GEOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS INTRODUCTION
Engineering Geology
- deals with study of the earth, geological agents
and processes, identification of rocks and minerals
with adaptation to Philippine conditions and
structural relationship of earth formations and
stratification to the foundations for engineering.
EARTH - 4.5 billion y.o.
IMPORTANCE IN CE:
1) Geology provides a systematic knowledge of
construction material, its occurrence, composition,
durability and other properties. Example of such
construction materials is building stones,
sandstones, clay, limestone(white) and
laterite(red).
2) The knowledge of the geological work of
natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquakes helps in planning and carrying out
major civil engineering works. For example the
knowledge of erosion, transportation and
deposition helps greatly in solving the expensive
problems of river control, coastal and soil
conservation.
3) Ground water is the water which occurs in the
subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation
and many other civil engineering works.
4) The foundation problems of dams, bridges and
buildings are directly concerned with the geology
of the area where they are to be built. In these
works drilling is commonly undertaken to explore
the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in
interpreting the drilling data.
5) In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks
and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes,
the knowledge about the nature and structure of
rocks is very necessary.
6) Before staring a major engineering project at a
place, a detailed geological report which is
accompanied by geological maps and sections, is
prepared. Such a report helps in planning and
constructing the projects.
RELEVANCE OF GEO IN CE:
1) The feasibility, the planning and design, the
construction and costing
2) The safety of a project may depend critically on
the geological conditions where the construction
will take place.
3) Some excavated rocks can be used as building
materials.
ROLE OF ENGR IN SYSTEMATIC
EXPLORATION & INVESTIGATION OF A SITE:
5 stages:
1) Preliminary investigation using published
information and other existing data
2) A detailed geological survey of the site, possibly
with a photogeology study
3) Applied geophysical surveys to provide
information about the subsurface geology
4) Boring, drilling and excavation to provide
confirmation of the previous results, and
quantitative detail, at critical points on the site.
5) Testing of soils and rocks to assess their
suitability, particularly their mechanical properties
(soil mechanics and rock mechanics), either in situ
or from samples.
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY:
Petrology – is the branch of geology that studies
the origin, composition, distribution and structure
of rocks.
There are 3 branches of petrology, corresponding
to the three types of rocks.
✔ Igneous petrology focuses on the
composition and texture of igneous rocks (rocks
such as granite or basalt which have
crystallized from molten rock or magma).
✔ Sedimentary petrology focuses on the
composition and texture of sedimentary rocks
(rocks such as sandstone, shale, or limestone
which consist of pieces or particles derived from
other rocks or biological or chemical deposits,
and are usually bound together in a matrix of
finer material)
✔ Metamorphic petrology focuses on the
composition and texture of metamorphic rocks
(rocks such as slate, marble, gneiss, or schist
which started out as sedimentary or igneous
 rocks but which have undergone chemical,
mineralogical or textural changes due to
extremes of pressure, temperature or both).
Mineralogy – is the study of minerals.
Crystallography- study of crystals.
Economic Geology – it deals with the study of
minerals, rocks and materials of economic
importance like coal and petroleum.
Physical Geology – deals with the various
processes of physical agent such as wind, water,
glaciers and sea waves.
Stratigraphy- is the study of stratified rocks and
their correlation.
Palaeontology – is the study of fossils (the
ancient remains of plants and animals).
Structural Geology- the study of structures
founds in rocks, it is also known as tectonic
geology or simply tectonics.
Historical Geology – the study of both
stratigraphy and paleontology.
Mining Geology – it deals with the study of
application of geology to mining engineering in
such a way that the selection of suitable site s for
quarrying and mines can be determined.
Civil Engineering Geology – deals with all the
geological problems that arise in the field civil
engineering along with suitable treatments.
Hydrology – deals with the studies of both quality
and quantity of water that are present in the rocks
in different states.
Resources Engineering – the study of water,
land, solar energy, minerals, forests, etc.
Photo Geology – deals with the study of aerial
photographs.
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
The Earth is divided into four main layers.
1) Inner Core
2) Outer Core
3) Mantle
4) Crust
THE CRUST
- The Earth’s crust is like the skin of an apple. It is
very thin compared to the other three layers.
- The crust makes up 1% of the Earth.
- The crust of the Earth is broken into many
pieces called plates.
- Thinnest of all layers. It ranges from 20-30 km in
oceans to 70-80 km at mountains.
- The Earth’s crust is made up of different types
of rock; igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
- The crust has the most complicated and variation
in its composition. The most abundant element in
crust is oxygen by weight and by volume.
- The rock crust is approximately called
lithosphere
- Discontinuous body of water called hydrosphere
- On land of masses of the lithosphere and
hydrosphere, all living creatures exist, this
described the biosphere.
- Enveloped by a layer of air which is called
atmosphere.
- The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers)
thick under the oceans(oceanic crust) and about
25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents
(continental crust).
- Outer layer
- 5-100 km thick
- 2 types of crust
+Oceanic (very dense, made of basalt)
+Continental (less dense, made of granite)
- Granite/older
- Basalt/Younger
The Mantle
- The mantle is the layer below the crust and the
second layer of the Earth.
- The mantle is the largest layer of the Earth
(84% of the earth)
- The mantle is divided into two regions: the
upper and lower sections.
- Composed of silicates of iron and magnesium,
sulfide and oxides of silicon and magnesium.
