22-04-2018

MEC239

Applied Thermal Engineering

Unit – 5
Introduction to Refrigeration and Vapor Compression System

Dr. Rajesh Choudhary

Content of Unit - 5
• A brief history of Refrigeration, Units of Refrigeration and COP
• Modification in Reversed Carnot cycle with vapor as Refrigerant
• Vapor compression cycle, Vapor compression system calculations
• Standard rating cycle and effect of operating conditions
• Actual vapor compression cycle
• Standard rating cycle of Domestic Refrigerator
• Heat Pump and Second law efficiency of Vapor compression cycle
• Bell Coleman cycle
• Introduction to Multistage VCRS

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Introduction
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that
of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature.

Or

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat, and the practical application is to produce or maintain
temperatures below the ambient.

Brief History
• Long back in 1748, William Coolen of Glasgow University produced refrigeration y creating
partial vacuum over ethyl ether, but didn't implement it in practice.
• The pace of development was considerably quickened in the 1920 decade when du Pont put in the
market a family of
• New working substances, the Fluoro–Chloro derivatives of methane. ethane, etc. - popularly
known as Chloro Fluoro-carbons or CFC's - under the name of Freons.
• Another noteworthy development was that of the ammonia-water vapor absorption machine by
Carre.
• Two of the most common commercial refrigeration applications, viz., a window-type air
conditioner and a domestic refrigerator.

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Brief History
Nocturnal Cooling:
• The art of making ice by nocturnal cooling was perfected in India.
• In this method ice was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a shallow earthen tray, and then
exposing the tray to the night sky.
• Compacted hay of about 0.3 m thickness was used as insulation.
• The water looses heat by radiation to the stratosphere, which is at around -55˚C and by early
morning hours the water in the trays freezes to ice.
• This method of ice production was very popular in India.

Brief History
Vapor Compression Refrigeration System:
Apparatus described by Jacob Perkins in his patent
specification of 1834.
The refrigerant (ether or other volatile fluid) boils in
evaporator B taking heat from surrounding water in
container A.
The pump C draws vapour away and compresses it to
higher pressure at which it can condense to liquids in
tubes D, giving out heat to water in vessel E.
Condensed liquid flows through the weight loaded
valve H, which maintains the difference of pressure
between the condenser and evaporator.
The small pump above H is used for charging the
apparatus with refrigerant.

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Brief History
Air Conditioning System:
The widespread development of air conditioning is attributed to the American scientist and industrialist Willis
Carrier. Carrier studied the control of humidity in 1902 and designed a central air conditioning plant using air
washer in 1904.

Brief History
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System:
• John Leslie in 1810 kept H2SO4 and water in two separate jars connected together. H2SO4 has very high
affinity for water.
• It absorbs water vapour and this becomes the principle of removing the evaporated water vapour requiring
no compressor or pump.
• H2SO4 is an absorbent in this system that has
to be recycled by heating to get rid of the
absorbed water vapour, for continuous
operation.
• Windhausen in 1878 used this principle for
absorption refrigeration system, which worked
on H2SO4. Ferdinand Carre invented aqua-
ammonia absorption system in 1860.

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Brief History
Triple Fluid Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System:
• In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm
invented a three fluid system that did not require a pump.
• A heating based bubble pump was used for
circulation of strong and weak solutions
and hydrogen was used as a non-condensable
gas to reduce the partial pressure of NH3 in the
evaporator.
• Geppert in 1899 gave this original idea but he
was not successful since he was
using air as non-condensable gas.
• The Platen-Munters refrigeration systems are
still widely used in certain niche applications
such as hotel rooms etc.

