Professional Documents
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Ecology 2005
19, 941–951 trees at the world’s highest treeline
G. HOCH† and C. KÖRNER
Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Schönbeinstrasse 6, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
Summary
1. Growth, reproductive success and non-structural carbon pools in Polylepis tarapa-
cana Philippi trees were examined across a transect between 4360 and 4810 m altitude
on Nevado Sajama, Bolivia.
2. The mean −10-cm soil temperature of 5·4 °C under trees at the treeline during the
265-day growing season matched the threshold temperature found at other subtropical
and tropical treelines. Beyond 4400 m Polylepis is restricted to the warmer and drier
equator-facing slopes, suggesting a direct thermal limitation of tree growth.
3. Maximum tree height, annual shoot increment and mean tree-ring width decreased
with altitude. Trees near the upper range limit reached a maximum tree height of 3·3 m
and a maximum stem diameter of 34 cm.
4. The smallest tree-height classes dominated populations at all altitudes, and the
uppermost site revealed the highest proportion of seedlings. Tree-size demography
indicates a critical phase for tree establishment during the sapling stage, when trees
emerge from sheltered niches near the ground.
5. No evidence of a depletion of mobile C stores (sugars, starch and lipids) was found
in any tissue type with increasing elevation, suggesting a limitation of C investment
(growth) rather than C acquisition (photosynthesis) at treeline.
Key-words: Andes, carbohydrates, forest limit, high elevation, temperature
Functional Ecology (2005) 19, 941–951
doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01040.x
941
942 Sanguisorbeae) trees along an altitudinal transect at
G. Hoch & the volcano Sajama, Bolivia. Additionally, we recorded
C. Körner the first complete annual temperature course for this
treeline. Polylepis is a widespread evergreen genus of
the equatorial Andes, which includes about 20 species,
forming thickets and woodland commonly above
3500 m a.s.l. (Kessler 1995). It appears to be a poor
competitor, and with its inherent slow growth it loses
terrain to more vigorous species when the environment
becomes warmer or more humid. The highest-reaching
of all Polylepis species, P. tarapacana has a relatively
narrow geographical distribution, reaching from the
volcanic western Andean Cordillera in southern Peru
to the region of Potosi, southern Bolivia and to adjacent
Chile, and its distribution is restricted to volcanic
slopes between 3900 and 5100 m a.s.l. (Kessler 1995).
The high-altitude P. tarapacana forest belt, which
embraces the slopes of the volcano Nevado Sajama,
is of special interest for ecophysiological investigations
as it constitutes the world’s highest occurrence of
truly arborescent plant individuals.
The remarkably similar mean growing-season tem-
peratures of ≈6·7 °C at climatic treelines across the
globe indicate that temperature-driven mechanisms
dominate the formation of high-elevation treelines
worldwide. Following from previous studies, the low
temperatures at treeline probably first restrict growth
processes (meristem activities), while C acquisition
continues at more than sufficient rates (Grace, Bernin-
ger & Nagy 2002). This hypothesis of a sink limitation
of tree growth at climatic treelines (Körner 1998) has
gained support from recent surveys which reveal
ample provision of treeline trees with C-storage com-
pounds (Hoch & Körner 2003; Shi, Körner & Hoch,
2005), not congruent with a photosynthetic bottleneck
of tree growth in cold environments. Here we explore
the likelihood of C limitation for tree growth at an alti-
tude where the partial pressure of CO2 is nearly half
that at sea level.
Fig. 1. The Polylepis treeline ecotone at Nevado Sajama.
(a) Volcano Sajama (6542 m a.s.l.) with the Polylepis tarapacana
Materials and methods forest belt between 4200 and 5000 m. White arrows indicate
three sampling sites along the transect (see text). (b) Highest-
growing ‘tree-like’ P. tarapacana individuals at 4810 m a.s.l.
