Sizing of electro-hydraulic drive systems with

proportional and servo valves

Required knowledge: Hydraulic drives, hydraulic circuits and basic

physics of machine dynamics

Version 3.6
 Why is it not possible to size a servo or proportional
valve without knowing the controlled system?
The servo or proportional valve is an integral part of the controlled
system and has to be adopted to the system.
controlled system
m

aux. valves

servo valve

T P

inductivity, capacity of pipes

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 What has to be considered for sizing servo
hydraulic systems?
• Physics of dynamic processes (mass forces)
• Dynamic response of a drive (natural frequency)
• Pipe characteristics (natural frequency)
• Physics of hydraulic resistors (throttle valves)
• Physics of a meter-in & meter-out circuit (cavitation)

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 Basic hydraulic-mechanic rules

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Rated Flow

What means rated flow?

The rated flow relates to a rated pressure drop, and describes one (arbitrarily
selected) working point.
Standard rated pressure drops are 10bar (5bar/edge) or 70bar (35bar/edge)
The rated flow is one defined working point of the valve and, by applying the
equation below, any other working point of the valve can be calculated.

Δp
Q = QN
Δp N

Note: Above equation is only valid when the flow speed is < 30m/s, above this flow
speed we get flow saturation. This means, even with higher pressure drop no increase of
flow will happen! Higher flow speeds lead to cavitation and increased wear of the valve.

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Thumb Rules for Valve Sizing

Max. flow depending on valve size (see valve catalogues)

valve size (according to

ISO standard) port Ø Qmax l/min
ISO 4401-03 7,5 mm 75
ISO 4401-05 11,2 mm 180
The listed max. flow can only be
ISO 4401-07 20 mm 550 achieved, when all components in
ISO 4401-08 28 mm 1100 the loop are designed for the
ISO 4401-08 32 mm 1500
ISO 4401-10 50 mm 3600 required flow!
ISO 10372-04 8,2 mm 95
Moog D791 16 mm 360
Moog D792 28 mm 1100

Normally this means, that all additional components as well as pipes/drillings

in the loop are one size bigger than the proportional or servo valve!
At manifold blocks it is important to have suited drilling diameters (bigger than
valve ports) and a low flow resistance design!

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 Hydraulic Power Transmission

The smallest possible valve is the best valve for closed loop control!

Hydraulic Power Transmission at a Throttle Valve

100

90
Transmitted Hydraulic Power in %

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Differential Pressure in %

At 1/3 pressure drop over the valve you get the smallest possible valve for a given application!
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Hydraulic actuator with servo valve

hydraulic resistor bridge

v F

T The center position of a zero

> lapped valve spool represents a
hydraulic resistor bridge circuit.
<
><

At movement only 2 resistors are

A B active, one in meter-in the other in
meter-out function.
>

><
<

P
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 Spool of a Servo Valve

hydraulic resistor bridge

T A P B T

Caution: To stop a hydraulic drive with zero lapped valves in a position

requires a closed loop system. The spool center position cannot be used for
safety circuits.

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 Hydraulic – Electric Analogy

throttles are hydraulic resistors

Q Q
pA/B
><

><
P T characteristic of
hydraulic resistor

Δp

i
Ux i
U
characteristic of
electric resistor
voltage U = pressure p
Δu
current i = flow Q
Difference: The hydraulic resistor is nonlinear
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Pressure Gain of a Zero Lapped Valve

When flow in A and B is zero (e.g. blocked actuator) there is a flow across the 4
adjustable throttles (= valve metering edges). The slope of the plot of the
differential pressure A-B over the valve command signal is the pressure gain.

T
differential pressure

>
<
><
A
A-B

>
spool

><
<
displacement

By moving the valve spool the differential pressure A-B changes.

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 Frequency Response of a Servo Valve

xA
A[dB ] = 20 log D633

xE
The natural frequency of the valve as
well as the damping of the valve can be
taken from the frequency response plot.

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Acceleration Force (Mass Force)

Acceleration means a change of the speed of a mass. To change the speed

of a mass forces are required.
• acceleration means a force in the direction of movement
• deceleration means a force against the direction of movement
(acceleration, speed and force are vector variables)

Newton's second law: Fm = m * a [1 kg * 1 m/s² = 1 N]

Example: A mass of 500 kg has to be accelerated (or decelerated) within
25 ms from 0 to 1 m/s.
Linear acceleration: a = v/t = 1m/s / 0,025 s = 40 m/s²
Acceleration force: Fm = m * a = 500 kg * 40 m/s² = 20.000 N
At an actuator area of 25 cm² an acceleration pressure of 80 bar is required.
Deceleration under the same conditions means deceleration pressure.

