2328
4, OCTOBER 2010
A Novel Algorithm for Locating Faults on
Transposed/Untransposed Transmission Lines
Without Utilizing Line Parameters
Christos A. Apostolopoulos, Graduate Student Member, IEEE, and George N. Korres, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper puts forward a novel algorithm for lo-
cating faults on power transmission lines without requiring line
parameters. The algorithm utilizes unsynchronized measurements
of voltages and currents from both ends of a transmission line
and is formulated in terms of the fundamental frequency phasors
of the measured signals. Both prefault and postfault phasors are
processed for determining the sought distance to fault and the
synchronization angle. The calculations are performed initially for
a lumped parameter line model with neglecting shunt capacitance.
Then, these results are used as starting values for an iterative
process, where the impacts of the shunt capacitance of the line
are considered. The proposed two-stage fault-location algorithm
is applicable for transposed and untransposed transmission lines
and is independent of the fault resistance and source imped-
ances. Evaluation studies using reliable Alternate Transients
Program–Electromagentic Transients Program simulation data
verify that the proposed algorithm can yield quite accurate results.
Index Terms—Fault location, power transmission lines, unsyn-
chronized phasor measurements, settings-free method.
I. INTRODUCTION
F AST AND accurate fault location [1], [2] is a key task
for accelerating system restoration, reducing outage
times, and, hence, improving system reliability. Recognizing
the importance of these factors for electric power utilities, a
variety of fault-location algorithms has been developed in the
past. Depending on the availability of the fault locator input
data, these algorithms can be categorized into three groups: 1)
one-terminal; 2) two-terminal; and 3) multiterminal algorithms.
One-terminal algorithms [3]–[5] utilize only local data, which
makes them appropriate for implementation in stand-alone de-
vices and numerical relays. However, the accuracy of these al-
gorithms is adversely affected by the fault type, fault resistance,
and source impedances, although certain assumptions may be
used to compensate for the errors introduced by these factors.
Two-terminal algorithms [6]–[15] employ measurements at
both ends of a transmission line and, thus, a larger amount of
information is available, which makes their performance supe-
rior in comparison to one-terminal algorithms. Based on how the
Manuscript received December 22, 2009; revised March 24, 2010; accepted
June 09, 2010. Date of publication August 23, 2010; date of current version
September 22, 2010. Paper no. TPWRD-00955-2009.
The authors are with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department,
National Technical University of Athens, Athens GR-15780, Greece (e-mail:
apostolo@power.ece.ntua.gr; gkorres@softlab.ece.ntua.gr).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2010.2053223
0885-8977/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO.
digital measurements at the line ends are acquired, two-terminal
algorithms are divided into two categories: 1) those using syn-
chronized measurements if the global positioning system (GPS)
is available, and 2) those using unsynchronized measurements
if the signal from the GPS gets lost and there is no common time
reference between measurements.
References [6]–[11] present methods that employ unsynchro-
nized measurements for estimating the distance to fault and
the synchronization angle between measurements from different
terminals of the line. Algorithms based on synchronized mea-
surements have been discussed in [12]–[15]. These algorithms
can be further separated into those using two-end voltages [15]
or currents alone, or both of them.
A common feature of all the aforementioned algorithms is
that they require the line parameters to be known exactly. In
reality, the electrical parameters of lines are not known with
great precision and this can adversely affect the fault-locating
accuracy of these algorithms. The authors of [16] describe a
method for estimating line parameters, but this method needs
continuously monitoring of the line during normal operations
and demands phasor measurement units (PMUs) for data
synchronization.
Recent methods that obviate the need for knowing the line
parameters have been presented in [17]–[20]. To locate the fault
in the absence of line parameters, the authors of [17] consider
a lumped model of a transmission line with neglecting shunt
capacitance and make use of two-end unsynchronized voltages
and currents during the fault. Moreover, the total self and mu-
tual impedance of the line, along with the synchronization angle,
can be obtained as a byproduct of this method. Reference [18]
extends the method in [17] to model the shunt capacitance by
utilizing prefault and postfault voltage and current measure-
ments based on the distributed parameter line model. Positive-
sequence line parameters may also be estimated via this method.
Although very instructive and innovative, the methods in [17]
and [18] calculate the distance to fault with an iterative process
which still requires a good initial guess for the line parame-
ters in question. Moreover, these methods are only applicable
to fully transposed transmission lines. The authors in [19] elim-
inate line parameters from the fault-location calculation by em-
ploying two-end synchronized positive- and negative-sequence
voltages and currents during the fault. A similar but more com-
plex approach is presented in [20], where unsynchronized mea-
surements from both ends of the line are utilized, and the syn-
chronization angle is also required in order to determine the fault
distance. Although smart, these methods are suitable only for
APOSTOLOPOULOS AND KORRES: NOVEL ALGORITHM FOR LOCATING FAULTS 2329