Trees to the left are ≈3 m high. (c) Overview of the highest
We studied high-altitude populations of Polylepis tara- sampling site at 4810 m a.s.l. The area studied is marked by
pacana trees at the western front of Nevado Sajama the white trapezoid. White cross (×) indicates location of
(summit 6542 m a.s.l.) in Oruro province, Bolivia temperature loggers. Note the persons at the corners of the
(18°07′ S, 68°57′ W; Fig. 1). The climate is subtropical- marked plot as a size reference.
alpine with a wet, warm season during the southern
hemisphere summer from November to April and a dry,
cold season between May and October. Annual precipita- higher than 3 m are absent; Körner 2003). Shrub-sized
tion, which is very variable among years (Hardy et al. individuals of P. tarapacana are found at even higher
1998), averages at ≈330 mm [316 mm at 4220 m a.s.l., elevations up to 5100 m a.s.l. (Braun 1997 and refer-
1975 – 85 mean, cited by Hardy et al. (1998) and 347 mm ences therein), similarly to reports from northern Chile
at 4300 m a.s.l., 4-year mean, recorded by M. Liberman- (Troll 1973). Especially at the upper end of the forest
Cruz cited by Braun (1997)]. belt, P. tarapacana is absent from south-facing (pole-
© 2005 British
Ecological Society, On Nevado Sajama, P. tarapacana forms open for- facing) slopes, and highest stand densities are found on
Functional Ecology, est stands between 4200 and 4810 m a.s.l. (with the north- (equator-) to north-east-facing slopes (Braun
19, 941–951 treeline, defined here as the altitude above which trees 1997; Fig. 1a). Irrespective of altitude, P. tarapacana
943 Table 1. Site characteristics of the three investigated Polylepis tarapacana stands at Nevado Sajama
Polylepis at the
world’s highest Altitude (m a.s.l.) Aspect Inclination (°) Stand density* (trees ha−1) Basal area* (m2 ha−1)
treeline
4360 NNW 30 1800 2·1
4550 N 30 2400 2·3
4810 N 25 1600 1·4
tends to grow polycormic and forms open ‘dwarf’ for- measured manually in open and tree-covered places on
ests with tree height rarely exceeding 5 m, although a north- and south-facing slope, at 4550 m a.s.l., using
some monocormic individuals at lower altitudes reach a 3 mm steel probe with a thermistor (Testoterm 110,
maximum heights of ≈7 m. Co-dominant plant species Testoterm, Lenzkirch, Germany). Here temperatures
are tussock grasses (Festuca orthophylla, Calama- are presented in °C and temperature differences in K,
grostis curvula, Calamagrostis orbignyana); shrubs to avoid confusion between them, as is the custom in
(Baccharis incarum, Parastrephia lepidophylla, Parastrephia bioclimatology and applied physics.
quadrangularis); and cushion plants (Azorella com-
pacta, Pycnophyllum molle). Independent of exposure
and inclination, the vegetation cover is low and >50%
of the ground is bare soil of volcanic origin. Even at the Polylepis tarapacana trees were studied at three eleva-
end of the dry season, we found moist soil at ≈30 cm tions along an altitudinal transect covering 450 m of
depth under a layer of dry, insulating volcanic dust, a altitude from 4360 to 4810 m a.s.l. (Table 1; Fig. 1). At
common feature at high altitudes in regions with low each site the number of tree individuals (excluding
rainfall (Körner 2003). seedlings <5 cm) was counted for a randomly chosen
area of 10 × 10 m at the lower and middle altitude, and
of 30 × 15 m at the uppermost site (Fig. 1), to calculate
stand density per hectare. Tree height and maximum
Soil temperatures at the treeline were continuously stem diameter (disregarding the loose outer bark), as
recorded at hourly intervals for a full year from 25 well as the annual length increment of leading
August 2003 – 1 September 2004 by using completely branches, were measured for 15 trees per elevation.
sealed, single-channel thermo-loggers (−5 to +50 °C, At each altitude, two stem cores were taken from
Tidbit, Onset, Cape Cod, MA, USA). Following the eight individual trees (>2 m high) using a 5 mm stem
protocol of Körner & Paulsen (2004), two loggers were corer (Suunto, Finland). Of each stem sampled, one
buried at −10 cm soil depth beneath P. tarapacana trees core was kept intact for later tree-ring analyses, while
under full canopy shade at two sites, one at 4780 m the other was immediately separated into 1·5 cm seg-
a.s.l. and the other at 4810 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). As both ments, from the outermost tree ring towards the pith,
loggers revealed similar recordings, only mean temper- for chemical analyses. Analyses for starch and sugars
atures for both sites are presented. The temperature revealed strong decreasing concentrations of both
loggers were calibrated at the beginning and end of the compounds from the outermost stem section towards
measurement period in an ice–water mix (0 °C refer- the pith (where concentrations were almost zero), clearly
ence point). As in the analyses by Körner & Paulsen characterizing P. tarapacana as a heartwood-forming
(2004), the beginning of the growing season was species (data not shown). For the current study, only the
defined as the date at which the daily mean soil tem- results for the outermost (youngest) 1·5 cm segments
peratures at −10 cm exceeded 3·2 °C, and the end of are presented, and are referred to as sapwood.