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Weight (Mass Force)

The weight (force) can be derived from the mass:

Equation: Fg = m * g
Gravity: g = 9,81 m/s²

Example: Weight (force) of a 500 kg mass

Weight (force): Fg = m * g = 500 kg * 9,81 m/s² = 4.905 N
pressure: p = force / area
At vertical actuators and an actuator area of 25 cm², this means a load
pressure of approx. 20 bar caused by the weight.

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 Sizing of Proportional- or Servo Valves taking
metering edges and dynamic effects into account

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Extending Differential Actuator

Prerequisite for controllability pA & pB > 0 bar

v +/- Fm
FExt
m
A B
pA pB

>< ><
FG = m * a + FExt
Q1 Q2 Δp
Q = QN
P T Δp N

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Extending Differential Actuator Accelerating

At acceleration the mass force Fm acts against the direction of movement at the big actuator
area

v Fm
FExt
m
A B
pA pB

>< ><
FG = - (m * a) + FExt
Q1 Q2 Δp
Q = QN
P T Δp N

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Critical Case: Extending Differential Actuator decelerates

At deceleration the mass force Fm acts pulling in the direction of the movement on the small actuator ring area

v Fm
FExt
m
A B
pA pB

>< ><
FG = m * a + FExt
Q1 Q2 Δp
Q = QN
P T Δp N

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 Calculation of an extending cylinder decelerating

Question: What is the required pressure in P, to get during deceleration

exactly 0 bar in port A (means, just no cavitation)?

Data: deceleration pressure in port B: pB = 80 bar

tank pressure pT = 0 bar
symmetrical valve spool
cylinder area ratio 2:1, means QPA = 2 x QBT

pressure drop B-T ∆pBT = pB – pT = 80 bar – 0 bar = 80 bar

pressure drop P-A ∆pPA = pP – pA as pA is 0 bar ∆pPA = pP

2 2
Δp N ⎛Q ⎞ ⎛ 2 ∗ QBT ⎞
QN = Q ΔpPA = ⎜⎜ PA ⎟⎟ ∗ ΔpBT ΔpPA = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ∗ 80bar
Δp ⎝ QBT ⎠ ⎝ QBT ⎠

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 Example for external Mechanics, causing alternating forces

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Very critical case: Hanging (rod top down), extending differential actuator decelerates

Prerequisite for controllability pA & pB > 0 bar

pA pB
>< ><

Q1 Q2
m FG
P T
FG = m * a + Fg + FExt
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 When the pressure in one of the actuator
chambers gets < 0 bar the drive cavitates.

A cavitating drive is not controllable !

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 Hydraulic Circuits to prevent Cavitation

approx. 85% of all hydraulic actuators are asymmetric actuators!

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Special Spools

Technically the most elegant and normally the most cost effective solution, is
applying an asymmetric valve spool or using a regenerative circuit.

E.g. an asymmetric 2:1 spool. The rated flow of the B-channels (QPB and QBT) is
50% of the rated flow of the A-channels (QPA and QAT).

QPA and QAT = 2 * (QPB and QBT)

(Note: connect always the high flow to the A-port)

2:1 is in line with a frequently used cylinder geometry.

The asymmetric valve spool provides additionally to the cavitation prevention

also a better „chucked“ cylinder, what improves the drive stiffness and therefore
the controllability.

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Asymmetric Valve Spool

v F

A B
Caution:
Ports A and B must not be exchanged
P T
Note:
The big piston area should be
connected to port A of the valve!

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Regenerative Circuit

Disadvantage ?

v F

A B

P T

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Regenerative Circuit

(Disadvantages, less force at extending and less drive stiffness)

v F

A B

P T

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Regenerative Circuit

A B Special spools can

automatically change over
to normal circuit at low
P T signal levels.

There is no generally suitable

regenerative spool available.
The optimization of the spool
has to be done application
specific

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 Additional Selection Criteria for Proportional Valves

• Ambient temperature range (min. / max.)

• Shock, vibration at valve location
• Electric environment (EM-Fields, HF devices, required protection
class IP??, explosion proof etc.)
• Fluid
• Filtration (For filtration sizing, use publications about this subject)
• Human- and machine safety regulations
• Special approvals for designated applications

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 Sizing Rules for electro-hydraulic Control
Systems

Hydraulic drive system characteristics

Pipe characteristics
Position- and velocity control systems
Pressure- and force control systems

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What effects the accuracy of electro-hydraulic control loops?

