17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 2
S2: Definition of measurement, Basics of unit and dimension, rules of notation, GMS (CO1)
1. Definition of Measurements:
“The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison
between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.”

Known value or character of

physical variable
universally accepted

Place where estimation through

comparison takes place

Unknown
becomes
known quantity

The two quantities are compared and the result is expressed in numerical values.
Measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.
Numerical measure is meaningful unless followed by a unit used. Unit identifies the
characteristic or property measured.
There are two basic requirements to make the results of measurement meaningful
(i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should
be commonly accepted, and
(ii) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
Fundamentals of units and dimensions
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by
either convention or law. Any other value of that quantity can be expressed as a simple
multiple of the unit of measurement. Standard is the physical representation of unit.
Although the number of physical quantities appears to be more, but we need only a
limited number of units for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are interrelated
with one another. The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or
base units. The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the
base units. Such units obtained for the derived quantities are called derived units. A complete
set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the system of units.
Earlier days scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for
measurement. Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS system.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows:
✓ In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
✓ In FPS system, they were foot, pound and second respectively.
✓ In MKS system they were meter, kilogram and second respectively.
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The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is

the Système Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols, units and abbreviations, was
developed and recommended by General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971 for
international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work. Because SI units
used decimal system, conversions within the system are quite simple and convenient. In SI,
there are seven base units as given below.

Rules and conventions for writing SI units and their symbols

1. The unit named after scientists if written in full should be written with a lower case.
For example: newton, henry, watt
2. The symbols are written in capital letter when the unit is derived from a proper name(Scientist).
For example: N for newton, H for henry, W for watt
3. Small letters are used as symbols for units not derived from a proper name.
For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram
4. No full stop(period) or other punctuation marks should be used within or at the end of symbols.
For example: 50 m and not as 50 m.
5. The symbols of the units do not take plural form.
For example: 10 kg not as 10 kgs
6. When temperature is expressed in kelvin, the degree sign is omitted and if expressed in Celsius
scale, degree sign is to be included.
For example: 273 K not as 273o K
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For example: 100o C and not as 100 C

7. Use of solidus or oblique stroke (/) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter
unit symbol by another unit symbol. Not more than one solidus is used
For example: m s-1 or m / s, J / K mol or J K-1 mol-1 but not J / K / mol.
8. Some space is always to be left between the number and the symbol of the unit and between
the symbols for compound units such as force, momentum, etc.
For example: it is not right to write 2.3m. The correct representation is 2.3 m;
kg m s-2 and not as kgms-2.
9. Only accepted symbols should be used.
For example: ampere is represented as A and not as amp. or am; second is
represented as s and not as sec.
10. Numerical value of any physical quantity should be expressed in scientific notation if the
magnitude is of very high value or low value.
Dimensions of Physical Quantities
The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the physical
quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination of
seven fundamental or base quantities.
We shall call these base quantities as the seven dimensions of the physical world,
which are denoted with square brackets [ ].
How to write dimensions of physical quantities
(a) Write the formula for that quantity, with the quantity on L.H.S. of the equation.
(b) Convert all the quantities on R.H.S. into the fundamental quantities mass, length and time.
(c) Substitute M, L and T for mass, length and time respectively.
(d) Collect terms of M, L and T and find their resultant powers (a, b, c) which give the
dimensions of the quantity in mass, length and time respectively.
For example, the volume occupied by an object is expressed as the product of length,
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensions of volume are
[L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3 ]. As the volume is independent of mass and time, it is said to possess
zero dimension in mass [M°], zero dimension in time [T°] and three dimensions in length.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and acceleration, can be expressed as
Force = mass × acceleration = mass × (length)/(time)2 The dimensions of force are
[M] [L]/[T]2 = [M L T –2 ]. Thus, the force has one dimension in mass, one dimension in length,
and –2 dimensions in time.
Characteristics of Dimensions
(a) Dimensions of a physical quantity are independent of the system of units.
(b) Quantities having similar dimensions can be added to or subtracted from each other.
(c) Dimensions of a physical quantity can be obtained from its units and vice-versa.
(d) Two different physical quantities may have same dimensions.
(e) Multiplication/division of dimensions of two physical quantities (may be same or
different) results in production of dimensions of a third quantity.
Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations

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The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent the
dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical
quantity.
For example, the dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or
velocity is [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional formula of acceleration and
[M L–3 T°] that of mass density.
An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is
called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity.
For example, the dimensional equations of volume [V], speed [v], force [F] and mass density
[ρ] may be expressed as [V] = [M0 L3 T0]
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[F] = [M L T–2], [ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
2. GMS – Generalised Measurement System

Fig: Block diagram of Generalised Measurement System

The operation of a measurement system or an instrument can be described in the

form of a generalized measurement system. It can be described in terms of functional
elements. They are,
1. Primary sensing element
2. Variable conversion element
3. Variable manipulation element
4. Data representation element.
Each functional element is made up of a distinct component or group of components
which perform the required or definite steps in the measurement.
1. Primary sensing element:
The measurand (unknown quantity) is first detected by primary sensing element. The
primary sensing element either a transducer or a sensor.
A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into another
form.
A sensor is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical
quantity.
In many cases, physical quantity is directly converted into electrical quantity. The first
stage of measurement is known a detector transducer stage.
2. Variable conversion element:
The output of a primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form like
voltage or some other electrical parameter. For the instrument to perform the desired

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function, it may be necessary to convert the output into some other suitable form while
preserving the information of the original signal.
For example, if the output is in analog form and the next stage of the system accepts
only digital signals then an A/D converter is used to perform this operation. Many instruments
do not need a conversion element while others need more than one.

3. Data manipulation element:

The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the
nature of the signal. In manipulation, the numerical value of the signal is changed. The output
of the transducer contains information necessary for further processing by the system and
the output signal is usually a voltage or some other electrical signal.
The two most important properties of voltage are its magnitude and frequency. Many
transducers develop low voltages of the order of millivolt and even microvolt. This may lead
to contamination of the signal due to noise through extraneous source. A weak signal may be
distorted by processing equipment. So, it becomes necessary to perform certain operations
on the signal before it is transmitted further.
This operation may be linear like, Some nonlinear processes may include,
➢ Amplification ➢ Modulation
➢ Attenuation ➢ Detection
➢ Integration ➢ Sampling
➢ Differentiation ➢ Filtering
➢ Addition and ➢ Chopping and
➢ Subtraction ➢ Clipping

These operations are done to bring the signal into desired level to be accepted by next
stage of measurement system. This is called signal conditioning.
When the elements of the system are physically separated, it becomes necessary to
transmit data from one to another for which a Data Transmission Element is used.
4. Data presentation element:
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
The information conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the personnel or to the intelligent
instrumentation system. This function is done by data presentation element.
In case the data is to be monitored, then analog or digital indicating instruments like
Ammeters, voltmeters etc., are used.
In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, highspeed camera and
TC equipment, storage type CRT, printers, analog and digital computers or microprocessors
may be used.
For control and analysis purpose, microprocessors and computers may be used. The
final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.
Example of a measurement system (Bourdon tube gauge):
As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple bourdon tube pressure
gauge as in the above figure. In this case the bourdon tube acts as a primary sensing element
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and variable conversion element. It senses the input quantity (pressure in this case). Because
the pressure, the closed end of the bourdon tube is displaced. Thus, the pressure is converted
into a small displacement. The closed end of the bourdon tube is connected through
mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.
The gearing arrange amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer to rotate
through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as a data transmission element while
the gearing arrangement acts as a data manipulation element.
The final data presentation stage consists of the pointer and dial arrangement which
when calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal
applied to the bourdon tube.