the growing season as the date when daily mean soil Finally, 5-year-old branchlets were collected from
temperatures dropped below 3·2 °C. Short excursions the upper, well lit crown regions of 10 trees (>2 m) at
below 3·2 °C during the warm-rainy season were not each site, and all leaves and the xylem (with bark and
excluded. For physical reasons, the 3·2 °C daily mean phloem removed with a knife) were sampled separately
soil temperatures in shade at 10 cm depth approximate for chemical analyses. All tissues were sampled on two
a daily mean air temperature of 0 °C (Körner & consecutive days (24 and 25 August 2003) between
Paulsen 2004). We also mounted one sensor in the can- 11.00 and 14.00 h, and dried at 70–80 °C within a
opy of a tall tree at 4810 m a.s.l. 2 m above-ground. maximum 6 h from sampling.
The sensor was placed on the poleward facing side of After returning to the Basel laboratory, the intact
the stem under a thick canopy of branches to screen it stem cores were smooth-cut with a razor blade and
fully from sky radiation. This shaded sensor recorded tree-ring width (±0·01 mm) was measured using an
© 2005 British
Ecological Society, a canopy air temperature, which is co-affected by the electronic analysis bench (LINTAB, TSAP, Heidelberg,
Functional Ecology, tree’s aerodynamic properties and solar canopy heat- Germany). Because of the irregular growth of Polylepis
19, 941–951 ing. On 25 August 2003 soil temperature profiles were stems and the frequent occurrence of intermittent
944 layers of damaged tissue (perhaps from fire or fungal
Gas chromatography
G. Hoch & infections), we found it impossible to synchronize
C. Körner cores from those trees accurately. We therefore Gas-chromatography was applied to estimate the
refrained from analysing chronosequences of tree contribution of all low molecular-weight carbohydrates
rings, but still estimated the tree age and calculated (and sugar alcohols) other than those covered by the
mean ring widths for each core. Stem cores were also NSC method. The samples were extracted in methanol :
used for the gravimetric determination of sapwood chloroform : water (12 : 5 : 3) at 60 °C for 30 min. After
density (mg cm−3). For calculation of specific leaf area phase separation by addition of water and chloroform,
(SLA; cm2 g−1) and leaf density (mg cm−3), 10 leaflets aliquots of the aqueous phases were vacuum dried,
were randomly chosen from each sampled branch and silylized with bis(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide
dry weight, as well as leaf thickness, determined using (BSTFA) and trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) and
a handheld micrometer (±0·01 mm, Teclock Corp., analysed on a capillary column (HP1, 30 m × 0·20 mm
Nagano, Japan). Finally, those leaves were rehydrated i.d., 0·2 µm film thickness) on a HP 8690 gas chro-
in distilled water for 6 h before measuring the leaf area matograph (Agilent, CA, USA; detector: FID; analysis
on a photoplanimeter (LI-3050A, Li-Cor, Lincoln, software: HP ). Phenyl-β-glucopyranosid
NB, USA). All tissue samples for chemical analyses was used as internal standard.
were re-dried at 75 °C until weight constancy, ground
to fine powder, and stored over silica gel at 4 °C until
Nitrogen
analyses. Parts of the leaf powder were also used for
mass spectrometric stable-isotope analysis, in order to Total N concentrations were determined in dried sam-
assess the systemic water status of the trees. ples with a CHN elemental analyser (Vario EL III,
Elementar Analysesyteme, Hanau, Germany).
Non-structural carbohydrates
Compound concentrations are given on a dry matter
Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) were analysed (% DM) as well as on a volume (mg cm−3) basis, as
after Wong (1990), as described in more detail by Hoch higher tissue densities ‘dilute’ non-structural cell com-
& Körner (2003). Non-structural carbohydrates are pounds on a dry matter basis by a higher proportion of
defined here as the sum of the three most important structural compounds. Results for NSC were log-
low molecular-weight sugars (sucrose, glucose and transformed to meet the requirements of normal distri-
fructose) plus starch. The low molecular-weight sugars bution prior to analyses. All other values were a priori
were determined photometrically after enzymatic conver- normally distributed and so were computed untrans-
sions with invertase and phosphoglucose-isomerase. formed. Influence of elevation was analysed by Type III
Following an enzymatic degradation of starch to with altitude as fixed factor. A Tukey–Kramer
free glucose by a crude fungal amylase (‘Clarase’ from Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test was used
Aspergillus oryzae, Enzyme Solutions Pty Ltd, Crydon to test for significant differences between altitudes.