Mechanics Hydraulics Electronic

Friction Flow, pressure Type of controller
Load Static and dynamic valve Resolution of sensors
characteristics Resolution of A/D and
Moved mass Actuator geometry D/A converters
Stiffness Actuator seals Controller sampling time
Bearing backlash Pipe/hose geometry Linearity, hysteresis,
temperature drifts of
Sensors & valves

Static and dynamic accuracy of closed loop hydraulic drive

systems

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 Hydraulic drive system characteristics

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Fluid Compressibility

F = Δp*A Efluid is pressure dependent

18.000

16.000

Δs
14.000

E flu id in b a r
12.000

10.000

s 8.000

6.000
10 40 70 100 130 160 190 220 250 280 310 340 370 400

pressure in bar

Compressed volume ΔVfluid = A * Δ s = V0 * Δ p/Efluid

V0 = start volume
Efluid = bulk modulus of fluid (dependent on pressure, temperature, solved air)
A = piston area

Note: As pipes, actuators and seals are also elastic, their bulk modulus has to be
considered for an equivalent system bulk modulus.
A realistic value for the equivalent bulk modulus of oil is 7000 to 9000 bar. At
operating pressures < 100 bar a lower bulk modulus has to be applied.
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Natural Frequency of Hydraulic Drives

hydraulic spring-mass system (spring = fluid compressibility)

c c Basic equation for the

m ω= natural frequency of
m spring-mass-systems

A V0, Efluid
A2
m c fluid = E fluid ∗
V0
c fluid 2 ∗ E fluid ∗ A2
A B ωH = =
m V0 ∗ m
P T Efluid = Bulk modulus of fluid
A = piston area
V0 = trapped volume
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Natural Frequency depending on Actuator Stroke

2,0

1,9

1,8

1,7
Equal area actuator
ωΗ/ωΗmin

1,6

1,5
Asymmetric actuator 2:1
1,4

1,3

1,2

1,1

1,0
1 50 99
stroke in %

The natural frequency of the drive is, at position- and speed control systems, a
measure for the dynamic limits (acceleration) and the achievable loop gain (accuracy)
of the closed loop system.
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 Pipe characteristics

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 Pipe models
Equivalent mechanic pipe model

Q0 Q1
m m
p0 C (LHI, RHI) C (LHI, RHI) C p1

Equivalent electric pipe model

L R

Lenght of pipe in m natural frequency in Hz 1 EÖl

0,5 315 ω= ωL =
1 157
C∗L ρ ∗l2
2 79
5 31 Table is calculated with
8 20 an equivalent fluid bulk
modulus of 9000 bar
10 16
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 Hydraulic Pipe Effects

Note:
Best stability and accuracy
results can be achieved
when the pressure sensor is
mounted directly at the
actuator. Reason is the
inductivity of the oil between
the valve and the actuator as
well as the pressure drop in
the pipe. A too fast valve will
cause pressure oscillations.

Example: Pressure over time in

a pipe. L = 5m, every 0,7 m a
pressure test point, time scale
20ms

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 Pressure Pulse (Joukowsky‘s pulse)

Due to the inductivity of the fluid in a pipe, a pressure pulse is generated at

the valve ports when closing the valve. It has to be distinguished between
„abrupt“ and „slow“ valve closing:
2∗l l = length of pipe
tcrit = c = sonic speed in fluid
cFluid (c = 1366 m/s steel pipe, c = 462 m/s HP-hose)
A valve closing time smaller or equal tcrit means „abrupt“ closing, else „slow“
valve closing.

Pressure pulse at „abrupt“ valve closing: Δp = ρ ∗ c ∗ Δ v

∆v = change of fluid velocity
Δv ∗ l
Pressure pulse at „slow“ valve closing : Δp = 2 ∗ ρ
tV
tV = valve closing time

Cavitation at the tank port of the valve can emerge. (The required preload
pressure to avoid cavitation can be calculated)

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 Pressure Pulse (Joukowsky‘s pulse)

When closing a hydraulic valve “abruptly” a pressure pulse in the P, A and B ports
crops up. The pressure pulse is independent from the pipe length!
The duration of the pressure pulse is approx. 1.5 ms per meter pipe length.
Cavitation at the tank port of the valve can emerge. (the required preload pressure to
avoid cavitation see diagram)

Druckstoß (Kompessionmodul 10000 bar)

300

250

200
Δp = ρ ∗ c ∗ Δv
Druckstoß in bar

150
or

100
Δp = Δv ρ ∗ EÖl

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ölgeschwindigkeit in m/s 40

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 Pressure Pulse (Joukowsky‘s pulse)

At „slow“ valve closing a pressure pulse crops up as well.