Fig: Bourdon tube pressure gauge

The schematic diagram of this measurement system is shown below.

Fig: Schematic diagram of a Bourdon tube pressure gauge.

Reference:
1. A Electrical and electronic Measurement and Instrumentation by A.K.Sawhney, publisher:
Gagan Kapur, Danpat Rai & Co.
2. http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/keph102.pdf
3. http://ncerthelp.com/cbse%20notes/class%2011/physics/Physics%20Notes%20
Class%2011%20CHAPTER%202%20UNITS%20AND%20MEASUREMENTS%20.pdf
4. http://www.careerpoint.ac.in/download/smp_sample/IIT_Physics_Unit_Dimension.pdf
5. http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp811.pdf

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 3
S3: Validation of measuring system by static characteristics (accuracy, precession, resolution,
range, threshold, Sensitivity, Linearity, Hysteresis). Measurement Errors-types & remedies.
1. Static characteristics:
Accuracy:
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured.
The accuracy may be specified in terms of inaccuracy or limits of errors. It can be
expressed in the following ways,
1. Point accuracy
2. Accuracy as “Percentage of scale Range”
3. Accuracy as “Percentage of true value”
Precision:
It is the measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of
a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
It can also be defined as degree of exactness. The term precise means clearly or sharply
defined.
Example to know difference between accuracy and precision:
Suppose we have an ammeter which possess high degree of precision by its clearly
legible, finely divided, distinct scale and a knife edge pointer with mirror arrangement to
remove parallax.
Let us say that its readings can be taken to 1/100 of an ampere. At the same time, its
zero adjustment is wrong. Now, every time we take a reading, the ammeter is as precise as
ever, we can take reading down to 1/100 of an ampere, and the readings are considered as
“clearly defined”.
However, the readings taken with this ammeter are not accurate, since they do not
conform to truth because of its faulty zero adjustment.
Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it will again
be found that the output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution or discrimination of the instrument. Thus, the smallest
increment in input (the quantity to be measured) which can be detected with certainty
by an instrument is its resolution or discrimination.
So, resolution defines smallest measurable input change while the threshold defines
smallest measurable input.
Ex: A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full-scale reading is
200V and 1/10 of a scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty. Determine
the resolution the resolution of the instrument in volt
Sol: 1scale division =200/100=2v
Resolution = 1/10 scale division = (1/10) * 2 = 0.2 V

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Range:
The range of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure.
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased gradually from zero, there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value
defines the threshold of the instrument.
In specifying threshold, the first detectable output change is often described as being
any “noticeable measurable change”
Sensitivity:
The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the ratio of
change in magnitude of the output signal or response to the corresponding change in the
magnitude of input signal or quantity being measured. Unit depend upon the type of input and
output.
Ex: millimetre / micro-ampere.
Reciprocal of sensitivity is defined as deflection factor or reverse sensitivity.

Fig: Definition of Sensitivity

Linearity:
Independent linearity is computed with deviation to an expected straight line showing
the relationship between output and input. The linearity simply a measure of maximum
deviation of any of the calibration points from its expected straight line.
The straight line is drawn by using the method of least squares from the given
calibration data.

Fig: Linearity depicted as deviation between actual calibration curve and idealized
straight-line relationship.
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Hysteresis:
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading and
unloading whether it is a mechanical system or an electrical system.
Hysteresis in a system arises due to the fact that all the energy put into the stressed
while loading is not recoverable upon unloading.

Fig: Hysteresis effects

Error:
An error is a deviation between the ACTUAL VALUE of the measurand and the
INDICATED VALUE produced by the sensor or instrument used to measure the value or it is
the difference between actual value and expected value or true value
Absolute error (e) = Am – At
Where Am = measured value
At = expected or true value

Accuracy = 100% - % Error

Example:
An instrument has designed for 100, it shows 76 when measured then the
Error (e) = 100 – 76 = 24, %error = (24/100) *100 = 24% therefore, Accuracy = 76%.
2. Static Errors:
It is the numerical difference between true value of a quantity and its value from
measurement.
Errors mainly classified as
i). Gross errors (human errors)
ii). Systematic errors
iii). Random errors

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Gross Errors:
The errors caused due to human made mistakes. The gross error may occur due to
human oversight and other mistakes while reading and recording the readings.
These errors are not possible to eliminate completely, but can be minimized by
✓ A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, calculation of error
should be done accurately.
✓ By increasing the number of experimenters and if each experimenter takes different
reading at different points, then by taking average of more readings it is possible to
reduce the gross errors
✓ Reducing human involvement
Systematic Errors:
An error that is not determined by chance but is introduced by an inaccuracy (as of
observation or measurement) inherent in the system.
Systematic errors are sub classified as
✓ Instrumental Error
✓ Environmental Error
✓ Observational Error
Instrumental Error
These are due to inherent parts and their mechanical structure, poor design and
maintenance, installation, construction, calibration, lack of familiarity of operating procedure.
Ex: Pointer Error, Spring Error in D’Arsonval movement.
Measures to eliminate this error
✓ Repairing/replacing the parts which are malfunctioning
✓ Selection of right instrument for right application
✓ Correction factors do determine initial errors if any
✓ Proper calibration of instrument against standard
Environmental Error
These are due to external conditions and surroundings where the instrument is
operating.
Ex: Change in temperature, humidity, pressure, magnetic and electric fields etc.
Measures to eliminate this environmental error
✓ Proper shielding to instrument
✓ Hermitically sealing certain components
✓ Providing artificially controlled environment
Observational Error
These are mainly by observer in reading the output of instrument.
Ex: Parallax error, Scale reading errors, Habitual error (taking reading by bending
head towards scale).
The PARALLAX error may be minimized by using highly accurate meters provided with
mirrored scales or instruments with digital readout.

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Random Errors:
Random errors arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions or unable to identify the cause of error. Random errors are also referred as
Residual errors.
Causes of Errors(General):
1. Insufficient knowledge of parameters and operating procedures
2. Poor design of instrument
3. Changes and irregularities, upsets etc.
4. Poor maintenance of the measuring system
5. Inabilities of operator or improper handling of measurement

References:
1. Measurement and instrumentation principles by Alan S Morris
2. A course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation - A.K.Sawhney

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 5
S5: Definition, representation, significance, measurement techniques and applications of
displacement(Linear/Angular), Time, Temperature
1. Displacement (Linear/Angular):
Definition:
A displacement is vector that is the shortest distance from the initial to the final
position of the body. It quantifies both the distance and direction of an imaginary motion
along a straight line/circular path from the initial position to the final position of the point or
A displacement of a body is the distance moved by the body in a specified direction.
Types of displacement:
1. Linear displacement
2. Angular displacement
Linear displacement:
Linear displacement is the movement of a body in one direction along a single axis.
Linear displacement represents the distance, an object has travelled from a reference point
along with the direction of motion (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Linear Displacement Measurement

✓ A linear displacement typically has the unit of millimetre (mm) or inches (in)
✓ The linear displacement is represented in x-y co-ordinates
✓ The magnitude of measurement ranges from a few microns to a few centimeters
Applications of Linear displacement:
Linear displacement measurement plays vital role in
✓ Pick-and-place PCB assembly ✓ Gear measurement tension testers
equipment ✓ Laser scanners
✓ Robotics ✓ Callipers
✓ Machine tools ✓ Servo controlled motion systems printers
✓ Wire bonders and digital presses
✓ Coordinate-measuring machines
Angular displacement:
When an object is moved on a curved or circular path then this change in its position
from initial to final state is known as angular displacement.
✓ An angular displacement generally mentioned in either radian or degree.
✓ The angular displacement is represented in polar co-ordinates.