Fig. 2. Lumped PI model of a three-phase line preceding the fault.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the proposed two-end unsynchronized fault-lo-
cation scheme.

transposed lines, do not consider the line shunt capacitance, and

cannot deal effectively with three-phase faults.
This paper puts forward a novel fault-location algorithm
which is independent of line parameters and can be applied
both for transposed and untransposed transmission lines. The
algorithm utilizes two-end unsynchronized measurements pre- Fig. 3. Transmission-line model in postfault.
ceding and during the fault, and the only assumptions made for
its successful implementation are: 1) the availability of prefault
data, which typically exist in every fault recording (except for
the case of reclosing into a fault) and 2) the unchangeability symmetric phase impedance
of line parameters after the fault inception, regardless of the
temperature rise in conductors, which is a common assumption matrix of the transmission-line SR (transposed or untrans-
made by most of the reported fault-location algorithms.
The algorithm uses a two-stage approach to determine the posed); symmetric phase shunt
sought distance to fault. In the first stage, a lumped param-
admittance matrix of the transmission line SR (transposed or
eter line model with neglecting shunt capacitance is considered
untransposed); vector and matrix transpose operator.
and calculations are performed to obtain an initial estimate for
Based on Fig. 2, we can derive the following equations:
the fault location and the synchronization angle. In the second
stage, these values are used as starting points of an iterative
process, where the line shunt capacitance effects are taken into
consideration. (1)
In the rest of this paper, Section II presents the proposed fault- (2)
location algorithm. Section III describes the evaluation studies,
followed by the conclusion. where is the synchronization angle between measurements at
S and R, representing any possible synchronization error.
Adding and subtracting (1) and (2), respectively, we obtain
II. BASICS OF THE FAULT-LOCATION ALGORITHM
(3)
The proposed fault-location scheme on a two-terminal trans-
mission line SR is shown schematically in Fig. 1. At both line
(4)
ends (S,R), there are current and voltage transformers (CTs and
VTs) which provide the transformed voltage and current sig-
Fig. 3 delineates the transmission-line model during the
nals to the measurement units (MUs). Digital measurements are
fault. F indicates the fault point. The following notations
performed in these units for determining the fundamental fre-
are utilized:
quency phasors of the three-phase voltages and currents. These
vectors of phase voltages
measurements are transmitted to the fault locator (FL), which is
and currents during the fault at terminal S;
regarded as a stand-alone device, via communication links upon
the occurence of a fault. It is noted that there is no GPS control
vectors of phase voltages and currents during the fault at
of the digital measurements performed at the two line ends and,
terminal R;
thus, a more general case of unsynchronized measurements is
uknown distance to fault from terminal S in per unit (p.u.);
considered.
uknown fault and ground resistances in-
Fig. 2 depicts the lumped PI model of a three-phase
volved in the fault.
transmission line just preceding the fault onset. In the
The following equations exist at fault point F:
figure, the following notations are adopted:
vec-
(5)
tors of prefault phase voltages and currents at terminal S;
:
vectors of prefault phase voltages and currents at terminal R; (6)
2330 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2010

where is the vector of phase volt- It follows from (12) that:

ages at the fault point.
From (5) and (6), we have
(13)

(7) where and are constants defined in the

Appendix. Since is a real number, the imaginary part of (13)
Taking the transpose of the expression in (7), we obtain should be zero, i.e.,

(8) (14)

Then, we can multiply both sides of (8) by the expression where the bar over a variable designates the complex conjugate.
Simplifying (14) leads to

(15)

where , and are defined in the Appendix.