Brief History
Gas Cycle Refrigeration System:
• If air at high pressure expands and does work (say moves a piston or rotates a turbine), its temperature will
decrease. This fact is known to man as early as the 18th century.
• Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an air
cycle cooling machine. This system used steam
engine to run its compressor.
• Using a compression ratio of 6 to 8, Kirk could
produce temperatures as low as – 40 °C.
• Paul Gifford in 1875 perfected the open type of
machine.
• This machine was further improved by T B
Lightfoot, A Haslam, Henry Bell and James
Coleman. This was the main method of marine
refrigeration for quite some time.
• Frank Allen in New York developed a closed
cycle machine employing high pressures to
reduce the volume flow rates.
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Brief History
Steam Jet Refrigeration System:
• If air at high pressure expands and does work (say moves a piston or rotates a turbine), its temperature will
decrease. This fact is known to man as early as the 18th century.
• Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an
air cycle cooling machine. This system used
steam engine to run its compressor.
• Using a compression ratio of 6 to 8, Kirk
could produce temperatures as low as – 40
°C.
• Paul Gifford in 1875 perfected the open
type of machine.
• This machine was further improved by T B
Lightfoot, A Haslam, Henry Bell and James
Coleman. This was the main method of
marine refrigeration for quite some time.
• Frank Allen in New York developed a
closed cycle machine employing high
pressures to reduce the volume flow rates.
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Unit of Refrigeration
• The practical unit of refrigeration is expressed in terms of ‘tonne of refrigeration’ (TR).
• One tonne of ice requires 335 kJ/kg to melt. When this is accomplished in 24 hours, it is known as
a heat transfer rate of 1 tonne of refrigeration.
• A tonne of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform
melting of one tonne (1000 kg) of ice from ant at 0 in 24 hours.
• Since the latent heat of ice is 335 kJ/kg, therefore one tonne of refrigeration
1 = 1000 × 335 24 ℎ
1000 × 335
1 = = 232.6 /
24 × 60
• In actual practice, one tonne of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW.
• The reason of the above variation is difference in the unit of 1 tonne. The actual definition of TR
is “as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform melting of one US tonne (907.18
kg) of ice from ant at 0 in 24 hours”. By using this, 1 TR = 210 kJ/min.
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Coefficient of Performance
Refrigeration effect is an important term in refrigeration that defines the amount of cooling produced
by a system. It is equal to amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator .
This cooling is obtained at the expense of some form of energy. Therefore, it is customary to define a
term called coefficient of performance (COP) as the ratio of the refrigeration effect to energy input.
= =
While calculating COP, both refrigeration effect and energy input should be in the same unit.
COP is reciprocal of the efficiency of a heat engine. Thus the value of COP is always greater than the
unity.
The ratio of actual COP to the theoretical COP is known as relative coefficient of performance.
=
ℎ

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Carnot Heat Engine

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Carnot Refrigeration Cycle or

Reversed Carnot Cycle

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Reversed Carnot Cycle

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Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is one whose efficiency cannot be exceeded when operating between two given
temperatures.
The Carnot refrigeration cycle performs the reverse effect of the heat engine, because it transfers
energy from a low temperature to a high level of temperature.
The refrigeration cycle requires the addition of external work for its operation.
The processes which constitute the cycle are:
1 – 2: Adiabatic compression
2 – 3: Isothermal rejection of heat
3 – 4: Adiabatic expansion
4 – 1: Isothermal addition of heat

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Reversed Carnot Cycle

The withdrawal of heat from the low-temperature source in process 4 – 1 is the refrigeration step and
is the entire purpose of the cycle.
The Carnot cycle consists of reversible processes which make its efficiency higher than could be
achieved in an actual cycle.
Why discuss the Carnot cycle if it is an unattainable ideal?
(1) It serves as a standard of comparison, (2) it provides a convenient guide to the temperatures that
should be maintained to achieve maximum effectiveness.

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…COP

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…COP

COP of the Carnot cycle is entirely a

function of temperature limits and can be
vary from zero to infinity.
For a high COP, (1) operate with T1 high,
and (2)operate with T2 low. 20

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…COP

• Temperature T2 should be kept low, but it cannot be reduced below 303.15 K. Temperature T1
should be kept high, but it can be increased no longer than 253.15 K.
• What control do we have, then, over the temperature?
• Concentrate on keeping the Δt as small as possible. Reduction of Δt can be accomplished by
increasing A or U in the equation
= ∆
• In order to decrease Δt to zero, either
U or A would have to be infinite,
which would also require an infinite
cost.