In this case the pressure pulse depends on the pipe length!
Cavitation at the tank port of the valve can emerge. (The required preload
pressure to avoid cavitation can be calculated with the equation below)

Pressure pulse calculation for „slow“ valve closing:

Δv ∗ l
Δp = 2 ∗ ρ
tV
Note:
The pressure pulse when closing a valve, caused by the pipe inductivity
(Joukowsky‘s pulse), has to be added to the pressure pulse caused by the
moving mass (inertia) of the drive system.

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Layout of dynamic hydraulic drive systems

v F

To achieve a high natural frequency of the drive the

valve has to be mounted close to the actuator.
A B Apply hydraulic accumulators close to the valve in P
and T, at pilot operated valves also in X and Y.
The pipes between the accumulators and the valve
P T have to be extremely short with as big as possible
diameter, without any restrictions in the pipe or
drillings.
Apply in the T pipe an orifice and a pressure preload
valve, to avoid cavitation. Pipe between orifice and
preload valve as long as possible (high inductivity).

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 Note

Due to its inductivity and capacity hydraulic pipes are oscillatory

systems with a natural frequency, which act in a hydraulic system as a
low pass filter. When sizing dynamic drive systems it is mandatory to
take the pipe dynamics into account. Neglecting the dynamic pipe
effects cause a high risk, that the drive system cannot achieve the
required performance and damages are very likely.
Mainly the frequently underestimated T-pipes cause severe problems
due to cavitation.
The required accumulators have to be sized by experts with a natural
frequency above the valves operating frequency. A „normal“
accumulator sizing is in most cases not sufficient!
Note: The operating frequency of the pilot stage of pilot operated valves
is approximately two times the main stage frequency.

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 Position-and velocity control systems

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Electro-hydraulic Position or Velocity Loop

ωsv, Dsv ωH, DH

Kp KHy Acyl
w xw
Controller
-
x KV
KSensor
Sensor

w = command signal
x = control value
xW = error signal KV = Kp * KHy * 1/Acyl * KSensor
KV = loop gain
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Electro-hydraulic Position or Velocity System, Loop Gain

KV ⎛ ω sv2 ⎞⎛ ω H2 ⎞
TFOL ( s ) = .⎜ ⎟.⎜ ⎟⎟
s ⎜⎝ s 2 + 2 Dsvω sv s + ω sv2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ s 2 + 2 DH ω H s + ω H2 ⎠

(KV is calculated according the stability criteria and depends on the natural
frequencies and damping factors)

vmax
Max. velocity error Δs =
KV

KV = loop gain
ωH = natural frequency of the hydraulic drive
DH = damping factor of the hydraulic drive
ωSV = natural frequency of the servo valve ω SV = f SV 2π
DSV = damping factor of the servo valve (can be calculated from the amplitude ratio)
vmax = maximum speed at 100% open valve (rated flow of valve !)

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Electro-hydraulic Position- or Velocity Control Systems

Thumb rules for component sizing at position- and speed control

systems:
To achieve the max. performance of the hydraulic drive, the natural frequency of the servo
valve should, at well damped systems, 3times higher than the natural frequency of the
actuator. At poorly damped systems (most cases) the natural frequency of the servo valve
should be slightly below the natural frequency of the actuator.
Caution: The natural frequency of pilot operated valves depend on the pilot pressure.
Drives with a natural frequency < 5 Hz are poorly (only with very high effort) controllable.
Above 25 Hz natural frequency, hydraulic drives are normally well controllable. The
trapped oil volume between valve and actuator should be as small as possible, to achieve
a high natural frequency. Design the system for automatic bleeding !
The smallest possible valve for the application is the best possible valve! (Rule: As much
as possible electric- as less as possible hydraulic gain in the loop)
The natural frequency of the sensors should be 10times higher than the natural frequency
of the drive.

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 Pressure- and force control systems

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Pressure or Force Control Loop

Example: hydraulic actuator with 3/3 servo valve

Pconst.
p
i
A
Controller
P T

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 Electro-hydraulic Pressure or Force Loop

ωSV, DSV
KP VQp CH
w xw
Controller
-
x KV

Sensor

w = command signal V
x = control value CH =
xW = error signal EÖl
KV = loop gain
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 Electro-hydraulic Pressure Control Loop

Stability criteria of a pressure control loop

2 ∗ ωSV ∗ DSV ∗ CH
KP <
VQp
KP = controller P gain
CH = hydraulic capacity in cm³/bar
ωSV = natural frequency of the servo- or proportional valve
DSV = damping factor of the servo- or proportional valve
VQp = flow-pressure gain of the servo- or proportional valve

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 Electro-hydraulic Pressure Control Loop

Conclusion from the stability criteria ?