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Applications for Angular Position Sensors:

Few applications of Angular position measurement in automotive and industrial
✓ Pedal Position sensing ✓ Torque sensing
✓ Steering Wheel Position sensing ✓ Valve position sensing
✓ Motor-shaft Position sensing ✓ Power seat position sensing
✓ Throttle Position sensing ✓ Power mirror position sensing
✓ Float-Level sensing ✓ Flow meters
✓ Ride Height Position sensing ✓ Non-Contacting Potentiometer
✓ Transmission gearbox encoder ✓ Contactless rotary position sensing Robotics
✓ Headlight position control
Methods of measurement of displacement (Transducers):
Displacement transducers can be classified primarily on the basis of transduction
principle employed for the measurement. These transducers act as a secondary transducer or
linking element.
✓ Variable Resistance - Potentiometer
✓ Variable Inductance - Linear Variable Differential Transformer
✓ Variable reluctance
✓ Variable Capacitance
✓ Synchro’s and resolvers
✓ Hall-effect devices
✓ Proximity devices
✓ Optical Encoders
The basic sensing device is widely adapted with suitable linkages for the measurement
of many derived quantities such as force, stress, pressure, velocity and acceleration.
2. Temperature:
Definition:
Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness and coldness of the body or a
driving force or potential causing the flow of energy as heat or measure of the mean kinetic
energy of the molecules of a substance.
Temperature is an intensive quantity independent of the size of the system. The unit
of measurement of temperature in general is oC. The following table shows some of the
temperature scales which are commonly used and their conversion method

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Techniques for the measurement of temperature:

The following are the commonly used temperature measurement techniques
1. Change in dimensions:
Variation in temperature results in either expansion or contraction of the material. The
materials may be in the form of solid, liquid and gas.
Example:
✓ Solid - Bi-metallic strip
✓ Liquid - Mercury Thermometer
✓ Gas - Gas Thermometer
2. Change in electrical resistance of materials:
Variation in temperature results change in electrical conductivity of conductors or
semiconductors.
Example:
✓ Conductor (Metal) - RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
✓ Semiconductor - Thermistor, Diode, Integrated Circuits
3. Change in the intensity and colour of radiation emitted by a hot body:
All bodies above absolute zero temperature emit radiation. The emitted radiation
wave length and colour depends upon its temperature.
Example:
✓ Optical Pyrometer - instrument used to measure temperature based on
change in the intensity and colour of radiation.
4. Thermo electric emf:
A temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances (i.e. Variation in
temperature produces electrical voltage)
Example:
✓ Thermocouple
✓ Thermopile.
5. Change in chemical phase of certain materials:
Certain materials change its phase or colour or size or shape when it reaches certain
temperature.
Example:
✓ Crayons
✓ Pyrometric cones
✓ Pellets
3. Time:
The fourth coordinate that is required (along with three spatial dimensions) to specify
a physical event or a non-spatial continuum that is measured in terms of events which succeed
one another from past through present to future.
Base unit of time is second (symbol: s) (abbreviated as “s”). Second is the duration
needed for a cesium-133 atom to perform 9,192,631,770 complete oscillations.

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Methods of measurement of time:

Some of the time measuring techniques followed from ancient times to present day is
listed below
✓ Sundials and Obelisks
✓ Hourglass
✓ Clepsydra
✓ Candle Clock
✓ Chronometer
✓ Quartz Oscillators
(For understanding purpose)
✓ Sundials and Obelisks Shadow clock consists of a long stem with five variable
marks and an elevated crossbar which cast a shadow over
those marks. It was positioned eastward in the morning, and
was turned west at noon.
✓ Hourglass An hourglass (sandglass, sand timer, sand clock, egg timer)
measures the passage of a few minutes or an hour of time. It
has two connected vertical glass bulbs allowing a regulated
trickle of material from the top to the bottom. Once the top
bulb is empty, it can be inverted to begin timing again.
✓ Clepsydra A water clock or clepsydra is a timepiece in which time is
measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type)
or out from (outflow type) a vessel where the amount is then
measured
✓ Candle Clock A candle clock is a thin candle with consistently spaced
markings (usually with numbers), that when burned,
indicate the passage of periods of time
✓ Chronometer An instrument for measuring time accurately in spite of
motion or variations in temperature, humidity, and air
pressure. Chronometers are used in scientific experiments,
navigation, and astronomical observations.
✓ Quartz Oscillators A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric
material to create an electrical signal with a very precise
frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of
time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock
signal for digital integrated circuits.

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Session 6
S6: Definition, representation, significance, measurement techniques and applications of
speed and humidity.
1. Speed:
Definition:
Speed in general is defined as the rate at which someone or something moves or
operates or is able to move or operate. It is possible to measure speed in two different forms
1. Linear Speed
2. Rotational Speed or Angular Speed
Linear Speed:
Linear speed is measured from an object or a body which moves in its linear path.
✓ Speed is a scalar quantity.
✓ It doesn't have a direction.
Unit of measurement for linear Speed:
The SI unit of speed is m / s (meter per second). But it may also be represented in
kilometre per hour or mile per hour whereas knot (kn) or nautical mile per hour is a
common representation for measuring speed in meteorology, maritime and air navigation.
Rotational Speed:
Rotational speed or angular speed is the number of revolutions over a unit of time for an
object travelling in a circular path.
Unit of measurement for Rotational Speed:
The angular speed of a rotating object usually expressed in radian per second (rad / s) or
revolutions per minute (rpm). Measurement of rotational speed has acquired prominence
compared to the measurement of linear speed.
Linear Speed Formula in terms of angular speed is given by
Linear Speed(v) = (ω*r) m / s
Where, ω is angular speed rad / s
r is the radius of circular path m
Instrument for Speed measurement:
A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a
motor or other machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute(rpm).
Tachometers may be broadly classified into two categories
1. Mechanical tachometers
2. Electrical tachometers
Mechanical tachometers:
These tachometers employ only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the
measurement of speed.

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Types of mechanical tachometers:

✓ Revolution Counter with time period
✓ Centrifugal force Tachometers
✓ Resonance Tachometers
Electrical Tachometers:
An electrical tachometer depends for its indications upon an electrical signal
generated in proportion to the rotational speed of the shaft. Depending on the type of the
transducer, electrical tachometers have been constructed in a variety of different designs as
given below
✓ Eddy Current or Drag type tachometer
✓ Electric Generator tachometer
✓ Contactless type tachometer
✓ Frequency type Tachometer
✓ Ignition type Tachometer
✓ Stroboscopic Tachometer
Applications of Tachometer:
✓ Centrifuges ✓ Motors
✓ Saw blades ✓ Conveyor belts
✓ Grinders ✓ Fans
✓ Elevators/escalators ✓ Propellers
✓ Engines

2. Humidity:
It is the measure of the amount of liquid in the air. Liquid is added to the air by the
process of evaporation. Humidity may be expressed in two ways
✓ Absolute Humidity
✓ Relative Humidity
Absolute Humidity:
Absolute Humidity is a measure of the actual amount of liquid vapour (moisture)
present in the air, regardless of the air temperature. It is expressed as grams of liquid vapour
per cubic meter volume of air.