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Vapor as refrigerant

• Certainly the reversible processes cannot be duplicated, but at least the rectangular shape of the
cycle on the T-s diagram should be maintained.
• Doing so means that all the heat can be received at one temperature level and rejected at another.
• If a gas, such as air, is used as the refrigerant, the cycle would be appear as in the figure, rather than
as the rectangle of the Carnot cycle.
• The isentropic compression and expansion are processes 1 – 2 and 3 – 4, respectively.
• The processes 2 – 3 and 4 – 1 are constant pressure cooling and heating processes, respectively

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Vapor as refrigerant

• This cycle differs from the Carnot cycle operating between the same two temperatures by the
addition of areas x and y.
• At point 4, the temperature must be lower than the cold-room temperature so that as the gas receives
heat in the constant pressure process it rises to a temperature no higher than that of cold room.
• For the same reasons, T2 must be above the atmospheric temperature.
• The effect of area x is to increase the work
required, which decreases the COP.
• The effect of area y is to increase the work required
and to reduces the amount of refrigeration. Both
these effects reduce the COP.

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Vapor as refrigerant

• Instead of a gas, a refrigerant may be used that condenses during the heat-rejection process and boils
during the heat –addition, or refrigeration process.
• Such a refrigerant could therefore operate between the liquid and vapor states.
• With this refrigerant, the Carnot cycle can fit between the saturated-liquid and saturated-vapor lines.
• Processes 2 – 3 and 4 – 1 take place at constant temperature since constant pressure processes in the
mixture region proceed at constant temperature.
• Process 2 – 3 is a
condensation process, and the
vessel in which it occurs is a
condenser.
• Process 4 – 1 is a boiling
process, and it takes place in
the evaporator.

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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Modifications

Wet-compression versus dry-compression
• Wet compression: the compression of wet-refrigerant at 1’ to dry saturated vapor at 2’.
• With a reciprocating compressor, wet compression is not found suitable due to the following
reasons:
• First, liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the cylinder and may damage the compressor
valves and the cylinder itself.
• Even though the state of vapor at the end of
wet compression is theoretically dry
saturated, it is normal to expect some
liquid droplets to remain suspended in the
gases, as the time taken by the compression
process is quite small compared to the time
needed for evaporation of droplets.
• Secondly, liquid-refrigerant droplets may
wash away the lubricating oil from the
walls of the compressor cylinder, thus
increasing the wear.
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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Modifications

Throttling versus isentropic expansion
The positive work of the cycle, recovered during the isentropic expansion process (3-1-b-4’) is even
smaller, as compared to the negative work of the cycle consumed during the isentropic compression
process (1-2-a-b).
• This is evident from the expression for work, viz., ∫ − . Thus for the same pressure difference
dp, the work depends on the volume v of the working substance.
• In the expander, the refrigerant is in the liquid state, whereas, in the compressor, it is in the gaseous
state.
• Here, vg >> vf. Hence, the positive
work of isentropic expansion is
seldom large enough to justify the
cost of an expander.
• On the other hand, the
thermodynamic and friction losses of
an expander, if employed, may even
exceed the gain in work.
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Reversed Carnot Cycle…Modifications

Throttling versus isentropic expansion
• The isentropic expansion process of the Carnot cycle may be replaced by a simple throttling process
or an isenthalpic process by the use of an expansion device such as throttle valve or a capillary tube.
• The process is an irreversible one and is accompanied by increase of entropy as shown by line 3 – 4
on the T-s diagram.
• Thus the substitution of the
isentropic expansion process 3 – 4’
by the isenthalpic/throttling process
3 – 4 would, theoretically, result in a
loss of work represented by area 3-1-
b-4’ on the p-v diagram and a
decrease in the refrigerating effect
represented by area 4’ – c – d – 4 on
the T-s diagram,
• It can be shown that both these areas
are equal.
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Vapor Compression Cycle

• The cycle with the two modifications in the reversed Carnot cycle is named as the vapor
compression cycle and most widely used in the commercial refrigeration systems.
In the vapor compression cycle:
• Refrigerating effect, q0 = area 1 – 4 – d – e
• Heat rejected, qk = area 2 – 2’ – 3 – c – e
• Work done, w = qk – qo = area 1 – 2 – 2’ – 3 – c – d – 4 – 1

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Vapor Compression Cycle

It may be seen that the vapor compression cycle presents three deviations from the reversed Carnot
cycle, as indicated below:
• Area 4 – 4’ – c – d, representing a loss of the refrigerating effect, Δq0, as a result of throttling.
• Area 4 – 4’ – c – d, also representing a loss of positive work, Δw0, resulting from the failure to
recover expansion work. It can be shown that the areas 4 – 4’ – c – d and 3 – f – 4’ are the same.
• Area 2 – 2’ – 2’’ of superheat horn, representing an
increase of negative work, Δwk, as a result of dry
compression.
Consequently, the COP of vapor compression cycle is
lower than the that of reversed Carnot cycle.