Then, the synchronization angle can be determined by using
the well-known Netwon–Raphson method, which computes the
correction at each iteration
(9)
(16)
Substituting (4) in (9), we obtain
(17)

where and are the values of at the th and th

iteration, respectively, and is the iteration count.
The expression of the derivative in (16) is given by

(10) (18)

Rearranging (10), we have The iterations are terminated when the correction is
smaller than the specified tolerance, such as 1E-4. After the
synchronization angle is obtained, the fault location is calcu-
lated by taking the real part of (13)

(19)

Limiting the synchronization angle range to , up to

(11)
Equation (11) forms the basis for determining the sought
synchronization angle and the corresponding distance to fault,
without utilizing line parameters. This is done by means of a
two-stage approach, as described in the following paragraphs.
A. Fault-Location Algorithm Stage I—Neglecting Line Shunt
Capacitance
In the initial stage of the presented fault-location algorithm,
the shunt parameters of the transmission line are not considered.
This is done by equating to zero in (11). Then, (11) yields
(12)
four solutions generally exist for in (15). In case of unsymmet-
rical fault types, one solution for the synchronization angle is
close to zero, while the others—laying quite far from zero—can
be rejected or characterized as unrealistic if the corresponding
fault location from (19) lays out of the range of p.u. Thus,
for unsymmetrical faults, a starting value of zero can be safely
utilized [9]–[11].
In case of symmetric three-phase faults, it may occur that two
solutions exist which are both close to zero and to each other,
and both seem to be realistic. In this case, an initial guess of zero
for may lead to a feasible but not valid solution for the syn-
chronization angle, which can adversely affect the fault-location
estimation given by (19). In these rare cases, initially obtaining
a graphical representation of (15) is proposed for values of in
the range of , and then to define intervals where
a zero-crossing of is included and the sign of differs
APOSTOLOPOULOS AND KORRES: NOVEL ALGORITHM FOR LOCATING FAULTS 2331

The total phase-to-ground capacitances of the line and

in (20) can be obtained by employing (3). Then, we have

(21)
(22)
(23)

Substituting the simplified shunt admittance matrix in

(11) and rearranging, we can derive the following equation:

Fig. 4. Proposed method for discriminating between symmetrical and unsym-

metrical faults.

from the sign of . Then, applying the Bisection method

[21] to these intervals, we can determine all of the possible so-
lutions for the synchronization angle. It is worth emphasizing
that the predominant two solutions—laying near zero- must be (24)
accepted both as realistic since no additional criteria exist to in-
dicate the valid solution for .
Due to the two different approaches for determining the Let us define as a function vector composed of the
sought synchronization angle for symmetrical and unsymmet- following two functions:
rical faults, it is required to reinforce the proposed fault-location
algorithm with a fault-type selection method. This method can
securely discriminate between three-phase and unsymmetrical (25)
fault types without providing additional information for the (26)
phases involved in case of an unsymmetrical fault since it is not
required by the algorithm. where symbolizes the unknown variable vector,
Fig. 4 shows the proposed method for discriminating between and and yield the real and imaginary part of the
symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults. The method is based on argument, respectively.
the current differential protection principle by using the oper- Then, the two unknown variables can be obtained by utilizing
ating and restraining currents which are formed on the basis of the Newton–Raphson approach once again [21]
the corresponding phase currents measured during the fault at
each line end. A three-phase fault is indicated only when all of
the phase single-slope (SLP) characteristic differential elements (27)
are activated. In all other cases, an unsymmetrical fault type is (28)
detected and the Newton–Raphson method with an initial guess
of zero is applied to determine the synchronization angle. (29)

where
B. Fault-Location Algorithm Stage II—Considering Line
Shunt Capacitance
variable vector at and after the th iteration;
In the first stage of the algorithm, the obtained results for the
synchronization angle and the distance to fault are not so accu-
rate due to the fact that the line shunt capacitance is neglected. iteration number;
Therefore, utilizing these results as initial guess values for the
calculations considering the effects of shunt capacitance of the variable update vector at th iteration;
line have been proposed .
This can be accomplished by neglecting the mutual capaci-
tance between phases in the line and rewriting the shunt admit- Jacobian matrix at the th iteration.
tance matrix in the following form:

The iterative process can be terminated when the variable up-

(20) date is less than the specified tolerance. As stated before, the
results for the synchronization angle (17) and the distance to
2332 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2010

fault (19), acquired at the first stage of the algorithm, are used TABLE I
as initial values for and in the iterative process. The deriva- PARAMETERS OF THE 400-kV, 50-Hz TRANSMISSION NETWORK
tives of with respect to the unknown variables, which are
required to form the Jacobian matrix in (29), can be determined
as follows:

(30)

III. EVALUATION STUDIES

A. Data Generation and Conditioning

(31) The presented fault-location algorithm has been evaluated
using prefault and postfault data obtained from reliable ATP-
where is the derivative of with respect to the syn- EMTP simulations of faults in a power network containing a
chronization angle 400-kV, 300-km single-circuit untransposed transmission line.
The line has been modeled in ATP-EMTP using the unsymmet-
(32) rical distributed parameter model of K.C. Lee [22], [23]. The
line parameters, consisting of three unique sets of modal quan-
tities and the modal transformation matrix , and the equivalent
systems at the line terminals are gathered in Table I.
In order to show the errors of the presented method itself, the
CTs and VTs located at each line terminal have been intention-
(33) ally modeled as ideal transforming devices. The secondary sig-
nals of these instrument transformers are passed via a second-
order analog (Butterworth) antialiasing filter with a cutoff fre-
quency of 350 Hz as in [10]. Then, the signals are sampled
(34) at 1000 Hz and the Fourier transform is applied to extract the
voltage and current phasors. To simulate the synchronization
error, the phasors at terminal R have been rotated by 10 (0.1745
rads) in all cases. The continuous prefault and postfault phasor
(35)
data are singled by averaging them within an interval of one
Then, we acquire cycle, just preceding the fault, for prefault data and within an
interval (3–5) cycles, after the fault inception, for postfault data.
(36) Otherwise, if the whole set of measurements is to be considered,
a more generalized approach as the one presented in [24] should
(37) be utilized.
The proposed algorithm has been implemented in Matlab. In
this study, the percentage error used to measure the accuracy of
(38) the fault-location algorithm is expressed as
Actual location Estimated location
(39) %Error (40)
Total line length
APOSTOLOPOULOS AND KORRES: NOVEL ALGORITHM FOR LOCATING FAULTS
TABLE II
FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] AND THE PROPOSED
TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS
B. Accuracy Analysis
Diverse types of faults with different fault locations and fault
resistances have been simulated to test the accuracy of the pro-
posed algorithm. A second method [20], which employs only
the postfault positive- and negative-sequence voltages and cur-
rents and does not consider the impacts of line shunt capaci-
tances, is also used in order to compare the obtained results. Ta-
bles II, IV, and VI present the fault-location estimates obtained
for the three types of unsymmetrical faults (single line to ground
(LG), line to line (LL), and line to line to ground (LLG)). The
fault type, fault resistance, and actual fault location are given in
the first, second, and third column, respectively. The estimated
distance to fault along with the estimation errors resulting from
[20] and stages “1” and “2” of the proposed algorithm are dis-
played in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th, 8th, and 9th column, respec-
tively. Tables III, V, and VII show the results obtained with re-
spect to the same fault types for the synchronization angle and
the total number of iterations entailed to reach convergence for
[20] and each stage of the proposed algorithm.
It appears that the proposed algorithm outperforms the one in
[20] and, thus, may be a better choice especially for applications
in untransposed transmission lines. Moreover, it is observed that
by applying the second stage of the algorithm and accounting
for the line shunt capacitance, considerable improvement of ac-
curacy is achieved for the fault-location estimates. The max-
imum error reached for the cases considered is less than: 0.18%
(versus 25.4% for [20]) for LG faults, 0.30% (versus 6.00% for
[20]) for LL faults, and 0.35% (versus 6.60% for [20]) for LLG
faults, which is an indication that the proposed algorithm is very
accurate.
2333
TABLE III
SYNCHRONIZATION ANGLE ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] AND THE PROPOSED
TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS
Similar observations can be made for the results obtained
for the synchronization angle. Note that these results are ex-
pressed in radians. The algorithm reaches convergence within
six iterations at the first stage, while at the second stage, a max-
imum number of three iterations is required, which manifests
that speedy convergence can be achieved.
Fig. 5 illustrates the possible solutions obtained for the syn-
chronization angle in case of a three-phase fault with 10
at 80% of the transmission line. Table VIII shows the corre-
sponding fault locations, acquired at each stage of the algorithm.
The method in [20] is not applicable to three-phase faults. It can
be seen that only two solutions for the synchronization angle are
realistic and , both laying near zero. The other two solutions
and along with the corresponding fault-location estimates
can be rejected as unrealistic. It is to be noted that in this case,
applying a starting value of zero for —as done for unsymmet-
rical faults—leads to the solution , which, however, is not the
valid one. This is due to the fact that the value of zero belongs
to the interval where the zero-crossing for in (15) is equal
to . Thus, both solutions must be accepted as feasible and fur-
ther investigation should be made by the crew members to find
the correct fault location.
C. Influence of the Fault Resistance
Tables IX–XI show the effect of the variation of fault re-
sistance in the algorithm’s accuracy for all types of LG, LL,
and LLG faults, respectively. Faults involving ground have
been investigated for fault resistance values varying from 0 to
500 . This captures low- and high-resistance faults. Faults not
involving ground have been investigated for resistance values
of 0 to 30 . Most of these values are much above the typical
2334 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2010