South, Victoria, Australia), the sum of free sugars plus All statistical tests were performed with 3·2·2
starch (NSC) was determined in a separate analysis. (SAS institute, Cary, NC, USA).
The concentration of starch was calculated as NSC
minus the free sugars.
Results
concentrations in stemwood on a volume basis were altitudinal increase of δ13C, reaching from −23·9‰ at
enhanced in the uppermost trees relative to the lowest the lowest site to −23·3‰ at the treeline. The calculated
site (Table 2). Even in leaves, in which volume density linear regression is δ13C = −28·13 + 0·00104 × altitude
did not change significantly across the transect (Fig. 5), (r2 = 0·699), which yields an approximate 1·0‰ increase
the increase in NSC concentrations with elevation per altitudinal km, and a hypothetical sea-level refer-
became more pronounced on a leaf-volume basis than ence of −28·13‰.
on a leaf dry matter basis (Table 2).
Total lipid concentrations were low compared with
Discussion
NSC, and hardly exceeded 0·5% DM in branch and
stem sapwood. Neither the twofold altitudinal increase The mean 5·4 °C growing season soil temperature
of lipid concentrations in branchwood, nor the altitu- measured in the current study at the upper edge of the
dinal decrease of lipids by 30% in stem sapwood, was Sajama treeline ecotone matches well with the world-
significant when expressed as % DM (Fig. 9). How- wide pattern described previously (Körner 2003). For
ever, when accounting for the increased wood density instance, an average growing season mean temperature
of trees at the tree limit, the lipid concentrations in of 5·4 °C was measured at different treelines on Mexi-
branchwood were significantly higher at the upper- can volcanoes, 19° N (Hoch & Körner 2003). Tropical
most site on a volume basis (Fig. 9). Total leaf N con- and subtropical treelines (with mean growing season
centrations increased significantly with elevation on a temperatures of 5–6 °C) generally appear to operate at
dry matter basis, but only insignificantly when calcu- temperatures 1–2 K cooler than temperate and boreal
lated per unit leaf volume (mg N cm−3; Fig. 10). zone treelines (≈7 °C growing season mean tempera-
Stable C isotope data for leaves of P. tarapacana tures), which led to a global mean for 46 treelines of
sampled between 4320 and 4810 m a.s.l. revealed an 6·7 ± 0·8 °C (Körner & Paulsen 2004). The treeline
Table 2. Relative differences of non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) concentrations between the lowest and uppermost sampling sites, and results of an
for elevation effects on NSC concentrations among all three altitudes. Results for each organ are given as percentage dry matter (% DM) and mg per volume
Leaves (% DM) 2 +22 7·0 0·004 −15 1·0 0·369 +10 5·7 0·009
(mg cm−3) 2 +27 9·5 0·001 −12 0·8 0·466 +15 7·0 0·004
Branches (% DM) 2 +19 5·9 0·047 −36 7·4 0·003 +5 0·5 0·641
(mg cm−3) 2 +30 6·0 0·007 −30 6·0 0·007 +15 1·9 0·171
© 2005 British
Stemwood (% DM) 2 +3 0·4 0·657 −49 4·0 0·036 −19 1·8 0·192
Ecological Society,(mg cm−3) 2 +13 1·2 0·335 −44 3·2 0·063 −11 0·8 0·465
Functional Ecology,
Significant
19, 941–951differences (P < 0·05) are in bold.
948
G. Hoch &
C. Körner
Fig. 8. Concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) in leaves, branch Fig. 9. Lipid concentrations in stem and branch sapwood of
sapwood and stem sapwood of Polylepis tarapacana along the altitudinal transect Polylepis tarapacana at the three altitudes of the transect
(n = 10 for leaves and branches; n = 8 for stem sapwood). Values are given as (n = 10 for branches; n = 8 for stems). Values are given as
percentage dry matter (left) and as mg cm−3 of the respective tissue (right). Different percentage dry matter and as mg cm−3. Different letters show
letters show significant differences at the 0·05 level among altitudes by the Tukey– significant differences (P < 0·05) among altitudes by the
Kramer test. Note the different y axes. Tukey–Kramer test.