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

• The compressor-delivery head, discharge line, condenser and the liquid line form the high pressure
side of the system.
• The compressor and matching condenser together are also available commercially as one unit called
the condensing unit.
• The expansion line evaporator, suction line and compressor – suction head form the low-pressure
side of the system.
• In actual systems, the expansion device is located
as close to the evaporator as possible in order to
minimize the heat gain in the low temperature
expansion line.

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

The thermodynamic processes are as follows:
Process 1 – 2: Isentropic compression: s2 = s1, Q
= 0.
Work done, w = - ∫ = -∫ ℎ=-(h2 – h1)
Process 2 – 3: Desuperheating and condensation:
pk = constant
Heat rejected, qk = h2 – h3
Process 3 – 4: Isenthalpic expansion: h3 = h4 = hf4
+ x (h1 – hf4)
=
Process 4 – 1: Evaporation: po = Constant
Refrigerating effect, q0 = h1 – h4

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

Simple saturation cycle:
• Both the states, of liquid after condensation
and vapor after evaporation, are saturated and
lie on the saturated liquid and saturated vapor
curves.
• The condensation temperature tk and
evaporator temperature to, corresponding to
the saturation pressure pk and po, are also
called saturated discharge temperature and
saturated suction temperature, respectively.
• However, the actual discharge temperature
from the compressor is t2.

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

Further calculation:
Heat rejected,
= + =ℎ −ℎ

COP for cooling,

ℎ −ℎ
=
ℎ −ℎ

COP for heating,

ℎ −ℎ
=
ℎ −ℎ

Refrigeration circulation rate,

̇
̇ = =

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Vapor Compression System Calculations

Further calculation:
Specific volume of the vapor at suction = v1
Theoretical piston displacement of the compressor or
volume of the suction vapor,
̇ = ̇
Actual piston displacement of the compressor,
̇
̇ =

Where is the volumetric efficiency.

Power consumption,
̇ = ̇ = ̇ ℎ −ℎ
Heat rejected in the condenser,
̇ = ̇ = ̇ ℎ −ℎ
Expressing the power consumption per ton of
refrigeration as unit power consumption, denoted by
W*,
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Vapor Compression System Calculations

Further calculation:
Expressing the power consumption per ton of
refrigeration as unit power consumption, denoted by
W*,
Mass flow rate,
∗
3.5167
= .( )

∗
ℎ −ℎ
= ̇ = 3.5167 /
ℎ −ℎ
Similarly, the suction volume requirement per ton is
∗
210
= ∗ = /( . )( )

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

For the purpose of comparison, the testing of a single stage compressors for air conditioning
applications is carried out at to = 5 °C, tk = 40 °C and a suction temperature of 20 °C.

A. Effect of Evaporator Pressure

Consider a simple saturation cycle 1-2-3-4 with R 134a as the refrigerant for operating conditions of to
= 5 °C and tk = 40 °C.

By calculation, for this cycle:

Volume of suction pressure,

∗ = 0.103 /( . )( )

Unit power consumption,

∗ = . = 0.64 /

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

A. Effect of Evaporator Pressure
Now consider, a change in evaporator pressure corresponding to a decrease in the evaporator
temperature to -10 °C. The changed cycle is shown as 1’-2’-3-4’.
Similar calculations for changed conditions give:
Volume of suction pressure,
∗
= 0.154 /( . )( )
Unit power consumption,
∗
= 0.87 /

Increase in the volume of suction vapor is

∗
1− ∗
× 100 = 33.3%
Increases the power consumption per unit
refrigeration by
∗

∗
− 1 × 100 = 36.4%

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

A. Effect of Evaporator Pressure
It is observed that a decrease in evaporator temperature results in:
(i) Decrease in refrigeration effect from ℎ − ℎ to ℎ′ − ℎ′
(ii) Increase in the specific volume of suction pressure from v1 to v’1.
(iii) Decrease in volumetric efficiency, due to increase in the pressure ratio, from to ′ .

