity = 16.1756 kg/s = 58232 kg/hr = 128,378 lb/ hr
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost,
Boiler type: oil/ gas fired
Material: Carbon steel
Cost of boiler in year 2007 = $ 1,486,100 = RM 5, 647, 180
Steam turbine
Refer to http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-analyses/pubs/PELostEstim_FinalReport.pd
Power = 4528.934 kW = 6070 horsepower
Refer to http://matche.com/EquipCost, Cost of steam turbine in year 2007=RM 1,500,000
From Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI):
Index CEPCI 2007 = 525.4
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Condensor
Q = 36877 𝑘𝑊
For hot stream (steam): Mass flow of steam, mv = 16.1756 kg/s
Inlet temperature = 125oC
Outlet temperature = 75oC
For cold stream (cool water): Inlet temperature = 25 oC
Outlet temperature = 55 oC
Cost of condenser in year 2004 = (bare cost from figure) x Pressure factor x Type factor
= $ 120, 000 x 1.0 x 1.0
= $120, 000
= RM 456, 000
262
Total: 26,496,000
Total: 1,115,000
Total: 18,102,000
For pre-design estimates, a delivery allowance of 10% of the purchased equipment cost is
recommended. Thus,
Equipment delivery cost = 0.1 x Total purchased equipment cost
= RM 5,827,600
Control valve
Type: Diaphragm valve body
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $600 = RM 2,280
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Cost of control valve (per piece) = RM 2,280 x (631.9/402)
= RM 3,584
Valve
Type: ball valve
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $2000 = RM 7,600
265
Pressure controller
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $3,000 = RM 11,400
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Cost of pressure controller (per piece) = RM 11,400 x (631.9/402)
= RM 17,920
Flow control
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $1,750 = RM 6,650
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Cost of flow controller (per piece) = RM 6,650 x (631.9/402)
= RM 10,453
Temperature controller
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $1,000 = RM 3,800
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Cost of temperature controller (per piece) = RM 3,800 x (631.9/402)
= RM 5,973
Level controller
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $4,000 = RM 15,200
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Thus, Cost of level controller = RM 15,200 x (631.9/402) = RM 23,893
266
Pressure transmitter
Type: Pressure - electronic
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $2,000 = RM 7,600
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Thus, Cost of pressure transmitter (per piece) = RM 7,600 x (631.9/402)
= RM 11,946
Flow transmitter
Type: Flow - orifice
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $3,500 = RM 13,300
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
Temperature transmitter
Type: Temperature - RTD
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $2,000 = RM 7,600
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
267
Level transmitter
Type: Level-Ultransonic
Cost per piece (in year 2003) = $2500 = RM 9,500
Index CEPCI 2003 = 402
Index CEPCI 2009 = 631.9
v) Piping Cost
To operate a plant, we need to consider the electrical system which consists of power
wiring, lighting, transformation and service, and instrument and control wiring. For most
process plants, the installation cost of electrical systems is estimated to be 15 to 30
percent of the delivered purchase equipment cost. Thus,
The cost of buildings, including services consists of expenses for labour, materials and
supplies involved in the erection of all buildings connected with the plant. The cost of
building are used for piping to supply water in the building, lighting, air conditioning
system, ventilation and other services that are required in the building.
269
For most process plants, the cost for yard improvement is approximately 10 to 20 percent
of the purchased equipment cost. Thus,
Service facilities are components to provide utilities to the plant as well as other types of
services such as supplying steam, supplying water, supplying power, supplying
compressed air, supplying fuel, facilities for waste treatment and disposal, fire protection
system, maintenance workshop, first-aid items and infirmary, cafeteria equipment and
facilities and so on.
The total cost for service facilities in process plants generally range from 30 to 80
percent of the purchased equipment cost. In this analysis, total cost for service facilities
are estimated as 80 percent of the purchased equipment cost. Thus,
The engineering and supervision cost are required for construction design and
engineering, use of internal or licensed software to aid in the design process, production
of computer-based drawings, purchasing, accounting, cost engineering, travel,
communication, home office expenses and overheads.
Legal costs are due to expenses incurred in equipment purchase, drawing out construction
contracts, understanding and complying with local authority requirement and compliance
with environmental and safety requirements. A legal expense is estimated to be 1 to 3
percent of the fixed capital investment, assumed needed RM 14,570,000.
It represents the profit made by the company appointed to provide the engineering,
purchasing and construction services. It can be estimated to be 1.5 to 6 percent of the
fixed capital investment. Thus, assumed needed RM 11,660,000.
v) Contingencies
The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of money invested
in:
i. Raw materials and supplies carried in stock
ii. Finished stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured
iii. Accounts receivable
iv. Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries,
wages and raw material purchases
v. Accounts payable
vi. Taxes payable
Since this maleic anhydride plant are build at existing site at Gebeng, so we no need to
consider capital to purchase land for the plant. Thus, CL=0.
273
To determine total product cost, we use method by Turton, Bailie, Whiting and Shaeiwitz
in the book “Analysis, Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processess”.
The total product cost, TPC, can be determined when the following costs is known:
i. Fixed capital investment (CFC)
ii. Operating labour cost (COL)
iii. Utilities cost (CUT)
iv. Waste treatment cost (CWT)
v. Raw material cost (CRM)
General Expenses,
GE = (0.177) COL+ (0.009) CFC + (0.16) TPC
If annual depreciation charges are not included in TPC, the following equation are use to
calculate the total product cost.
Operating labour cost is the second highest in the manufacturing cost of a product.
Usually operator works 48 weeks/year, 3 shifts/week, 8 hour/shift.
This means an operator works = 48 weeks/year x 3 shifts/ week
= 144 shifts/ year
Chemical plant operators are relatively highly paid, and a typical value of RM42,000
/year, (RM3, 500/month) is assumed.
So, labour cost = 88 x (RM 42, 000) = RM 3,700,000/year
The cost of utilities consists of steam, electricity, process and cooling water, natural gas
which varies widely depending on the amount needed, plant location and source.
a) Electricity consumption
Since we have a steam turbine to generate electric for the compressor in the plant, thus we
just estimate the electricity supply for pump only. Besides that, we had also considered
the electricity supply for the building for air-cond, light, computer and so on which
assumed.
Thus, total power required = 352.7 kWh + 360 kWh + 240kWh + 240kWh = 1192.7 kWh
Refer to http://www.tnb.com.my/tnb/tariff/newrate_industrial.htm
277
Bill calculation for Tariff E-1 (Medium Voltage General Industrial Tariff)
Cost for all kWh is 26.6sen/kWh
Thus, Cost for electricity per day = 1192.7 kWh x RM 0.266/kWh
= RM 317/day
Refer to http://www.syabas.com.my/mainservice.php
Bill calculation for Tariff Code -11 (Commercial)
Since the water use in steam system can be recycle, thus assumed raw water supply to
boiler to generate steam from the second month and after is 30% of raw water supply to
boiler = 0.3 x 41,927 m3/month = 12,578 m3/ month.
Since the cooling water use in cooling system can be recycle, consumption for the
plant start from second month and after = (241.6 m3/hr x 24hr/day x 30 day /1month) =
173,952 m3/ month.