TABLE IV TABLE VI
FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] AND THE PROPOSED FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] AND THE PROPOSED
TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-LINE FAULTS TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR LINE-TO-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS

TABLE VII
TABLE V SYNCHRONIZATION ANGLE ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] AND THE PROPOSED
SYNCHRONIZATION ANGLE ESTIMATES OBTAINED BY [20] and the PROPOSED TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR LINE-TO-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS
TWO-STAGE ALGORITHM FOR LINE-TO-LINE FAULTS

are set equal to the system values. It can be seen that the fault
arc resistance values quoted in [25]. In all cases, the actual fault location estimates are highly accurate and virtually independent
location is 0.6 p.u. and the local and remote source impedances of the fault resistance.
APOSTOLOPOULOS AND KORRES: NOVEL ALGORITHM FOR LOCATING FAULTS
TABLE VIII
FEASIBLE FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES FOR A THREE-PHASE FAULT
WITH R =
10 AT 80% OF THE LINE LENGTH
Fig. 5. Possible solutions for the synchronization angle  for a three-phase fault
with R =
10 at 80% of the line length.
TABLE IX
INFLUENCE OF THE FAULT RESISTANCE ON THE ALGORITHM’S ACCURACY FOR
SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 P.U.)
D. Influence of the Source Impedance
Tables XII, XIII and XIV present the fault location estimates
obtained by varying the local, the remote and both local and re-
mote source impedance respectively. The simulations consider
three types of faults (AG, BC, BCG) at a fault location of 0.6
p.u. and a fault resistance of 5 . The values of impedances
in local and remote line terminals have been set equal to 20%,
50%, 100%, 200%, and 250% of the actual system values. It ap-
pears that the source impedance variation has very little influ-
ence on the algorithm’s accuracy, although the estimation errors
are getting slightly higher as the source impedance increases
(e.g., 250% variation) (weak infeed case).
2335
TABLE X
INFLUENCE OF THE FAULT RESISTANCE ON THE ALGORITHM’S ACCURACY FOR
LINE-TO-LINE FAULTS (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 P.U.)
TABLE XI
INFLUENCE OF THE FAULT RESISTANCE ON THE ALGORITHM’S ACCURACY FOR
LINE-TO-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 P.U.)
TABLE XII
INFLUENCE OF THE SOURCE IMPEDANCE IN TERMINAL S ON THE ALGORITHM’S
ACCURACY (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 p.u., FAULT RESISTANCE: 5 )
E. Sensitivity Analysis
In practice, both current and voltage transformers may intro-
duce errors. To study the impacts of measurement errors in the
proposed algorithm, we have carried out sensitivity studies. In
these studies, errors of 2% for magnitude and 2 for angle are
added to the voltages and currents measured at the line ends.
The worse case scenarios are considered, being those where
both local (at S) and remote (at R) measurements have the max-
imum error with the opposite sign in the magnitudes ( 2% for
2% for or 2% for 2% for ) or
2336 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 25, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2010