Relative Humidity:
It is the amount of liquid in the air compared to the amount of liquid the air could
possibly hold. Humidity values are usually given as Relative Humidity.
If the air holds half the liquid it could hold, it’s relative humidity is 50% and if the air
holds all the liquid it can hold it is saturated and the relative humidity is 100%. Warm air
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expands and can hold more liquid vapor than cold air, so it takes more liquid to saturate warm
air. If the air is saturated and the temperature drops precipitation will occur (@ 100% -
Relative Humidity).
Factors that Affect Relative Humidity:
✓ Amount of liquid: If you increase the amount of liquid in the air (by adding it due to
evaporation), Relative humidity will go up.
✓ Temperature: Since warm air can hold more liquid than cold air, if you lower the
temperature then the amount of liquid present in the air increases (because of
decrease in temperature compression of air takes place) therefor the relative humidity
will go up, even if you don’t add more liquid.
Instruments for measuring humidity:
A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the liquid vapor in the atmosphere.
Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some other quantity
such as temperature, pressure, mass or a mechanical or electrical change in a substance as
moisture is absorbed.
Types of Hygrometer:
✓ Mechanical Hygrometers
✓ Electronic Hygrometers
– Capacitance Hygrometer
– Resistance Hygrometer
✓ Dew point Hygrometers
✓ Chemical Hygrometers
Example:
Measurement of relative humidity using a Sling Psychrometer.
A sling psychrometer is made of two
thermometers attached to a handle or
length of rope and spun in the air for about
one minute. One is covered with a wet
cloth. When air moves over the wet cloth,
evaporation occurs and lowers the
temperature on that thermometer. If you
compare the temperature on the two
thermometers you can get the relative
humidity.

Sling
Psychrometer

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 7
S7: Basics on measurement of Force, Stress and Strain (CO2)
1. Force:
Definition:
It is defined as the reaction between the two bodies or components where the
reaction can be either tensile force (Pull) or it can be Compressive force (Push) or A force is a
push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object or
a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.
✓ A force is a vector quantity
✓ Unit of force - Newton or kg m s-2. A Newton is abbreviated by an "N".
Methods of measurement of force:
✓ Direct Method:
This involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force on a standard mass.

Example: Physical Balance.

✓ Indirect Method:
This involves the measurement of effect of force on a body.
Example: Force is calculated from acceleration due to gravity and the mass of
the component (F = m x a kg m s-2)
Few other Example:
➢ Force may be measured by mechanical balancing using simple elements such as the lever.
A platform balance is an example – of course mass is the measured quantity since
acceleration is equal to the local acceleration due to gravity
➢ Simplest method is to use a transducer that transforms force to displacement
1. Example: Spring element
2. Spring element may be an actual spring or an elastic member that undergoes a strain. Strain is
measured using a strain gauge.
3. Force measurement by converting it to hydraulic pressure in a piston cylinder device. The
pressure itself is measured using a pressure transducer
4. Force measurement using a piezoelectric transducer.
Spring Balance Method of measurement of Force:
A spring balance is an example where a force may be converted to a displacement
based on the spring constant. For a spring element (it need not actually be a spring in the form
of a coil of wire) the relationship between force F and displacement X is linear and given by
F = K X N or kg m s-2
where K is the spring constant. Simplest device of this type is in fact the spring
balance whose schematic is shown below.
The spring is fixed at one end and at the other end hangs a pan. The object
to be weighed is placed in the pan and the position of the needle along the
graduated scale gives the weight of the object.

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

For a coiled spring like the one shown in the illustration, the spring constant is given by

In this equation,
Es is the shear modulus of the material of the spring,
Dw is the diameter of the wire from which the spring is wound,
Dm is the mean diameter of the coil and
N is the number of coils in the spring.

An elastic element may be used to

convert a force to a displacement. Any elastic
material follows Hooke’s law within its elastic
limit and hence is a potential spring element.
Several examples are shown in the
diagram with appropriate expressions for the
applicable spring constants.
Spring constants involve E, the Young’s
modulus of the material or the element and the
geometric parameters indicated in the figure.
In case of an element that undergoes
bending, the moment of inertia of the cross
section is the appropriate geometric parameter.
The expressions for spring constant are easily
derived and are available in any book on
strength of materials.

2. Strain and Stress:

Stress:
The restoring force per unit area, set up inside a body is called stress. It is
measured by the magnitude of the deforming force acting on unit area of the body.
Stress = Restoring force / area = F/A N m-2
Where, F is the deforming force acting on an area A of the body.
Unit of stress:
N m-2 in SI system and dyne cm-2 in CGS system.
Dimensional formula is = ML-1 T-2
Different types of stress:
Stress is mainly of two different types
1. Normal Stress
2. Shearing or Tangential Stress

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

1. Normal Stress:
If the stress is normal or perpendicular to the surface, it is called normal stress. Stress
is always normal in the case of a change in length or a wire or in the case of change in volume
of a body. When a normal stress changes the length of a body then it is called longitudinal
stress.
2. Shearing Stress:
When the Stress is tangential to the surface i.e., due to the application of forces parallel
to the surface, then the stress is called tangential or shearing stress. It changes the shape of
the body.
Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area = F / A N m-2
Strain:
The ratio of change produced in the dimensions of a body by a system of forces or
couples, in equilibrium, to its original dimensions is called strain. Strain is of three types
depending upon the change produced in a body and the stress applied.
The three types of strain are
1. Longitudinal strain
2. Volume strain
3. Shearing strain
1. Longitudinal Strain:
It is the ratio of the change in length
of a body to the original length of the body

2. Volume Strain:
It is the ratio of the change in
volume of a body to its original volume

3. Shearing Strain:
If is the angle through which a face
originally perpendicular to the fixed face
is turned. (or) It is the ratio of the
displacement of a layer to its distance
from the fixed layer.
Hooke’s Law:
It states that “In an elastic membrane the strain produced is proportional to the
stress producing it with in the elastic limit”. A material is said to be elastic if all the
deformations are proportional to the load.

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Relation between stress and strain:

It is the ratio of the direct stress to the strain produced is called young’s modules or
the modules of Elasticity
E = /.

The most popular method for measuring force is using strain gauge. The strain
developed due to force using strain gauges is measured and the force is determined by
multiplying the strain with the effective cross-sectional area and Young’s modulus of the
material (E). Load cells and Proving rings are two common methods for force measurement
using strain gauges.
Various Types of Stress-Strain Measurements:
1. Mechanical method
2. Grid method
3. Electrical stain gauges
Electrical stain gauges
A strain gauge’s conductors are very thin, it is made up of round wire, about 1/1000
inch in diameter. Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of metallic film
deposited on a nonconducting substrate material called the carrier. The name “bonded gauge”
is given to strain gauges that are glued to a larger structure under stress (called the test
specimen). The task of bonding strain gauges to test specimens may appear to be very simple,
but it is not.
“Gauging” is a craft in its own right, essential for obtaining accurate, stable strain
measurements. It is also possible to use an unmounted gauge wire stretched between two
mechanical points to measure tension, but this technique has its limitations.
Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 Ω to 3 k Ω (unstressed). This resistance
may change only a fraction of a percent for the full force range of the gauge, given the
limitations imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of the test specimen. Forces
great enough to induce greater resistance changes would permanently deform the test
specimen and/or the gauge conductors themselves, thus ruining the gauge as a measurement
device.
Thus, in order to use the strain gauge as a practical instrument, we must measure
extremely small changes in resistance with high accuracy.
Strain gauge is one of the most popular types of transducer. It has got a wide range of
applications. It can be used for measurement of force, torque, pressure, acceleration and
many other parameters. Principle of operation of a strain gauge is “When strain is applied
to a thin metallic wire, its dimension changes, thus changing the resistance of the wire”.
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Gauge Factor or axial sensitivity of strain gauge:

Consider a long straight metallic wire of length ‘l’ circular cross section with diameter
‘d’. When this wire is subjected to a force applied (Pull force) at the two ends, a strain will be
generated and as a result, the dimension will change (l changing to l + Δl, d changing to d +
Δd and A changing to A + ΔA). Considering that all the changes are in positive direction, the
resistance of the wire ‘R’ is given by

The last term in the right-hand side of the above expression, represents the change in
resistivity of the material due to applied strain that occurs due to the piezo-resistance
property of the material. In fact, all the elements in the right-hand side of the above equation
are independent of the geometry of the wire, subjected to strain, but rather depend on the
material property of the wire.