Since water is also need to supply in building such as office, lab and so on, thus it is
assumed as 5% from water consumption for the plant) = RM 69,200/year
Refer to chapter utility, steam system part; amount of Liquefied Natural Gas is needed to
supply heat for boiler,
= 44954.35 kg/day
= 44954.35 kg/day x (1tonne/1000kg) x (30 day/month) x (12 month /year)
= 16,000 tonne/year
The waste treatment plant consists of waste gas treatment and waste water treatment
plant. Cost required for waste treatment is needed to be considered because there are
several chemical added to treat effluent waste water. Refer to chapter waste water
treatment,
For dechlorination tank, sodium bisulphite is added with average dosage 1.5
mg/L. Volumetric flow rate of influent = 77.0 m3/hr = 7.70 x 104 L/hr = 1.84 x 106 L/day
The raw material cost includes n-butane, Dibutyl phthalate solvent and Vanadium
phosphorus oxide.
Summary of cost:
4 Utilities
4.1 Electricity 0.114 million /year
4.2 Water 1.45 million/year
4.3 Natural gas 23 million /year
4.4 Molten salt 3.52 million/year 28 million/year
For a manufacturing project, there are two types of profitability analysis which:
i. Methods that do not consider time value of money.
ii. Methods that consider the time value of money.
There are several methods which consist such as Return on Investment (ROI), Payback
Period (PBP) and Net Return.
The ratio of the profit to investment is determined in this method. There have several
measures of profit and investment can be used, the most common are net profit and total
capital investment, which can be expressed as below;
285
𝑁𝑃𝐽
𝑅𝑂𝐼 =
𝐶𝑇𝐶
Then, ROI that has been determined is then compared with a rate of return value
(fraction or percentage) known as the Minimum Acceptable Rate or Return (MARR) that
is given the symbol, mar. The value depends on the type of process and the level of risk
for the project. If the value of ROI is greater or equal to the value of the chosen, mar, then
the project is said to offer an acceptable return.
Profitability is measure in terms of the length of time necessary for the total return to
equal the capital investment is called Payback period or payout period. The initial fixed
capital investment and the annual cash flow are usually used in this calculation by using
the following equation:
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑥
𝑃𝐵𝑃 =
𝐴𝑗
where; 𝑃𝐵𝑃 =Payback period (years)
𝑉= manufacturing fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑥 = non manufacturing fixed capital investment
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑥 = total fixed capital investment
𝐴𝑗 = Annual cash flow
The value of PBP should be compared to a reference PBP obtained from the
minimum acceptable rate of return, mar. The reference PBP is calculated by following
equation;
286
0.85
𝑃𝐵𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
𝑚𝑎𝑟 + 0.85
𝑛
In conclusion, then project is said to be acceptable if the PBP for the project is lower
that the value of PBP ref.
c) Net return
For net return, the amount of cash flow is over and above that required to meet the
minimum acceptable rate of return and recover the total capital investment. The equation
to calculate the net return is;
n n n
Rn ( N p , j d j rec j ) C j mar n c j
j 1 j b j b
Then, any positive value for Rn or Rn, ave indicates that the cash flow to the
project is actually greater than the amount necessary to repay the investment and obtain a
return that meets the minimum acceptable rate, mar. In other words, the project is earning
at a rate greater than mar. This will be on the other hand if the value is negative.
The methods that consider the time value of money include Net Present Value (NPV) or
Net Present Worth (NPW) and also Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR).
287
a) Net Present Value (NPV) and Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR).
Definition of Net present value (NPV) is the total present value (PV) of a time series of
cash flows. The NPV at the minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is positive, then the
project is said to earn a return greater than mar and is attractive.
For the Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR) method, the objective is
to find the value of the interest rate, i such that NPV =0. If the value of i for a project is
greater than mar, then the project is said to be attractive. Below are the economic data to
calculate ROI, PBP and Net Return;
Table 10.14: Economic data for ROI, PBP and Net return
Fixed Capital Investment RM 488,000,000
Working Capital RM 122,000,000
Total Capital Investment RM 610,000,000
Full Capacity 200,000,000.00 kg/yr
Total Product Cost at Full Capacity RM 350,000,000/yr
Fixed Charges (including general expenses) RM 135,400,000/yr
Direct Manufacturing Costs at Full Capacity RM 214,600,000/yr
Design Life 25.00 yrs
Scrap Value at End of Design Life RM 0.00
Annual Depreciation Charges RM 19,520,000
Taxation Rate 0.25
Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return, marr 0.20
Product Sales Price RM 3.00/kg
PBPref 3.63
288
While, the economic data to calculate NPV and DCFRR are shown as below;
Table 10.16: Economic data for DCFRR ( Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return)
Fixed Capital Investment RM 488,000,000
Working Capital RM 122,000,000
Total Capital Investment RM 610,000,000
Full Capacity 200,000,000.00 kg/yr
Total Product Cost at Full Capacity RM350,000,000/yr
Fixed Charges (including general expenses) RM 135,400,000/yr
Direct Manufacturing Costs at Full Capacity RM 214,600,000/yr
Design Life 25.00 yrs
Scrap Value at End of Design Life RM 0.00
289
From the calculation, the ROI value is 0.30, which is greater than mar value is 0.20. The
minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is 20% due to new product entering into
established market. Then, the project is said to offer an acceptable return. For Payback
Period (PBP), the value for our project is 3.01 which lower than PBP ref is 3.63.
While, Net Return method for our project is RM 61,000,000 and it is positive
value which indicates that the cash flow is greater than the amount necessary to repay the
investment and obtain a return that meet the minimum acceptable rate, mar. In other words,
the project is earning at a rate greater than mar.
The NPV for our project is RM 260,000,000 which positive value at minimum
acceptable rate of return, mar is 0.20, means the project is said to earn a return greater
than mar and is attractive. For Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFRR), the value
of the interest rate is, i= 0.27 with minimum acceptable rate of return, mar is 0.2.
290
Payback period
Interest rate, i NPV (RM)
(year)
1101184004
0.1 5
795212917.2
0.125 5.8
567784469.4
0.15 6
394636525.4
0.175 6.3
259900139.4
0.2 15
1.20E+09
1.00E+09
8.00E+08 i=0.1
6.00E+08
i=0.125
4.00E+08
2.00E+08 i=0.15
0.00E+00 i=0.175
-2.00E+08
-4 1 6 11 16 21 26 i=0.2
-4.00E+08
-6.00E+08 i=0.27
-8.00E+08
Year
From the graph above, the discounted cash flow when NPV= 0, is 27 %. This indicate,
when NPV= 0, the interest rate is maximum. Referring the table above, the NPV is
decrease with increasing interest of rate, i while the payback period is increasing. When,
the minimum rate of return is lower than the DCFRR = 27%, for our company at 20 %,
the value of NPV is RM 568 000000. Then, the project is said to be profitable.
291
𝐼 𝑚𝑠𝑘 7775 .3
where: 𝐾𝑟𝑡 = 𝐷1.066 𝐿𝑅0.12 2.18 + 𝐹𝑚𝐹𝑝 𝐹𝐼
𝐼 𝑚𝑠𝑑 3
300,000,000
250,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000
FPE4
100,000,000
50,000,000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Butane Conversion, X
Table 10.19: Data that required in the calculation FPE3 and FPE4
CHAPTER XI
SAFETY ANALYSIS
Releases of maleic anhydride into the environment can result from the manufacture and
use of the chemical. Small amounts can be found in the emissions from this production
process. There are believed to be no natural sources of release to the environment.
Besides that, maleic anhydride is biodegrades in soil and water. When released into soil it
can leach into groundwater; it will not evaporate significantly from water. When released
to air, maleic anhydride is expected to exist in the aerosol phase with a short half-life, it
can be broken down by reacting with ozone and hydroxyl radicals. It is not expected to
bioaccumulate. There is no significant global environmental effects are considered likely.