(iv) Increase in compressor work from

ℎ −ℎ to ℎ′ − ℎ′ due to
increase in the pressure ratio as well
as steeper isentropic 1-2 to flatter
isentropic 1’-2’.

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

B. Effect of Condenser Pressure
It is observed that a increase in condenser pressure results in:
(i) Decrease in refrigeration capacity due to decrease in refrigeration effect and volumetric
efficiency.
(ii) Increase in the power consumption, as seen from the changed cycle 1-2’-3’-4’ for t’k = 45
°C. It is due to increased mass flow rate (due to decrease in refrigerating effect) and an
increase in specific work (due to increased pressure ratio)

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

C. Effect of Suction Vapor Superheat
The effect of superheating of the vapor from to = t1 to t’1 is as follows:
(i) Increase in specific volume of suction vapor from v1 to v’1 decreases the capacity.
(ii) Increase in refrigerating effect from ℎ − ℎ to ℎ′ − ℎ will increase the capacity
(iii) Increase in specific work (work done per unit of refrigeration) from ℎ − ℎ to
ℎ′ − ℎ′ . An increase in the refrigerating effect decreasing the mass flow rate requirement
and hence work. An increase in specific work itself due to an increase in the suction
temperature.

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

D. Effect of Liquid Subcooling
The effect of subcooling of the liquid from t3 = tk to t’3 is as follows:
(i) Subcooling reduces flashing of the liquid during expansion and increases the refrigerating
effect.
(ii) Cooling water first passes through the subcooler and then through the condenser. Thus, the
coolest water comes in contact with the liquid being subcooled. But this results in a warmer
water entering the condenser and hence a higher condensing temperature and pressure.
Thus, the advantage of subcooling is offset by the
increased work of compression.
This can be avoided by installing parallel cooling
inlets to the subcooler and condenser.

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Standard Rating Cycle & Effect of Operating Conditions

D. Using liquid-vapor regenerative heat exchanger
Combine superheating of vapor with liquid subcooling to get liquid-vapor regenerative heat
exchanger.

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Actual Vapor Compression Cycle

• Drop in pressure
• Heat loss or gain depending on temperature difference
• Polytropic compression instead of isentropic

Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on T-s diagram

Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on p-h diagram
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Actual Vapor Compression Cycle

Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on p-h diagram

2c-3

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Actual Vapor Compression Cycle

Pressure drop in evaporator is large due to:
Frictional pressure drop: pressure drop due
to friction
Momentum pressure drop: As evaporation
proceeds, volume increases and hence, the
velocity must also increase. The increase in
kinetic energy comes from a decrease in
enthalpy and, therefore, from a further
pressure drop.

Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on p-h diagram

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Standard Rating Cycle for domestic Refrigerators

This cycle approximates the design and operating conditions of a domestic refrigerator.
(i) Vapor in cylinder before compression begins at p1 =
p10 – Δps, t1 = t10 where Δps is pressure drop at suction
valve.
(ii) Vapor in cylinder after compression ends, 2s after
isentropic, and 2n after actual Polytropic compression
at p2 = pk+ Δpd, where Δpd is pressure drop at
delivery valve.
(iii) Vapor at compressor shell outlet/condenser inlet at p3
= pk, t3 = t2.
(iv) Saturated vapor state in condenser at t4 = tk = 55 °C
condensing temperature.
(v) Saturated liquid state in condenser at t5 = tk = 55 °C.
(vi) Subcooled liquid leaivng condenser at t6 = 43 °C.

Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on p-h diagram

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Standard Rating Cycle for domestic Refrigerators

(vii) Subcooled liquid leaving regenerator/entering
capillary at t7 = 32 °C.
(viii) Liquid-vapor mixture exiting
capillary/entering evaporator at t8 = t0 =-25 °C
evaporated temperature.
(ix) Saturated vapor leaving evaporator at p9 = p8 –
ΔpE, where ΔpE is drop in evaporator pressure.
(x) Superheated vapor leaving regenerator/entering
compressor at t10 = 32 °C.

• Ambient temperature = 43 °C
• Subcooling of liquid from t6 = 43 °C to t7 = 32
°C takes place in regenerator.
• Superheating of vapor to t10 = 32 °C takes place
in the suction line, regenerator and the
compressor.
Fig.: Actual vapor compression cycle on p-h diagram
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Heat Pump
A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator, however, here the required output is the heat rejected to the
high temperature body.