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Due to this reason, a term Gauge Factor is used to characterize the performance of a
strain gauge. The Gauge Factor is defined as “the change in the resistance of a wire is
directly proportional to axial sensitivity of the strain gauge”.

Thus, the Gauge Factor of metallic strain gauges varies in the range 1.8 to 2.6. However,
the semiconductor type strain gauges have a very large Gauge Factor, in the range of 100-150.
This is attained due to dominant piezo-resistance property of semiconductors.
Construction of strain gauge:
Length of filament varies from 2 to 25mm.
Normally, 10- 25mm is used for tension members
2-4mm for compression members.
Safe current is 25mA – 50 mA.
Range of voltage is 35 – 50 V
Metal used are Copper (55%) + Nickel (45%) Alloy or can be Nickel + Chromium Alloy
Advantages of Electric Resistance Gauge:
✓ Normal strains can be measured in any desired direction on surface of the
structural component.
✓ Shear strains can be measured by using some special arrangements.
✓ Remote reading is possible.
✓ Once the strain gauge is cemented it will be long period of time until the bond between
strain gauge and component breaks.
✓ Static as well as dynamic strains can be measured.
✓ Strain can be measured in any desired position e.g. Top fibres, bottom fibres and at
neutral axis
To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges are almost always used in
a bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source. Consists of four resistive arms with
an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the bridge. The output voltage of the bridge,
Vo. When R1/R2 = R4/R3, the voltage output VO is zero.
Such demanding precision calls for a bridge measurement circuit, a strain gauge bridge
circuit indicates measured strain by the degree of imbalance, and uses a precision voltmeter
in the center of the bridge to provide an accurate measurement of that imbalance:

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Temperature compensation:
A strain gage configuration where one gage is active (RG + ΔR) and a second gage is
placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second
gage, called the dummy gage.
However, any changes in temperature affect both gages in the same way. Because the
temperature changes are identical in the two gages, the ratio of their resistance does not
change, the voltage VO does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are
minimized.

Strain gauge rosette:

A strain gauge rosette is an arrangement of two or more closely positioned gage grids,
separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different directions in the underlying
surface of the test part.
Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in
experimental stress analysis.

Positioning strain gauges to monitor bending, axial, shear and torsion loads:

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 8
S8: Measurement of Pressure, Velocity, Acceleration, Mass and Weight (CO2)
Pressure:
Significance of Pressure:
Pressure measurement is important because of the following reasons
✓ Pressure is an important quantity that describes a system.
✓ Pressure is invariably an important process parameter.
✓ Pressure difference is used many a time as a means of measuring the flow rate of a fluid.
✓ Pressure level spans some 18 orders of magnitude from the lowest to the highest pressures
encountered in practice
Definition:
It is the amount of force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. It is denoted by the letter p or P.

P is the pressure in N/m2

F is the normal force in N
A is the area of the surface on contact in m2
Unit of Pressure:
Measured in 1 Torr = 1 mm of mercury = 133.3 Pa = 133.3 N/m-2
Ranges of Pressure:
✓ Low Pressure(Vacuum) Measurements: (Range: 10-8 to 1 Torr)
Measuring Instrument: McLeod Gauge
Ionization gage
Pirani gage
✓ Medium Range of Pressure: (Range: 1 to 104 Torr)
Measuring Instrument: Manometers
Piezoelectric transducers
Bellows type gage
✓ High Pressure(Gauge): (Range: 104 to 109 Torr)
Measuring Instrument: C type Bourdon Tube
Diaphragm gage
Resistance gage

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Velocity:
Definition:
Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its
position". The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called "speed".
Unit:
The SI (metric system) unit is metre per second (m/s) or m s−1
Measuring Device:

Velocity Transducer - An electromagnetic transducer, in which a

voltage is induced in the coil when the magnetic flux about it is varied
due to the motion of the object gap.

Acceleration:
Definition:
Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes
its velocity.
Units:
The SI (metric system) unit is m/sec2 or ms-2
Types of acceleration:
✓ Increasing speed
Example: Car speeds up at green light
✓ Decreasing speed
Example: Car slows down at stop light
✓ Changing Direction
Example: Car takes turn
Measuring Device:
Accelerometers - Seismic Accelerometer
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Mass & Weight:
Definition:
Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object or the quantity of matter in a
body.
Weight: Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body or the force with which a body is
attracted to the earth.
Unit:
The unit of mass – kilogram or kg
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Relation between Mass & Weight:

Weight = mass X acceleration due to gravity
Methods of measuring weight:
✓ Load Cell
✓ Comparison with known weight
✓ Measuring deflection of a body
✓ Measuring electric current
✓ Measuring displacement of a liquid
✓ Measuring hydraulic or Pneumatic pressure
Load Cell:
A load cell is a “load transducer” which converts the weight or load acting on it into
electrical signals.

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Session 9
S9: Measurement of Voltage and Current (CO3)
Voltage:
Definition:
The amount of potential energy between two points on a circuit. One point has more
charge than another. This difference in charge between the two points is called voltage. It is
measured in volts, which, technically, is the potential energy difference between two points
that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. Voltage is
represented in equations and schematics by the letter “V”.
Current:
Current is the rate at which charge is flowing. Current is measured in Amperes (usually just
referred to as “Amps”). An ampere is defined as 6.241*1018 electrons (1 Coulomb) per second
passing through a point in a circuit. Amps are represented in equations by the letter “I”.
Resistance:
Resistance is a material’s tendency to resist the flow of charge (current). Ohm defines the unit
of resistance of “1 Ohm” as the resistance between two points in a conductor where the
application of 1 volt will push 1 ampere, or 6.241×1018 electrons. This value is usually
represented in schematics with the Greek letter “Ω”, which is called omega, and pronounced
“ohm”.
Types of Instruments (Voltage and Current):
Basic Classification
✓ Analog Instruments
✓ Digital Instruments
Classification of Analog Instruments
✓ PMMC - Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
✓ MI - Moving Iron
✓ EMMC or EDM - Electromagnetic Moving coil or Electro
Dynamometer
✓ Electrostatic Voltmeter
✓ RF Ammeter
Classification of Digital Instruments
✓ Digital Voltmeter
✓ Digital Ammeter
✓ Digital Multimeter
Measurement of voltage and current with Moving Iron (MI) instruments:
Types Moving Iron Instruments:
This instrument is one of the most primitive forms of measuring and relay instrument.
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Moving iron type instruments are of mainly two types.