However, excessive exposure to maleic anhydride may affect the digestive system, eye,
kidney, lung and skin. The Environment Agency aims to ensure that environmental
exposures are too low to cause such effects (Environment-agency.gov.uk 2009).
Risk analysis is the systematic application of methods to identify and evaluate hazards.
As such it is a very wide subject, stretching from financial investment analyses, to
analysis of continuing health hazards, insurance questions, as well as the problems of
safety. Even within the field of safety there is a wide variation in technique, depending on
295
what that to be analysed. Risk analysis is routinely applied for weapons systems, space
systems, communications systems, aircraft, road and transport, and bridge design as well
as to process plant. The techniques described here cover therefore just a small part of the
total field of risk analysis. Apart from that, accidents in chemical plants can be grouped
into a few dominant classes as below:
Of these, the last three can give rise to major hazards with large consequences
(Multiple fatalities and major environmental incidents). Fires and explosions can at the
same time be starting points for major toxic and environmental accidents. While here the
leakage and spills can lead to ground pollution, groundwater pollution and sea area
pollution (J.R. Taylor 1994).
Therefore, defining the scope of the analysis is important. It is easy to leave out
important contributors to risk, because of the choice of the method for analysis or because
of the preconceptions about what is most hazardous. A concept hazards analysis initial
review (CHAIR) and detailed concept hazard analysis initial review (CHA) can help to
avoid these problems which will be discussed later. Unfortunately any risk analysis is
very dependent on the assumptions made. If the situation changes, the analysis becomes
invalid, and may serve only as a false assurance.
296
Due to the fact that we are not come out with P&ID drawing which show the
detail of control system. Therefore, both CHAIR and CHA is base on the preliminary
process flow diagram (PFD) for production of maleic anhydride. For the CHA analysis,
only the reactor part will be discussed which added with basic control system.
Concept hazard analysis initial review (CHAIR) is an early safety in wide use in the
process industries. It is often known as pre-HAZOP STUDY. It is simplest form this
merely involves gathering a simple record of one or more meetings between appropriate
specialists at which various aspects of design and operation are discusses in a structured
way. This record might consist of a simple system description identifying the plant, plant
items and process description. Various keywords can then be used to stimulate an
appropriate discussion topic which is recorded together with actions and notes (Geoff
Wells 1997).
The main reaction in the PBR reactor involves the reaction of butane and oxygen
to produce maleic anhydride:
C 4 H 10 3.5O2 C 4 H 2 O3 4 H 2 O
Butane + Oxygen → Maleic Anhydride + Water
C 4 H 10 5.5O2 2CO 2 2CO 5H 2 O
Butane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Carbon Monoxide + Water
The process is quite simple, so hazard analysis will be performed on the whole
production plant.
297
2. Fire Loss of integrity on reactor circuit likely to give rise to torch i) Evaluate length of flame from pipe at various
fire. Escalation probable if torch fire impacts on other locations.
equipment or pipe rack. ii) Action to de-pressure needs evaluation.
iii) Maintain oxygen-free atmosphere at start-up
and shutdown.
3. Explosion An internal explosion could occur if plant is not thoroughly Nitrogen purge required at start-up and shut-
purged at start-up. down.
4. Discharge The emission of material on overpressure can be to Check if carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
atmosphere or to flare. are environmentally friendly.
5. Reaction and The reaction of MA production is exothermic. As the A temperature controller and cold water flow is
over temperature production process for MA continued will result in increased needed to maintain the temperature of reactor.
temperature inside the reactor and also the outlet temperature Check mechanical design to withstand maximum
will be increased. feasible temperature.
6. Overpressure Overpressure can occur due to lack of demand for product or Check relief requirements if product off-spec or
downstream blockage. Upstream plant has slow response to lack of demand. Consider venting to atmosphere
reduce capacity. Hence need for venting as well as process or fuel gas. Report back on relief valve decision.
relief.
298
8. Toxics Chronic and acute effect for exposure of materials such as Delayed adverse effects possible. Obtain medical
butane and carbon dioxide which are toxic by inhalation. assistance.
9. Utility problems:
i) Loss of air i) Process is disturbed and cause production capacity MA i) Open the bypass on air failure.
decresed.
ii) Loss of cooling ii) Process is disturbed and might cause failure. ii) Install back-up of the utility if necessary.
iii) Loss of iii) All flows to stop. iii) Open the bypass on electricity failure.
electricity
10. External i) A local fire would necessitate the immediate depressure of i) Check plot plans of rest of complex.
Threats the plant. Segregate plant items by distance or barriers.
ii) Space required around reactor for packing the reactor and ii) Check packing operation to ensure no impact
bringing in the columns. danger.
299
Concept hazard analysis (CHA) is used for the identification of hazard characteristics in
an attempt to identify areas which are recognized as being particularly dangerous from
previous incidents in the past. It also identifies the need to explore any difficulties which
might be experienced with unwanted reactions. As well as identifying environmental
damage, the analysis may also consider whether the proposal fulfils the ‘green’ policies of
the company. Elimination or reduction of the hazards a primary objective, as doing this at
an early stage of the design is particularly cost-effective (Geoff Wells 1997).
CHA for MA production plant is carried in two phases whereby the first phase of
the analysis is to determine the substance characteristics of every stream in the section of
the plant being investigated. The second phase of the analysis is to determine the
hazardous process characteristics of the section of the plant under investigation and is
based on the outcomes of the first phase of the CHA. Table 5.2 shows the result of the
first phase of CHA recorded in a pro-forma. Table 5.3 shows the result of the second
phase of CHA.
300
Table 11.2: First phase of CHA (base on ICON process flow diagram drawing)
7-1 Feed stream to reactor Butane, oxygen Vapour 350oC, 275kPa OFF-SPEC with ratio of
butane-oxygen.
8 Feed to coolar E-3 MA,H2O,O2 ,N2,CO2 Vapour 350oC, 250kPa Accumulation of high
and CO. concentrations this
materials will become
TOXIC.
301
10 Catalyst feed stream Dibutyl phthalate Liquid 30oC, 170kPa Slightly FLAMMABLE
to flammable in presence
of open flames and
sparks, of heat.
10-1 Catalyst outlet from Dibutyl phthalate Liquid 30.1oC, 170kPa As stream No.10
Mix-3
13 MA preheater E-4 H2O, MA, some Vapour, 300oC, 140kPa As stream No.12
outlet dissolved butane, Liquid
oxygen, CO2,
CO
302
15 Desired product from MA(main), H2O Liquid 149.3oC, 110kPa CORROSIVE subtance.
distillation column The products of
that is, mainly MA degradation are more
(Feed to crystallizer) TOXIC.
17 Vent as fuel gases MA, H2O, O2 , Vapour 98.6oC, 110kPa As stream No.14
N2,CO2 and CO.
2 Reaction Exothermic runaway Release of reaction energy. More robust design Check action if trip fails.
reaction in reactor. Weakening of materials of reactor. Trip reactor Check sneak path
of construction. on high temperature on start-up.
Project to advise.
3 Reaction Air in vessels Combustion in vessels Purge plant before start- up Get more information
causes CHEMICAL Ensure catalyst covered on catalyst. Project
EXPLOSION. by N2 as replaced to advise.
5 Over Pressure Over-pressure in High pressure causes Place the relief valves Flare may be needed.
reactor PHYSICAL EXPLOSION. in circuit. Project to advise.
9 Equipment: Blockage Blockage of butane at top Bed of ceramics on top of Check requirement at
Reactor of reactor (cause reactor. base.
channelling).