- The temperature at the top of the upper mantle
ranges from 500 to 900 degrees Celsius and it
increases with depth
The Core
- The core is believed to have two parts: a solid
inner core, with a radius of 1,220 km, and then a
liquid outer core that extends to a radius of 3,400
km.
- The temperature of the outer core ranges from
4400 °C in the outer core to 6100 °C near the
inner core
Outer Core
- The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot
metals.
- The outer core is liquid.
- The outer core is made up of iron and nickel are
very dense.
Inner Core
- The inner core of the Earth has temperatures
and pressures so great that the metals are
squeezed together and are not able to move.
Earth’s Layers
- How are the earth’s layers similar to an egg?
Shell=crust
Egg white=mantle
Yolk=core
Physical Structure of the Earth
- Lithosphere- rigid outer layer (crust)
- Asthenosphere- solid rock that flows slowly (like
hot asphalt)
Lithosphere
- The lithosphere (geosphere) is the "solid" part of
Earth. It has two parts, the crust and the upper
mantle
- The lithosphere “ sits on the” asthenosphere.
- The Earths Plates are the lithosphere.
- It is the rocky, solid portion of the crust.
Remember that it is made up of mostly Silicon( Si)
and Oxygen (O).
Asthenosphere
- This is the layer below the lithosphere. This
layer is “plastic –like”
- It is somewhat solid/liquid.
- You can say that it is malleable.
Tectonic Plates
- Earth’s crust is broken into about 19 pieces
- These plates move on top of the asthenosphere
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
-Theory that continents were once part of a single
landmass that broke apart and have moved to
their present locations.
-can drift apart from one another and have done
so in the past
Pangaea - the name given to the single landmass
that was present 200 million years ago
Alfred Wegner was one of several people who
thought the continents looked like they fit together,
so he proposed the continental drift theory in 1912.
Wegner was a meteorologist and astronomer so
needless to say other scientists thought he was
out of his field of study.
His studies concluded that at one time all the
continents were joined together in one land mass
called Pangaea.
- Laurasia was the name given to the northern
part of Pangaea
- Gondwanaland was the name given to the
southern part of Pangaea
Scientists thought this theory was outrageous
because even though Wegner had evidence of
one large land mass, he didn’t have the answers
to what force (engine) “floated the plates”. He was
laughed at and did not live to see his theory
accepted.
- Pangaea means “all land”
EVIDENCE of CDT (5)
1) PUZZLE PIECES: The continents, especially
South America and Africa, seemed to fit together
like a puzzle.
2) FOSSIL EVIDENCE: Wegner noticed that plant
and animal fossils were found on different
continents. Do you think they swam all the way
across the oceans? NO! This would lead people to
believe that the continents were once joined.
- Glossopteris…seed much to large to be
windblown
- Mesosaurus…lived in fresh water and could
not have lived in salt water
3) ROCK EVIDENCE: Huge belts of rocks found in
Africa and South America were identical. Not only
were they the same, but they would match up
(age, thickness, types) if the continents were put
together.
3.1) Matching Mountains. The Appalachian
Mountains that disappear off the coast of
Newfoundland match mountains in the British Isles
and Scandinavia which are comparable in age and
structure.
4) GLACIER EVIDENCE: There is proof that
glaciers moved from Africa, through the Atlantic
Ocean, and then on towards South America. This
would be much easier if the Atlantic Ocean were
not there
- Glacial Striations…Scratches glaciers leave
on rocks as they travel
5) CLIMATE EVIDENCE: Warm weather plants
have been found in the Arctic… but it’s not warm
there! Glacier deposits have been discovered in
tropical and desert locations…it’s not cold there,
either!
◦The continents had to have been at different
locations in the geological past.
The 4 pieces of evidence that support Continental
Drift are:
• Continents fit together like puzzle pieces
• Fossils showing the same types of life existed
on the now separated land masses
• Rock layers & mountains match up along
coastlines of once joined continents
• Glacial evidence in temperate and hot climates
PLATE TECTONICS
-Convection is like a boiling pot. Heated soup
rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool,
and then sinks back to the bottom of the pot where
it is reheated and rises again.
-Plates are driven by cooling of Earth (convection)
- Gravity provides additional force to move plates.
What are the tectonic (aka Lithospheric) plates?
- The 100-km-thick surface of the Earth;
- Contains crust and part of the upper mantle;
- It is rigid and brittle;
-Fractures to produce earthquakes.
Asthenosphere:
- Is the hotter upper mantle below the lithospheric
plate;
- Can flow like silly putty; and
- Is a viscoelastic solid, NOT liquid!!
Three Basic Types of Plate Boundaries
1) Divergent
2) Convergent
3)Transform
Tectonic Plates
There are a dozen large lithospheric plates
(smaller plates not shown). Some plates have
continents; some don’t. All are in motion.
Question: What evidence is there for these plate
boundaries?
1) Earthquakes
- There are thousands of small earthquakes every
day “Strong” earthquakes (~M7) occur once a
month. >M8 occur about once/year.
Where are the deepest earthquakes?
- Plate Boundaries. Notice that the earthquakes
coincide with plate boundaries,and the deepest
quakes (blue) are in subduction zones.
Where would you expect to see volcanoes?
- Plate boundaries. This map shows that locations
of volcanoes (ones above sea level) also tend to
occur along the plate boundaries
How fast are the plates moving?
- Plates move 1-10 centimeters per year (≈ rate of
fingernail growth).