of Nevado Sajama is not an exception from other end of the dry season. Similar situations are reported
subtropical or tropical treelines, and thermally fits the for sites above 4200 m a.s.l. in Argentina (Körner
global patterns. Other environmental factors may 2003), and reflect a combination of low potential eva-
modulate year-to-year growth variations, but in the potranspiration and storage of runoff from higher ele-
light of these data, effects other than those by temper- vations. Functionally humid and mesic climates are
ature seem irrelevant for the actual position of the abundant at annual precipitations well below 350 mm
uppermost trees in this area. For instance, Morales at high altitudes and latitudes (Walter & Breckle 1994).
et al. (2004) had shown that moisture availability can (3) Polylepis tarapacana reaches the highest altitudes
influence annual tree-ring width in the Andes, but on warm and dry equator-facing slopes, with no trees
moisture is certainly not the decisive factor for the on the more humid, poleward-facing slopes. If the
rather abrupt Polylepis treeline, for several reasons. (1) trees’ distribution were water-limited, we would expect
There is no indication of water stress in δ13C data from them to be restricted to the cooler, south-facing slopes.
P. tarapacana leaves. The measured δ 13C increase Crown air temperatures revealed characteristic pat-
of 1·0‰ km−1 does not deviate from the elevational terns of the subtropical alpine climate, with harsh con-
gradients found in a global survey, which revealed an ditions for prostrate growing at the treeline. First, on
average of +1·2‰ km−1 for a within-species comparison more than 80% of days recorded, night-time air tem-
of 12 herbaceous plants, and +0·9‰ km−1 for an inter- peratures fell below 0 °C. Rada et al. (2001) pointed
© 2005 British
Ecological Society, specific comparison of 25 tree species (Körner et al. 1988). out that P. tarapacana is probably frost-tolerant during
Functional Ecology, (2) Despite the low annual precipitation of ≈330 mm, the major part of the year, but may switch to frost
19, 941–951 we found soils moist at 30 cm below the surface at the avoidance by accumulating low molecular-weight
949 on a local scale its distribution is predominantly driven
Polylepis at the by solar irradiance and slope aspect, with trees clearly
world’s highest restricted to the warmer and presumably even drier
treeline sites. Such pronounced slope exposure effects on
treeline position and soil temperature are rare, and
seem to reflect the largely bare volcanic ground and the
very steep slopes. With less steep terrain and denser
ground cover, no direction effect on treeline position
was found on Mexican volcanoes (Beaman 1962) or in
the Alps (Paulsen & Körner 2001; Körner & Paulsen
2004). Further, no clear slope effect on the distribution
of P. sericea trees was found in the Venezuelan Andes
(Goldstein et al. 1994).
Tree seedling mortality exceeding that of other taxa
due to frost events during the growing season has been
discussed as a primary determinant of treeline position
at high altitudes (Smith et al. 2003; Wang et al. 2004),
although there is no evidence that trees are less capable
than other life forms of resisting low temperatures
(Sakai & Larcher 1987). The analyses of tree height
along the current transect revealed that the smallest
(<0·5 m) tree height class is most abundant. Provided
that tree height correlates at least loosely with tree age,
this points at a dominance of young trees at all three
elevations, most pronounced at the highest site. The
‘healthy’ demographic pyramid at 4810 m a.s.l. sug-
gests constant recruitment events and sufficient seed-
ling survival during the past decades. Additionally,
numerous tiny seedlings were found at the uppermost
site but not at the lower elevations. Hence it seems
Fig. 10. Altitudinal trend of total leaf nitrogen concentrations highly unlikely that a lack of seedlings determined the
in 1-year-old leaves of Polylepis tarapacana along the transect.
treeline on Nevado Sajama. Similarly, Byers (2000)
Values are given as percentage dry matter and as mg cm−3.
Different letters show significant differences (P < 0·05) among described high seedling numbers and good regenera-
altitudes by the Tukey–Kramer test. tion of a subalpine Polylepis forest in the upper Pisoc
Valley in Peru. The critical constraints must affect later
life stages, when trees transform from shrub to tree
sugars at the peak warm and wet season (January and stature and the apical meristems protrude from the
February), when temperatures rarely fall below freez- warmer air layer near the soil surface, coupling crown
ing. On the other hand, as the coldest nights occur temperatures more closely to the climatic conditions of
when skies are clear, they are generally followed by the the free atmosphere (Grace & Norton 1990). Accord-
warmest daytime temperatures, resulting in extreme ingly, annual shoot growth in mature P. tarapacana
high diurnal amplitudes between minimum and maxi- crowns was small, and trees higher than 3·5 m were
mum air temperatures, which can reach more than absent at the uppermost site in the current study.