10 Equipment: High bed Failure to cool down Improve heat exchanger Project to advise.
Reactor temperature during the bed causes off spec network.
reaction product
305
Improper unloading, handling and storage of maleic anhydride can result in fire,
explosion, and health hazards as well as corrosion of equipment and product degradation.
Maleic anhydride can be handled without unnecessary risk by using the appropriate safety
and handling procedures. Besides that, by obeying some regulative laws guidelines which
have been established by government or other environmental, safety and health agency as
stated below:
TWA: 1 mg/m3
TWA Vacated: 1 mg/m3 (environmentalchemistry.com 2009).
Apart from that, disposal of maleic anhydride is regulated by the United States
(U.S.) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA), regulation at 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 2611.33(f),
306
and is coded as Hazardous Waste Number U147. This regulation requires that all waste
be disposed of through a licensed hazardous waste incinerator. It cannot be landfilled.
According to the OSHA, the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for maleic
anhydride is 0.25 ppm (1.0 mg/m3) as an 8-hour time weighted average. The ACGIH
threshold limit value (TLV) is 0.1 ppm (0.4 mg/m3) as an 8-hour time weighted average
and has a sensitizer designation. These are the workplace concentrations in air to which
workers may be exposed according to OSHA and ACGIH. Maleic anhydride has good
warning properties when near the PEL because it is extremely irritating. For that reason,
under most circumstances, workers who breathe concentrations higher than the PEL will
experience major discomfort (American Chemistry Council 2001).
Table 11.4: Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process Flow Diagram
1. Partially clogged 1. Less butane for reaction, 1. Install low flow alarm at
1B LOW of feed pipeline. feed flow.
Operator to take action.
308
1. Without a control 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
valve fails close. Overflow of n-butane, operator to take action.
1C HIGH deviation from the set
ratio of n-butane and
oxygen.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Select valve to fail open.
pipeline. the expander. Install high pressure alarm.
Operator to take action.
2B LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Less products to 2. Same as above.
partially plugged. absorber.
clogged.
1. Feed pipelines leak. 1. Oversupply of heat. 1. Install low level and high
temperature alarm.
Operator to take action.
3C LOW
Operator to take
action.
Operator to take
action.
2B
HIGH 2. Over pressure inside 2. Same as above. 2. Install high flow
distillation column. alarm.
Operator to take
action.
1. Product pipeline leak. 1. Hazard to workers. 1. Install low flow
alarm.
2C LOW
2. Product pipeline 2. Pressure build up inside 2. Same as above.
partially plugged. column, rupture or
explode may occur.
1. Product pipelines 1. Inefficient product from 1. Install high level
Distillation
3A Level HIGH clogged. phase separation alarm and pressure
colum
process. relief valve. Operator
325
3B LOW
2. Leaking of feed 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
pipeline.
1. Partially plugged in 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
feed pipeline. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
1C LOW
2. Same as above.
330
Feed
1A Flow NO 2. Feed pipelines 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
clogged.
1. Partially plugged 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW
in feed pipeline fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
333
action.
1. High water supply 1. Over heating. Dagerous 1. Install pressure relief valve.
temperature. to workers. Install high temperature
1E Temperature HIGH
alarm. Operator to take
action.
1. Low heating water 1. Inefficient heating. 1. Install low flow heating
supply. water alarm. Operator to take
1F LOW
action.
339
Table 11.5: Hazards and Operability Review (HAZOP) Based On Process And Instrumentation Diagram.
2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm for
Feed
1A Flow NO to response. the expander.
pipeline
Feed 2. Control valve fails 2. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm.
1A Flow NO
pipeline close. Operator to take action.
Feed 2. Control valve fails 3. Same as above. 2. Set up a low flow alarm for
1A Flow NO
pipeline close. the reactor.
heating pipe.
1. Control valve fail 1. Feed pipeline may crack. 1. Install high flow alarm for
open. Overflow of n-butane and operator to take action.
1C HIGH oxygen feed, deviation
from the set ratio of n-
butane and oxygen.
AS WELL 1. Wrong material fed 1. No MA formation. 1. Check quality control
1D
AS into reactor. regularly.
1. Contamination of 1. Incomplete reaction. 1. Check for any feed pipeline
1E PART OF vapour n-butane leak.
and oxygen feed.
1. Clogged of feed 1. Pressure builds up inside 1. Install high pressure alarm.
pipeline. reactor. Operator to take action.
1. Control valve fails 1. Level vapour products 1. Install low level alarm.
open. inside reactor decrease Operator to take action.
drastically.
2C HIGH
absorbent process.
recycle
stream fails to
function
properly.
3A Product flow Flow LOW 1. Clogging of 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install low flow alarm
product flow. crack. for operator to take
action.
6A Level HIGH 1. High feed 1. Product pipeline may 1. Install relief valve.
flow. crack. Install high level alarm.
Clogged of Operator to take action.
product
pipeline.
2. Hazard to workers.
1. Control valve that 1. Pressure build up inside 1. Install high flow alarm.
fail open. phase separator, rupture Operator to take action.
1C HIGH
or explode may occur.
action.
Feed
1A Flow NO 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
1. Partially plugged in 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW feed pipeline. fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
364
1. Partially plugged 1. Less waste gas going into 1. Install low flow alarm.
1C LOW in feed pipeline fuel gas line. Operator to take action.
367
Product
2A Flow NO 2. Same as above.
Pipeline
pipeline.
1E HIGH
2. High 2. Same as above. 2. Same as above.
temperature of
surrounding.
1. Less heating by 1. Maleic anhydride not 1. Install low temperature
dryer. fully in solid phase. alarm.
1F LOW
Conveyer belt will Operator to take action.
damage.
CHAPTER XII
12.1 INTRODUCTION
A suitable site must be obtained and all positions and equipment must be careful
in order to optimize the operating plant. The strategic position of the plant will enable the
course of the operation, security and future growth will go smoothly. Therefore,
profitability of a plant can be maximized to the highest level.
Operating units and the building must be well organized so that its use can be increased to
the extent that optimum. Buildings and services required in a plant are as follows.
i. The administration building
ii. Research and development laboratory
iii. Quality control centre
iv. Engineering workshop
v. Storage tank
376
According to each facility and the requirements listed above, consideration should
be made to compile all these requirements where appropriate with optimizing the use of
the existing site. For example, the administration building should be placed near the main
entrance to facilitate the transaction and administrative workers commute. Besides that,
the devices are usually placed at a distance of at least 30 meters between each other,
while a larger distance may be required to major operating unit more
dangerous. Moreover, fire safety building also must be placed close to the dangerous
operating units.
The location of the principle ancillary buildings should then be decided. They
should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between
buildings. Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively number of people
will be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
Control room will normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with
potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance.
The siting of the main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads,
pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to each building for construction, and
for operation and maintenance.
377
Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and
from the process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind
the plume of condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties.
The main storage areas should be placed between the loading and unloading
facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials
should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft) from the sited boundary.
The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The principle
factors to be considered to construct Maleic Anhydride plant are:
12.3.1 Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel
work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
All the required equipments have to be placed properly within process. Even the
installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it will occupy the least
space.
378
GUARD
HOUSE
POWER SUPPLY
ADMISTRATION
CANTEEN
MAIN
ENTRANCE
WASTE-
WATER
TREATMENT
PLANT MTBE UNIT MTBE UNIT
PLANT UTILITIES
12.3.3 Operation
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located convenient to the
control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
12.3.4 Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or
packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires
dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed
under cover.
12.3.5 Safety
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operator must be provided from
each level in the process building.
380
REFERENCES
Anon. 2005. PERP Program- Maleic Anyhydride- New Report Alert. Nexant’s
ChemSystems.