1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be attracted by the
magnet. The force of attraction depends upon magnetic field strength. If the magnet is
electromagnet then the magnetic field strength can easily be increased or decreased by
increasing or decreasing current through its coil. Accordingly, the attraction force acting on
the piece of iron would also be increased and decreased. Depending upon this simple
phenomenon attraction type moving iron instrument was developed.
Whenever two pieces of iron are kept side by side and a magnet is brought nearer to
them the iron pieces will repulse each other. This repulsion force is due to same magnetic
poles induced in same sides the iron pieces due external magnetic field.
This repulsion force increases if field strength of the magnet is increased. Like case if the
magnet is electromagnet, then magnetic field strength can easily be controlled by controlling
input current to the magnet.
Hence if the current increases the repulsion force between the pieces of iron is
increased and it the current decreases the repulsion force between them is decreased.
Depending upon this phenomenon repulsion type moving iron instrument was constructed.
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument (attraction type):

Fig 9.1 Attraction type moving iron instrument

The basic construction of attraction type moving iron instrument is illustrated above.
A thin disc of soft iron is eccentrically pivoted in front of a coil. This iron tends to move inward
that is from weaker magnetic field to stronger magnetic field when current flowing through
the coil. In attraction moving instrument gravity control was used previously but now gravity
control method is replaced by spring control in relatively modern instrument. By adjusting
balance weight null deflection of the pointer is achieved. The required damping force is
provided in this instrument by air friction.

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Torque Expressions:
Torque expression may be obtained in terms of the inductance of the instrument.
Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection θ. Then let I
change to I+dI, dI being a small change of current; as a result, let θ changes to θ+ dθ, and L to
L+dL. In order to get an incremental change in current dI there must be an increase in the
applied voltage across the coil.
Let, I: Current, L: Inductance, Θ: Deflection, 𝜏𝑑 : 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
The relation of voltage and inductance is given as follows:
𝑑𝐼
𝑒=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating the given equation
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐿
𝑒 =𝐿 +𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Multiply both sides by ‘I dt’
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐿
𝑒(𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = (𝐿 + 𝐼 ) 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒(𝐼 𝑑𝑡) = 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿
(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑) 𝑒 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 (1)
1 2
(𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑)𝜔1 = 𝐿𝐼
2
Therefore, incremental energy stored is ω2 given as:
1
𝜔2 = (𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿)(𝐼 + 𝑑𝐼)2
2
Change in energy stored Δω
𝛥𝜔 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1
1 1
𝛥𝜔 = (𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿)(𝐼 2 + (𝑑𝐼)2 + 2𝐼 𝑑𝐼) − 𝐿𝐼 2
2 2
By solving the above equation, we obtain the equation as follows:

1 1 1 1 1
𝛥𝜔 = 𝐿𝐼 2 + 𝐿(𝑑𝐼)2 + 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿 (𝑑𝐼)2 + 𝐼 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐼 − 𝐿𝐼 2
2 2 2 2 2
1
𝛥𝜔 = 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 2 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 (2)
Mechanical work done ‘dω’:
𝑑𝜔 = 𝜏𝑑 𝑑𝜃 (3)
Energy supplied = Change in energy stored + Mechanical work done
(1) = (2) + (3)
1
𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿 = (𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 + 𝐼 2 𝑑𝐿) + 𝜏𝑑 𝑑𝜃
2
1 2
𝐼 𝑑𝐿 = 𝜏𝑑 𝑑𝜃
2

1 𝑑𝐿
𝜏𝑑 = 𝐼 2
2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐿
: 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝜏𝑑 ∝ 𝐼 2 (for AC and DC)

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 17GN1001 – BASIC ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS – SESSION MATERIALS

Furthermore, when torque is controlled 2 cases come under consideration:

1) Spring Control
2) Gravity Control

Case1: Spring Control Case 2: Gravity Control

Spring serves to provide τc. Gravity serves to provide τg
Kc: spring constant Kg: Gravity constant
𝜏𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 𝜃 𝜏𝑔 = 𝑚. 𝑔. 𝑙
At stable state |𝜏𝑐 | = |𝜏𝑑 |
2 𝑑𝐿
𝜃= (𝐼 2 ) (𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙)
2𝐾𝑐 𝑑𝜃
1 𝑑𝐿
𝜃 = sin−1 ( (𝐼 2 ) ) (𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙)
2𝐾𝑔 𝑑𝜃

MI instrument as Ammeter:
Moving iron instruments can be built for a Range up to 50A since in these instruments
moving iron parts do not carry any current. Hence shunts are not necessary, except for very
large currents. However, if shunt is required to be used with an ammeter to extent its range,
the inductances of both the meter coil and the must be considered along their resistances.
Following fig shunt placed in parallel with a moving iron instruments.

Fig 9.2 MI Ammeter

The currents in meter and shunt are in inverse ratio of their impedances. It is clear
from the above equation that the ratio of two currents are depends upon frequency.
Here,
𝑅𝑠ℎ =Resistance of shunt
𝑅𝑚 =Resistance of meter
Im=meter current for full scale deflection.
Lm=Inductance of coil
Lsh=Inductance of shunt

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In order to devise current through two parallel branches (i.e. meter and shunt) equal
for all frequencies (Lsh/Rsh) should be equal to (Lm/Rm)
Hence (Lsh/Rsh) = (Lm/Rm)
I𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑚
= =𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ
Here 𝑚 is called as multiplication factor
𝑅
In order use MI instruments for large values of current a shunt resistance whose value is 𝑚𝑚
has to keep in parallel with meter with the condition of (Lsh/Rsh)= (Lm/Rm)
MI instrument as voltmeter:
The voltage range of moving iron instruments extended by the use of a series
resistance with the working coil as shown below.

Fig 9.3 MI Voltmeter

Here
𝑅𝑚 =Resistance of meter
Lm=Inductance of coil
Im=meter current for full scale deflection.
Voltage drop across the meter for full scale deflection
v = I m 𝑅 2 𝑚 + ( 𝜔𝐿𝑚 )2

V = I m (R s + R m) 2 + (ωLm) 2

Multiplication factor= 𝑚=V/v

Advantages:
✓ The instruments are suitable for use in ac and dc circuits.
✓ The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the moving parts.
✓ The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
✓ Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
✓ Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

DMM (Digital Multimeter):

Digital multi meter is test equipment used for resistance, voltage, current
measurement and other electrical parameters as per requirement and displaying the results
in the mathematical digits form on an LCD or LED readout.
A multi meter has only three parts;
✓ Display screen
✓ Selection knob
✓ Ports.
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Display screen-It has illuminated display screen for better visualization. It has five digits
display screen; one represents sign value and the other four are for number representation.
Selection knob- As we know a single multi meter performs so many tasks like reading voltage,
resistance, and current. The selection knob allows the user to select the different job.
Ports-There are three ports on the front of the unit. One is the mA, V, Ω port which allows the
measurement of all the three units: current up to 200 mA, voltage, and resistance. The red
probe is plugged into this port. The other is COM port which means common and it normally
connected to –v of a circuit and black probe is plugged into it. There is one particular port is
10A, which is used to measures large current in the circuit. The block diagram of DMM is given
below.