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Heat Pump
In winter, a heat pump output of 2 to 3 times the compressor power may be realized.
If a condensing temperature of 46 °C is assumed, while the room is maintained at 24 °C , for the heat
pump cycle the following values of COP for heating verses evaporator temperature may be obtained:
• 4.5 °C evaporator, COP = 6.5
• -18 °C evaporator, COP = 4
Evaporator temperature depends on outdoor air temperature.

These values don’t included losses due to pressure drops, frosting and defrosting etc.
Defrosting:
• Most air-source heat pumps use the reverse cycle to melt the frost that formed on the outdoor coil
during heating mode operation in cold weather.
• The reverse cycle defrost switches the heating mode operation, in which the outdoor coil acts as an
evaporator, to cooling mode operation, where the outdoor coil acts as a condenser.
• Hot gas is forced into the outdoor coil to melt the frost that accumulated there. After the frost is
melted, the heat pump is switched back to normal heating mode operation

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Second Law Efficiency of Vapor Compression Cycle

The second law efficiency of a cycle is defined by the ratio
ℎ
=
ℎ
Consider a vapor compression refrigeration cycle as shown in figure.
The net work done in the cycle is w which is equal to the actual
available energy consumed in the cycle
= = = 1 −2 −3− − −4−1
Where COPI is the actual first law COP of the cycle.
Minimum available energy required for the same refrigerating
effect q0 is net work of a Carnot cycle such as 1 – 2’’ – 3’ – 4
operating between the same temperatures.
= = = 1 −2 −3 −4−1

Thus,

= = = =
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Second Law Efficiency of Vapor Compression Cycle

• The vapor compression cycle involves internal irreversibilities due to the throttling process and also
due to superheat horn.
Hence the <1
• The actual vapor compression cycle would also have the external irreversibilities of condensation
and evaporation processes sue to finite temperature differences required for heat transfer. Therefore,
further reduced.

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Bell Coleman Cycle

Bell-Coleman cycle: 1 – 2 – 3 – 4
Consider that 1 kg of air from the cold storage chamber is drawn into the compressor cylinder during
the suction stroke.

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Bell Coleman Cycle

• Process 6 – 1: specific volume at suction to the compressor.
• It is then compressed isentropically (Ideal case) to point during the first parts of the compression
stroke.
• Thus temperature is raised, and pressure is raised as at point 2 on the p-v diagram, process 5 – 2
represents specific volume at delivery from compressor.
• Further stroke of the piston expels the air at high pressure and temperature to the cooler. The cooler
cools the air at constant pressure.
• The specific volume gets reduced to 5 – 3 at exit
from cooler, due to cooling, the specific volume
reduces from 5 – 2 to 5 – 3.
• The air at cooling water temperature and high
pressure is drawn in the air motor or expansion
cylinder, during its suction stroke 5 – 3 and then
expanded isentropically to 4 (ideal case) to cold
chamber pressure (atmospheric pressure).

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Bell Coleman Cycle

• The isentropic expansion results in a fall in temperature. Thus temperature is reduced to very much
below the cooling water temperature depending upon the range of isentropic expansion.
• The specific volume changes to 6 – 4 at entry to cold chamber. Thus cold air is returned to the cold
storage chamber. Here due to heat from cold chamber, specific volume changes to 6 – 1.
• By this method, heat is being abstracted from cold
storage chamber and is being rejected to the
circulating cooling water.
• If the rate of heat abstraction from cold storage
chamber is the same as heat input from stored stuff
and through walls, the temperature can be
maintained in the cold chamber.

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Bell Coleman Cycle

Let T1, T2, T3 and T4 be absolute temperatures at points 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Then heat abstracted from cold chamber or heat received by the system from the surrounding/kg of air
= −
Also, heat taken away in the cooler or heat rejected from system to the surroundings/ kg of air
= −
Work done on the system = Heat rejected by the system – Heat received by the system.