Azlan Hasan. 2005. Appreciation of Pressure Vessel ASME Section VIII DIV.1. The
Institution of Engineers Malaysia.
Brown et al. 1997. Process for the preparation and recovery of maleic anhydride. United
States Patent 5,631,387: 1-18.
Buchanan, J.S. & Sundaresan, S. 1986. Kinetics & redox properties of vanadium
phosphate catalysts for butane oxidation. Applied Catalysis 26(1986): 211-226.
Chopey, N.P. 1994. Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations. 2nd edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Crowl. D.A. & Louvar, J.F. 2002. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals And
Applications. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR.
Fogler, H.S. 2006. Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering. 4th edition. University of
Michigan: Pearson Education, Inc.
Geankoplis, C.J. 2003. Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles. 4th
edition. University of Minnesota: Pearson Education, Inc.
382
Guliants, V.V. & Benziger, J.B. 1999. Effect of promoters for n-butane oxidation to
maleic anhydride over vanadium–phosphorus-oxide catalysts: comparison with
supported vanadia catalysts. Catalysis Letters 62(1999): 87–91.
Harry Silla. 2003. Chemical Process Engineering: Design and Economics. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
Joshuah, K. Stolaroff, D.W., Keith G.V. & Lowry. 2008. Carbon Dioxide Capture From
Atmospheric Air Using Sodium Hydroxide Spray: Supporting Information.
Environmental Science and Technology.
Legal Research Board. 2007. Environmental Quality Act 1974 (ACT 127) & Subsidiary
Legislation. Malaysia: International Law Book Services.
Metcalf & Eddy. 2004. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse. 4th Edition. New
York : Mc Graw Hill.
Perry, R.H & Green, D.W. 1997. Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook. 7th Edition.
New York : Mc Graw Hill.
Sinnott, R.K. 2005. Chemical Engineering Design. 4th Edition. British: Elsevier.
Slindard, W. A. & Baylis. 1977. Vapor phase oxidation of butane producing maleic
anhydride and acetic acid. U.S. Patent 4,052,417: 1-8.
383
Timothy, R. Felthouse, Joseph, C. Burnett, Ben Horrell, Michael J.M. & Yeong- Jen
Kuo. 2001. Maleic Anhydride, Maleic Acid, And Fumaric Acid. Huntsman
Petrochemical Corporation.
Wan Ramli Wan Daud. 2002. Prinsip Rekabentuk Proses Kimia. Bangi: Institusi Jurutera
Kimia Malaysia.
Internet:
APPENDIX
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
This product does not contain oxygen and may cause asphyxia if released in a confined area. Simple
hydrocarbons can cause irritation and central nervous system depression at high concentrations.
Extremely flammable.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
Yes No Yes Yes No
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
No Yes No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
No No No
Synergistic Effects
None Reported
EYE EFFECTS:
Adverse effects are not anticipated as product is a gas at room temperature.
SKIN EFFECTS:
Adverse effects not anticipated.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
Ingestion is unlikely.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Product is relatively nontoxic. Simple hydrocarbons can irritate the eyes, mucous membranes and respiratory
system at high concentrations.
Inhalation of high concentrations may cause dizziness, disorientation, incoordination, narcosis, nausea or
narcotic effects.
This product may displace oxygen if released in a confined space. Maintain oxygen levels above 19.5% at sea
level to prevent asphyxiation.
Effects of oxygen deficiency resulting from simple asphyxiants may include: rapid breathing, diminished mental
alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgement, depression of all sensations, emotional instability,
and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, nausea, vomiting, prostration, and loss of consciousness may result,
eventually leading to convulsions, coma, and death.
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 2 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
EYES:
Never introduce oil or ointment into the eyes without medical advice! If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for further treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
Remove contaminated clothing and flush affected area with cold water and soap. DO NOT USE HOT WATER.
INGESTION:
Not normally required. Seek immediate medical attention.
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO
PRODUCT. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
APPARATUS. Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area, given assisted (artificial) respiration and supplemental oxygen. Further treatment should
be symptomatic and supportive.
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Water, carbon dioxide, dry chemical.
Be cautious of a Boiling Liquid Evaporating Vapor Explosion, BLEVE, if flame is impinging on surrounding
containers. Direct 500 GPM water stream onto containers above the liquid level with remote monitors. Limit
the number of personnel in proximity to the fire. Evacuate surrounding areas to at least 3000 feet in all
directions.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 3 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. Increase ventilation to
prevent build up of a flammable/explosive atmosphere. Extinguish all sources of ignition! If leak is in user’s
equipment, be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or
container valve, contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest
BOC location.
Earth bond and ground all lines and equipment associated with the product system. Electrical equipment should
be non-sparking and explosion proof.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with
valve outlet piped to use point. Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder
movement. Use a pressure regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<250 psig) piping or systems.
Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check
valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the cylinder.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are stored to exceed 130oF (54oC).
Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders from being
stored for excessive periods of time.
Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such
as a car trunk, van or station wagon. A leak can result in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic exposure.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA2 TLV-ACGIH3 LD50 or LC50
Route/Species
N-BUTANE 100 Simple Asphyxiant 800 ppm LC50
FORMULA: C4H10 658 g/m3/4H
CAS: 106-97-8 (rat)
RTECS #: EJ4200000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 4 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation. Use general ventilation to prevent build up of flammable
concentrations. May use hood with forced ventilation when handling small quantities. If product is handled
routinely where the potential for leaks exists, all electrical equipment must be rated for use in potentially
flammable atmospheres. Consult the National Electrical Code for details.
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves made of plastic or rubber.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing apparatus should be
available for emergency use.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes, safety shower, eyewash.
STABILITY:
Stable
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
Oxidizers
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 5 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
No chronic effects data given in the Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) or Sax,
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th ed.
No data given.
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
N-butane is listed under the accident prevention provisions of section 112(r) of the Clean Air Act (CAA) with a
threshold quantity (TQ) of 10,000 pounds.
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 6 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: N-BUTANE
MSDS: G-17
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 7 of 7
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Elevated oxygen levels may result in cough and other pulmonary changes. High concentrations of
oxygen (greater than 75%) causes symptoms of hyperoxia which included cramps, nausea, dizziness,
hypothermia, ambylopia, respiration difficulties, bradycardia, fainting spells and convulsions capable of
leading to death. Nonflammable. Oxidizer, will accelerate combustion.
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
No No No Yes No
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
No No No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
No No Yes
Synergistic Effects
None known
EYE EFFECTS:
Adverse effects not anticipated.
SKIN EFFECTS:
Adverse effects not anticipated.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
Adverse effects not anticipated.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
High concentrations of oxygen (greater than 75%) causes symptoms of hyperoxia which included cramps,
nausea, dizziness, hypothermia, ambylopia, respiration difficulties, bradycardia, fainting spells and convulsions
capable of leading to death. The property is that of hyperoxia which leads to pneumonia. Concentrations
between 25 and 75% present a risk of inflammation of organic matter in the body.
Oxygen concentrations between 20 to 95% have produced genetic changes in mammalian cell assay test systems.
EYES:
Never introduce ointment or oil into the eyes without medical advice. If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
Remove contaminated clothing and flush affected areas with lukewarm water. If irritation persists, seek medical
attention.
INGESTION:
Ingestion is not anticipated.
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 2 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO
OXYGEN. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
APPARATUS. Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Further treatment should be symptomatic and
supportive. Inform the treating physician that the patient could be experiencing hyperoxia.