TABLE XIII TABLE XVI

INFLUENCE OF THE SOURCE IMPEDANCE IN TERMINAL R ON THE ALGORITHM’S INFLUENCE OF 2 VOLTAGE ANGLE ERROR ON FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES
ACCURACY (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 p.u., FAULT RESISTANCE: 5
) FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS

TABLE XIV
INFLUENCE OF SOURCE IMPEDANCES IN TERMINALS S AND R ON THE
ALGORITHM’S ACCURACY (ACTUAL FL: 0.6 p.u., FAULT RESISTANCE: 5
)

TABLE XV
INFLUENCE OF 2% VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE ERROR ON FAULT-LOCATION
ESTIMATES FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS
TABLE XVII
INFLUENCE OF 2% CURRENT MAGNITUDE ERROR ON FAULT-LOCATION
ESTIMATES FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS

angles ( for for or for

for ).
For example, suppose that the voltages and currents at both
line terminals have 2% error (2% at S and 2% at R) in the mag-
nitude, the estimates of fault location for all types of LG faults
are given in Tables XV and XVII, respectively. Tables XVI and
XVIII present the results for a 2 error in the angle of the voltage
and current measurements at both ends of the line, respectively.
It can be seen that the measurement errors impact the estima-
tion accuracy differently for various fault locations and phases
APOSTOLOPOULOS AND KORRES: NOVEL ALGORITHM FOR LOCATING FAULTS
TABLE XVIII
INFLUENCE OF 2 CURRENT ANGLE ERROR ON FAULT-LOCATION ESTIMATES
FOR SINGLE-LINE-TO-GROUND FAULTS
valuable advice and comments.
involved in the fault. This is mainly due to the line characteris-
tics itself. However, it is to be noted that the fault-location es-
timates are relatively not sensitive to these errors and are still
within 4% accuracy—which is the total measurement error as-
sumed at both line ends. Performance of the algorithm for other
fault types is comparable.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has outlined a novel two-end algorithm for fault-
location estimation using unsynchronized prefault and postfault
measurements. Preliminary test results have shown the merits
of the proposed algorithm, which are summarized as follows:
1) line parameters are not utilized; 2) fault-type selection is gen-
erally not required, except for the case of symmetrical faults;
3) source impedances and fault resistance do not influence the
fault-location calculation; 4) symmetrical components do not
need to be computed; 5) even with untransposed transmission
lines, the algorithm yields fairly accurate results; 6) very fast
convergence of the iterative calculations performed at each stage
of the algorithm is achieved; and 7) the algorithm is desirably
not very sensitive to measurement errors.
APPENDIX
The constants defined in deducing (13) and (15) are shown as
follows:
(A1)
2337
(A2)
(A3)
(A4)
(A5)
(A6)
(A7)
(A8)
(A9)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. C. Vournas for his
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Christos A. Apostolopoulos (GSM’10) received the Diploma in electrical
and computer engineering from the National Technical University of Athens,
Athens, Greece, in 2004, where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree.
He has been a Protection Engineer with PROT.A.S.I.S. S.A., Athens, since
2005. His main research interests are in power system protection, computer re-
laying, and fault location.
George N. Korres (SM’05) received the Diploma and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical and computer engineering from the National Technical University of
Athens, Athens, Greece, in 1984 and 1988, respectively.
Currently he is Associate Professor with the Electrical and Computer En-
gineering Department, National Technical University of Athens. His research
interests are in power system state estimation, power system protection, and in-
dustrial automation.
Prof. Korres is a member of CIGRE.