The compression and expansion processes are reversible

adiabatic process and involve no heat transfer.
= − − −
Thus
−
= =
− − −
−
=
− − −

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Bell Coleman Cycle

The ratio of expansion in the expansion cylinder is the same as the compression ratio in the compression
cylinder in order to maintain the same upper and lower limits of pressure.
⁄ ⁄
= = =
With increase in pressure ratio the refrigeration effect increases or the plant capacity in TR increases,
but the cycle work increases more rapidly than the refrigerating effect.
This results in fall in COP with increasing pressure ratio.
The rate of decrease in COP for pressure ratio more than 3
is much less as compared to that for less than 3.
A reasonable value of pressure ratio for single stage
compression is from 3 to 4.
Or
=

57

Bell Coleman Cycle

− − 1
= = = =
− − − − − − −1 −
1 1
= =
−1 −1

Where = = = .

Disadvantages:
The air comes in contact with the cold chamber or stuff to
be preserved and collects moisture from such articles kept
for preservation.
This moisture freezes during expansion and there is
likelihood of the valves getting chocked.

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Introduction to Multi-stage VCRS

The performance of single stage systems shows that these systems are adequate as long as the
temperature difference between evaporator and condenser (temperature lift) is small.
As the temperature lift increases the single stage systems become inefficient and impractical.
It can be seen from the T s diagrams that for a given condenser temperature, as evaporator temperature
decreases:
(i) Throttling losses increase
(ii) Superheat losses increase
(iii)Compressor discharge temperature increases
(iv)Quality of the vapour at the inlet to the evaporator increases
(v) Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor increases
As a result of this, the refrigeration effect decreases and work of
compression increases as shown in the P-h diagram.
The volumetric refrigeration effect also decreases rapidly as the
specific volume increases with decreasing evaporator
temperature. Similar effects will occur, though not in the same
proportion when the condenser temperature increases for a given
evaporator temperature. 59

Introduction to Multi-stage VCRS

Due to these drawbacks, single stage systems are not recommended when the evaporator temperature
becomes very low and/or when the condenser temperature becomes high. In such cases multi-stage
systems are used in practice.
Generally, for fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration systems a single stage system is used up
to an evaporator temperature of –30 °C.
A two-stage system is used up to – 60 ° C and a three-stage system is used for temperatures below – 60
°C.
Apart from high temperature lift applications, multi-stage systems are also used in applications
requiring refrigeration at different temperatures.
For example, in a dairy plant refrigeration may be required at –30 ° C for making ice cream and at 2 °C
for chilling milk. In such cases it may be advantageous to use a multi-evaporator system with the low
temperature evaporator operating at –30 ° C and the high temperature evaporator operating at 2 °C.
A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two or more low-side pressures. Multistage systems
can be classified into:
a) Multi-compression systems
b) Multi-evaporator systems
c) Cascade systems, etc.
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Multi-stage VCRS
Flash Gas Removal:
A flash tank is a pressure vessel, wherein the refrigerant liquid and vapour are separated at an intermediate
pressure.
In the flash tank, the refrigerant liquid and vapour are separated. This is possible when the upward velocity of
the refrigerant vapour in the flash tank is low enough ( < 1 m/s) for the refrigerant liquid droplets to fall back
into the flash tank due to gravity. Thus the surface area of liquid in the flash tank can be obtained from the
volumetric flow rate of refrigerant vapour and the required low refrigerant velocity.

Figure: Working principle of a flash tank 61

Figure: Expansion process using a flash tank on P-h diagram

Multi-stage VCRS
Intercooling in Multi-stage Compression:
The specific work input reduces as specific volume is reduced. At a given pressure, the specific volume can be
reduced by reducing the temperature. This is the principle behind intercooling in multi-stage compression.
Since the slope of isentropes on P-h diagram reduces (lines become flatter) as they move away from the
saturated vapour line,

Figure: Intercooling in 2-stage compression 62

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Multi-stage VCRS
Intercooling in Multi-stage Compression:
Intercooling not only reduces the work input but also reduces the compressor discharge temperature leading to
better lubrication and longer compressor life.

Figure: Intercooling using liquid refrigerant in Figure: Intercooling using external water
flash tank cooled heat exchanger
63

Multi-stage VCRS
Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and intercooling

Figure: Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system with

Figure: Two-stage vapour compression refrigeration system flash gas removal using a flash tank and intercooling – P-h diagram
with flash gas removal using a flash tank and intercooling 64

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65

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