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Water spray to keep cylinders cool. Extinguishing agent appropriate for the combustible material.
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. If leak is in user’s equipment,
be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or container valve,
contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest BOC location.
Electrical classification:
Nonhazardous
Dry product is noncorrosive and may be used with all materials of construction. Moisture causes metal oxides
which are formed with air to be hydrated so that they include volume and lose their protective role (rust
formation). Concentrations of SO2, C12, salt, etc. in the moisture enhances the rusting of metals in air.
Carbon steels and low alloy steels are acceptable for use at lower pressures.
For high pressure applications stainless steels are acceptable as are copper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys,
brass bronze, silicon alloys, Monel ®, Inconel ® and beryllium. Lead and silver or lead tin alloys are good
gasket materials. Teflon ®, Teflon ® composites, or Kel-F ® are preferred non-metallic gasket materials.
Check with the supplier to verify oxygen compatibility for the service conditions.
Oxygen should not be used as a substitute for compressed air in pneumatic equipment since this type generally
contains flammable lubricants.
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 3 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN
Stationary customer site vessels should operate in accordance with the manufacturer's and BOC’s instruction.
Do not attempt to repair, adjust or in any other way modify the operation of these vessels. If there is a
malfunction or other type of operations problem with the vessel, contact the closest BOC location immediately.
Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with valve outlet piped to use point. Do
not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement. Use a pressure reducing
regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping or systems. Do not heat cylinder by
any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the discharge
line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are stored to exceed 130oF (54oC).
Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders being stored
for excessive periods of time. Post "NO SMOKING OR OPEN FLAMES" signs in the storage area or use area.
There should be no sources of ignition in the storage or use area.
For additional storage recommendations, consult Compressed Gas Association's Pamphlets P-1, P-14 and Safety
Bulletin SB-2.
Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such
as a car trunk, van or station wagon. A leak can result in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic exposure.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA2 TLV-ACGIH3 LD50 or LC50
Route/Species
Oxygen 99.6 to 100.0 Not Available Not Available Not Available
FORMULA: O2
CAS: 7782-44-7
RTECS #: RS2060000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation of high concentrations that increase the oxygen level in air to more
than 25%.
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses as appropriate for the job.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves made of any suitable material appropriate for the job.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes, safety shower.
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 4 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN
STABILITY:
Stable.
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
All flammable materials.
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION:
Will not occur.
MUTAGENIC:
Oxygen concentrations between 20 to 95% have produced genetic changes in mammalian cell assay test systems.
No data given.
13. Disposal Considerations
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 5 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: OXYGEN
Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled without the express written permission of the owner. Shipment of
a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with his/her (written) consent is a
violation of transportation regulations.
MSDS: G-1
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 6 of 6
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
-
1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE AND COMPANY
3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
4. FIRST-AID MEASURES
• Inhalation:
Remove the exposed person to non-contaminated area and apply artificial respiration.
• Ingestion:
NO Induce vomiting. Keep the victim lying and warm. Do not give anything to drink if the
person is unconscious.
• Observation: in any situation, the victim should be sent to emergency medical treatment.
• Information to physician:
If there is contact of molten maleic anhydride with the skin, it will cause severe thermic burn.
The product will solidify and form a crust over the affected area. This crust should be removed
manually, and it should be administered treatment for thermic burns of same size and depth.
Intubation, if necessary. Signs and symptoms of mucous membranes irritation can occur in cases
of acute exposure to the product. Doubling vision, photofobia or sensation of seeing rings around
lights can come from repeated moderate exposures or brief acute exposure. Inhalation for
prolonged periods can cause bronchospasms in individuals with predisposition.
Ingestion: induce to vomit and, later, administer two soup spoons of activated carbon diluted in
water. In case of aggression to other apparatuses or systems, call an expert.
5. FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES
• Specific hazards:
Combustible product, but does not ignite easily. Flammable and toxic gases can accumulate
indoors. Fire can cause emission of irritant and toxic gases. Water resulting from firefighting and
dilution waters cannot be released directly to bodies of water.
Remove containers from the fire area, if this can be done without risk. Cool with water the side
parts of the containers exposed to flames, long time after the fire is extinguished. Evacuate
personnel in the affected area. People involved in firefighting should wear selfcontained
apparatus and full protection clothing.
• Special precautions:
Keep away bystanders, isolate the risk area, remove sources of ignition and forbid the entrance of
persons. Avoid dust formation (solid product). Keep on the wind and keep away from low areas. Do not
touch the spilled material. Contain the spill, if this can be done without risks. Avoid contact of the product
with skin, eyes and respiratory system, wearing personal protective equipment, mentioned in item 8.
• Environment precautions:
- Solid product spills: collect with a clean shovel, put in clean, dry vessels and close them.
Remove them from the spill area.
• Cleaning methods:
Follow the recommendations above mentioned.
Molten:
Store in 316 stainless steel tanks, grounded with inert atmosphere by using nitrogen and keep
temperature between 60 and 65ºC, but not higher than 80ºC.
General Recommendations:
Protect the area against physical damages and isolate from incompatible substances (see item
10). Empty containers/tanks of the product can be hazardous since they keep residues
(dusts/particulates). Protect the area and tanks against static electricity. Empty containers, only
under inert or non-flammable atmosphere, due to the risk of fire or explosion caused by static
electricity. Storage area should have adequate ventilation.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
• Environmental assessment
Non classified particulate under other manner (PNOS): monitor with PVC membrane, 5,0 micra,
provided with nylon cyclone. Analytical technique: gravimetry.
- Molten produc:
Full facial mask with filter for organic vapours, scrap trousers and jacket, scrap glooves and
safety leather shoes.
• Other information:
- closed areas should be provided with gases exhaustion equipment.
• Physical state:
Solid: white crystalline, strong odor
Liquid: colourless, strong odor
• pH: not available
• Flash point:
Open cup: 110 ºC
Closed cup: 102ºC
• Auto-ignition temperature: 476.67ºC.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
• Explosion limits:
Lower: 1.4% per air volume
Upper: 7.1% per air volume.
• Vapour pressure: ºC: 44 52 60 80 100
MmHg: 1 3 4 11 26
• Vapor density (air = 1): 3,4
• Liquid density: ºC: 25 40 52 60 80
mmHg:1.47 1.39 1.32 1.31 1.29
• Solubility (at 25ºC (g/100g of solvent):
Ketone: 227.0
Ethyl Acetate: 112.0
Chlorophorm: 52.5
Benzene: 50.0
Toluene: 23.4
Orto-xylene: 19.4
Carbon Tetrachloryde: 0.6
Kerosene: 0.25
Water: slow hydrolisis. 16.3 g/100ml (25ºC)
• Specific conditions:
The product is considered stable under normal conditions of handling and storage. Reacts
exothermically with moisture producing Acid Maleic, which is corrosive to iron, carbon steel
and other metals (except stainless steel).
Does not present polymerization risk, but it can happen uncontrolled co-polymerization when mixed with
olefines and catalysts. A decomposition “explosive polymerization” can occur when in presence of
alkalys, alkaline metals and earthy-alkaline, ammoniac or amines, when heated above 150ºC. The
concentration of these impurities necessary to initiate the decomposition is below than 200 ppm. The
exothermic reaction will occur quickly and the released gas can cause equipment rupture, unless it is
provided with relief device.
• Incompatible substances:
- Explosion decomposition: alkaline metals, piridine
- Exothermic decomposition: amines, alkalis, quinoline, sodium potassium
- Contact with strong oxidizers can cause fire and explosion
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
• Conditions to avoid:
Moisture, heat, ignition sources, incompatible materials. Use of sodium or potassium carbonate
and sodium and ammonia hydroxide for cleaning and washing equipment that later will contain
maleic anhydride, due to explosion possibility.