30 K. The very high afternoon canopy air temperatures The comparatively low starch concentrations found
measured in the current study probably resulted from in all tree organs and sites may reflect the time of sam-
special microclimatic properties of Polylepis crowns, pling near the end of the cold-dry season. Temperate
which may trap heat fluxes from the surrounding bare evergreen conifers, for example, also exhibit lowest
soils. It has been shown for Polylepis sericea stands that starch concentrations towards the end of the dormant
mean air temperatures within the forests are generally season, but a pronounced starch accumulation imme-
above that of the free atmosphere (Goldstein, Meinzer diately prior to the flushing of new shoots (Schaberg
& Rada 1994). et al. 2000; Hoch, Richter & Körner 2003). Similarly
The high temperature difference between north- and to our study, Rada et al. (2001) found free sugar con-
south-facing slopes (>6 K) underlines the significance centrations to be more than three times higher than the
of slope exposure. Braun (1997) reported similar expos- concentrations of starch in leaves of P. tarapacana at
ure effects for Nevado Sajama at 4500 m a.s.l., where the beginning of September. The complete absence
the temperature difference even increased towards of sorbitol in P. tarapacana is in line with previous
© 2005 British
Ecological Society, late afternoon. According to Braun, the distribution of findings of Wallaart (1980), who described this sugar
Functional Ecology, P. tarapacana is related to moisture on a very broad alcohol to be lacking in most phylogenetic tribes of
19, 941–951 geographic scale across the Western Cordillera, while the subfamily Rosoideae (which includes the genus
950 Polylepis), while it resembles an important form of C range of other tropical and subtropical treelines
G. Hoch & transport in all other subfamilies within the Rosaceae. worldwide, which occur at lower altitudes (Körner &
C. Körner There was no evidence for a depletion of mobile C Paulsen 2004). The reason why P. tarapacana reaches
pools in P. tarapacana with altitude. Although the dif- such exceptional elevations in this part of the Andes is
ferences in NSC and lipid concentrations were small, associated with the regional climatic peculiarities (e.g.
and most of the time insignificant, among the sites, we the ‘Massenerhebungseffect’, low degree of cloudiness,
found significantly higher concentrations of NSC in solar warming of the bare volcanic soils). There is no
leaves and lipids in branches at the uppermost eleva- evidence that the physiology of P. tarapacana places
tion. Because NSC, as well as lipids, decrease from the this species in an exceptional position compared with
youngest tree rings towards the pith in heartwood- other treeline-forming species, although evolution has
forming trees (Magel et al. 1997; Piispanen & Saran- certainly selected for traits that are particularly suita-
pää 2002), the sampling procedure used for the current ble for life in this environment, such as high year-
study probably influenced the elevational trends in the round frost tolerance of leaves.
stemwood of P. tarapacana. At all three elevations,
stem sapwood was sampled as the outer 1·5 cm stem
Acknowledgements
core segment. Thus the slightly greater tree-ring width
at lower elevations may have contributed to the (not We would like to thank M. Liberman (University
significant) NSC reduction in stem sapwood towards Mayor de San Andres, La Paz), F. Guzmán (Parque
the treeline. In branchwood tissue, which was exactly 5 Nacional Sajama) and S. Beck (Herbario Nacional de
years old at each elevation, the mobile C pools tended Bolivia) for their great support in Bolivia, R. Körner and
to increase towards the treeline. E. Spehn for field assistance, J. Paulsen for processing
The evidence that mobile C compounds are not the temperature data, O. Bignucolo for CHN analyses,
becoming increasingly rare in tissues of P. tarapacana and S. Peláez-Riedl for drawing and help with the fig-
at the tree limit does not support the C-limitation ures. We further thank A. Richter and G. Hertenberger
hypothesis (Stevens & Fox 1991; Johnson, Germino & (both University of Vienna, Austria) for GC analyses
Smith 2004). In a recent study, low but clearly positive of low molecular-weight sugars, and S. Keel and M. Jäggi
net photosynthetic rates were measured in both the dry (both Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland) for δ13C
and the cold season for P. tarapacana growing at analyses.
4300 m a.s.l. at Nevado Sajama (Garcia-Nunez et al.
2004). Goldstein et al. (1994) and Rada et al. (2001)
demonstrated strongly positive net assimilation rates References
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Ecological Society,
Functional Ecology,
19, 941–951