Fig 9.4 the simple block diagram of a typical digital multi meter

Measurement of DC voltage:
Connect an unknown DC voltage across input probes. Keep the switch in position-5.
The voltage is attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then directly fed to A-D
converter to get the digital display in Volts.
Measurement of AC voltage:
Connect an unknown AC voltage across the input probes. Keep rotary switch in
position-2. The voltage is attenuated, if it is above the selected range and then rectified to
convert it into proportional DC voltage. It is then fed to A-D converter to get the digital display
in Volts. Remember that while measuring voltage, the DMM is connected in parallel. To
measure voltage at a point in the circuit, first confirm the type of voltage, whether it is AC or
DC. Also confirm the range of voltage (it is better to start with higher voltage range).
Measurement of AC current:
Current is indirectly measured by converting it into proportional voltage. Connect an
unknown AC current across input probes. Keep the switch in position-3. The current is
converted into voltage proportionally with the help of I-V converter and then rectified. Now
the voltage in terms of AC current is fed to A-D converter to get digital display in Amperes.

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Measurement of DC current:
The DC current is also measured indirectly. Connect an unknown DC current across
input probes. Keep the switch in position-4. The current is converted into voltage
proportionally with the help of I-V converter. Now the voltage in terms of DC current is fed to
A-D converter to get the digital display in Amperes.
Remember that while measuring current, the DMM is connected in series. To measure current
flowing through a circuit or wire, first confirm the type of current, whether it is AC or DC. Also
confirm the range of current (it is better to start with higher current range).

Measurement of resistance:
Connect an unknown resistor across its input probes. Keep rotary switch in the
position-1 (refer block diagram above). The proportional current flows through the resistor,
from constant current source. According to Ohm’s law voltage is produced across it. This
voltage is directly proportional to its resistance. This voltage is buffered and fed to A-D
converter, to get digital display in Ohms. To measure the unknown resistance: If you are
measuring the unknown value of a resistor already connected in a working circuit, then first
of all, switch off the power supply and disconnect the resistor from the circuit. This is very
important, because if you measure the resistance without disconnecting it from the circuit,
the voltage drop across it may damage the DMM permanently.

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Session 10
S10: Measurement of Power, Power factor and Energy (CO3)
Power:
Definition:
Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by
an electric circuit.
Unit of power:
watt or W - Active Power or Real Power or True Power
VA - Apparent Power
VAR - Reactive Power
Types of Power:
✓ D.C Power
✓ A.C Power
DC Power:
The power drawn is denoted by the product of current and voltage
✓ Power (P) = V x I watt
✓ Power measurement in DC Circuits.
✓ Ammeter-Voltmeter, Voltmeter-Ammeter methods

AC Power:
Power (P) = V x I Cos φ
Where V = RMS value of voltage
I = RMS value of current
Cosφ = Power factor of the load
Φ = voltage and current phase difference.
Power Triangle:

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Definition:
Active Power:
Capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time
Apparent Power:
It is the product of current and voltage
Reactive Power:
It is the resultant power in watts of an AC circuit when the current waveform is out of
phase with the waveform of the voltage, usually by 90 degrees if the load is purely reactive,
and is the result of either capacitive or inductive loads.
Power Factor:
It is the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the
circuit. It is a dimensionless number.
Cos φ =P/(VI)
Measuring Instruments:
✓ EDM Wattmeter
✓ Ferro dynamic Wattmeter
✓ Low Power Factor Wattmeter
✓ Thermocouple Wattmeter
✓ Three Phase Wattmeter
Electrodynamometer (EDM) Wattmeter:
A wattmeter, as its name implies, measure electric power given to or develop by an
electronic apparatus or circuit. A wattmeter is hardly over required in a d.c circuit because
power (P = VI) can be easily determined from voltmeter and ammeter readings. However, in
an a.c circuit, such a computation is generally speaking impossible. It is because in an a.c
circuit, power (P = VI Cos θ) depends not only on voltage and current but also on the phase
shift between them. Therefore, a wattmeter is necessary for a.c power measurement.
The wattmeter shows a reading which is proportional to the product of the
current through its current coli, the potential difference across its potential or
pressure coil and cosine of the angle between this voltage and current. The “wattmeter”
is an indicating type instruments, generally used for power measurement of the electrical
circuit.

Figure: EDM Wattmeter

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Operation:
When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure power (see figure), the
current (stationary or current coil) which is wound with a larger-diameter wire carries the
load current and potential (moving or voltage coil) coil carries current proportional to the
load voltage. Due to currents in the coils, mechanical force exists between them. The result is
that movable coil moves the pointer over the scale.
The pointer comes to rest at a position when deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque. The moving coil is used to detect the magnitude of the circuit voltage. The
stationary coils are referred to as the current coils. The circuit current is detected by the
current coils, which are connected in series with the load. The stationary current is wound
with larger diameter. This keeps the resistance that is in series with the load as low as
possible. The moving coil is wound with thin wire to keep it as high as possible. Since the
movable coil responds to voltage, it has a multiplier (a high non-inductive resistance)
connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current flowing through the moving coil
to a small value, usually up to 100mA. Such instruments can be used for the measurement of
d.c as well as a.c power. θ α P
Power Factor:
It is the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit.
It is a dimensionless number.
P.F = Cos φ =P/(VI)
Measuring Instruments:
✓ Single phase (1ϕ) EDM Power Factor meter
✓ Three phase (1ϕ) EDM Power Factor meter
✓ Moving Iron Power Factor meter

Energy:
Definition:
Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval
Unit of Energy:
joule or watt second (one watt over an interval of one second)
Relation between Energy and Power:
Enery  Power  Time
t
E   VIdt
0

Measuring Instruments:
✓ Single Phase (1ϕ) Induction type meter
✓ Poly – Phase energy meter
✓ Digital energy meter

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Session 11
S11: Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance (CO3)
Resistor (R):
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit or a
property of a conductor by virtue of which the passage of current is opposed, causing electric
energy to be transformed into heat: equal to the voltage across the conductor divided by the
current flowing in the conductor

Unit of Resistance:
Measured in ohm
Symbol - Ω
Classification of Resistance based on range and measuring instruments:

Classification of Resistance Range Measuring Instruments

Low Resistance <1 Ω Kelvin Double Bridge
1. Ammeter- Voltmeter method
Medium Resistance 1 Ω < R<100K Ω 2. Substitution method.
3. Wheatstone bridge method
1. Direct Deflection method
High Resistance >100K Ω 2. Loss of charge method
3. Meggar
Wheatstone bridge:
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to precisely measure resistances in the range of
1Ω to 1 MΩ. The bridge circuit consists of four resistors, a dc voltage source, and a detector.
The resistance of one of the four resistors can be varied. The dc voltage source is usually a
battery, which is indicated by the battery symbol for the voltage source. The detector is
generally a D’Arsonval movement in the microampere range and is called a galvanometer. Fig.
shows the circuit arrangement of the resistances, battery, and detector.
The bridge is said to be balanced when the potential difference across the
galvanometer is 0 V, so that there is no current through the galvanometer.

