Technical definitions

Soil liquefaction occurs when the effective stress (shear strength) of soil is reduced to essentially
zero. This may be initiated by either monotonic loading (i.e. a single, sudden occurrence of a
change in stress – examples include an increase in load on an embankment or sudden loss of toe
support) or cyclic loading (i.e. repeated changes in stress condition – examples include wave
loading or earthquake shaking). In both cases a soil in a saturated loose state, and one which may
generate significant pore water pressure on a change in load are the most likely to liquefy. This is
because loose soil has the tendency to compress when sheared, generating large excess porewater
pressure as load is transferred from the soil skeleton to adjacent pore water during undrained
loading. As pore water pressure rises, a progressive loss of strength of the soil occurs as effective
stress is reduced. Liquefaction is more likely to occur in sandy or non-plastic silty soils, but may
in rare cases occur in gravels and clays (see quick clay).

A 'flow failure' may initiate if the strength of the soil is reduced below the stresses required to
maintain the equilibrium of a slope or footing of a structure. This can occur due to monotonic
loading or cyclic loading, and can be sudden and catastrophic. A historical example is the
Aberfan disaster. Casagrande[8] referred to this type of phenomena as 'flow liquefaction' although
a state of zero effective stress is not required for this to occur.

'Cyclic liquefaction' is the state of soil when large shear strains have accumulated in response to
cyclic loading. A typical reference strain for the approximate occurrence of zero effective stress
is 5% double amplitude shear strain. This is a soil test-based definition, usually performed via
cyclic triaxial, cyclic direct simple shear, or cyclic torsional shear type apparatus. These tests are
performed to determine a soil's resistance to liquefaction by observing the number of cycles of
loading at a particular shear stress amplitude required to induce 'fails'. Failure here is defined by
the aforementioned shear strain criteria.

The term 'cyclic mobility' refers to the mechanism of progressive reduction of effective stress
due to cyclic loading. This may occur in all soil types including dense soils. However, on
reaching a state of zero effective stress such soils immediately dilate and regain strength. Thus,
shear strains are significantly less than a true state of soil liquefaction.

Occurrence

Liquefaction is more likely to occur in loose to moderately saturated granular soils with poor
drainage, such as silty sands or sands and gravels containing impermeable sediments.[9][10]
During wave loading, usually cyclic undrained loading, e.g. seismic loading, loose sands tend to
decrease in volume, which produces an increase in their pore water pressures and consequently a
decrease in shear strength, i.e. reduction in effective stress.

Deposits most susceptible to liquefaction are young (Holocene-age, deposited within the last
10,000 years) sands and silts of similar grain size (well-sorted), in beds at least metres thick, and
saturated with water. Such deposits are often found along stream beds, beaches, dunes, and areas
where windblown silt (loess) and sand have accumulated. Examples of soil liquefaction include
quicksand, quick clay, turbidity currents and earthquake-induced liquefaction.
Depending on the initial void ratio, the soil material can respond to loading either strain-
softening or strain-hardening. Strain-softened soils, e.g. loose sands, can be triggered to collapse,
either monotonically or cyclically, if the static shear stress is greater than the ultimate or steady-
state shear strength of the soil. In this case flow liquefaction occurs, where the soil deforms at a
low constant residual shear stress. If the soil strain-hardens, e.g. moderately dense to dense sand,
flow liquefaction will generally not occur. However, cyclic softening can occur due to cyclic
undrained loading, e.g. earthquake loading. Deformation during cyclic loading depends on the
density of the soil, the magnitude and duration of the cyclic loading, and amount of shear stress
reversal. If stress reversal occurs, the effective shear stress could reach zero, allowing cyclic
liquefaction to take place. If stress reversal does not occur, zero effective stress cannot occur, and
cyclic mobility takes place.[11]

The resistance of the cohesionless soil to liquefaction will depend on the density of the soil,
confining stresses, soil structure (fabric, age and cementation), the magnitude and duration of the
cyclic loading, and the extent to which shear stress reversal occurs.[12]

Effects

The effects of soil liquefaction on the built environment can be extremely damaging. Buildings
whose foundations bear directly on sand which liquefies will experience a sudden loss of
support, which will result in drastic and irregular settlement of the building causing structural
damage, including cracking of foundations and damage to the building structure, or leaving the
structure unserviceable, even without structural damage. Where a thin crust of non-liquefied soil
exists between building foundation and liquefied soil, a 'punching shear' type foundation failure
may occur. Irregular settlement may break underground utility lines. The upward pressure
applied by the movement of liquefied soil through the crust layer can crack weak foundation
slabs and enter buildings through service ducts, and may allow water to damage building
contents and electrical services.

Bridges and large buildings constructed on pile foundations may lose support from the adjacent
soil and buckle, or come to rest at a tilt.

Sloping ground and ground next to rivers and lakes may slide on a liquefied soil layer (termed
'lateral spreading'),[16] opening large cracks or fissures in the ground, and can cause significant
damage to buildings, bridges, roads and services such as water, natural gas, sewerage, power and
telecommunications installed in the affected ground. Buried tanks and manholes may float in the
liquefied soil due to buoyancy.[16] Earth embankments such as flood levees and earth dams may
lose stability or collapse if the material comprising the embankment or its foundation liquefies.

Over geological time, liquefaction of soil material due to earthquakes could provide a dense
parent material in which the fragipan may develop through pedogenesis.[17]
Mitigation methods

Main article: Dynamic compaction

Mitigation methods have been devised by earthquake engineers and include various soil
compaction techniques such as vibro compaction (compaction of the soil by depth vibrators),
dynamic compaction, and vibro stone columns.[18] These methods densify soil and enable
buildings to avoid soil liquefaction.[19]

Existing buildings can be mitigated by injecting grout into the soil to stabilize the layer of soil
that is subject to liquefaction.