• Chronic toxicity:
Repeated exposure can cause contact dermatitis, skin sensibilization, cronic eye irritation,
ulceration in nasal mucosa and occupational asthma.
• Toxicological parameters:
Acute effect:
LD50: 481mg/kg (rat-oral);
LD50: 2620 mg/kg (rabbit-skin);
Rabbit, 1% (eyes) - severe
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET – MSDS
ACCORDING DIRECTIVES 91/155/EEC – 93/112/EC
• Treatment and disposal methods of the product, wastes and used packages:
Any wastes treatment should be in accordance to local and national regulation.
EPA Regulations:
RCRA 40 CFR: Listed U147 Toxic Waste
CERCLA 40 CFR 302.4: Listed per CWA Section 311(b)(4), per RCRA Section 3001 5000 lb (2268 kg)
SARA 40 CFR 372.65: Listed
SARA EHS 40 CFR 355: Not listed
TSCA: Listed
References:
- MSDS - GENIUM PUBLISHING CORP. (ficha n.º FUR1000, revision july/04);
- ACGIH, 2005.
Observation:
The information contained in this MSDS are offered in good faith and, as a orientation instrument, without
incurring in expressed or implicit liability. In case of additional information or explanations, consult the
supplier.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Inhaled Carbon Monoxide binds to the blood hemoglobin, greatly reducing the red blood cell’s ability to
transport oxygen to body tissues. Effects may include headaches, dizziness, convulsions, loss of
consciousness and death. Extremely flammable gas.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
No No No Yes No
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
Yes No No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
Yes Yes Yes
Synergistic Effects
None Reported
EYE EFFECTS:
None reported.
SKIN EFFECTS:
None reported.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
None reported.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Inhaled carbon monoxide binds with blood hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin. Carboxyhemoglobin can
not take part in normal oxygen transport, greatly reducing the blood’s ability to transport oxygen. Depending on
levels and duration of exposure, symptoms may include headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, weakness,
confusion, nausea, and even convulsions, eventual unconsciousness and death.
EYES:
None required.
SKIN EFFECTS:
None required.
INGESTION:
None required.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 2 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE
INGESTION EFFECTS:
None required.
INHALATION:
Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and be treated with supplemental oxygen.
Quick removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area and be given artificial respiration and oxygen at the same time. The administering of the
oxygen at an elevated pressure (up to 2 to 2.5 atmospheres) has shown to be beneficial as has treatment in a
hyperbaric chamber. The physician should be informed that the patient has inhaled toxic quantities of carbon
monoxide. PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE
TO CARBON MONOXIDE. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED
BREATHING APPARATUS AND BE COGNIZANT OF EXTREME FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD.
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:
Water, dry chemical, carbon dioxide.
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. If leak is in user’s equipment,
be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or container valve,
contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest BOC location.
Electrical Classification:
Class 1, Group C
Earth-ground and bond all lines and equipment associated with the carbon monoxide system. Electrical
equipment should be non sparking or explosion proof.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 3 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon Monoxide can be handled in all commonly used metals up to approximately 500 psig (3450 kPa).
Above that pressure it forms toxic and corrosive carbonyl compounds with some metals. Carbon steels,
aluminum alloys, copper and copper alloys, low carbon stainless steels and nickel-based alloys such as Hastelloy
A, B & C are recommended for higher pressure applications.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated areas away from heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are stored to exceed 130oF (54oC).
Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders being stored
for excessive periods of time. Post "NO SMOKING OR OPEN FLAMES" signs in the storage area or use area.
There should be no sources of ignition in the storage area or use area.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with
valve outlet piped to use point. Do not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder
movement. Use a pressure reducing regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping
or systems. Do not heat cylinder by any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use
a check valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Hood with forced ventilation. Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation above the exposure limit. Use general
mechanical ventilation in accordance with electrical codes.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME 2 3 LD50 or LC50
PEL-OSHA TLV-ACGIH
Route/Species
Carbon Monoxide 100.0 50 ppm TWA 25 ppm TWA LC50
FORMULA: CO 1807 ppm/4H
CAS: 630-08-0 (rat)
RTECS #: FG3500000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Any material protective gloves.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing apparatus should be
available for emergency use.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 4 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE
STABILITY:
Stable
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
Oxidizers
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION:
Will not occur.
REPRODUCTIVE:
Inhalation of 150 ppm carbon monoxide for 24 hours by pregnant rats produced cardiovascular and behavioral
defects in offspring. Toxic effects to fertility were observed in female rats exposed to 1 mg/m3 for 24 hours.
Similar effects observed in other mammalian species.
MUTAGENIC:
Genetic changes observed in mammalian cell assay systems at exposures of 1500 to 2500 ppm for 10 minutes.
OTHER:
Degenerative changes to the brain in rats chronically exposed to 30 mg/m3.
No data given.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 5 of 6
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON MONOXIDE
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled without the express written permission of the owner. Shipment of
a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with his/her (written) consent is a
violation of transportation regulations.
MSDS: G-112
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 6 of 6
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
3. Hazards Identification
EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Oxygen levels below 19.5% may cause asphyxia. Carbon dioxide exposure can cause nausea and
respiratory problems. High concentrations may cause vasodilation leading to circulatory collapse.
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 1 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
ROUTE OF ENTRY:
Skin Contact Skin Absorption Eye Contact Inhalation Ingestion
Yes No Yes Yes Yes
HEALTH EFFECTS:
Exposure Limits Irritant Sensitization
Yes No No
Teratogen Reproductive Hazard Mutagen
No No No
Synergistic Effects
None reported
EYE EFFECTS:
No adverse effects anticipated.
SKIN EFFECTS:
No adverse effects anticipated.
INGESTION EFFECTS:
No adverse effects anticipated.
INHALATION EFFECTS:
Carbon dioxide is the most powerful cerebral vasodilator known. Inhaling large concentrations causes rapid
circulatory insufficiency leading to coma and death. Asphyxiation is likely to occur before the effects of carbon
dioxide overexposure. Chronic, harmful effects are not known from repeated inhalation of low concentrations.
Low concentrations of carbon dioxide cause increased respiration and headache.
Effects of oxygen deficiency resulting from simple asphyxiants may include: rapid breathing, diminished mental
alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgement, depression of all sensations, emotional instability,
and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, nausea, vomiting, prostration, and loss of consciousness may result,
eventually leading to convulsions, coma, and death.
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 2 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
EYES:
Never introduce oil or ointment into the eyes without medical advice! If pain is present, refer the victim to an
ophthalmologist for further treatment and follow up.
SKIN:
No adverse effects anticipated.
INGESTION:
Not anticipated.
INHALATION:
PROMPT MEDICAL ATTENTION IS MANDATORY IN ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE TO CARBON
DIOXIDE. RESCUE PERSONNEL SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING
APPARATUS. Conscious persons should be assisted to an uncontaminated area and inhale fresh air. Quick
removal from the contaminated area is most important. Unconscious persons should be moved to an
uncontaminated area, given mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and supplemental oxygen. Further treatment should
be symptomatic and supportive.
Evacuate all personnel from affected area. Use appropriate protective equipment. If leak is in user’s equipment,
be certain to purge piping with inert gas prior to attempting repairs. If leak is in container or container valve,
contact the appropriate emergency telephone number listed in Section 1 or call your closest BOC location.