Figure: Wheatstone Bridge

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The bridge is balanced when current through the galvanometer is zero. i.e., VB = VD; and Ig = 0;
Applying KVL in Loop1 (ABDA):
I1 R1 + I2 Rg – (I – I1) R3 = 0
Since I2 = 0;
I1 R1 = (I – I1) R3 - 1
Similarly, Applying KVL in Loop1 (BCDB):
(I1 – I2) R2 – (I – I1 + I2) R4 - I2 Rg = 0
Since I2 = 0;
I1 R2 = (I – I1) R4 - 2
Dividing equations 1 & 2, the balancing condition of the bridge is obtained as follows
R1/R2=R3/R4
Inductance (L):
The property of the coil of inducing emf due to the changing flux linked with it is known
as inductance of the coil.
An inductor can be defined as an energy storage device which stores energy in form
of magnetic field.
Unit:
Measured in henry
Symbol - H
Two types of Inductances:
✓ Self-Inductance
✓ Mutual Inductance
Measuring Instruments:
Self-Inductance:
1. Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
2. Hay’s Bridge
3. Owen’s Bridge
Mutual Inductance:
1. Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge
2. Campbell’s Bridge

Capacitance (C):
Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electric charge or the capability to hold an
electric charge is known as capacitance or the capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the potential difference between the conductors
C = Q/V.
A capacitor is a device used to store an electric charge, consisting of one or more pairs
of conductors separated by an insulator.
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Unit of Capacitance:
Measured in farad
Symbol - F
Methods of measurement of Capacitance:
✓ De Sauty’s Bridge
✓ Schering Bridge

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Session 12
S12: Oscilloscope, Measurement of Amplitude, Time Period, Phase and Frequency using
Oscilloscope (CO4)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO, for short) is a versatile laboratory
instrument used for the visual observation, measurement and analysis of
waveforms. Oscilloscopes are used very widely used in electronic measurements and
instrumentation systems. The characteristics of the signals, like amplitude, frequency,
phase, time period, duty cycle etc. can be measured using oscilloscopes. The amplitude of
the signals can vary from 1µV to even a few hundred volts. The frequency can range from
very low (even DC) to MHz.
Functional block diagram of CRO:

Electron Gun:
The source of focused and accelerated electron beam is the electron gun. The electron
gun consists of a heater cathode, a control grid, accelerating anodes and a focusing anode.
Electrons are emitted by the heated cathode which has the deposit of barium and strontium
oxide at the end for the high emission of electrons at moderate temperature. The control
grid made up of nickel cylinder controls the intensity of the electron beam emitted from
cathode. The electrons emitted from the cathode and passing through the hole in the control
grid are accelerated accelerating anode.
Deflection Systems:
Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general-purpose oscilloscope.
The deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. The
beam is focused at point 0 on the screen in the absence of a deflecting plate voltage. The
deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the plates.
Vertical Amplifier:
The input signals are generally not strong to provide the measurable deflection on the
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screen. Hence the vertical amplifier stage is used to amplify the input signals. The amplifier
stages used are generally wide band amplifiers so as to pass faithfully the entire band of
frequencies to be measured.
Similarly, it contains the attenuator stages as well. The attenuators are used when
very high voltage signals are to be examined, to bring the signals within the proper range.
Delay line:
The delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical section. When
the delay line is not used, the part of the signal gets lost. Thus, the input signals not
applied.

directly to the vertical plates but is delayed by some time. As the signal is delayed, the sweep
generator output gets enough time to reach to the horizontal plates before signal reaches
the vertical plates.
Trigger Circuit:
It is necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical
signal each time it sweeps. Hence to synchronize horizontal deflection with vertical
deflection a synchronizing or triggering circuit is used.
Time Base Generator:
The time base generator is used to generate saw tooth voltage, required to deflect the
beam in the horizontal section. This voltage deflects the spot at a constant time dependent
rate. Thus, the x-axis on the screen can be represented as time, which helps to display
and analyse the time varying signals.
Horizontal Amplifier:
The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base generator may not be of sufficient
strength. Hence before giving it to the horizontal deflection plates it is amplified using the
horizontal amplifier.
Power Supply:
The power supply block provides the voltages required by CRT to generate and
accelerate an electron beam and voltages required by other circuits of the oscilloscope like
horizontal amplifier, vertical amplifier etc. There are two sections of a power supply block.
The High Voltage (HV) section and Low Voltage (LV) section. The high voltages of the
order 1000 to 1500 V required by CRT. Similarly, the low voltage is required for the
heater of the electron gun, which emits the electrons. This is a positive voltage of the order
of few hundred volts. This voltage is also used for other circuits of C.R.O.
Screen:
The front of the CRT is called the face plate. The inside surface of the face plate is
coated with very pure inorganic crystalline phosphor crystals with traces of other elements
called activators. Activators such as silver, manganese, copper and chromium are used that
influences the characteristics such as luminous efficiency, spectral emission and persistence
of phosphor. The illuminance of beam depends on the type of the activator coated on the
screen of CRO.

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Measurement of Amplitude and Time Period using Oscilloscope:

✓ Amplitude or Peak voltage is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured
in volt, V.
✓ Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope
trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
✓ Time Period (T) is the time taken by an alternating quantity to complete its one cycle. It
is measured in second (s).
✓ Frequency (f) is the number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second. It
is measured in Hertz (Hz).
𝒇 = 𝟏⁄𝑻 𝑯𝒛
✓ Angular frequency (ω) can be expressed in electrical radians per second. As one cycle of
an alternating quantity corresponds to 2π radians, the angular frequency can be expressed
as 2πf.
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔/𝒔

Amplitude Measurement:
Amplitude = Number of vertical divisions X volt/division
Where, No. of vertical divisions is no. of vertical box covered by peak to peak voltage
Volt/division is voltage assigned to each vertical box
Example: Calculate the amplitude of the signal given below.
Amplitude = No. of vertical divisions X volt/div. V
=6X2V
Amplitude = 12 V

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Time Period Measurement:

Time Period = Number of horizontal divisions X time/division
Where, No. of horizontal divisions is no. of horizontal box covered by one cycle
Time/division is time assigned to each horizontal box
Example: Calculate the Time Period of the signal given above.
Time Period = No. of horizontal divisions X time/div. s
= 4 X 10 ms
Time Period = 40 ms
Frequency = 1/T Hz
= 1/ (40 X 10-3) Hz
Frequency = 25 Hz
Measurement of Phase and Frequency:
Lissajous Pattern:
Lissajous pattern can be obtained by applying sinusoidal voltages simultaneously to
horizontal and vertical plates.
Phase Measurement:
Based on the input signal applied to the horizontal and vertical plates the phase
measurement is categorized into three different cases.
Case 1:
When two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase or 1800 out of
phase with each other are applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the pattern
appearing on the screen is a straight line.
Note:
If two signals have equal magnitude, then the angle formed with the horizontal
axis is 450

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Case 2:
When two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency but 900 or 2700 phase displacement
are applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the pattern appearing on the
screen is a circle.

Case 3:
When two sinusoidal voltages of equal voltages and equal frequency but with a phase
shift of ϕ (not equal to 00, 900, 1800 or 2700) are applied to the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates, the pattern appearing on the screen is aa ellipse.
Hence, regardless of the two amplitudes of the applied voltages the ellipse provides a
simple means of finding phase difference between two voltages given.

From the above diagram, the sine of the phase angle between the voltages is given by
𝑌1 𝑋1
sin ∅ = =
𝑌2 𝑋2

Measurement of Frequency:
Lissajous patterns may be used for accurate measurement of frequency. The signal
whose frequency is to be measured is applied to the Y plates and accurately calibrated
standard variable frequency source is used to supply voltage to X plates. From the pattern
obtained by connecting signals to X and Y plates, the frequency can be calculated using the
formula
FX . L X = FY . L Y
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Where,
FX = Standard frequency applied to X Plates
FY = Unknown frequency applied to Y plates
LX = Number of Horizontal tangencies
LY = Number of Vertical tangencies
Example: Calculate the unknown frequency of the Lissajous pattern if the given
frequency F x = 1000 Hz.

FX = 1000 Hz, LX = 5, LY = 2, FY =?
W. K. T. FX. LX = FY. LY
FY = (1000 X 5)/2
FY = 2500 Hz

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