Big ωSV, DSV and CH and small VQp increases the loop gain and therefore the
static and dynamic performance.

Notes:
The application limits are defined by the stability criteria and the valve
resolution (threshold).
At pressure and force control loops are significant stability restrictions in
case the natural frequencies of attached spring-mass-systems and of the oil
in the pipe between valve and actuator are not significantly above the
valve‘s natural frequency.
External spring-mass-systems can be excited to resonance !
The natural frequency of the pipe is a low pass filter between valve and
cylinder, what means the valve dynamics cannot be transmitted !

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 Electro-hydraulic Pressure or Force Control Loop

Hydraulic actuator with servo valve

c
Natural frequency of spring mass system (resonance) ω=
m
m
c
pconst
A Natural frequency of the fluid in the pipe (low pass filter) !

At force- and pressure control loops, the natural

P T frequency of an attached spring-mass-system and
the natural frequency of the oil in the pipe
between valve and actuator is a criteria for the
dynamic limits and the possible loop gain of the
control loop, in case it is not significantly above
the valve natural frequency.

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Electro-hydraulic Pressure Control Loop

Thumb rules for component sizing at pressure- or force control

loops:
The dominant factors are the natural frequency, damping and the flow-pressure gain of the
servo valve as well as the hydraulic capacity of the drive.
The faster the servo valve the better its damping, the smaller the flow-pressure gain and the
bigger the hydraulic capacity of the drive is, the better is the control performance. At
significant changes of CH during the active control, an automatic adaptation of the controller
gain is recommendable.
In contrast to position- and speed control loops has at pressure control loops a bigger
trapped volume (hydraulic capacity) advantages. (Caution: Natural frequency of the oil in
the pipe is a low pass filter between valve and actuator !)
The smallest possible valve for the application is also for pressure control loops the best
possible valve!
(Rule: As much as possible electric- as less as possible hydraulic gain in the loop)
The natural frequency of the sensor should be 10times higher than the natural frequency of
the drive.

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Structural Conditions in a Closed Loop System

Forward branch: Errors in the forward branch are divided by the controller gain

w xw
Controller
-
x

Sensor

Backwards branch: Errors in the backwards branch are mirrored 1:1 in the control
loop results. This means, the sensor is a key component for the accuracy.

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 Limits due to Valve Resolution

Additionally to the limits due to the possible loop gain are at all control
loops, more frequent at pressure/force control loops, limits due to the
valve resolution (threshold).
An electric feedback valve (EFB) has typically a resolution (threshold)
of approx. 1:1000. This means the smallest adjustable spool position
is 0,1% of the maximum spool position.
At drives, with high speeds (> 0,5 to 1m/s), it is recommendable to
use a progressive spool, to improve the flow resolution at small
signals. The same applies to pressure control loops.
Operating at the valve resolution limits, leads to limit cycling.

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 Summary of Valve Sizing

A proportional valve has to be sized for the operating point

which requires maximum valve opening.
Normally this operating point is at maximum speed (max. Q) and
maximum load (smallest Δp), in some cases at maximum
acceleration. In doubt several operating points have to be calculated.
A valve is optimal sized, when the maximum valve opening is 70 to
90%.
To determine the operating point, mass forces, flow saturation and
cavitation have to be considered.
At position- and speed control loops it is in most cases sufficient to
select a valve with a natural frequency close to the natural drive
frequency. At pressure- and force control loops the highest possible
natural frequency of the valve is in most cases beneficial.

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 Summary of Valve Sizing

After sizing the servo valve according to the mentioned rules, the
physical limits of the drive (closed loop controlled system) are
known and a proper function will be achieved.
With the calculated values the closed loop controller can be
defined. The art of closed loop control is to utilize the physical
possibilities of the closed loop controlled system.

A poor performing controlled system cannot be improved even with

the best closed loop controller.

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 Summary of Valve Sizing

Due to the complexity of sizing a servo hydraulic

drive system it is recommendable to use a sizing
software. Such a software makes it easy to
calculate, in case needed, several operating points
of a drive.

Based on the sizing results a more accurate

prediction of the dynamic drive performance can be
achieved with a dynamic drive simulation.

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 Dynamic Drive Simulation

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 Dynamic Drive Simulation

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