Electrical Classification:
Non-Hazardous
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 3 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
Dry carbon dioxide can be handled in most common structural materials. Moist carbon dioxide is generally
corrosive by its formation of carbonic acid. For applications with moist Carbon Dioxide, 316, 309 and 310
stainless steels may be used as well as Hastelloy ® A, B, & C, and Monel ®. Ferrous Nickel alloys are slightly
susceptible to corrosion. At normal temperatures carbon dioxide is compatible with most plastics and
elastomers.
Use only in well-ventilated areas. Carbon dioxide vapor is heavier than air and will accumulate in low areas.
Valve protection caps must remain in place unless container is secured with valve outlet piped to use point. Do
not drag, slide or roll cylinders. Use a suitable hand truck for cylinder movement. Use a pressure reducing
regulator when connecting cylinder to lower pressure (<3000 psig) piping or systems. Do not heat cylinder by
any means to increase the discharge rate of product from the cylinder. Use a check valve or trap in the
discharge line to prevent hazardous back flow into the system.
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heavily trafficked
areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where cylinders are stored to exceed 125oF (52oC).
Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty
cylinders should be segregated. Use a "first in-first out" inventory system to prevent full cylinders being stored
for excessive periods of time.
For additional storage recommendations, consult Compressed Gas Association’s Pamphlet P-1.
Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such
as a car trunk, van or station wagon. A leak can result in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic exposure.
EXPOSURE LIMITS1:
INGREDIENT % VOLUME PEL-OSHA2 TLV-ACGIH3 LD50 or LC50
Route/Species
Carbon Dioxide 99.8 TO 99.999 5000 ppm TWA 5000 ppm TWA Not Available
FORMULA: CO2 30,000 ppm STEL
CAS: 124-38-9
RTECS #: FF6400000
1
Refer to individual state of provincial regulations, as applicable, for limits which may be more stringent than
those listed here.
2
As stated in 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z (revised July 1, 1993)
3
As stated in the ACGIH 1994-1995 Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents.
ENGINEERING CONTROLS:
Use local exhaust to prevent accumulation of high concentrations so as to reduce the oxygen level in the air to
less than 19.5% and the carbon dioxide concentration below the exposure limit.
EYE/FACE PROTECTION:
Safety goggles or glasses as appropriate for the job.
SKIN PROTECTION:
Protective gloves of any material appropriate for the job.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 4 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
Positive pressure air line with full-face mask and escape bottle or self-contained breathing apparatus should be
available for emergency use.
OTHER/GENERAL PROTECTION:
Safety shoes.
STABILITY:
Stable
INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS:
Certain reactive metals, hydrides, moist cesium monoxide, or lithium acetylene carbide diammino may ignite.
Passing carbon dioxide over a mixture of sodium peroxide and aluminum or magnesium may explode.
HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION:
Will not occur.
11. Toxicological Information
REPRODUCTIVE:
Oxygen deficiency during pregnancy has produced developmental abnormalities in humans and experimental
animals.
Exposure of female rats to 60,000 ppm carbon dioxide for 24 hours has produced toxic effects to the embryo and
fetus in pregnant rats. Toxic effects to the reproductive system have been observed in other mammalian species
at similar concentrations.
OTHER:
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 5 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
Carbon dioxide is the most powerful cerebral vasodilator known. Inhaling large concentrations causes rapid
circulatory insufficiency leading to coma and death. Chronic, harmful effects are not known from repeated
inhalation of low (3 to 5 molar %) concentrations.
No data given.
Do not attempt to dispose of residual waste or unused quantities. Return in the shipping container PROPERLY
LABELED, WITH ANY VALVE OUTLET PLUGS OR CAPS SECURED AND VALVE PROTECTION CAP
IN PLACE to BOC Gases or authorized distributor for proper disposal.
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 6 of 7
PRODUCT NAME: CARBON DIOXIDE, GAS
Compressed gas cylinders shall not be refilled without the express written permission of the owner. Shipment of
a compressed gas cylinder which has not been filled by the owner or with his/her (written) consent is a
violation of transportation regulations.
MSDS: G-8
Revised: 6/7/96 Page 7 of 7
1 / 5
REVISION DATE: 26.06.2009
2 HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
May cause harm to the unborn child. Possible risk of impaired fertility. Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
3 COMPOSITION/INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS
EC No. 201-557-4
CAS-No. 84-74-2
4 FIRST-AID MEASURES
GENERAL INFORMATION
INHALATION
Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. Get medical attention.
INGESTION
SKIN CONTACT
EYE CONTACT
Immediately flush with plenty of water for up to 15 minutes. Remove any contact lenses and open eyes wide apart.
5 FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA
Extinguish with carbon dioxide or dry powder. Water spray, fog or mist.
2 / 5
REVISION DATE: 26.06.2009
Dibutyl Phthalate
SPECIAL FIRE FIGHTING PROCEDURES
Keep run-off water out of sewers and water sources. Dike for water control.
SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Self contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing must be worn in case of fire.
PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS
Wear protective clothing as described in Section 8 of this safety data sheet. Avoid inhalation of vapours and
contact with skin and eyes.
ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS
USAGE PRECAUTIONS
Avoid inhalation of vapours/spray and contact with skin and eyes. Provide good ventilation.
STORAGE PRECAUTIONS
Keep containers tightly closed. Store in closed original container in a dry place.
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
ENGINEERING MEASURES
Provide adequate ventilation. Observe Workplace Exposure Limits and minimise the risk of inhalation of
vapours.
RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT
If ventilation is insufficient, suitable respiratory protection must be provided. Chemical respirator with organic
vapour cartridge.
HAND PROTECTION
Use suitable protective gloves if risk of skin contact. Butyl rubber gloves are recommended.
EYE PROTECTION
OTHER PROTECTION
HYGIENE MEASURES
Wash hands after handling. Wash at the end of each work shift and before eating, smoking and using the toilet. When
using do not eat, drink or smoke.
3 / 5
REVISION DATE: 26.06.2009
Dibutyl Phthalate
APPEARANCE Liquid
COLOUR Colourless
STABILITY
MATERIALS TO AVOID
11 TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
INHALATION
INGESTION
SKIN CONTACT
EYE CONTACT
HEALTH WARNINGS
May cause harm to the unborn child. Possible risk of impaired fertility.
12 ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION
ECOTOXICITY
The product contains a substance which is toxic to aquatic organisms and which may cause long term adverse
effects in the aquatic environment.
LC 50, 96 Hrs, FISH mg/l 0.85
MOBILITY
Dibutyl Phthalate
BIOACCUMULATION
DEGRADABILITY
13 DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Waste to be treated as controlled waste. Disposal to licensed waste disposal site in accordance with local
Waste Disposal Authority.
DISPOSAL METHODS
14 TRANSPORT INFORMATION
UK ROAD CLASS 9
15 REGULATORY INFORMATION
LABELLING
RISK PHRASES
Dibutyl Phthalate
SAFETY PHRASES
STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS
Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging) Regulations. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health.
Safety Data Sheets for Substances and Preparations. Classification and Labelling of Substances and
Preparations Dangerous for Supply.
GUIDANCE NOTES
16 OTHER INFORMATION
ISSUED BY
Abbey Chemicals
Approved.
DATE 10.06.2008
A 4 inches (100 mm) Schedule 80 pipe has an outside diameter of 4.500 inches ( 114.30 mm), a wall thickness of 0.337 inches (8.56 mm), giving a bore of 3.826 inches (97.18 mm)
DCFRR 0.27
Cumulative Discounted cash Flow, (RM) depending the interest rate,i